helicoverpa assulta , the oriental tobacco budworm , is a moth of the noctuidae family .

it is found all over the old world tropics , from south africa through the middle east , central and south-east asia to australia .

helicoverpa assulta

pheromone biosynthetic pathways in the moths helicoverpa zea and helicoverpa assulta . - pubmed - ncbi
multiple acyl - coa desaturase - encoding transcripts in pheromone glands of helicoverpa assulta , the oriental tobacco budworm .
helicoverpa assulta guenee ; hardwick , 1965 : 120 ( full synonymy ) ; holloway , 1976 : 8 .
antennal transcriptome analysis and comparison of chemosensory gene families in two closely related noctuidae moths , helicoverpa armigera and h . assulta
other species not shown due to low frequency of interceptions : helicoverpa assulta , h . gelotopoeon and h . punctigera .
antennal transcriptome analysis and comparison of chemosensory gene families in two closely related noctuidae moths , helicoverpa armigera and h . assulta .
multiple acyl - coa desaturase - encoding transcripts in pheromone glands of helicoverpa assulta , the oriental tobacco budworm . - pubmed - ncbi
tissue - and sex - specific expression of h . assulta candidate or genes .
tissue - and sex - specific expressions of h . assulta candidate obp genes .
tissue - and sex - specific expressions of h . assulta candidate csp genes .
total port interceptions for helicoverpa species in the united states from 1984 to 2013 .
phylogenetic tree of putative h . armigera and h . assulta ors with other lepidoptera ors .
tissue - and sex - specific expressions of h . assulta candidate ir and snmp genes .
molecular markers to discriminate among four pest species of helicoverpa ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) .
phylogenetic tree of putative h . armigera and h . assulta irs with irs from other insects .
phylogenetic tree of putative h . armigera and h . assulta obps with obps from other insects .
phylogenetic tree of putative h . armigera and h . assulta csps with csps from other insects .
embrapa . nota técnica sobre resultado do trabalho inicial de levantamento da lagarta do gênero helicoverpa —detecção da espécie helicoverpa armigera no brasil planaltina : embrapa cerradose embrapa soja ; 2013 . 2 p .
gene ontology ( go ) classification of the h . armigera and h . assulta unigenes with blast2go program .
discrimination of helicoverpa armigera ( hübner ) and h . assulta ( guenée ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) by pcr - rflp analysis , and application to surveying occurrence of h . armigera in tobacco fields of japan
molecular markers to discriminate among four pest species of helicoverpa ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
climex compare locations model parameters for helicoverpa armigera ( mnemonics are taken from [ 6 , 60 ] ) .
citation : li w - z , teng x - h , zhang h - f , liu t , wang q , yuan g , et al . ( 2017 ) comparative host selection responses of specialist ( helicoverpa assulta ) and generalist ( helicoverpa armigera ) moths in complex plant environments . plos one 12 ( 2 ) : e0171948 . urltoken
mitochondrial dna analysis of field populations of helicoverpa armigera ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) and of its relationship to h . zea
a tale of two trapping methods : helicoverpa spp . ( lepidoptera , noctuidae ) in pheromone and light traps in australian cotton production systems
despite agricultural economic importance of the genus helicoverpa , its host selection process in a complex plant environment has received little attention . helicoverpa armigera ( hübner ) and helicoverpa assulta ( guenée ) are two siblings in this genus . the former is a highly polyphagous species [ 6 ] , while the latter is specialized on several solanaceous species , mainly tobacco and hot pepper [ 7 ] . although active plant volatiles for attracting or stimulating oviposition of h . armigera [ 8 – 10 ] and h . assulta [ 7 , 11 ] has been reported from an agricultural point of view , only a handful of studies seem helpful in understanding the mechanism of their host selection behaviors in a complex odor background .
a multiplex real - time pcr assay to diagnose and separate helicoverpa armigera and h . zea ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in the new world
neither h . armigera nor h . assulta females deposited significantly more eggs on the odor source of two tobacco complex than those on the odor source of one tobacco plant ( fig 4 ; paired t test , p h . armigera = 0 . 3506 , p h . assulta = 0 . 7219 ) .
figure a , climate suitability for helicoverpa armigera in australia modelled using climex for a ) establishment , and b ) population growth in relation to its known distribution . point locations indicate the goodness of fit of the model . figure b , global climate suitability for helicoverpa armigera modelled using climex for a ) establishment , and b ) population growth in relation to its known distribution . point locations and shaded areas indicate the goodness of fit of the model . table a , climex parameter sensitivity for helicoverpa armigera . table b , frequency of interceptions of helicoverpa armigera in the united states by inspected host .
potential global distribution of helicoverpa armigera , modelled using climex , taking into account climate suitability , irrigation patterns , and the existence of suitable crop hosts .
value of agricultural production in 2005 for the conterminous united states at risk from invasion by helicoverpa armigera at different levels of climate suitability modelled using climex .
timing of diapause induction and overwintering success in the cotton bollworm helicoverpa armigera ( hb . ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) under outdoor conditions in temperate japan
antennal transcriptome analysis and comparison of chemosensory gene families in two closely related noctuidae moths , helicoverpa armigera and h . as . . . - pubmed - ncbi
north american plant protection organization . detection of old world bollworm ( helicoverpa armigera ) in puerto rico . 2014 available : urltoken . accessed : november 2014 .
analysis of long - term light - trap data for helicoverpa spp . ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in australia : the effect of climate and crop host plants
abundance of overwintering pupae and the spring generation of helicoverpa spp . ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in northern new south wales , australia : implication for pest management
long range forecasts of the numbers of helicoverpa punctigera and h . armigera ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in australia using the southern oscillation index and the sea surface temperature
helicoverpa assulta is a serious pest that attacks green pepper and tobacco . the eggs are laid singly on the surface of green pepper . the hatched larvae bore into the fruits and eat the contents ; they are then hard to control . in tobacco , the egs are laid on the leaves . the hatched larvae eat the leaves and buds .
a new synonym of helicoverpa zea ( boddie ) and differentiation of adult males of h . zea and h . armigera ( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae )
h . assulta females laid significantly less eggs on tomato + tobacco complex odor source than on tobacco reference ( fig 4 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 0134 ) , and percent eggs deposited on complex odor source was as low as 18 . 39 % ; on the contrary , h . assulta females laid significantly more eggs on the odor source of peanut + tobacco complex than those on the tobacco reference ( fig 4 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 0435 ) . all the other plant species did not affect the egg distribution of h . assulta females .
