it is endemic to pakistan .

it was named by blanford after its collector , geologist arthur beevor wynne .

murree vole

murree vole - urdu meaning and translation of murree vole , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of murree vole and more .
the murree vole ( hyperacrius wynnei ) is a species of rodent in the family cricetidae . it is endemic to pakistan .
the murree vole ( hyperacrius wynnei ) is a species of rodent in the family cricetidae . it is endemic to pakistan .
it is confined to the himalayas including murree hills , kaghan valley and swat valley . [ 2 ]
it is a nocturnal , crepuscular , herbivorous and gregarious vole . it is seen in temperate forests where it inhabits the grassy slopes ( molur et al . 2005 ) .
— this article is about the north american species . for old world water voles , see arvicola . water vole conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) …
in pakistan this cat is found in the murree hills and the kaghan valley . it is also found in azad kashmir . further west it is found in swat , dir , and lower gilgit . it might be found in chitral as well .
this species is restricted to sardalla in jammu and kashmir , india ( agrawal 2000 ) and to murree hills in punjab and five locations in north western frontier province , pakistan ( roberts 1997 ) at elevations of 1 , 800 to 3 , 000 m asl ( molur et al . 2005 ) . it is estimated to have a very wide distribution in the region ( molur et al . 2005 ) .
this monkey is very rare in pakistan . it has only been sighted in azad kashmir and in khagan , in sharan forest reserve and in shogaran . it is not found in murree or swat hills . excluding azad kashmir , the total population is less than 200 ( t . j roberts ,
mammals of pakistan
) . however , a survey by n . w . f . p wildlife department in 1997 found that the numbers were much higher than 200 .
rhesus monkeys are mainly found in the northern hill regions of murree , swat , khagan , azad kashmir and chitral . this animal occurs throughout the high hills of hazara and malakand civil divisions . it is also found in sakra mountain range in mardan civil division . they are also found in the margalla hills . the rhesus monkey is still common in pakistan , but it is trapped by local people and sold to local gypsies or
kalanders
to entertain people in big cities . it also comes into conflict with farmers , due to its nature of raiding crops .
the leopards in pakistan are mainly found in the highlands of baluchistan and sind , and the mountain forests of punjab , n . w . f . p and azad kashmir . the leopard is found in the kirthar mountain range of sind and the toba kakar , the mekran and the sulaiman range of baluchistan . in the northern mountanious region it is found in the murree hills , swat kohistan , dir , chitral , abbotabad and lower gilgit . it is also found in the kaghan valley and the margalla hills . in azad kaashmir it is found around the hill ranges of muzaffarabad and the neelum valley . its survival in the salt range in punjab is not clear , though they still do exist in very small numbers . the leopard sparsely inhabits the kala chita hills as well .
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amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of intensive farming , planting of apple orchards and potato crops . it is also threatened by increasing human settlement in the region ( roberts 1997 ) .
the species has not been recorded from any protected areas . additional studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , general ecology and threats to this little - known species .
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kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
indusinmyyrä
to
hyperacrius wynnei ( blanford , 1881 )
.
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darrin lunde is collections manager in the division of mammals at the smithsonian national museum of natural history . the mammal collection is the largest collection of its kind in the world . darrin started his career by building his own natural history museum when he was just ten years old , and by the time he went to college , he had mastered specimen preservation . after graduating from cornell university , darrin was hired by the american museum of natural history in new york city , where he stayed for twenty years joining field expeditions to the remote corners of south america , africa , and southeast asia . he has discovered dozens of new species and shed light on hundreds of other lesser known mammals . darrin earned a master of arts from the city university of new york and much of his interest in museums stems from having grown up in
nature deprived
new york city . to darrin , museum collections are an important link to nature , and he is driven by the thought that in another century museums may be our only connection to the wild animals we take for granted today . at the smithsonian , darrin continues a program of active field work with his goal being to illuminate the rich diversity of mammals with which we still share the world .
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rodents are famous for their teeth . the large , paired cutting teeth ( incisors ) in the front of their mouth give them a buck - toothed appearance . the incisors are self - sharpening , thanks to the way they grind together during gnawing . while a strong enamel coating prevents wear on the front , the back of each incisor is soft and wears down . the outcome is a chisel - like shape that can cut into wood , food , or predators . the incisors grow continuously , creating tooth material for sharpening throughout the life of a rodent . a rodent skull is shaped to support the muscles used in gnawing , such as an enlarged region ( the pterygoid ) that anchors the lower jaw muscles . a skull modification allows the lower jaw to move not only up and down , but back and forth for better grinding action . rodents are the largest group of mammals on earth , and their ability to gnaw is part of the reason they have been so successful .
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khan , a . a . ( vertebrate pest control lab . , parc , karachi ( pakistan ) )
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^ molur , s . & nameer , p . o . ( 2008 ) . hyperacrius wynnei . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 1 june 2009 . database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern .
musser , g . g . and m . d . carleton . 2005 . superfamily muroidea . pp . 894–1531 in mammal species of the world a taxonomic and geographic reference . d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder eds . johns hopkins university press , baltimore .
— conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 1 ] …
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
this blog is created on purpose for the study help and ready made references for the students of department of zoology . creators of blog are : ali chaudhary , usman chaudhary , rizwan khalid . under the instructions and guideline of dr . fiaz qamar .
p to 174 mammal species have been reported to occur in pakistan . there are at least three endemic species & a number of endemic and near - endemic subspecies . species belonging to the palaearctic realm occur largely in the himalayan and baluchistan uplands ; those belonging to the indo - malayan realm occur primarily in the indus plains including the thar desert and himalayan foothills . in addition , species with affinities to the ethiopian region occur in the dry southwest and along the makran coast and thar desert of pakistan ( roberts 1997 ) .
rhesus macaques are brown and adults have a red face and rump . the underparts are lighter brown . the tail is medium lenght and the hair on the top of the head is short . the locomotion is quadrupedal .
rhesus monkeys weigh 5 . 6 - 10 . 9kg ( males ) , 4 - 10 . 9kg ( females ) , and the body length is 470 - 531mm for females and 483 - 635mm for males .
the mating season is variable , usually march - jun . the female ' s bright red bottom indicates estrus . subadults males have a pink scrotum : adult males have a red scrotum . the monkeys reach sexual maturity at 48 - 72months and the gestation period is 164 days .
the rhesus monkey has a multimale - multifemale social structure . they usually have a 2 - tiered class system . a female associates with and supports the family and class in a strict female - bonded matrilineal hierarchy . males are dominant to females but are peripheral to the group and change groups every few years . the group size varies from 10 - 50 .
the rhesus monkeys are diurnal , mostly terrestrial , and partly arboreal . rhesus monkeys often reconcile after and aggressive interaction by lip smacking and embracing . often when treatened by a dominant , subordinates redirect their aggression by threatening low - ranking bystanders . these monkeys spend about 10 - 13 % of their daily activity on grooming . thy feed at heights to 10 meters above the ground . in pakistan some 45 % of the day is spend feeding . rhesus monkeys are quiet tolerant of human disturbances and are found quiet close to cities .
the main diet is fruits , seeds , leaves , gums , buds , grass , clover , roots , bark , resin , and small invertebrates . rhesus monkeys raid crops . in the dry season they drink 3 - 4 times per day habitat and distribution :
this species of primate can live in a variety of habitats . this animal mostly inhabits mountainous regions of the moist temperate forest and also found in dry temperate forest .
the hanuman langur ' s coloration varies across subspecies , from gray to dark brown to golden , with varying amounts of black . the locomotion is quadrupedal .
langurs weigh 18 . 3kg ( males ) , 11 . 2kg ( females ) , and the body length is 406 - 680mm for females and 510 - 780mm for males .
the monkeys reach sexual maturity at 46 . 5 - 47 months and the gestation period is 168 - 200 days .
langurs have variable socail structure . 1 - male - multifemale , multimale - mutifemale . larger groups may break into subgroups in some seasons . the male defends his mates : females defend their resources . average group size is 11 - 64 individuals .
the langurs are diurnal , terrestial and arboreal . hanuman langurs are the most terrestial of any colobine . they spend up to 80 % of the day on the ground , and almost all feeding is within 5 meters of the ground . in 1 - male groups the alpha male ' s tenure is usually less than 2 years . when a new male takes over a troop , he systematically kills infants sired by the previous alpha male . this reproductive strategy was first documented in this species . juvenile males leave when a new male takes over . allomothering is also documented in this monkey .
the hanuman langur eats mature leaves , fruit , buds , flowers , young leaves , animal prey , exudates , bark , soil , herbs . the himalayan subspecies rely on pinecones , bark and twigs during snowy winter months these langurs will raid gardens and crops .
the hanuman langur prefers tropical , subtropical , pine , alpine forests and urban areas . this animal is very adaptable species and is distributed in dry savannah country and tropical rain forests in different parts of the sub - continent . in pakistan , however , it is confined to azad kashmir and siran valleys of mansehra and kohistan districts
the brown bear is a large animal , usually dark brown in color , though it can vary from a light creamy shade through to black . the long guard hairs over the shoulders and back are often tipped with white which , from a distance , gives a grizzled appearance . the brown bear is characterized by a distinctive hump on the shoulders , a slightly dished profile to the face , and long claws on the front paws .
there is considerable variability in the size of brown bears from different populations , depending on the food available . determining representative weights of specific populations is also difficult as there are seasonal considerations to take into account - for instance , some bears can weigh twice as much in the fall as they might weigh in spring . adult males may weigh 135 to 390 kilograms ( 300 to 860 pounds ) compared with 95 to 205 kilograms ( 205 to 455 pounds ) for females . at birth , cubs weigh 340 to 680 grams ( 11 ounces to 1 pound 6 ounces ) .
female brown bears reach sexual maturity at four - and - a - half to seven years of age . males may become sexually mature at a similar age but are probably not large enough to be able to enter the breeding population until they a re eight to ten years old . mating takes place from early may to the middle of july but implantation does not occur until about october or november . the young are born from about january to march . the litter size ranges from one to four , but two is most common . cubs remain with their mothers for at least two - and - a - half years , so the most frequently a female can breed is every three years .
under most circumstances , brown bears live as lone individuals , except for females accompanied by their cubs . during the breeding season , a male may attend a female for up to two weeks for mating . brown bears are distribut ed in overlapping home ranges and male home ranges are larger than those occupied by females .
brown bears mainly eat vegetation such as grasses , sedges , bulbs , and roots . they also eat insects such as ants , fish , and small mammals . in some areas they have become significant predators of large hoofed mammals such as marcopole sheep , ibex and bharal
their preferred habitat includes mountain forests , open meadows and large river . the brown bear in pakistan is now very rare due to constant persecution by local villagers and by hunting . but the main threat to this bears survival is from local gypsies or
kalandars
, who earn their living from dancing bears and bear baiting
. these bears are caught after their mother is shot . it is sad to see more bears on the streets of the big cities of pakistan than in the wild .
this bear inhabits the remote northern regions of pakistan . it is found in baltistan , hunza , gilgit , the slopes of nanga parbat , khunjerab national park and the deosai pleatue near skardu . the deosai pleatue is a declared national park and is the last stronghold of the brown bear in pakistan . the total population in this national park is 25 - 27 individuals . elsewhere this bear is normally found solitary .
this medium - sized , black - colored bear has a lightish muzzle and ears which appear large in proportion to the rest of its head , especially when compared with other species of bears . there is a distinct white patch on the chest , which is sometimes in the shape of a v , and white on the chin . a brown color phase also occurs .
the balochistan black bear is a sub - species of the asiatic or himalayan black bear . it is smaller and possesses short , coarse , rufous brown fur in the specimens from the south while those from the north are much darker as compared to the himalayan black bear . it prefers to ( olea ferruginea ) , ber ( zizyphus nummularia ) as well as the starchy rhizomes and fruits of the dwarf palm , insects and lizards .
there is limited information available on these bears , but total length of adults is 130 to 190 centimeters ( 50 to 75 inches ) . adult males range from 100 to 200 kilograms ( 220 to 440 pounds ) and adult females from 50 to 125 kilogra ms ( 110 to 275 pounds ) .
there is little detailed information on reproduction in asiatic black bears . sexual maturity of females is thought to occur at three to four years of age . in pakistan , mating has been reported to occur in october , with young being born in february . cubs are weaned at less than six months old , but may stay with their mothers for two to three years . females have sometimes been reported with cubs of different ages . baluchistan black bears are thought to mate in october and cubs are born in february .
