leptoptilos is a genus of very large tropical storks .

the name means thin ( lepto ) feather ( ptilos ) .

two species are resident breeders in southern asia , and the marabou stork is found in sub-saharan africa .

these are huge birds , typically 110 – 150 cm tall with a 210 – 250 cm wingspan .

the three species each have a black upper body and wings , and white belly and undertail .

the head and neck are bare like those of a vulture .

the huge bill is long and thick .

juveniles are a duller , browner version of the adult .

leptoptilos storks are gregarious colonial breeders in wetlands , building large stick nests in trees .

they feed on frogs , insects , young birds , lizards and rodents .

they are frequent scavengers , and the naked head and neck are adaptations to this , as are those of the vultures with which they often feed .

a feathered head would become rapidly clotted with blood and other substances when a scavenging bird 's head was inside a large corpse , and the bare head is easier to keep clean .

most storks fly with neck outstretched , but the three leptoptilos storks retract their necks in flight like a heron .

leptoptilos

leptoptilos crumenifer ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was previously listed as l . crumeniferus .
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rahmani , a . , g . narayan , l . rosalin . 1990 . status of the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) in the indian subcontinent .
to cite this page : kwapich , c . 2011 .
leptoptilos dubius
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
singha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2003 . surveys for greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius in the brahmaputra valley , assam , india during 1994–1996 .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : leptoptilos javanicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : leptoptilos crumenifer . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : leptoptilos dubius . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
bwangamoi , o . ; dranzoa , c . ; ocaido , m . ; kamatei , g . s ; ( 2003 ) .
gastro - intestinal helminths of marabou stork ( leptoptilos crumeniferus )
. african journal of ecology 41 ( 1 ) : 111–113 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1365 - 2028 . 2003 . 00418 . x .
a huge stork species , the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) has a naked pink head , a very thick yellow bill and a low - hanging neck pouch . the neck ruff is white and , other than the pale grey leading edge of each wing , the rest of the greater adjutant’s body is dark grey . juveniles have a narrower bill , thicker down on the head and neck and entirely dark wings ( 2 ) .
the marabou stork ( leptoptilos crumenifer ) is a large wading bird in the stork family ciconiidae . it breeds in africa south of the sahara , in both wet and arid habitats , often near human habitation , especially waste tips . it is sometimes called the
undertaker bird
due to its shape from behind : cloak - like wings and back , skinny white legs , and sometimes a large white mass of
hair
.
elliott , a . , garcia , e . f . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . marabou ( leptoptilos crumenifer ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
new fossils of the family ciconiidae from pliocene hominid localities in chad and ethiopia are described , and several are shown to belong to leptoptilos falconeri , originally known from the late pliocene of the siwalik hills of india . comparisons with all the hitherto known species of large ciconiidae , and with an enlarged sample representing extant species , lead to a re - evaluation of some extinct taxa . several synonymies are proposed , reflecting better the past diversity for this group . l . pliocenicus ( pliocene , ukraine ) is equivalent to l . cf . falconeri . cryptociconia indica ( late pliocene , siwalik hills ) belongs to leptoptilos , and is probably either extant l . dubius or female l . falconeri . l . siwalicensis , from the same locality and also tentatively reported from the late miocene of northern pakistan , is better referred to as leptoptilini gen . et sp . indet . we consider the two following species as valid . l . titan ( pleistocene , java ) may be a late offshot of the lineage of l . falconeri . l . richae ( late miocene , tunisia ) is the size of l . crumeniferus , and is distinct from l . falconeri . thus , l . falconeri remains the only ascertained extinct pliocene species in the tribe leptoptilini . it was a widespread ' giant ' marabou stork , in the pliocene of southern asia , as well as northern and eastern africa where it coexisted with different pliocene hominids , and probably eastern europe . it weighed up to about 20 kg , reached 2 m in height , and had probably slightly reduced forelimbs . it became extinct by the end of the pliocene . l . falconeri is an example of a biogeographical link at the species level between the african and eurasian faunas in the pliocene . the fossil record indicates the presence of at least one other lineage in africa since the early miocene , similar in size to the extant l . crumeniferus .