molecular identification of helicoverpa armigera ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) in argentina and development of a novel pcr - rflp method for its rapid differentiation from h . zea and h . gelotopoeon
global helicoverpa armigera and h . zea cyt b haplotype distribution patterns including the brazilian h . armigera cyt b - harm01 and cyt b - harm08 haplotypes , and relevant genbank accession numbers .
the larvae of helicoverpa assulta eat young new leaves and the growing points of tobacco . sometimes they bore into the soft stems of tobacco , and into the seeds of corn and the fruits of green pepper . the damage retards the growth of the plants . the upper leaves of the host become mesh - like with numerous damaged spots . after flowering , the new buds are eaten in preference to the leaves .
sharma hc . heliothis / helicoverpa management : emerging trends and strategies for future research ; sharma hc , editor . new delhi , india : oxford & ibh publishing co . pvt . ltd ; 2005 .
this study was done to elucidate structure and distribution of antenna and antennal sensilla in adult oriental tobacco budworm , helicoverpa assulta ( guenée ) . the antenna consisted of scape , pedicel , and flagellum . the flagellum of both sexes had 6 major types of sensilla . the number of flagellar subsegments differed slightly between the 2 sexes . sexual dimorphism was also noticed in the total number of sensilla and in the subtypes of sensilla trichodea .
h . assulta larvae approached to tomato leaf disc significantly less frequently than tobacco reference ( fig 6 ; χ 2 test with yate correction , p = 0 . 0125 ) . no other within - group difference was found .
our first hypothesis is fully supported by the two stages of two helicoverpa species . however , h . assulta females could only recognize tomato as non - host plant , exhibiting a supersensitive response ; instead , conspecific larvae could only detect their major hosts ( tobacco and hot pepper ) and could not actively avoid volatiles emitted from potential non - host plants , exhibiting an insensitive response ( fig 5 , see also in s2 dataset ) .
the four significant pest species in the helicoverpa genus ( h . armigera , h . assulta , h . punctigera and h . zea ) are morphologically similar and can only be reliably distinguished through dissection of adult genitalia . two partial regions of the mitochondrial dna ( mtdna ) , the cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) and the cytochrome b ( cyt b ) genes were amplified by pcr and digested with restriction endonucleases . the restriction patterns , generated by the endonucleases bstz17i and hphi , demonstrated reliable differentiation of the four helicoverpa pest species . this technique is fast , reliable and effective at distinguishing specimens irrespective of their life stages and offers support to conventional taxonomic differentiation based on morphological characters .
behere g , tay w , russell d , batterham p . molecular markers to discriminate among four pest species of helicoverpa ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . bulletin of entomological research . 2008 ; 98 : 599–603 . pmid : 18631420
this tree was constructed using fasttree based on alignment results of mafft . harm : h . armigera ( black ) , hass : h . assulta ( red ) , bmor : b . mori ( blue ) , hvir : h . virescens ( purple ) .
under complex plant odor sources , ovipositional choice response of h . armigera females to the complex odor sources involved hot pepper , peanut , and maize are decreased , compared with tobacco reference . peanut , when placed together with tobacco , could reduce the approaching response of h . armigera larvae , compared with tobacco reference , while cotton played an opposite role ( synergic effect ) . tomato , which showed obvious ovipositional deterrence to h . assulta females in the first bioassay subset , again played a negative role when combined with tobacco . on the contrary , peanut , a plant species has never been recorded as a host of h . assulta , could enhance ovipositional response of the adult females when combined with tobacco . the host selection of h . assulta larvae was not disrupted by any plant species .
h . assulta larvae also approached to tobacco and hot pepper leaf discs ( major host plants ) significantly more frequently than corresponding control discs ( fig 5 ; χ 2 test with yate - correction , p tobacco = 0 . 0397 , p hot pepper = 0 . 0072 ) , although the percentages of ‘correct’ choice were fairly low ( tobacco : 67 . 5 % ; hot pepper : 72 . 5 % ) . however , h . assulta larvae could not discriminate all the non - host leaf discs from corresponding control discs .
the shown tree was constructed using fasttree based on alignment results of mafft . harm : h . armigera ( black ) , hass : h . assulta ( red ) , bmor : b . mori ( blue ) , hvir : h . virescens ( purple ) .
venette rc , davis ee , zaspel j , heisler h , larson m . mini risk assessment : old world bollworm , helicoverpa armigera hübner [ lepidoptera : noctuidae ] . st . paul : department of entomology , university of minnesota ; 2003 .
genotypes of six helicoverpa armigera from brazil using rpl11 , ddc and rps6 exon - primed intron - crossing ( epic ) pcr markers of tay et al . [ 32 ] , with possible numbers of matrilines contributing to the brazilian h . armigera being indicated .
lammers jw , macleod a . report of a pest risk analysis : helicoverpa armigera ( hübner , 1808 ) . uk department of environment , forestry and rural affairs : plant protection service ( nl ) and central science laboratory ( uk ) ; 2007 . 18 p .
in order to decrease the pupal density of helicoverpa assulta , it is important to remove the old stems and leaves of the host plant after harvesting , and to plough fields of tobacco , green pepper and other crops in the autumn and spring . late - planting tobacco is severely infested , therefore it is best to avoid planting late and to cultivate the crop with more fertilizer than usual . oviposition occurs on new buds and shoots , therefore it is important to prune the plant to remove the shoots and buds immediately after oviposition . female sex pheromone traps are available for monitoring .
to make a comprehensive comparison between insect species , between stages , and among bioassay subsets , we summarized all the results obtained from figs 2–7 in table 1 . both stages of h . armigera and h . assulta could discriminate their corresponding host plants from corresponding controls ( clean air or green filter paper disc ) . the other four plant species without unequivocal host status , however , elicited obviously different response patterns between the two stages of h . assulta : adult females mistakenly recognized all the plants but tomato as their hosts , while the larvae could not discriminate all the plant odor sources from corresponding controls .
gregg pc , fitt gp , zalucki mp , murray dah . insect migration in an arid continent ii . helicoverpa spp in eastern australia . in : drake va , gatehouse ag , editors . insect migration : tracking resources through space and time ; 1995 . pp . 151–172 .
this tree was constructed using fasttree based on alignment results of mafft . harm : h . armigera ( black ) , hass : h . assulta ( red ) , bmor : b . mori ( blue ) , slit : s . littoralis ( purple ) , dmel : d . melanogaster ( green ) .