in russia , the home range is reported to be 10 to 20 square kilometers ( 4 to 8 square miles ) . little information is available on social organization . the bears are reported to be mainly nocturnal , sleeping in trees or caves during the day . the baluchistan black bear is usually sighted in the rainy season from august to november .
asiatic black bears have been reported to feed on a wide range of foods , including fruits , bees ' nests , insects , invertebrates , small vertebrates , and carrion . they occasionally kill domestic livestock , but the degree to which they prey on wild hoofed mammals in unknown . in fall they frequently make crude leafy feeding platforms in nut - bearing trees . the baluchistan bear prefers to ( olea ferruginea ) , ber ( zizyphus nummularia ) as well as the starchy rhizomes and fruits of the dwarf palm , insects and lizards
asiatic black bears live predominantly in forested areas , especially in hills and mountainous areas . in summer , they have been reported at altitudes over 3 , 000 meters ( 9 , 900 feet ) , descending to lower elevations during winter . apparently , they den for winter sleep in the northern parts of their range . it has been suggested that in the southern limits of their range , where it is quite hot , they do not undergo winter sleep , but this has not been confirmed .
in pakistan the himalayan black bear is found in the mountains of azad kashmir , khagan , swat kohistan and southern chitral , in chitral gol national park . it is also found in ayubia national park . the subspecie , baluchistan bear is found in the higher hill ranges of baluchistan , such as takht - e - suliman and toba kakar . it is also found in ziarat , kalat and khuzdar .
the main threat to the species is its persecution by the locals . bears are usually killed when they are found predating on goats and their kids . people also kill the bears to sell its fur and to collect its fat for medicinal use . the second important factor that threatens the species is that it has not been explored and studied properly . the habitat has been seriously disturbed during the decades of the 80 ' s and 90 ' s .
the largest wild canid . fur is thick and usually grey , but can vary from nearly pure white , red , or brown to black . head - and - body length : 100 - 150 cm . tail length : 31 - 51 cm . shoulder height : 66 - 81 cm . weight : 16 - 60 kg , males heavier than females .
time of mating : january - april . gestation : 6 1 63 days . litter size : 1 - 1 1 , mean 6 . duration of lactation : 8 - 10 weeks . age at sexual maturity : 22 - 46 months , occasionally 10 months . longevity : up to 13 years in the wild , 16 years in captivity .
a pack - living animal with a complex social organization . packs are primarily family groups . the dominant pair breeds , with sub - dominant females under behaviourally induced reproductive suppression . packs include up to 30 individuals , but smaller sizes ( 8 - 12 ) are more common .
extremely variable , but the majority of the diet is large ungulates . grey wolves will also eat smaller prey items , livestock , carrion , and garbage
there are two subspecies of the grey wolf in pakistan . in the northern mountanious regions , the tibetan wolf ( canis lupus campestris ) is found . the tibetan wolf inhabits the barren rocky mountanious valleys of baltistan , gilgit , hunza , chitral , upper swat and khunjerab national park . in the south of the country the indian wolf ( canis lupus pallipes ) is found . here the wolf inhabits the deserts of cholistan and thar . further west the wolf inhabits the lower hills of the baluchistan pleatue where it is widespread . the wolf is also found in n . w . f . p , but it is rare in this region .
the wolf has declined greatly in numbers during the last few decades . local people kill the wolf because it is considered destructive to livestock . the wolf may became extinct in the east of the country if hunting is not stopped and it is not protected . its survival in baluchistan and the northern areas is slightly better . there is no information about the exact number of wolves in pakistan .
coat varies with season and region , but is usually a pale gold - brown , or brown tipped yellow . fur is coarse , and not very long . dorsal area is black and grey ; head , ears , and sides can be rufous . underside is frequently ginger or nearly white . the tip of the tail is black . there is sexual dimorphism of approximately 15 % in body weight . head - and - body length : 60 - 106 cm . tail length : 20 - 30 cm . shoulder height : 38 - 50 cm . weight : 7 - 15 kg .
usually in mated pairs , territorial , territory size 0 . 5 to 2 . 5 km2 helpers ( last year ' s young ) can increase reproductive success . in many areas , c . aureus is nocturnal and diurnal , but it becomes strictly nocturnal in areas inhabited by humans . deviation from usual social organization is found in areas where food is abundant , with up to 20 members in a group and with home range areas of 0 . 11 km2 .
omnivorous : fruits ; invertebrates ; reptiles ; amphibia ; birds ; small mammals ; carrion . opportunistic foragers , but cooperation between mated pairs can greatly increase hunting success . in areas around human habitation , it can subsist on garbage
the golden jackal is found in open country with trees and brush , grass and copse . this is a very common animal in pakistan and is usually seen around human settlements . it is widespread and is found throughout much of the country , except the northern most mountanious regions .
a fairly large , doglike canid , with rounded ears and a long , moderately bushy tail . legs are rather short , pelage is evenly tawny or dark red with a slightly darker tail and lighter underparts . head - and - body length : 90 cm . tail length : 40 - 45 cm . shoulder height : 50 cm . weight : 15 - 20 kg ; female 10 - 13 kg .
litter size : 8 - 9 , but 3 - 4 common . lactation : at least 8 weeks . age at sexual maturity : 1 year . longevity : 10 years , up to 16 years in captivity .
dholes live in packs which are an extended family unit of usually 5 - 12 animals with aggregations of up to 25 animals occasionally noted . packs are territorial . in a study in bandipur , southern india , more than three adults took part in feeding both the lactating mother and the pups . pack continues to care for pups after they leave the den , by regurgitating meat and allowing them access at kills .
the primary component of the diet is other vertebrates , particularly medium - sized ungulates . the dhole will also include berries and reptiles in its diet
there is no confirmed report of dholes ocuuring in pakistan , but it is thought that they migrate from chinese turkestan to the shimshal area in northern pakistan . it has not been observed in pakistan for 15 years .
a medium - sized canid , the largest fox in the genus vulpes . large bushy tail , often tipped in white . ranges in colour from greyish and rust red to a flame red , usually reddish - brown . black backs to ears ; lower limbs often black . enormous geographical range and corresponding wide variation in all measurements . measures given here are ranges with selected european averages . head - and - body length : 58 - 90 cm , males 67 cm , females 63 cm . tail length : 32 - 49 cm , males 45 cm , females 38 cm . shoulder height : 35 - 40 cm . weight : 3 - 11 kg , males 6 . 7 kg , females 5 . 4 kg .
time of mating : variable with latitude and habitat , usually in late winter / early spring . gestation : 49 - 55 days , usually 51 - 52 . litter size : 3 - 12 . lactation : 4 weeks , completely weaned at 6 - 8 weeks . age at sexual maturity : 9 - 10 months . longevity : 10 - 12 years in captivity .
extremely varied , including invertebrates ( particularly beetles and earthworms ) , small mammals ( rodents and lagomorphs ) , birds ( including game species ) , and fruit along with garbage and carrion . generally caches food surplus to requirements , and has highly developed memory for locations of hoards
the common leopard frequents himalayan mountains upto the tree limit in the forest of chir , kail , deodar and fir . it also inhabits broken arid mountainous country in association with scrub and thorn forest .
squardon leader , mr . zulfikar ahmed reports the sighting of a leopard in the year 1995 when a leopard was sighted at the top of mount sakesar in the salt range . the animal was seen by a number of people from close range in broad daylight . the mammal remained there for three days ( as confirmed by multiple sightings ) , whichspread a wave of terror amongst the local inhabitants . just a couple of months back an animal descended from the mountains ( probably because of starvation ) and entered into the town of quaidabad , where it was shot dead . during the same time frame a calf was killed by leopard near the sakesar top ( as reported by calf owner ) the remains of the calf were poisoned by the locals . however the results of poisoning are not known . quite recently ( summer of 2000 ) a sighting of a female leopard along with two cubs has been reported in the western salt range . this female and the two cubs were later captured by the n . w . f . p wildlife department from manglot national park near nizampur ( conservation of wild life and its habitat in soan valley , zulfikar ahmed , november 2000 ) .
the n . w . f . p wildlife department carried out a census in the province in 1997 and has put the number of leopards in that province at 76 ( distribution and status of wildlife in the n . w . f . p , 1997 . n . w . f . p wildlife department ) . further there might be ( a guess ) 40 - 50 in the forests of azad kashmir . sind wildlife department reported 7 leopards occuring in the kirthar national park in sind in 1982 . the total population of this beautiful cat in pakistan may be inbetween 150 - 250 .
the snow leopard generally inhabits elevations between 2000 - 4000 meters although it can occasionally be found at lower altitudes to the north of its range and as high as 5500 meters in himalayan regions . the cat is generally associated with generally rocky terrain such as high valley ridges , rocky outcrops and mountain passes . as summer gives way to winter , the snow leopard will follow its migrating prey down below the tree line to the lowland forests that cover much of its habitat - however the cat is rarely associated with dense forestation .
in summer it is found in alpine pastures upto 5100 m , evelation while in winter it descends to lower altitudes . in the alpine pasture snow the following vegetation characterizes snow leopard habitat :
in pakistan the snow leopard is found in the high mountains of the karakoram and the hindukush . there are mainly found in baltistan , chitral , gilgit , upper swat valley , the slopes of nanga parbat , khunjerab national park and the chitral gol national park . the total population of the snow leopards in pakistan is 100 - 200 ( iucn ' s cats specialist group ) .
the jungle cat has long legs and a slender build . the fur is generally sandy brown , reddish or grey , and is unpatterned except for stripes on the legs and occasionally the throat , which are very light in the south of its range and darker in the north . the winter coat is darker and denser than in summer . melanistic individuals are occasionally reported . jungle cats have black ear tufts . the tail is relatively short , averaging about 40 % of head - body length . males are markedly larger than females ( 6 . 1±1 . 5 kg [ n = 20 ] vs . 4 . 2±1 . 1 kg [ n = 12 ] : pocock 1951 ) . in captivity , males are very protective of the cubs , even more so than females , and sexual dimorphism may be linked to this behavior . family groups - - male , female and cubs - have been seen in the wild .
jungle cats are frequently observed in the daytime . they feed primarily on rodents , including large rodents . jungle cats also take hares , birds , reptiles , amphibians , insects , and the young of larger mammals such as wild pig . they are strong swimmers , and will dive to catch fish , or to escape when chased by man or dog . one cat in india , observed hiding in a bush while stalking a group of grey jungle fowl , appeared to make deliberate clockwise movements of its head , rustling leaves and attracting the curiousity of the birds ( all above information from iucn ' s cats specialist group ) .
the jungle cat , despite its name , is not strongly associated with closed forest , but rather with water and dense vegetative cover , especially reed swamps , marsh , and littoral and riparian environments . it is able to satisfy these requirements in a variety of habitats across a wide geographic area . in sandy and stony desert country ( sometimes with only very sparse shrub cover : roberts 1977 ) , it occurs along riverbeds .
jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation , having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations throughout their range , with sugarcane frequently mentioned in tropical asia . jungle cats are often spotted amidst human settlement ( and are frequently reported to take chickens ) . jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation , having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations in pakistan . this cat is found through out the riverine tracts of the indus and the cultivated and irrigated lands of punjab and sind . this is the most common wild cat in pakistan .
broadly speaking the leopard cat is a little larger than a big domestic cat and has a base fur colour that ranges from yellow / brown to grey / brown , found mostly in the north of its range . the underparts , chest and lower head are usually white as is a large spot which is commonly found on the back of the otherwise black ears . in varying intensity , depending on the sub - species the leopard cat is covered with medium to large dark brown to black spots which often coalesce into solid stripes on the top of the back and thin stripe markings on the top and side of the head ( all above information from big cats online ) .
rodents form the principal prey . the diet also includes young ungulates , hares , birds , reptiles , insects , eels and fish , as well as occasional carrion . although often described as primarily nocturnal , leopard cats are active in the day time as well ( all above information from iucn ' s cats specialist group ) .
the leopard cat occurs in a broad spectrum of habitats , from tropical rainforest to temperate broadleaf and , marginally , coniferous forest , as well as shrub forest and successional grasslands . the northern boundaries of its range are limited by snow cover ; the leopard cat avoids areas where snow is more than 10 cm deep . it is not found in the cold steppe grasslands , and generally does not occur in arid zones , although there are a few records from relatively dry and treeless areas in pakistan ( roberts 1977 ) . leopard cats usually live in proximity to a water source , and can occupy refuge strips of riverine forest in areas . leopard cats can live close to rural settlements , occasionally raiding poultry .
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molur , s . & nameer , p . o . ( 2008 ) . hyperacrius wynnei . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 1 june 2009 . database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern .
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database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern .
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archipimima consentanea is a species of moth of the family tortricidae .