the marabou stork , leptoptilos crumeniferus , is a large wading bird with an unsual appearance , commonly found in tropical areas of africa . ( 2 , 3 ) . marabous have a long tan beak , long legs , a white chest of feathers and wings covered with dark grey or black feathers . adults can weigh up to 5 - 6 kg ( 12 - 14lbs ) and can have a wingspan as large as 4 m ( 12 feet ) ( 2 ) . marabou storks have a visible red throat air sac on its neck that it can inflate and deflate . another sac can be found on the “hindneck” or behind the head and is hidden by feathers . ( 2 ) . marabou storks breed in colonies , each individual nest is made of sticks . nests are built near a reliable food source and can be found built on high trees ( 10 - 30m ) , on rock faces or in towns and villages ( 1 ) . marabou storks are scavengers that feed in groups and eat a wide variety of food ( carrion , fish , bugs , frogs , snakes , mice and rats ) . their habitat ranges from savannas to riverbanks or lakeshores ( 1 ) however their eating habits have led them into urban areas where they can access garbage and waste from abattoirs ( slaughterhouses ) and fishing villages where they can access fish and food waste from humans ( 1 , 3 , 4 ) .
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cramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
utilisation this species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in nigeria ( nikolaus 2001 ) .
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this stork is listed as vulnerable because its population is suspected to be rapidly declining as a result of a variety of threats including hunting pressure , loss of nesting habitat , conversion and degradation of wetlands and agricultural changes and intensification . conservation action is benefiting one key population in cambodia , but rapid declines are likely to be ongoing elsewhere across the range .
) are exceedingly rare in their range from northern india to indochina and may breed exclusively in the brahmaputra valley of assam . in the early part of the 20th century , large breeding populations of greater adjutants were common throughout northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam .
( elliot , et al . , 1992 ; singha , et al . , 2002 )
) have been observed in a variety habitats including marshes , lakes and jheels ( shallow expansive lakes ) as well as dry grasslands and fields . these birds are most frequently associated with slaughter houses and refuse sites near human settlements and were formerly common on the streets and rooftops of calcutta . they typically nest in large trees and rock pinnacles near human settlements .
greater adjutants are large birds , ranging in height from 120 to 152 cm with an impressive 250 cm wingspan . a long , thick yellow bill precedes the sparsely feathered , yellow to pink head and neck . the head is typically dappled with dark scabs of dried blood and characterized by the presence of a pendulous , inflatable gular pouch . the legs are naturally dark in color but frequently appear ashen due to regular defecation on the legs . when in flight , greater adjutants are recognizable by their white underside feathers and tendency to retract their necks like a heron . a mixture of white and gray feathers , which appear darker during the non - breeding season , adorn the rest of the body . juvenile greater adjutants resemble adults , but have duller plumage and more feathers around the neck . the mass of these birds is unknown in the wild , but is estimated to be the heaviest of the storks .
( elliot , et al . , 1992 ; rahmani , et al . , 1990 ; singha , et al . , 2002 )
other storks are known to be monogamous , but not always paired for life . it is thought that greater adjutants follow this mating system . great adjutants are colonial nesters and will build many nests in the canopy of a single tree . males claim suitable nesting branches and advertise their territory by perching on the branch with bills upward and exhibiting bill - clattering . when females perch nearby , males will present them with twigs as part of courtship . courtship rituals consist more of courtship postures , where males will hold their beaks close to potential mates or tuck the females heads under their chins . pairs also perform up - down bobbing motions together .
greater adjutants nest in large , broad - limbed trees with sparse foliage . this choice of nesting tree is thought to facilitate landing and take - off for the large adult birds . nests are constructed out of sticks and several pairs will often occupy the same tree . while females lay 3 eggs per season , an average of 2 . 2 chicks per pair are fledged successfully each year . both parents participate in incubating eggs until they hatch after 28 to 30 days . chicks fledge at 5 months of age .
( ; elliot , et al . , 1992 ;
the iucn red list of threatend species
, 2009 ; singha , et al . , 2003 )
both male and female greater adjutants participate in nest building . after the eggs are laid , both parents also incubate the clutch for 28 to 30 . the altricial chicks are cared for by both parents until they fledge at 5 months old .
although the longest lifespan of a captive greater adjutant was 43 years , the longevity of these birds in the wild remains unknown .
( elliot , et al . , 1992 ; brouwer , et al . , 1992 ; elliot , et al . , 1992 )