the shown tree was constructed using fasttree based on alignment results of mafft . harm : h . armigera ( black ) , hass : h . assulta ( red ) , harm : h . armigera ( green ) , bmor : b . mori ( blue ) , hvir : h . virescens ( purple ) .
citation : kriticos dj , ota n , hutchison wd , beddow j , walsh t , tay wt , et al . ( 2015 ) the potential distribution of invading helicoverpa armigera in north america : is it just a matter of time ? plos one 10 ( 3 ) : e0119618 . urltoken
citation : tay wt , soria mf , walsh t , thomazoni d , silvie p , behere gt , et al . ( 2013 ) a brave new world for an old world pest : helicoverpa armigera ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80134 . urltoken
when one tobacco plant was tested against another , the eggs deposited by both h . armigera ( fig 3 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 5865 ) and h . assulta ( fig 3 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 9646 ) showed no significant difference , suggesting no bias in our bioassay setup .
when each plant species was tested against tobacco , the host selection patterns between the two stages of h . armigera were highly consistent ( with the exception of peanut versus tobacco ) . in contrast , h . assulta females preferred tobacco to all the other plant species , while the larvae could not discriminate tobacco from all plant species but tomato .
helicoverpa zea male genitalia . ( a ) valvae and phallus with 17 cornuti . ( b ) valvae and phallus with 15 cornuti . ( c ) valvae and phallus with 21 cornuti . ( d ) vesica inflated . arrows and arrowheads show the cornuti and the lobes at the base of the vesica , respectively .
it seems that host - selection accuracy of h . assulta females in this situation was higher than that obtained from bioassay of plant versus clean air . this may probably be due to the hierarchy of host selection process of herbivorous insect : nevertheless , non - host plants were better than nothing . h . assulta larvae could only discriminate between tomato and tobacco , suggesting that host selection accuracy of the adult females was much stronger than that of conspecific larvae , in consistent with the reports of trichoplusia ni [ 23 ] and melitaea athalia [ 24 ] . however , this conclusion should better be made with caution , because of the different mobilities ( crawling or flying ) and bioassay methods between the two stages .
emilia i . balbi , fernando m . flores , daniela s . tosto , joel d . arneodo ; further description of helicoverpa zea ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) male genitalia and new genetic evidence of synonymy with respect to the anomalous form , “ heliothis stombleri ” , journal of insect science , volume 17 , issue 3 , 1 may 2017 , 74 , urltoken
the most striking feature of h . assulta ovipositional bioassay is that , the females laid significantly less eggs on tomato odor source than those on corresponding clean air controls ( fig 2 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 0001 ) . mean ( ± se ) eggs deposited on the former were only 5 . 67 ± 2 . 80 , while those deposited on the latter were 195 . 67 ± 30 . 33 .
h . armigera females laid significantly more eggs on all the plant odor sources than those on corresponding clean air controls ( fig 2 ; paired t test , p < 0 . 0001 in all the cases ) . percentage of eggs deposited on plant odor source ranged from 89 . 67 % ( tobacco ) to 81 . 41 % ( peanut ) . similarly , h . assulta females also laid significantly more eggs on their major host plants ( tobacco and hot pepper ) than those on corresponding clean air controls ( fig 2 ; paired t test , p tobacco = 0 . 0008 , p hot pepper = 0 . 0111 ) . h . assulta eggs deposited on three non - host species ( cotton , peanut , and maize ) , however , were also significantly more than those on corresponding clean air controls ( fig 2 ; paired t test , p = 0 . 0005 in all the cases ) .
six plant species were used : tobacco ( ncotiana tabacum ; var . nc89 ) , hot pepper ( capsicum annum ; var . zhongshu 6 ) , tomato ( solanum esculentum ; var . jinpeng 8 ) , cotton ( gossypium hirsutum ; var . yumian 19 ) , maize ( zea mays ; var . yuyu 30 ) , and peanut ( arachis hypogaea ; var . luhua 9 ) . naturally , all of these crops have been recorded as host plants of h . armigera , while only tobacco and hot pepper have been confirmed as host plants of h . assulta . although several plants in the genus lycopersicon , physalis , and solanum also have been reported as host plants of h . assulta ( [ 12 – 13 ] , and references therein ) , more detailed studies are required to clarify the host status of tomato [ 14 ] . all the plants were routinely grown in 2l plastic pots in a greenhouse , in the scientific & educational campus of henan agricultural university , zhengzhou , china . to avoid confusion , the plants will be referred to by their common names hereinafter .
h . assulta females laid significantly more eggs on tobacco odor source than those on all the other plant odor sources ( fig 3 ; paired t test , p hot pepper vs . tobacco = 0 . 0115 , p peanut vs . tobacco = 0 . 0209 , p maize vs . tobacco = 0 . 0018 , p cotton vs . tobacco = 0 . 0002 , p tomato vs . tobacco = 0 . 0001 ) . percent eggs deposited on tomato odor source was as low as 8 . 87 % when tomato was tested against tobacco .
helicoverpa armigera is a polyphagous pest of agricultural crops . we are aware of two pest risk assessments for h . armigera ; for the usa [ 10 ] and for europe [ 11 ] . the risk assessment for the usa focused attention on the h . armigera incursion risks posed by the movement of passengers and goods . in contrast , the european assessment acknowledged the importance of natural dispersal of h . armigera in the risk profile in europe , and consequently the lack of options for managing the recurrent incursion risks in northern europe [ 11 ] .
the level of damage caused in a crop depends in part on the abundance of adult moths , the number of eggs they lay , and the numbers of larvae surviving to the larger damaging larval instars . helicoverpa armigera adults are migratory , and can move many hundreds of kilometres between regions and extensively between fields within regions [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ] . thus , influxes of moths may occur into an area from far away , or from nearby fields . depending on the crop plant and season , complete crop loss can result if caterpillars are left unchecked [ 42 ] .
the usda - aphis border interception data for “ helicoverpa ” were extracted for dates between 1 january 1984 and 18 february 2014 . the records were filtered for “species = armigera . ” all of the records were geocoded for the interception port location using the great circle mapper website ( urltoken ) . for a small number of ports for which the international air transport authority ( iata ) codes could not be resolved , google maps was used to identify geographical coordinates manually based on the location description . these data were mapped by number of independent interceptions at each port , and analysed for trends through time .
h . armigera larvae approached to peanut + tobacco complex leaf discs significantly less frequently than tobacco reference ( fig 7 ; χ 2 test with yate - correction , p = 0 . 0003 ) . the choice frequencies of the larvae to complex leaf discs and reference leaf disc were 8 and 32 , respectively . on the contrary , cotton + tobacco complex leaf disc was chosen significantly more frequently than tobacco reference ( fig 7 ; χ 2 test with yate correction , p = 0 . 0009 ) , and the choice frequencies of complex leaf disc and reference leaf disc were 31 and 9 , respectively . no significant difference was found in within - group comparisons of h . assulta larvae .