it was described by razowski in 2004 .

it is found in santa catarina , brazil .

the wingspan is about 21 millimetres ( 0.83 in ) .

the ground colour of the forewings is pale ferruginous brown , suffused greyish along the wing edges and strigulated ( finely streaked ) rust brown .

the markings are rust brown .

the hindwings are glossy bronze brown .

archipimima consentanea

this is the place for consentanea definition . you find here consentanea meaning , synonyms of consentanea and images for consentanea copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word consentanea . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word consentanea and , of course , consentanea synonyms and on the right images related to the word consentanea .
archipimima consentanea is a species of moth of the tortricidae family . it is found in brazil ( santa catarina ) . the wingspan is about 21 mm . the ground colour of the forewings is pale ferruginous brown , suffused greyish along the wing edges and strigulated rust brown . the forewings are marked with a few concolorous lines . the markings are rust bro . . .
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templemania is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
atteria is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
sisurcana is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
tinacrucis patulana is a species of moth belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
anacrusis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
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the treeshrews ( or tree shrews or banxrings ) are small euarchont mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia .

they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen-tailed treeshrew , and the entire order scandentia .

the 20 species are placed in five genera .

treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammal , including humans , but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .

though called ' treeshrews ' , and despite having previously been classified in insectivora , they are not true shrews , and not all species live in trees .

among other things , treeshrews eat rafflesia fruit .

among orders of mammals , treeshrews are closely related to primates , and have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia , psychosocial stress , and hepatitis .