greater adjutants are often seen foraging alone or in small groups . in general they are a non - migratory species but some make local movements to winter nesting sites . the name ' adjuntant ' comes from their distinctive , military - style gait . their large wingspans facilitate soaring and they are frequently found near thermals . due to their hot environments , greater adjutants defecate on their legs and the evaporation lowers body temperature ( also known as urohydrosis ) . as a result of this cooling mechanism , legs of these birds are often stained white with uric acid .
little is known about the territory size for greater adjutants . male greater adjutants will advertise their claim on a suitable nesting branch with beak clattering . they are known to build nests relatively close to one another , so breeding territory size is likely small and limited to a nesting branch .
greater adjutants lack vocal muscles so they rely on unique behaviors and tactile forms of communication to interact with each other . males often utilize beak clattering to advertise their territory and ward off other males . males attract mates by presenting them with fresh twigs and later holding their beaks close to the female . breeding pairs also perform head bobbing rituals that likely reinforce their pair - bond . like all birds , greater adjutants perceive their environments through visual , auditory , tactile , and chemical stimuli .
in their native range , where they are primarily scavengers of large carrion , greater adjutants are known by the name
hargila ,
meaning bone swallower . they were once prevalent in calcutta , where their tendency to consume human corpses left to rot in the streets was valued . one record indicates that a single greater adjutant effortlessly swallowed two buffalo vertebrae , measuring approximately 30 cm in length , in less than five minutes . greater adjutants are most commonly found scavenging in mixed flocks near human garbage dumps or large carcasses . they can also be seen foraging independently near drying pools where they hunt insects , frogs , large fish , crustaceans and injured waterfowl . when foraging , greater adjutants use a method of tactile foraging where they hold their beaks open underwater and patiently wait for a prey item to swim between the open mandibles .
( elliot , et al . , 1992 ;
the iucn red list of threatend species
, 2009 )
no natural predators have been reported for this species . unhealthy or young birds are likely preyed upon by local carnivores .
greater adjutants are important scavengers of large carrion and likely contribute to sanitation and disease control in the environment . like many birds , greater adjutants are hosts to avian lice including
greater adjutants are valuable scavengers of discarded human waste , including unburied corpses as well as other large carrion . this service may have a role in preventing the spread of disease .
while greater adjutants pose no threat to humans they are often looked upon with disgust because of their general appearance , habit of defecating on their own legs , as well as diet of carrion .
many consider greater adjutants to be the most endangered stork in the world . captive breeding programs have failed thus far , but efforts to protect natural habitats are active . unfortunately , their tendency to nest near human settlements may prove fatal .
in the early part of the 20th century , the population size of greater adjutants is said to have numbered in the millions . they were common in northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam . beginning in the mid 1980 ' s the population began to decline heavily . today an estimated 1 , 000 birds remain and likely breed only in the politically unstable assam state of northern india . populations are still declining and the iucn red list lists greater adjutants as endangered .
felling of large nesting trees , pollution of freshwater systems and a decline in the disposal of human corpses in public trash dumps are all thought to contribute to the rapid loss of this species . in assam , recent reports of disease in this species also seems to be a contributing factor in its decline . results of a survey of assam residents revealed that only 30 % of those polled knew greater adjutants are endangered . greater community awareness of this unique species may help in its recovery .
christina kwapich ( author ) , florida state university , emily duval ( editor ) , florida state university , rachelle sterling ( editor ) , special projects .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
found in the oriental region of the world . in other words , india and southeast asia .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .
one of the sexes ( usually males ) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex . for example : antlers , elongated tails , special spurs .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
living in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .
international union for conservation of nature and natural resources . 2009 .
the iucn red list of threatend species
( on - line ) . accessed february 05 , 2010 at urltoken .
brouwer , k . , m . jones , c . king , h . schifter . 1992 . longevity and breeding records of storks ciconiidae in captivity .
elliot , a . , j . del - hoyo , d . christie . 1992 .
price , r . , j . beer . 1965 . a review of ciconiphilus bedford ( mallophaga : menoponidae ) .
price , r . , j . beer . 1965 . the colpocephalum ( mallophaga : menoponidae ) of the ciconiiformes .
singha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2002 . nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india .