since 1984 , h . armigera has been positively identified in 1 017 border interceptions in mainland united states . the difficulty in distinguishing h . armigera from its congeners ( especially from h . zea ) using morphological characteristics , and the large number of interceptions ( 7 203 ) keyed to helicoverpa means that the real number of h . armigera intercepts is likely to be even greater ( table 2 ) . in the period being considered , the overall interceptions remained fairly steady until 2007 , when h . zea started being trapped in remarkably large numbers , and the interception rate of h . armigera also started to increase steadily ( fig . 5 ) .
in the 2011 / 2012 and 2012 / 2013 growing seasons , high infestations of helicoverpa species larvae were detected in different regions of brazil attacking row and cover crops , resulting in significant economic losses . initially the species was presumed to be h . zea , which is often found in maize and tomato crops in brazil [ 29 ] . however , large numbers of row crops were attacked consecutively in the same agricultural landscape at unusually high infestations , and growers reported a reduced efficacy of different methods of control for the pest . consequently , investigations took place to determine if the species was indeed h . zea as presumed or perhaps another species such as h . armigera .
the pest status of h . armigera is in part a function of the plant parts eaten . although larvae can feed and survive on leaves of many hosts [ 15 ] , they move to [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] , prefer to feed on [ 31 ] , and do better in terms of survival , subsequent fecundity and other fitness parameters when feeding on flowers and fruit ( e . g . , [ 32 , 33 ] ) ; hence the common names budworm , bollworm , earworm that belie its varied feeding habits . interestingly one of its common names is the “american bollworm , ” due in part to confusion surrounding the helicoverpa / heliothis clade in the heliothinae .
helicoverpa armigera has established in brazil in an area with a generally high ei ( fig . 4 ) . populations have been high there , impacting significantly on key crops such as corn , soybeans , tomatoes and cotton ( to name a few ) [ 5 ] . the species has already been detected in argentina , bolivia , paraguay , uraguay and puerto rico [ 7 , 8 , 9 ] , and given the extensive production of suitable host crops , year round in many cases with irrigation , the high levels of abundance and the propensity of the moth to move on wind systems , we suspect the species will continue to spread further in south and central america ( figs . 1 and 4 ) .
helicoverpa armigera is found in areas that under natural rainfall conditions extended periods with soil moisture below permanent wilting point , and which appear too arid to support sufficient crop growth and hence population growth for h . armigera . in these areas it appears likely that h . armigera is able to survive only in the presence of irrigated crops . to simulate the effects of irrigation the climex model for h . armigera was run using 2 . 5 mm day −1 of top - up irrigation throughout the year ; a moderate scenario c . f . yonow & sutherst [ 67 ] . the area over which irrigation is practiced was identified using the global irrigated area v5 ( gmia5 ) developed by siebert et al . [ 68 ] .
these caterpillars are pale green with a variable number of dark lines along the back , and a broad pale line along each side . sometimes the caterpillar has a row of orange spots along each side of the back .
the adult moths have a complex subtle brown pattern on the forewings . the hindwings are yellowish orange , with a broad brown margin containing a pale mark . the wingspan is about 3 cms .
melbourne university press , 1990 , pp . fig . 50 . 10 , 65 , 468 - 469 .
volume 9 , part 6 ( 1852 ) , pp . 178 - 179 ,
csiro publishing , melbourne 1999 , pp . 5 , 12 , 115 - 119 , 187 - 188 , 201 - 202 , plates 11 , 15 , 20 , 22 , 23 .
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insect biochem mol biol . 2003 jun ; 33 ( 6 ) : 609 - 22 .
jeong se 1 , rosenfield cl , marsella - herrick p , man you k , knipple dc .
department of biological sciences , hannam university , 133 ojung - dong , taeduk - ku , taejon 300 - 791 , south korea .
research support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .
insect biochem mol biol . 2002 nov ; 32 ( 11 ) : 1353 - 9 .
department of entomology , iowa state university , ames , ia 50011 - 3222 , usa .
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hardwick noted two subspecies . the typical race flies in the indo - australian tropics and ssp . afra hardwick in the african tropics .
old world ( including pacific ) tropics . habitat preference . this is probably a species of open , cultivated habitats but , like its congener , appears rare in borneo . two specimens from seria , a coastal locality in brunei , and one from 1200m on g . kinabalu ( bundu tuhan ) represent the only recent material seen . biology . the adults are migratory . the larva has been recorded only on solanaceae ( hardwick , 1965 ; matthews , 1988 ) such as lycopersicon , nicotiana , physalis and solanum .
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potted plants or their combinations were placed in the two vertical cylinders , and test moths were released into the test chamber . dotted lines between the test chamber and the two vertical cylinders indicate two pieces of cotton gauze covered at both ends of the test chamber , which were used as ovipositional substrate . arrows indicate directions of air movement .
all statistical analyses were performed using spss 19 . 0 for windows . egg count data were square - root transformed , and then a paired t test was used to analyze within - group difference . yate - corrected chi - square test was used to analyze within - group difference of larval choice frequencies . all tests were two - tailed , and the level of significance was set at α < 0 . 05 .
“ * ” and “ * * ” at the upper panel of the figure indicate significant difference within group at p = 0 . 05 and p = 0 . 01 levels , respectively , tested by paired t test . the values of “ n ” and “ t ” beneath respective bars indicate replications and statistical t values , respectively .
h . armigera females laid significantly less eggs on peanut and cotton than those on corresponding tobacco references ( fig 3 ; paired t test , p peanut vs . tobacco = 0 . 0073 , p cotton vs . tobacco = 0 . 0009 ) , and no significant difference was found in the other pairs .
“ * ” and “ * * ” at the upper panel of the figure indicate significant difference within group at p = 0 . 05 and p = 0 . 01 levels , respectively , and “ns” indicates no significant difference within group , tested by paired t test . the values of “ n ” and “ t ” beneath respective bars indicate replications and statistical t values , respectively .
h . armigera females laid significantly less eggs on the odor source of peanut + tobacco complex than those on corresponding tobacco reference ( fig 4 ; paired t test , p < 0 . 0001 ) , and the eggs deposited on complex odor source only accounted for 11 . 84 % of total eggs deposited . similar results were obtained from the odor sources containing hot pepper and maize ( fig 4 ; paired t test , p hot pepper + tobacco vs . tobacco = 0 . 0407 , p maize + tobacco vs . tobacco = 0 . 0172 ) . tomato and cotton did not affect the egg distribution of h . armigera females .