treeshrew

excellent treeshrew paintings . at left , tupaia splendidula by joseph wolf . at right , large treeshrew t . tana by joseph smit . both images in public domain .
a northern treeshrew ( tupaia belangeri ) at the gladys porter zoo in brownsville , texas .
stereo architecture of the connective tissue cores of the lingual papillae in the treeshrew ( tupaia glis ) .
inverted xray of the fore foot of a treeshrew , showing variables used in the studies of the hand .
stereo architecture of the connective tissue cores of the lingual papillae in the treeshrew ( tupaia glis ) . - pubmed - ncbi
the fossil species is strikingly similar to the extant pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus lowii ) , a species generally recognized as the most primitive extant treeshrew . it demonstrates that ptilocercus treeshrews have undergone little evolutionary change in their morphology since the early oligocene .
the pattern of treeshrew evolution . roberts et al . ( 2011 ) argued on the basis of molecular phylogeny that treeshrew diversification began as early as the paleocene but that the majority of lineages evolved within the last 20 million years . seeing as there are many species on islands , it’s likely that ancient landbridges and changing sea levels were important in influencing treeshrew distribution across their southeast asian range .
14 . habitat • the pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus lowii ) is a treeshrew species of the ptilocercidae family , and is the only species in the genus ptilocercus . • it is native to – southern thailand – malay peninsular – borneo – some indonesian islands .
bored treeshrew wonders why the author of this article doesn ' t have any available images of fossil treeshrews . well , exactly . photo by darren naish
this treeshrew is found on north and south pagai islands , sipora , and siberut ( mentawai islands , indonesia ) ( sargis et al . 2014 ) .
as a species and shown that a number of populations previously synonymized with it belong to other species or are distinct species in their own right . this work greatly reduced the geographic range of the common treeshrew , restricting it to the malay peninsula south of the isthmus of kra , the purported contact zone with its sister species , the northern treeshrew ,
pentail treeshrew as illustrated by joseph wolf in 1848 . head and body length is 12 - 15 cm , the tail is 16 - 18 cm . image in public domain .
this article is but a brief introduction to this group . with this in place , it will prove easier to future to provide more detailed discussions of various of the treeshrew lineages and species .
21 . habitat • large treeshrews are the most predominantly terrestrial of all treeshrew species • they are usually on the forest floor , the primary location for their foraging , although they spend part of their time in trees . • it is found in – sumatra and adjacent small islands – in the lowlands and hills of borneo – large treeshrew are most abundant in primary tropical rainforest , but are also found in swamp forest and secondary growth forest .
7 . common treeshrew scientific classification • kingdom : animalia • phylum : chordata • class : mammalia • order : scandentia • family : tupaiidae • genus : tupaia • species : t . glis • binomial name : tupaia glis
15 . mindanao treeshrew scientific classification • kingdom : animalia • phylum : chordata • class : mammalia • order : scandentia • family : tupaiidae • genus : urogale • species : u . everetti • binomial name : urogale everetti
20 . large treeshrew scientific classification • kingdom : animalia • phylum : chordata • class : mammalia • order : scandentia • family : tupaiidae • genus : tupaia • species : t . tana • binomial name : tupaia tana
morphological and molecular characteristics of malayfilaria sofiani uni , mat udin & takaoka n . g . , n . sp . ( nematoda : filarioidea ) from the common treeshrew tupaia glis diard & duvaucel ( mammalia : scandentia ) in peninsular malaysia
13 . pen - tailed treeshrew scientific classification • kingdom : animalia • phylum : chordata • class : mammalia • order : scandentia • family : ptilocercidae • genus : ptilocercus • species : p . lowii • binomial name : ptilocercus lowii
sargis , eric j . , woodman , neal , morningstar , natalie c . , bell , tiffany n . and olson , link e . 2017 . skeletal variation and taxonomic boundaries among mainland and island populations of the common treeshrew ( mammalia : scandentia : tupaiidae ) .
morphological and molecular characteristics of malayfilaria sofiani uni , mat udin & takaoka n . g . , n . sp . ( nematoda : filarioidea ) from the common treeshrew tupaia glis diard & duvaucel ( mammalia : scandentia ) in peninsular malaysia | parasites & vectors | full text
despite the common name , not all of the 20 or so living treeshrew species are tree - dwellers . many are terrestrial , despite a postcranial anatomy which evidences a climbing ancestry . indeed , the group as a whole encompasses more diversity than typically imagined . an amazing 120 species and subspecies have been named since 1820 . while these aren’t all recognised as valid today , you can still appreciate how much the many treeshrew taxa differ thanks to the various illustrations used here : there’s substantial variation in body shape , skull form , snout length , pelage and ecology .
treeshrew diversity . about 20 extant treeshrew species are currently recognised , classified in five genera . four of these ( anathana , dendrogale , tupaia and urogale ) are included together within tupaiidae . tupaia contains the greatest number of species ( c 15 ) though there have been suggestions from both molecular and morphological data that tupaia is not monophyletic , some species being closer to urogale and perhaps anathana than to the remainder of tupaia ( olson et al . 2004 , 2005 , roberts et al . 2011 ) . some authors suggest lumping urogale and anathana into tupaia ; others suggest the recognition of lyonogale for species currently included within tupaia …
8 . habitat the common treeshrew ( tupaia glis ) is native to – thailand , – malaysia and adjacent coastal islands to singapore . – indonesia . ( islands of batu , sumatra , java etc ) – they have also been recorded from secondary forest , plantations , fruit orchards , and trees near housing areas .
the stereo architecture of the lingual connective tissue cores ( ctc ) in the treeshrew ( tupaia glis ) ( which has the primitive characteristics of primates ) was observed by scanning electron microscopy , and compared to that of other animal orders . the tongue of the treeshrew has three vallate papillae which are situated in the posterior part of the tongue , while some macaques have several vallate papillae . among numerous filiform papillae , fungiform papillae are sporadically distributed . a filiform papilla consists of a bundle of several slender spine - like processes arranged in a circle at the basal margin . after removal of the epithelium , the ctc of the filiform papilla looks like a human hand raised with the palm facing towards the tongue tip . the fungiform ctc in the threeshrew is columnar in shape ( rather similar to that of insectivora and rodentia ) and at the top there are several round depressions for taste buds . in the treeshrew several large rod - shaped processes are derived from the postero - lateral margin of the tongue , as in carnivora ( dogs and cats ) , where foliate papillae are located in many other animal species . the treeshrew has numerous characteristics similar to those of the crab - eating macaque ( primates ) , but at the same time it has some characteristics similar to those of insectivora , rodentia , carnivora and artiodactyla .
two of 81 ( 2 . 5 % ) treeshrews examined were infected with 12 adult worms each : six female and six male worms in tree shrew id no . 3 , and seven female and five male worms in treeshrew id no . 6 . microfilariae were present in five of the examined hosts ( 6 . 2 % ) .
justification : the golden - bellied treeshrew is assessed as vulnerable as the species is believed restricted to lowland forests on four of the mentawai islands . it ' s poulation occurs in fewer than five locations , with an estimated extent of occurrence ( eoo ) of 13 , 317 km² . it is almost certainly being affected by ongoing forest loss .
the holotype female ( mnhn 95yt ) and the allotype male ( mnhn 96yt ) were deposited in the muséum national d’histoire naturelle , paris , france . paratypes ( six females : b2 , p2 and ke2–5 and nine males : b1 , p1 , p3–5 and kem2–5 ) were deposited in the institute of biological sciences , university of malaya , malaysia ( accession numbers : ms - b2 , ms - p2 , ms - ke2–5 , ms - b1 , ms - p1 and ms - kem2–5 ) . collection dates : 16 . xi . 2013 ( group a in treeshrew id no . 3 ) and 25 . iii . 2016 ( group b with type specimens in treeshrew id no . 6 ) .
another set of images demonstrating the diversity within this group . compare the highly arboreal nicobar treeshew t . nicobarica ( shreeram m v , cc by - sa 4 . 0 ) at left with the terrestrial indian treeshew anathana ellioti ( image by joseph wolf , in public domain ) at right . wow - that thing on the right is a treeshrew ? yup .
these new treeshrew fossils were discovered at the lijiawa mammalian fossil locality near qujing city in yunnan province , china . among the numerous fossil mammal specimens recovered from this fossil site are those belonging to a large form of gigantamynodon giganteus , an unnamed species of cricetops , and a primitive eucricetodon comparable with eucricetodon caducus from the earliest oligocene of xinjiang , china . those species all indicate an early oligocene age for this fauna .
in a paper published 14 january in scientific reports ( 6 ) , drs . li qiang and ni xijun , institute of vertebrate palaeontology and palaeoanthropology ( ivpp ) , chinese academy of sciences , reported a new fossil species of ptilocercus treeshrew from the early oligocene ( over 34 mya ) of china that represents the oldest definitive fossil record of the crown group of treeshrews and nearly doubles the temporal length of their fossil record .
9 . description • the common treeshrew is one of the largest among treeshrews . • average body length is between 16 and 21 cm ( 6 . 3 and 8 . 3 in ) • average weight is around 190 g . • its colours is reddish - brown , greyish or black upper parts and whitish belly . • its long , bushy tail is dark greyish - brown and almost reaches the length of the body . • the paws are bare with sharp nails , and with a naked patch of skin above its long nose . • both sexes are similar . • the measurements of the t . glis according to 21 specimens are head - to - body length : 170 to 235 mm , • tail length : 170 to 242 mm • hind foot : 45 to 56 mm . • the common treeshrew usually has a pale stripe on each shoulder .
17 . description • it is the heaviest treeshrew , weighing about 355 g • it is terrestrial . • the body is 17 - 20 cm , and the tail is 11 - 17 cm . • it has a particularly elongated snout and a rounded , even - haired tail . • the fur is brownish , but with orange or yellow underparts . • it is diurnal in its habits , and it climbs well and runs fast on the ground .