h . armigera larvae approached to all plant discs significantly more frequently than corresponding green filter paper discs ( fig 5 ; χ 2 test with yate - correction , p tomato = 0 . 0001 , p < 0 . 0001 in all the other cases ) . the percentage of ‘correct’ choice ranged from 95 % ( tobacco leaf disc ) to 82 . 5 % ( tomato leaf disc ) .
larvae under the conditions of each plant leaf disc paired with green filter paper disc .
“ * ” and “ * * ” indicate significant difference within group at p = 0 . 05 and p = 0 . 01 levels , respectively , and “ns” indicates no significant difference within group , according to chi - square test . the values of “ n ” and “χ 2 ” beneath respective bars indicate number of test insects and statistical χ 2 values , respectively .
h . armigera larvae approached to cotton leaf disc significantly less frequently than tobacco reference ( fig 6 ; χ 2 test with yate - correction , p = 0 . 0177 ) , and they could not discriminate all the other leaf discs from corresponding references .
larvae under the conditions of each plant leaf disc paired with tobacco leaf disc .
“ * ” indicates significant difference within group at p = 0 . 05 level , and “ns” indicates no significant difference within group , according to chi - square test . the values of “ n ” and “χ 2 ” beneath respective bars indicate number of test insects and statistical χ 2 values , respectively .
our second hypothesis is supported by the results obtained from ovipositing females of both species , since inter - specific comparison obviously indicates that the specialist exhibited more specialized ovipositional response to their shared host ( tobacco ) than its generalist sibling . however , this hypothesis is not supported by larval bioassay in most cases ( table 1 ) .
just like the first subset of bioassay , host selection response patterns of h . armigera females and larvae are highly consistent , with the exception of peanut . neither the adult female nor the larvae of h . armigera preferred cotton materials , in accordance with previous study ( [ 22 ] , and references therein ) .
our second subset of bioassay confirmed that cotton was not preferred by both stages of h . armigera . however , in the third subset of bioassay , cotton is the only host plant species that acted synergically on approaching of h . armigera larvae when combined with tobacco . a possibility is that , both tobacco volatile and cotton volatile were ‘suboptimal’ by themselves in terms of their attractiveness , but the mixed volatiles interacted complementarily . this is supported by a previous study conducted on the same insect species [ 27 ] . in that study , eight electrophysiologically active compounds were identified in the headspace of a primary host of h . armigera , pigeon pea , in relatively high concentrations . other tested host plants , including tobacco and cotton used in our study , had a smaller subset of these compounds , all at relatively lower concentrations than pigeon pea . headspace volatiles of various cotton varieties in their undamaged and uninfected status have been reported previously [ 28 – 31 ] , which active compound ( s ) from cotton leaves acted complementarily with tobacco leaves need to be determined in the future .
the authors wish to thank the following undergraduate trainees : er - liang yuan , hong - quan liu , xian - tao zeng , fei cao , ming - ming wang , fang - fang chen , ya - chen wang , duo - duo zhu , chao cheng , jia - le ren , xin zhang , pei - wen zhou , for their insect rearing and planting works .
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finch s , collier rh . host - plant selection by insects—a theory based on ‘appropriate / inappropriate landings’ by pest insects of cruciferous plants . entomol exp appl . 2000 ; 96 : 91–102 .
altieri ma . the ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems . agric ecosyst environ . 1999 ; 74 : 19–31 .
renwick jaa , chew fs . oviposition behavior in lepidoptera . annu rev entomol . 1994 ; 39 : 377–400 .
ninkovic v , dahlin i , vucetic a , petrovic - obradovic o , glinwood r , webster b . volatile exchange between undamaged plants—a new mechanism affecting insect orientation in intercropping . plos one . 2013 ; 8 : e69431 . pmid : 23922710
( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) to tobacco volatiles . arthropod - plant interact . 2012 ; 6 : 375–384 .
jallow mfa , zalucki mp , fitt gp . role of chemical cues from cotton in mediating host selection and oviposition behaviour in
era ( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . aust j entomol . 1999 ; 38 : 359–366 .
hull cd , cunningham jp , moore cj . discrepancy between antennal and behavioral responses for enantiomers of α - pinene : electrophysiology and behavior of
( lepidoptera ) . j chem ecol . 2004 ; 30 : 2071–2084 . pmid : 15609838
lee hs , hieu tt , ahn yj . oviposition - stimulating activity of (
ahn sj , badenes - pérez fr , heckel dg . a host - plant specialist ,
than other noctuid species . j insect physiol . 2011 ; 57 : 1212–1219 . pmid : 21704632
cunningham jp , zalucki mp . understanding heliothine ( lepidoptera : heliothinae ) pests : what is a host plant ? j econ entomol . 2014 ; 107 : 881–896 . pmid : 25026644
wu kj , gong py , yuan ym . is tomato plant the host of the oriental tobacco budworm ,
( guenée ) ? acta entomol sin . 2006 ; 49 : 421–427 ( in chinese with english abstract ) .
jaenike j . host specialization in phytophagous insects . annu rev ecol syst . 1990 ; 21 : 243–273 .
stranden m , røstelien t , liblikas i , almaas tj , borg - karlson ak , mustaparta h . receptor neurones in three heliothine moths responding to flower and inducible plant volatiles . chemoecology . 2003 ; 13 : 143–154 .
thompson jn , pellmyr o . evolution of oviposition behavior and host preference in lepidoptera insects . annu rev entomol . 1991 ; 36 : 65–89 .
glendinning ji , foley c , loncar i , rai m . induced preference for host plant chemicals in the tobacco hornworm : contribution of olfaction and taste . j comp physiol a . 2009 ; 195 : 591–601 .
species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) to allelochemicals from cultivated and wild host plants . j chem ecol . 1990 ; 16 : 1817–1827 . pmid : 24263986
benda nd , brownie c , schal c , gould f . field observations of oviposition by a specialist herbivore on plant parts and plant species unsuitable as larval food . environ entomol . 2011 ; 40 : 1478–1486 . pmid : 22217764
xue h , yang x . common volatiles are major attractants for neonate larvae of the specialist flea beetle
jallow mfa , zalucki mp . a technique for measuring intraspecific variation in oviposition preference in
( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . austr j entomol . 1995 ; 34 : 281–288 .
shikano i , akhtar y , isman mb . relationship between adult and larval host plant selection and larval performance in the generalist moth ,
talsma jhr , torri k , van nouhuys s . host plant use by the heath fritillary butterfly ,
: plant habitat , species and chemistry . arthropod - plant interact . 2008 ; 2 : 63–75 .
volatile emissions from peanut plants induced by simultaneous fungal infection and insect damage . j chem ecol . 2002 ; 28 : 161–174 . pmid : 11868672
røstelien t , stranden m , borg - karlson ak , mustaparta h . olfactory receptor neurons in two
moth species responding selectively to aliphatic green leaf volatiles , aromatic compounds , monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes of plant origin . chem senses . 2005 ; 30 : 443–461 . pmid : 15917371
rajapakse cnk , walter gh , moore cj , hull cd , cribb bw . host recognition by a polyphagous lepidopteran (
) : primary host plants , host produced volatiles and neurosensory stimulation . physiol entomol . 2006 ; 31 : 270–277 .
rodriguez - saona c , crafts - brandner sj , paré pw , henneberry tj . exogenous methyl jasmonate induces volatile emissions in cotton plants . j chem ecol . 2001 ; 27 : 679–695 . pmid : 11446293
hegde m , oliveira jn , da costa jg , bleicher e , santana aeg , bruce tja , et al . identification of semiochemicals released by cotton ,
ngumbi e , chen l , fadamiro hy . comparative gc - ead responses of a specialist (
) parasitoid to cotton volatiles induced by two caterpillar species . j chem ecol . 2009 ; 35 : 1009–1020 . pmid : 19802643
mccall pj , turlings tcj , loughrin j , tumlinson j . herbivore - induced volatile emissions from cotton (
l . ) seedlings . j chem ecol . 1994 ; 20 : 3039–3050 . pmid : 24241975
proffit m , birgersson g , bengtsson m , reis r jr , witzgall p , lima e . attraction and oviposition of
females in response to tomato leaf volatiles . j chem ecol . 2011 ; 37 : 565–574 . pmid : 21559877
ángeles lópez yi , martínez - gallardo na , ramírez - romero r , lópez mg , sánchez - hernández c , délano - frier jp . cross - kingdom effects of plant - plant signaling via volatile organic compounds emitted by tomato (
) . j chem ecol . 2012 ; 38 : 1376–1386 . pmid : 23085855
megido rc , de backer l , ettaib r , brostaux ml , fauconnier pd , lognay g , et al . role of larval host plant experience and solanaceous plant volatile emissions in
( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) host finding behavior . arthropod - plant interact . 2014 ; 8 : 293–304 .
cianfrogna ja , zangerl ar , berenbaum mr . effects of furanocoumarins on feeding behavior of parsnip webworms
cook sm , khan zr , pickett ja . the use of push - pull strategies in integrated pest management . annu rev entomol . 2007 ; 52 : 375–400 . pmid : 16968206
liu z , scheirs j , heckel dg . host plant flowering increases both adult oviposition preference and larval performance of a generalist herbivore . environ entomol . 2010 ; 39 : 552–560 . pmid : 20388287
jallow mfa , cunningham jp , zalucki mp . intra - specific variation for host plant use in
( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) : implications for management . crop prot . 2004 ; 23 : 955–964 .
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department of agricultural biology and the research center for new bio - materials in agriculture , college of agriculture and life sciences , seoul national university , suwon , 441 - 744 , korea .
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consejo nacional de investigaciones científicas y técnicas ( conicet ) , ave . rivadavia 1917 , 1033 buenos aires , argentina
as for other insect species , the current classification of the heliothinae is being supported by genetic studies involving molecular markers . sequencing of conserved regions of the insect genome , combined with classical morphological studies , has proven a powerful tool for resolving taxonomic controversies . the present work provides additional details on the morphology of the h . zea male genitalia ( both the “normal” and the “ h . stombleri forms” ) , which should be useful for routine diagnosis . furthermore , a phylogenetic analysis comprising nuclear and mitochondrial dna sequences was performed in order to present supplementary genetic information to corroborate the synonymy between h . zea and h . stombleri .
moth catches were carried out using mercury vapor light traps in january and february 2016 in marcos juárez ( central argentina ) , near corn and soybean crops . in total , 202 male specimens , which had wing markings resembling h . zea , were separated and conserved at −20 °c for posterior morphological and genetic analyses .
, the length of valvae ranged from 4 . 7 to 5 . 5 mm . a certain degree of variability was observed in the shape of the valve apex . some samples had a rounded apex and others had a sharper one . in some moths , valvae were not parallel - sided and the internal side was more curved (
) . notorious differences were observed concerning the number of cornuti on the vesica . most of the samples ( > 70 % ) exhibited 18 cornuti , but this value fluctuated from 15 to 21 (
) . the inflated vesica did not evert . however , three small lobes appeared close to the constriction (
heliothis stombleri male genitalia . ( a ) valvae . ( b ) vesica uninflated . ( c ) vesica inflated . arrows and arrowhead show the apical constriction and lobes , respectively .
pcr amplifications of partial coi and ef - 1α genes yielded fragments of the expected sizes , as observed by agarose gel electrophoresis ( data not shown ) . the resulting sequences were edited and aligned ( clustal w ) . both the mitochondrial and nuclear sequences obtained from the five h . stombleri specimens analyzed were identical among them . representative h . stombleri coi and ef - 1α sequences are available at genbank under accession numbers ky623667 and ky623663 , respectively . ef - 1α sequences corresponding to local male specimens of “normal” h . zea ( ky623664 ) , h . armigera ( ky623665 ) and h . gelotopoeon ( ky623666 ) were also submitted .
spp . formed separate clades . indeed , the mitochondrial coi phylogeny revealed three well - supported groups enclosing the different species , one of which grouped
) . phylogenetic analysis of nuclear ef - 1α sequences showed the same pattern . again , all nodes had high bootstrap values ( > 70 % ;
maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree based on coi sequences of h . stombleri ( highlighted with a black circle ) and related heliothinae occurring in central argentina . numbers at the nodes indicate bootstrap support ( 1 , 000 replicates ) . spodoptera exigua was chosen as outgroup . genbank accession numbers are provided next to the species names . the scale bar shows the number of nucleotide substitutions per site .
maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree based on ef - 1α sequences of h . stombleri ( highlighted with a black circle ) and related heliothinae . newly reported sequences obtained in this work are marked with a white circle . numbers at the nodes indicate bootstrap support ( 1 , 000 replicates ) . spodoptera exigua was chosen as outgroup . genbank accession numbers are provided next to the species names . the scale bar shows the number of nucleotide substitutions per site .
in his pioneer work , hardwick ( 1965 ) described and illustrated the genitalia of heliothinae from different continents . the article included a series of figures focusing on the most useful characters to discriminate one species from another . this study still serves as an identification guide for world - wide researchers dealing with heliothinae pests . however , variability is found in some cases , and species determination should be based on many characters considered as a whole .
the present paper analyzed and documented the variability of male genitalia in h . zea individuals captured in central argentina . emphasis was placed on the description of the valvae and on the number of cornuti in the phallus . with respect to the latter , a non - negligible proportion of moths have been shown to possess more or fewer ( 15–21 ) cornuti than the mode ( 18 ) . this must be kept in mind when trying to differentiate h . zea from h . armigera , which has a lower number of cornuti ( pogue 2004 ) . nevertheless , the supplementary diagnostic character of three lobes at the base of the inflated vesica ( vs . only one in the case of h . armigera ) was observed in all h . zea samples . this fact reinforces the necessity of evaluating the morphological traits in a comprehensive manner .