5 . general characteristics •treeshrews are slender animals . •have long tails and soft , greyish to reddish - brown fur . •the terrestrial species tend to be larger than the arboreal forms •have larger claws , which they use for digging up insect prey . •they are omnivorous , feeding on insects , small vertebrates , fruit , and seeds . •they have poorly developed canine teeth and unspecialised molars . •have good vision •most are diurnal •the pen - tailed treeshrew is nocturnal .
the final taxon – the pen - tailed treeshrew or pentail treeshrew ptilocercus lowii – differs enough from the others in anatomy , ecology and behaviour that it’s typically considered worthy of its own ‘family’ , ptilocercidae . ptilocercus is nectarivorous ( regularly consuming a substantial portion of nectar that has fermented to alcohol ) and has a tail that combines an essentially naked shaft and a bushy tip . a tail of this sort is elsewhere only seen in gliders . ptilocercus has especially prominent , silvery eyeshine and is thought to have excellent night vision ( emmons 2000 ) . its eyeshine can in fact be seen from tens of metres away – emmons ( 2000 ) said that , once she knew what to look for , these apparently rare animals proved rather numerous . treeshrews as a whole have excellent visual acuity . ptilocercus is universally regarded as being more similar to the ancestral scandentian in ecology and morphology than tupaiids ( olson et al . 2004 ) .
arboreal and scansorial treeshrews have hands and feet well adapted for grasping . for this reason , they’ve been used as model organisms in discussions of early primate evolution , though experts have disagreed as to whether treeshrews or opossums make the better proto - primate models ( lemelin 1999 , sargis 2002 , 2004 , schmitt & lemelin 2002 ) . whatever , grasping like that seen in the living arboreal pentail treeshrew ptilocercus lowii was very probably ancestral for the clade that includes primates , treeshrews and their kin : the euarchontans .
in fact , the history of the group must have been complicated , involving numerous different dispersal and vicariance - driven events . some species are widespread and occur on landmasses that have been separated for some considerable time ( e . g . , t . minor : it occurs on sumatra , borneo , thailand and malaysia ) , others are island endemics ( e . g . , t . nicobarica , t . moellendorffi ) . i might come back to treeshrew distribution and biogeography at a future date as there’s a lot to be said .
22 . morphology • t . tana is slightly larger than the common treeshrew • the dorsal fur is reddish brown , shading to nearly black at the rear . • there is a black stripe running from the neck half to two thirds of the way down the back • the body size measurements of this species are : – head and body , 165–321 mm – tail , 130–220 mm – hind foot , 43–57 mm . • the weight is 154 - 305 g . • t . tana has sensitive hearing and large eyes that give it acute night visionbut poor daylight vision .
treeshrews are widely considered a
living model
of an ancestral primate , and have long been called
living fossils
. actual fossils of treeshrews , however , are extremely rare . in a paper published 14 january in scientific reports ( 6 ) , drs . li qiang and ni xijun , institute of vertebrate palaeontology and palaeoanthropology ( ivpp ) , chinese academy of sciences , reported a new fossil species of ptilocercus treeshrew from the early oligocene ( over 34 million years ago ) of china that represents the oldest definitive fossil record of the crown group of treeshrews and nearly doubles the temporal length of their fossil record .
micrographs of malayfilaria sofiani n . g . , n . sp . females ( a – c ) , males ( d – e ) and microfilariae ( f – g ) . a adult female ( arrow ) in tissue surrounding the lymph nodes of the neck of a treeshrew ( tupaia glis ) . b pre - oesophageal cuticular ring ( arrow ) . c annules ( arrows ) at midbody region . d bulbous head with pre - oesophageal cuticular ring ( arrow ) . e annules ( arrows ) at midbody region . f anterior part with cephalic space ( * ) and nerve ring ( arrow ) ( giemsa staining ) . g posterior part with anal pore ( * ) and terminal nucleus ( arrow ) ( giemsa staining ) . scale - bars are in micrometres
until recently , very little was known of treeshrew biology , ecology or behaviour . this situation has improved considerably since about 2000 . we know that treeshrews are skittish , highly alert animals , that they exhibit hardly any sexual dimorphism , and that females practise ‘absentee care’ : they spend hardly any time with their babies , visiting the nursery nests only on alternate days . they only give birth to one or two babies , and these have giant stomachs ( to deal with intermittent milk meals ) and are also able to thermoregulate in the absence of a parent . treeshrews are also now known to be highly vocal . conspicuous acoustic differences exist between species , often between populations that look alike but are suspected to represent distinct phylogenetic units ( or… species ) ( esser et al . 2008 ) .
the filarial nematodes wuchereria bancrofti ( cobbold , 1877 ) , brugia malayi ( brug , 1927 ) and b . timori partono , purnomo , dennis , atmosoedjono , oemijati & cross , 1977 cause lymphatic diseases in humans in the tropics , while b . pahangi ( buckley & edeson , 1956 ) infects carnivores and causes zoonotic diseases in humans in malaysia . wuchereria bancrofti , w . kalimantani palmieri , pulnomo , dennis & marwoto , 1980 and six out of ten brugia spp . have been described from australia , southeast asia , sri lanka and india . however , the origin and evolution of the species in the wuchereria - brugia clade remain unclear . while investigating the diversity of filarial parasites in malaysia , we discovered an undescribed species in the common treeshrew tupaia glis diard & duvaucel ( mammalia : scandentia ) .
isolated adult worms were then transferred into either 70 % ethanol for the examination of fixed worms from one common treeshrew ( group a ) or into phosphate - buffered saline ( ph 7 . 4 ) for the examination of dead unfixed worms from another individual ( group b ) . the fixed adult worms in group a were cleared in lactophenol solution ( r & m chemicals , essex , uk ) and drawn using a compound microscope equipped with a camera lucida ( olympus u - da , olympus , tokyo , japan ) . the midbody region of a fixed female was embedded in paraffin and sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin . dead worms that had neither been fixed nor cleared ( group b ) were also drawn using the same apparatus . for each worm in groups a and b , we recorded body length , body width , distance between anterior end and nerve ring , distance between anterior end and vulva , length of oesophagus , spicules and tail . metrical data are presented as the range and measurements are in micrometres unless otherwise indicated .
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philosophical transactions of the royal society of london . series b , biological sciences , volume 325 , issue 1229 , pp . 489 - 559
we examine the paraphylectic hypothesis of bat origins , both in the light of previous discussions , and in the light of new evidence from our analyses of neurological traits and wing morphology . megabats share with primates a variety of complex details in the organization of neural pathways that have not been found in any other mammalian group , particularly not in microbats . the features previously used to link microbats and megabats have been examined and found to be questionable bases for support of a monophyletic origin . in particular , morphological analyses of the musculoskeletal adaptations associated with the flight apparatus are consistent with two separate origins of the mammalian wing . taken together , these analyses suggest that megabats evolved from an early branch of the primate lineage . this branch was comprised of moderate - sized , phytophagous gliders , of which the other living descendants are the dermopterans . microbats , in contrast , probably evolved much earlier from small , agile insectivores whose forelimbs had long metacarpals in relation to their phalanges .
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tree - shrew , or banxring , a small squirrel - like insectivore of india and the malay archipelago , the several species of which constitute the family tupaiidæ . the fur is soft and glistening , and a long , bushy tail is generally present . they are restlessly active during the day , searching for insects and fruits , both on the ground and in trees . two of the largest species are the tana ( t . tana ) , with a feathery tail , in one variety of a bright , golden color ; and the ferruginous banxring ( t . ferruginea ) , widely distributed in the malayan region . the soles of the feet in the latter are plaited like those of geckos and give the animals a sure grip of a branch . consult blanford , ‘mammals of india’ ( london 1888 ) .
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most molecular phylogenetic studies place all placental mammals into four superordinal groups , laurasiatheria ( e . g . dogs , bats , whales ) , euarchontoglires ( e . g . humans , rodents , colugos ) , xenarthra ( e . g . armadillos , anteaters ) and afrotheria ( e . g . elephants , sea cows , tenrecs ) , and estimate that these clades last shared a common ancestor 90–110 million years ago . this phylogeny has provided a framework for numerous functional and comparative studies . despite the high level of congruence among most molecular studies , questions still remain regarding the position and divergence time of the root of placental mammals , and certain ‘hard nodes’ such as the laurasiatheria polytomy and paenungulata that seem impossible to resolve . here , we explore recent consensus and conflict among mammalian phylogenetic studies and explore the reasons for the remaining conflicts . the question of whether the mammal tree of life is or can be ever resolved is also addressed .
this article is part of the themed issue ‘dating species divergences using rocks and clocks’ .
of all classes of animals , humans are most concerned with and fascinated by class mammalia , of which we are members . class mammalia contains warm - blooded animals that have hair or fur , produce milk and typically give birth to live young [ 1 ] . as of 2005 , there are approximately 5400 living mammalian species that inhabit every biome on earth , range in size from the 2 g bumblebee bat to the 170 tonne blue whale , and exhibit unprecedented phenomic diversity and ecological adaptations [ 1 ] . class mammalia is divided into two subclasses : prototheria , which contains the egg - laying monotremes ( platypus and echidna ) , and theria , which contains the placental and marsupial clades [ 2 ] . the mammalian fossil record extends deep into the triassic ( approx . 220 ma ) and records the evolution of mammalian lineages through extreme changes in flora , environments and landmasses during the cretaceous terrestrial revolution ( ktr ) and the cretaceous–palaeogene ( kpg ) mass extinction events [ 3 – 6 ] .
here , we showcase some of the past and present debates pertaining to the phylogenetic and evolutionary history of placental mammals . we discuss the next generation of phylogenetic methods and data that have been employed to resolve the placental mammal tree of life . we analyse a new molecular dataset comprised of sequences for 286 mammals and four outgroups , and date the divergence of these species to generate a novel timetree . we provide a roadmap for future analyses , detailing the pros and cons of current methods , and highlight the ways forward to finally resolve the mammal tree of life .
higher - level relationships of placental mammal orders based on morphology versus molecules . orders ( italics ) are coloured by their superordinal membership according to molecular studies . the majority of superordinal groups based on morphology are polyphyletic and reflect ecomorphological convergence ( e . g . ‘ant and termite eating group’ includes representatives from xenarthra , afrotheria , and laurasiatheria ) .
summary of the various papers supporting one of the three hypotheses for the root node of eutherian mammals : exafroplacentalia , epitheria or atlantogenata .
aside from the placental root , other recalcitrant problems in higher - level placental systematics include ( i ) the laurasiatheria polytomy , ( ii ) sister - group relationships within paenungulata , and ( iii ) the position of scandentia ( treeshrews ) within euarchontoglires [ 14 ] . these difficult problems are characterized by short internal branches , which are indicative of rapid radiations , and are likely to remain difficult to resolve owing to incomplete lineage sorting ( ils ) and a variety of systematic biases including long branch misplacement and model mis - specification that can hamper phylogenetic inference . even though these nodes and branches of the tree remained unresolved , it was hoped that the promise of phylogenomic analyses would resolve these ‘tricky’ branches [ 65 ] .
in the supermatrix approach , data from multiple gene fragments are concatenated to form a single matrix for subsequent phylogenetic analyses [ 19 ] . the advantage of the supermatrix approach lies in combining individual genes into a single matrix for simultaneous analysis , an approach which has the ability to decrease sampling error , offset homoplastic signals in individual genes and uncover hidden support [ 19 , 72 ] ( table 3 ) . hidden support refers to increased support for a clade in combined analysis relative to the support obtained in separate analysis [ 19 , 73 ] , and is the primary advantage of the supermatrix approach . in recent years , the supermatrix approach for species tree estimation has been criticized by champions of coalescent methods , who have correctly noted that concatenation methods do not explicitly address the problem of ils [ 7 , 21 , 54 , 74 – 78 ] . furthermore , it has been suggested that the supermatrix approach can overestimate nodal support when an incorrect model of sequence evolution is applied . however , coalescence methods make their own assumptions and the worthwhile goal of accounting for ils introduces a series of potential problems that may arise if these assumptions are violated . in particular , coalescence methods assume recombination between but not within loci , gene tree heterogeneity that results exclusively from ils , and neutral evolution [ 76 , 77 ] .
at present , the relative advantages and disadvantages of coalescence versus supermatrix approaches for phylogeny reconstruction have not been fully explored . this is despite the existence of many simulation studies , which have variably supported one method over the other depending on the simulation parameters [ 82 , 87 , 89 – 93 ] . future studies should simulate more realistic c - gene sizes and increase the number of taxa to better reflect empirical datasets , and examine the effects of recombination on coalescence versus concatenation methods [ 86 ] .
timetree based on mcmctree supports a long fuse model of mammalian diversification [ 4 , 5 ] . divergence time estimates were obtained under a gtr + γ model of sequence evolution , 99 calibrated nodes ( see electronic supplementary material table s2 for details ) , and autocorrelated rates of evolution . divergence time estimates for clades of interest are shown at each node , with the 95 % ci denoted by blue bars . the dataset included 26 tree of life gene fragments [ 4 ] and was expanded to include 286 taxa ( see electronic supplementary material , table s1 for taxa , gene fragments and accession numbers ) . genbank sequences for single genes were supplemented with available genome data that were mined using blast searches . the tree was estimated using raxml [ 99 ] on the cipres web server [ 100 ] under a fully partitioned model where each partition had its own gtr + γ model of sequence evolution . paintings by carl buell . ( online version in colour . )
both the short and long fuse models suggest that there should be crown placentals from the cretaceous , but recent morphological parsimony analysis studies provide no support for this prediction and instead , position all cretaceous taxa outside of crown placentalia [ 8 , 102 – 104 ] . explanations for this discrepancy are that ( i ) reconstructed divergence times in the cretaceous based on molecular data are inaccurate [ 8 ] , ( ii ) the placental fossil record is highly incomplete and it is simpler to propose ghost lineages in the cretaceous than virus - like rates of molecular evolution in early placental mammals [ 9 ] and ( iii ) morphological parsimony analyses that position cretaceous eutherians outside of crown placentalia are inherently unreliable owing to pervasive convergence in morphological characters and clustering of the recent , which is a form of long branch attraction that can result in stemward slippage of fossil taxa . below , we discuss each of these explanations for the perceived discrepancies between molecular and palaeontological estimates for interordinal divergence times .
we have come so far and have greatly advanced our understanding of mammalian evolutionary history in the past twenty years . these advances have resulted from ( i ) new methods in molecular technologies enabling the fast and rapid generation of huge amounts of sequence data from novel taxa [ 69 , 70 ] , ( ii ) the conception and implementation of novel analytical methods for accurately modelling sequence evolution and allowing independent rates and models across branches and ( iii ) the availability of fast and powerful computers that enable computationally intensive phylogenetic analyses . however , despite these advances , there are still three key areas that must be addressed before we can have ‘mammal tree’ resolution .
e . c . t . conceived and designed the study . m . s . s . assembled the datasets and built trees . all authors contributed to the timetree analysis , interpretation of results and writing , editing the manuscript .
e . c . t and n . m . f are supported through a european research council research grant awarded to e . c . t ( erc - 20120stg311000 ) . m . s . s is supported through an nsf united states grant no . deb - 1457735
we thank phil donoghue and ziheng yang for the invitation to contribution . we also thank mario dos reis , robert asher and one anonymous reviewer for helpful comments and suggestions .
one contribution of 15 to a discussion meeting issue ‘ dating species divergences using rocks and clocks ’ .
emerling ca , meredith rw , janecka je , eizirik e , murphy wj . submitted . waking the undead : implications of a soft explosive model for the timing of placental mammal diversification . mol . phylogenet . evol
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1 department of biology , university of california , riverside , ca 92521 , usa .
2 department of veterinary integrative biosciences , texas a & m university , college station , tx 77843 , usa .
3 san diego zoo’s institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .
4 ucd school of biology and environmental science , university college dublin , belfield , dublin 4 , ireland .
5 faculdade de biociências , pontifícia universidade católica do rio grande do sul , porto alegre , rs 90619–900 , brazil .
6 institut für integrative biologie , eidgenössiche technische hochschule zurich , 8092 zurich , switzerland .
7 department of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .
8 division of natural science , pepperdine university , malibu , ca 90263 , usa .
9 division of paleontology and sackler institute of comparative genomics , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
10 richard glider graduate school , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
11 department of computer science , texas a & m university , college station , tx 77843 , usa .
12 department of botany and zoology , university of stellenbosch , matieland 7602 , south africa .
15 department of biology , washington and lee university , lexington , virginia 24450 , usa .
science 28 oct 2011 : vol . 334 , issue 6055 , pp . 521 - 524 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1211028
department of biology , university of california , riverside , ca 92521 , usa .
department of veterinary integrative biosciences , texas a & m university , college station , tx 77843 , usa .
san diego zoo’s institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .
ucd school of biology and environmental science , university college dublin , belfield , dublin 4 , ireland .
faculdade de biociências , pontifícia universidade católica do rio grande do sul , porto alegre , rs 90619–900 , brazil .
institut für integrative biologie , eidgenössiche technische hochschule zurich , 8092 zurich , switzerland .
department of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .
division of natural science , pepperdine university , malibu , ca 90263 , usa .
division of paleontology and sackler institute of comparative genomics , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
richard glider graduate school , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
department of computer science , texas a & m university , college station , tx 77843 , usa .
department of botany and zoology , university of stellenbosch , matieland 7602 , south africa .
department of biology , washington and lee university , lexington , virginia 24450 , usa .
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previous analyses of relations , divergence times , and diversification patterns among extant mammalian families have relied on supertree methods and local molecular clocks . we constructed a molecular supermatrix for mammalian families and analyzed these data with likelihood - based methods and relaxed molecular clocks . phylogenetic analyses resulted in a robust phylogeny with better resolution than phylogenies from supertree methods . relaxed clock analyses support the long - fuse model of diversification and highlight the importance of including multiple fossil calibrations that are spread across the tree . molecular time trees and diversification analyses suggest important roles for the cretaceous terrestrial revolution and cretaceous - paleogene ( kpg ) mass extinction in opening up ecospace that promoted interordinal and intraordinal diversification , respectively . by contrast , diversification analyses provide no support for the hypothesis concerning the delayed rise of present - day mammals during the eocene period .
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molecular phylogenetic analysis , calibrated with fossils , resolves the time frame of the mammalian radiation .