the fire-maned bowerbird ( sericulus bakeri ) is a medium-sized , approximately 27 cm ( 11 in ) long , bowerbird that inhabits and endemic to the forests of adelbert mountains in papua new guinea .

the female is a brown bird with brown-barred whitish underparts .

the bower itself is that of " avenue " - type with two sides of wall of sticks .

the fire-maned bowerbird was discovered in 1928 by rollo beck .

due to ongoing habitat loss and limited range , the fire-maned bowerbird is evaluated as near threatened on the iucn red list of threatened species .

fire - maned bowerbird

nobody uploaded sound recordings for fire - maned bowerbird ( sericulus bakeri ) yet .
the bower of the rare and shy fire - maned bowerbird was not described until 1986 .
the fire - maned bowerbird was discovered in 1928 by rollo beck . the female was unknown to science until 1959 .
the male fire - maned bowerbird builds an elaborate bower to attract a female , often decorated with blue and purple fruits .
due to ongoing habitat loss and limited range , the fire - maned bowerbird is evaluated as near threatened on the iucn red list of threatened species .
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the fire - maned bowerbird is particularly vulnerable as it is restricted to a small area of a certain altitude , the adelbert mountain range in papua new guinea .
fire - maned bowerbirds get their name from the male’s eye - catching flame - coloured crown and mane .
the fire - maned bowerbird occupies the mid - storey to canopy of original hill forest , primarily between elevations of 1 , 200 and 1 , 450 metres . it also occurs at forest edges adjacent to native gardens where it visits fruiting trees ( 4 )
the fire - maned bowerbird ( sericulus bakeri ) is a medium - sized , approximately 27 cm ( 11 in ) long , bowerbird that inhabits and endemic to the forests of adelbert mountains in papua new guinea . the striking male is black with fiery orange crown and upperback , elongated neck plumes , yellow iris and golden yellow wing patch . the female is a brown bird with brown - barred whitish underparts .
relatively little seems to be known about the fire - maned bowerbird , possibly due to its rarity and shyness , and the bower of this species was not described until 1986 . the bower constructed by the male is a small avenue , or walkway , around 20 centimetres long , made of unbranched and typically curved twigs . these bowers have been found decorated with blue and purple fruits ( 4 ) . it is thought that the fire - maned bowerbird is a polygynous bird , in which the males are promiscuous and only females attend the nest and care for the eggs and chicks . nests are constructed from dried leaves , twigs and vines ( 4 ) .
the shy and retiring fire - maned bowerbird is most often seen perching upon exposed , thin branches in the forest canopy , alone , in pairs or in small groups ( 4 ) . fruit composes the vast majority of the diet , particularly figs , but it also feeds on insects , and will visit trees in secondary growth forest to find such food . relatively little seems to be known about the fire - maned bowerbird , possibly due to its rarity and shyness , and the bower of this species was not described until 1986 . the bower constructed by the male is a small avenue , or walkway , around 20 centimetres long , made of unbranched and typically curved twigs . these bowers have been found decorated with blue and purple fruits ( 4 ) . it is thought that the fire - maned bowerbird is a polygynous bird , in which the males are promiscuous and only females attend the nest and care for the eggs and chicks . nests are constructed from dried leaves , twigs and vines ( 4 ) .
due to the fire - maned bowerbird solely inhabiting forest above a certain altitude , this affectively restricts the species to a small ‘island’ , resulting in , like other island species , an increased vulnerability to threats . although the adelbert mountain range is not heavily populated , local agriculture may impact on the bowerbird’s habitat ( 2 ) . a greater threat is the significant pressure from the government to log pristine forests in the region as part of a large forestry concession project ( 5 ) .
the shy and retiring fire - maned bowerbird is most often seen perching upon exposed , thin branches in the forest canopy , alone , in pairs or in small groups ( 4 ) . fruit composes the vast majority of the diet , particularly figs , but it also feeds on insects , and will visit trees in secondary growth forest to find such food .
at present there are no specific conservation measures focused on the fire - maned bowerbird , and protection of its habitat is made difficult due to land in papua new guinea being held in traditional ownership by numerous clans , with no legally protected areas . however , the nature conservancy is working to protect the tropical forests of the adelbert mountains through the initiation of a new conservation mechanism , conservation covenants . essentially long - term land leases , landowners agree to protect their land for conservation in exchange for sustainable development benefits such as roads and schools ( 5 ) . further research into this fire - maned bowerbird’s population , biology , habitat and threats is also essential for the continued survival of this striking bird ( 2 ) .
at present there are no specific conservation measures focused on the fire - maned bowerbird , and protection of its habitat is made difficult due to land in papua new guinea being held in traditional ownership by numerous clans , with no legally protected areas . however , the nature conservancy is working to protect the tropical forests of the adelbert mountains through the initiation of a new conservation mechanism , conservation covenants . essentially long - term land leases , landowners agree to protect their land for conservation in exchange for sustainable development benefits such as roads and schools ( 5 ) . further research into this fire - maned bowerbird ' s population , biology , habitat and threats is also essential for the continued survival of this striking bird ( 2 ) .
due to the fire - maned bowerbird solely inhabiting forest above a certain altitude , this affectively restricts the species to a small ' island ' , resulting in , like other island species , an increased vulnerability to threats . although the adelbert mountain range is not heavily populated , local agriculture may impact on the bowerbird ' s habitat ( 2 ) . a greater threat is the significant pressure from the government to log pristine forests in the region as part of a large forestry concession project ( 5 ) .
frith , c . , frith , d . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . fire - maned bowerbird ( sericulus bakeri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the eye - catching fire - maned bowerbird belongs to a family of birds known for the elaborate bowers , or thatched structures , built by the males to attract females ( 3 ) . this bowerbird gets its name from the male’s striking flame - coloured crown and mane , which , along with a golden wing - patch , contrasts vividly with the rest of its glossy jet black plumage . the face , throat , breast and wings have a slight deep blue tinge ( 4 ) . females lack this vibrant plumage , and instead are mainly mousy brown , with off - white underparts streaked with brown ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the eye - catching fire - maned bowerbird belongs to a family of birds known for the elaborate bowers , or thatched structures , built by the males to attract females ( 3 ) . this bowerbird gets its name from the male ' s striking flame - coloured crown and mane , which , along with a golden wing - patch , contrasts vividly with the rest of its glossy jet black plumage . the face , throat , breast and wings have a slight deep blue tinge ( 4 ) . females lack this vibrant plumage , and instead are mainly mousy brown , with off - white underparts streaked with brown ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
polygynous in animals , a pattern of mating in which a male has more than one female partner . secondary growth forest forest that has re - grown after a major disturbance , such as fire or timber harvest , but has not yet reached the mature state of primary forest .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
27 cm . male black with fiery crown and mane and golden wing - patch . female mousy - brown with fine dark scalloping on off - white underparts .
which has unpatterned buffy - brown underparts and is at higher altitudes , and to various birds - of - paradise which are brighter and more contrastingly barred on underparts .
visit basic tourist lodge above salemben village , four hours rough drive north of madang .
dutson , g . , khwaja , n . , mahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , stattersfield , a . , symes , a . , westrip , j .
this species is presumed to have a small and population within its very small range and is precautionarily assumed to made up of a single subpopulation across this single mountain range . its population is currently suspected to be stable , but there is some slow forest loss within the range of the species . if this is shown to be causing an ongoing decline in population size then this species may warrant uplisting in the future .
. it can be locally moderately common in suitable habitat within its small range ( coates 1990 , b . beehler and k . vang
it is restricted to altitudes of 1 , 200 - 1 , 450 m ( rarely to 990 m ) . the numbers of bowers found per km
( with the maximum from 23 studies of all bowerbirds being 36 / 2 . 5 km
) . it is reported as common at keki lodge but rare between wanuma and mt mengam ( beehler and pratt 2016 ) . it seems likely that the total population numbers fewer than 10 , 000 mature individuals ( g . dutson
2009 ) , and so it is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals . this equates to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals in total , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals .
forest in the adalbert mountains is largely inaccessible and unlikely to be under significant threat in the near future , the species remains common in its favoured habitat , and there is no evidence of a decline ( b . beehler & k . vang
2008 ) . thus the species is tentatively listed as being stable . however satellite imagery shows an ongoing slow loss of forest across the adelberts .
it mainly occupies a narrow altitudinal band at 1 , 200 - 1 , 450 m , rarely dropping to 900 m ( r . d . mackay
. it forages for fruit , especially figs , and insects in the forest canopy , visiting suitable fruiting trees in secondary growth close to forest ( gilliard 1969 , r . d . mackay
although this mountain range is not heavily populated , this species occurs at the optimum altitude for indigenous agriculture and villagers rely substantially on hunting for food ( r . d . mackay
. however , the people of salemben village do not hunt this species ( b . beehler
, and much of its range remains inaccessible and is unlikely to be logged in the near future ( b . beehler & k . vang
. however , a considerable proportion of the foothills have been selectively logged ( beehler and pratt 2016 ) and satellite imagery shows a slow level of ongoing forest loss across the species ' range ( g . dutson
survey all forest blocks at suitable altitude . estimate population densities . ascertain population structure across isolated forest blocks . assess hunting pressure . research rate and trends of forest clearance . investigate whether all occupied locations are suitable for agriculture . research tolerance of secondary forest . establish public awareness projects . support visitor facilities at lodge above salemben village .
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occurs in papua new guinea , where it is restricted to the adelbert mountain range ( 4 ) .
classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
frith , c . b . and frith , d . w . ( 2004 ) the bowerbirds . oxford university press , oxford .
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madang , astrolabe bay = adelbert mountains , c . 915 m , above maratambu village , north - east new guinea
27 cm ; male 178–183 g , female 164–184 g . male has rich deep glossy flame - scarlet crown finely spotted and smudged black , nape and extensive glossy filamen . . .
few records of sharp hissing , rasping and ratchety notes ; adult male near his bower gave short . . .
hill forest , also secondary growth at rainforest edges ; 1200–1450 m , occasionally down to 900 . . .
) and berries , also arthropods , including ants ( formicidae ) . forages from middle storey up to canopy . . .
one nest in feb , and female with enlarged ovary in feb ; one adult male called at his bower in sept . presumably polygynous , promiscuous male . . .
vulnerable . previously considered near threatened . restricted range species : present in adelbert and huon ranges eba . until very recently ( 2009 ) listed as vulnerable . . . .
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traditionally grouped with paradisaeidae , but now considered to belong among “basal oscines” , being sister to climacteridae # r .
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adult male in fig tree . one or two males visit the tree on brief foraging trips throughout the day .
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sericulus bakeri : ne new guinea ( humid montane forests of adelbert mts . )
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : sericulus bakeri . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
1986 , coates 1990 ) . it can be locally moderately common in suitable habitat within its small range ( coates 1990 , b . beehler and k . vang
clements , j . f . , t . s . schulenberg , m . j . iliff , d . roberson , t . a . fredericks , b . l . sullivan , and c . l . wood . 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . 9 . downloaded from urltoken
occurs in papua new guinea , where it is restricted to the adelbert mountain range ( 4 ) .
it mainly occupies a narrow altitudinal band at 1 , 200 - 1 , 450 m , rarely dropping to 990 m ( r . d . mackay
this species his listed as near threatened because although it has a small range within which it is suspected to occur in only a handful of locations , it is relatively numerous within its favoured habitat , which does not appear to be under significant immediate threat . further information on the rate and extent of clearance within its narrow altitudinal range would be desirable to confirm its status .
classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
it is restricted to altitudes of 1 , 200 - 1 , 450 m ( rarely to 990 m ) . the numbers of bowers found per km 2 documented by frith and frith ( 2004 ) for other species in the genus are 15 / 50 km 2 and 24 / 48 km 2 ( with the maximum from 23 studies of all bowerbirds being 36 / 2 . 5 km 2 ) . it seems likely that the total population numbers fewer than 10 , 000 mature individuals ( g . dutson in litt . 2009 ) , and so it is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals . this equates to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals in total , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals .
. population pressure ( currently 2 - 3 % increase per year in papua new guinea ) will lead to increasing rates of deforestation but there are few data on current levels and trends of hunting and deforestation , and if most of the resulting clearance is for small - scale garden agriculture the species may not be adversely affected ( g . dutson
its diet consists mainly of figs , ants and insects . the bower itself is that of
avenue
- type with two sides of wall of sticks .
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dichomeris hortulana is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1918 .