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genome - the elizabeth h . and james s . mcdonnell iii genome institute at washington university
the true phylogenetic classification of tree shrews is controversial . some argue they should be placed in the primata order , even though tree shrews and primates don ' t share any derived characteristics . genetic analyses of the group have put them variably in proximity to the primates . at present tree shrews have been placed in the scandentia order , which is composed of 20 species and 5 genera . these small mammals have relatively small body mass , average body weight is 142 grams with a body length of 19 . 5cm . interestingly , the tree shrew has the highest brain to body mass ratio of any mammal , including humans . tree shrews are typically monogamus in mating and produce up to 3 offspring from each pregnancy . at approximately 40 days , young are weaned and rapidly become sexually mature , typically at 3 months of age .
the tree shrew is broadly distributed across southeast asia . most often found in the tropical rainforests , although they are best described as semi - arboreal ( tree - dwelling ) .
the tree shrew species tupaia belangeri , will be sequenced as part of an initiative to expand sequencing of mammalian genomes for the purpose of expanding the annotation of the human genome . the plan is to create a draft sequence assembly from 6x whole genome coverage of a female tree shrew . the tree shrew dna source was obtained from dr . eberhard fuchs , german primate center , goettingen , germany . for more information on the mammalian genomes represented in this initiative please visit the genome sequencing proposal page . the national human genome research institute ( nhgri ) , national institutes of health ( nih ) is providing funding for the sequence characterization of the tree shrew genome .
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citation : kumar v , hallström bm , janke a ( 2013 ) coalescent - based genome analyses resolve the early branches of the euarchontoglires . plos one 8 ( 4 ) : e60019 . urltoken
copyright : © 2013 kumar et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : the present study was supported by the research funding program loewe :
landes - offensive zur entwicklung wissenschaftlich - ökonomischer exzellenz
of hesse ' s ministry of higher education , research , and the arts . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
therefore , we revisit the euarchontoglires with a new and larger set of genomic sequence data focusing on ordinal relationships within the euarchontoglires along with the relationship of the tarsiers ( haplorhine primates ) relative to the other two major primate lineages , strepsirrhini ( lemurs , lorises and allies ) and anthropoidea ( platyrrhines and catarrhines ) . the widely used concatenation method to infer the species tree can mislead inferences , especially when gene trees are in the so - called anomaly zone [ 25 ] . in addition to this , species trees generated using concatenated data can sometimes have very high bootstrap support values for incorrect relationships [ 26 ] . coalescent theory tries to trace back alleles to the most recent common ancestor [ 27 ] . recently developed tree reconstruction methods such as star , species tree based on ranks of coalescent [ 28 ] and mp - est , maximum pseudo - likelihood estimates method [ 29 ] estimates a species tree from multiple gene trees . star and mp - est methods can be applied to large data sets because of their faster and simpler algorithms . they provide reliable results in reasonable computational time compared to more computationally intensive and exact bayesian species tree methods ( such as best ) , which are preferable for smaller data sets [ 28 ] .
compared to recent phylogenomic studies [ 4 ] , [ 9 ] , [ 30 ] the new dataset now includes sequences of the gibbon genome ( nomascus leucogenys ) . genome data of the cow ( bos taurus ) is used to root the tree . among the possible outgroups to the euarchontoglires [ 4 ] the bovine genome is arguably the one that has the best sequence coverage and annotation . the root is especially crucial for the coalescence - based species tree analyses such as star and mp - est . choosing a well - assembled genome of a closely related species facilitates the alignment and maximizes the amount of data that can be utilized . the placement of dermoptera is also uncertain and previous studies have placed this order with the primates [ 7 ] or with scandentia [ 6 ] . however , until a genome of this order is available , their position in the mammalian tree cannot be studied by phylogenomic approaches .
the coding sequences ( cds ) for the 19 species that are included in this study , listed in table 1 , were retrieved using biomart from the ensembl version 65 ( urltoken ) . the procedure for alignment and phylogenomic analyses were similar to that previously described [ 4 ] . therefore it is only briefly described here , detailing only additional procedures .
human sequences longer than 300 nucleotides were used to find the orthologs from 18 different species using the recursive blast approach [ 3 ] . only genes represented by at least 16 out of 19 species were kept for further analyses . all sequences were translated into corresponding amino acids and aligned using mafft version 6 . 833b [ 31 ] . any alignment showing an overall nucleotides difference larger than 25 % between any two species were discarded to ensure a conservative approach and further reduce the potential for incorrect alignments .
it has been shown that the quality of multiple sequence alignment is essential in phylogenetic inference [ 32 ] . therefore , we used bmge , block mapping and gathering with entropy , [ 33 ] that utilizes similarity matrices such as blosum and pam to remove ambiguously aligned regions . we used the option of stringent trimming based on the scoring scheme blosum 95 . the selected amino acid alignments were then back translated to nucleotide - alignments . both types of sequence data were analysed .
base composition analysis was done using the treefinder ( tf ) version of march 2011 [ 34 ] to test for the compositional equilibrium of the bases across the species . for this we applied the sliding window approach using the default size of 500 .
it is prohibitive to run the model - test for large genomic scale data sets because of the large computational demands [ 3 ] . similar phylogenomic studies [ 3 ] , [ 5 ] estimated the preferred model to be gtr [ 35 ] and wag2000 [ 36 ] with 4 gamma rate categories ( 4g ) for nucleotide and amino acids respectively . these models were also estimated for a smaller dataset of 1 , 006 loci using the model test of tf . assuming the remaining data set to have similar properties , these models were used subsequently for all maximum - likelihood ( ml ) analyses . initially concatenated data sets for both nucleotide and amino acid sequences were used to infer the species tree using tf , reconstructing a ml tree using the gtr and wag2000 models , respectively , and 4 gamma rate categories ( 4g ) as rate heterogeneity parameter . ml hypothesis testing of different topologies for scandentia and the tarsier within the euarchontoglires were done with the approximately unbiased test ( au ) [ 37 ] and shimodaira - hasegawa ( sh ) [ 38 ] , as implemented in tf . these analyses are consistent with previous phylogenomic studies , thereby enabling comparisons to previous results .
in the second step we analysed the nucleotide data using coalescent methods . we constructed the nucleotide species tree using the coalescent model of evolution implemented in the star method and with the mp - est method implemented as an r package in phybase [ 39 ] . the star method is motivated by multispecies coalescent model [ 40 ] , which assumes deep coalescence to be the major factor for the differences between the gene trees and species tree . star uses the rank of coalescence to coalesce the gene trees into species tree . for this analysis each taxon must be represented by a sequence for each gene . from the 5 , 875 gene data set , 1 , 006 gene alignments fulfilled this criterion . we also constructed the concatenated tree using the nucleotide and amino acid data .
the 1 , 006 ( table s1 ) loci were used for the species tree reconstruction . the longest sequence length is 25 , 728 base pairs and average length was 1 , 757 base pairs ( figure s1 ) . computational constraints limited the multi - locus bootstrapping [ 26 ] to 100 replicates , using the bootstrap ' mulgene ' method implemented in phybase . each gene was bootstrapped and the combined trees ( 100 , 600 ) served as input for the star program . individual ml gene trees were generated for each alignment using phyml 3 . 0 [ 41 ] applying the gtr model with gamma distribution . from these trees , 100 re - sampled species trees were generated using the star method implemented in r . the species trees were rooted with the cow and finally a consensus tree was made using the “consense” module in phylip , version 3 . 69 [ 42 ] .
a second coalescent - based method “mp - est” , which implements a pseudo maximum likelihood method under the coalescent model to estimate the species tree , was also used to generate a species tree . the mp - est method has been shown to be more accurate than star when inferring short branches in a species tree [ 29 ] . all 1 , 006 gene trees were again used as input for the mp - est method to generate the species tree . the procedures of tree construction , including the bootstrap analyses , were similar to that described for the star method .
we also performed network analyses to depict conflicting signal . from the 1 , 006 amino acid sequence alignment , individual ml trees were generated by tf . a consensus network was built from the individual gene trees using the splitstree4 program [ 43 ] , with a threshold of 10 % . in addition , we selected the best ml tree from the three alternative hypotheses regarding the position of the tree shrew . only gene trees that were separated from the second best ml tree by an arbitrary value > 0 . 7 standard deviations ( s . d . ) were retained and used for network construction . choosing a cut - off of 0 . 7 s . d . allows best depicting the conflict in the networks and retains only topologies with some moderate support from single gene analyses . the three different placements of the tree shrew as earlier described were evaluated for all the three different topologies of tree shrew . a consensus network in splits tree4 then summarized the trees .
the final dataset consisted of 5 , 875 orthologous gene alignments from 19 different species , including ten primates , seven rodents and lagomorphs , one scandentian , and one outgroup species , the cow ( table 1 ) . after trimming the alignments using bmge [ 33 ] , we generated a concatenated alignment of 9 , 799 , 170 nucleotides with an average sequence coverage of 85 % for each species ( table 1 ) . this resulted in 71 % more sites than a previous phylogenomic studies that included euarchontoglires [ 4 ] . the base composition showed high homogeneity between the species both for all codon positions ( nt123 ) and first and second codon position alone ( nt12 ) ( table s2 , table s3 ) .