it is found in south africa and the seychelles , where it has been recorded from silhouette and mahé .

the wingspan is about 12 mm .

the forewings are dark iron-grey with fulvous-ochreous markings and an irregular basal patch , not reaching the costa .

there is a transverse fasciate blotch from the dorsum before the middle , edged with lighter , the apex rounded , not reaching the costa .

there is also an outwards-oblique fasciate blotch from the middle of the costa , edged with lighter , reaching two-thirds across wing , towards the costa suffused with blackish .

there is a straight slightly inwards-oblique transverse line from the costa at three-fourths , the apical area beyond this suffused with blackish , with cloudy black marginal dots .

the hindwings are dark grey .

dichomeris hortulana

dichomeris acuminatus ( staudinger , 1876 ) = ypsolophus ammoxantha meyrick , 1904 = hypsolophus ianthes meyrick , 1887 = ypsolophus lotellus constant , 1893 = ypsolophus ochrophanes meyrick , 1907 = ypsolophus rusticus walsingham , 1891 = dichomeris sublotellus caradja 1920 .
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[ south africa , kwazulu - natal ] , natal , umkomaas and verulam , i , leg . a . j . t . janse .
meyrick e . 1918a . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . - annals of the transvaal museum 6 ( 2 ) : 7–59 .
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greece , spain , italy , corsica , malta , portugal , sardinia , sicily , france .
albania , balearic islands , greece ( mainland ) , dodecanese islands , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , the canary islands , cyprus , corsica , crete , madeira , malta , portugal ( mainland ) , sardinia , sicily , france ( mainland ) .
[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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