cacosoma is a genus of moth in the family arctiidae .

it contains only one species , cacosoma gnatula , which is found in south africa .

cacosoma

fig . 9 . psichotoe duvauceli , ( ^ . \ . ( from ' moths of india , ' vol . i . ) sect . ii . ( cacosoma ) . fore wing with vein 11 from the cell and curved ; 7 from 8 before 10 . 9 . black - brown * 2 . psichotoe gnatula . kaclia gnatula , boisd . voy . delegorgue , ii . p . 596 ( 1847 ) ; kirby , cat . het . p . 106 . cacosoma naclioides , feld . reis . nov . pi . 102 . f . 13 ( 1874 ) ; kirby , cat . het . p . 109 . patagia yellow ; abdomen dilated , with thick tufts of yellow hair from middle to extremity . fore wing with elongate yellow patch below the cell ; a spot in end of cell ; a postmedial patch between veins 2 and 5 . hind wing yellow with the apical area blackish , narrowing to a point above tornus . . 16 millira .
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urltoken
gynophora hv . tephra hbn . ( p . 82 as orgyia tephra h . )
herrich - schäffer g . a . w . 1853–1858 . sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter aussereuropäische schmetterlinge . heterocera ( nachtfalter ) . - — ( 1 ) 1 : 1–84 , pls . 1–120 .
psichotoe ( syntomini ) ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 65
psichotoe cingulata kiriakoff , 1963 ; mém . inst . fr . afr . noire 66 ( 17 ) : 402
sind ( karachi , calcutta ) , assam , burma . see [ maps ]
psichotoe duvaucelii boisduval , 1829 ; essai sur monogr . zygénides : 129 , pl . 8 , f . 5
psichotoe duvauceli ; hampson , 1898 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 1 : 32 , f . 9 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 65
psichotoe rubridorsata berio , 1940 ; mem . soc . ent . ital . 19 : 125
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
catalogue des lépidoptères recuellis par m . delegorgue , 1833 - 1844 in delegorgue ,
reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
singh , singh & joshi , 2014 a checklist of subfamily arctiinae ( erebidae : noctuoidea : lepidoptera ) from india rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 1 - 76
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
vári , l . , kroon , d . m . , & krüger , m . 2002 . classification and checklist of the species of lepidoptera recorded in southern africa . simple solutions , chatswood australia .
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authors : british museum ( natural history ) . dept . of zoology ; hampson , george francis , sir , 1860 - 1936
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fig . \ q , —psichotoe gnatula , 5 - hah . natal ; cape colont . ex ^
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