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calls from large ( about 80 % adult size ) nestlings in a small colony over the cabins of the wabe shabelle hotel adjacent to the lake .
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closely related to l . dubius , with which formerly considered conspecific . specific name has long been given as crumeniferus , but correct masculine modification of original name is crumenifer # r . monotypic .
tropical africa from senegal e to eritrea , ethiopia and w somalia and s to namibia and n & e south africa ( northern cape , free state , kwazulu - natal ) .
115–152 cm ; 4–8·9 kg ; wingspan 225–287 cm . males average larger . only member of genus with dark iris . immature has duller upperparts and more . . .
largely silent away from roosting or breeding site , apart from bill - clattering , usually associated . . .
frequents open dry savanna , grassland , swamps , river banks , lake shores and receding . . .
the diet is catholic and opportunistic . it often includes carrion as well as scraps of fish and other food discarded by humans , which is . . .
the breeding season in the tropics normally begins in the dry season and ends in the rains . however , it is more variable in the equatorial . . .
many sedentary , especially in urbanized districts , others locally nomadic . the more northerly and . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . it is frequent , common or abundant across most of its range and is thought to be increasing overall , due to its ability to exploit . . .
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gill , f . and wright , m . ( 2006 ) birds of the world : recommended english names , princeton university press , →isbn
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
145 - 150 cm . huge , dark stork with very thick bill and pendulous neck - pouch . pinkish naked head , white neck - ruff . pale grey greater coverts and tertials contrasting with otherwise dark upperwing . underwing - coverts paler than flight feathers . juvenile has narrower bill than adult , denser head and neck - down and , initially , all dark wings .
endangered a2bcd + 3bcd + 4bcd ; c2a ( ii ) ver 3 . 1
choudhury , a . , chunkino , g . , clements , t . , htin hla , t . , li , z . , rahmani , a . , mandal , j . & mahood , s .
this wide - ranging and long - lived species has a very small population which is declining very rapidly . for these reasons it is classified as endangered .
this species was previously widespread and common across much of south and continental south - east asia but declined dramatically during the first half of the 20th century ( birdlife international 2001 ) . it is known to breed in assam ( at least 650 - 800 birds , or more [ choudhury 2000 ]
, and at the tonle sap lake ( c . 150 pairs [ visal and mahood 2015 ] ) ,
. 2007 ) . the species was reported to be breeding in bihar , india , in 2004 , and a small breeding population was discovered in the state on the ganga and kosi river floodplains in 2006 ( mishra and mandal 2009 ) . the population there appears to be increasing , with at least 156 estimated in 2008 and over 300 individuals in 2011 , up from 78 in 2007 ( mishra and mandal 2009 , kahn 2011 ) . kamrup district in assam is known to be a stronghold for the species , with almost 75 % of its population in assam found in this district ( barman and sharma in press ) . recent records from
are presumed to refer to wanderers from india and cambodia . huge numbers once bred in
. 2006 ) . there are no confirmed records from laos in recent years . breeding success had been extremely poor in assam with the number of nests in colonies declining sharply and for unknown reasons ( goswami and patar 2006 )
. however it is now considered to be breeding successfully in assam with numbers increasing at a slow but steady rate ( j . mandal
. 2016 ) . large flocks of a few hundred birds are still noted around the city of guwahati , which may provide feeding areas for around half of the species ' s world population ( choudhury 2008 ) . available data suggest that cambodian populations declined heavily in the decades up to and including the 1990s . by 2001 , several breeding sites recorded in the 1990s had been abandoned . since 2001 , protection measures were put in place at two known breeding sites ( prek toal on the tonle sap and kulen promtep in preah vihear ) which led to a stabilisation of national population declines and possible minor recoveries ( clements
. 2007a , b ) . however the colony at kulen promtep is now extinct owing to forest clearance within the area ( s . mahood
the total population is estimated to number 800 - 1 , 200 mature individuals , roughly equivalent to 1 , 200 - 1 , 800 individuals in total . this is based on estimates of 650 - 800 birds in assam , india , plus 150 - 200 birds in cambodia , as well as at least 156 birds in bihar state , india , which may have dispersed from the assam population . trend justification : this species ' s population is suspected to be decreasing very rapidly , in line with levels of direct exploitation and habitat destruction , particularly lowland deforestation and the felling of nest - trees , and drainage , conversion , pollution and over - exploitation of wetlands . given the species ' s longevity , population trends are measured over a three - generation period of 45 years and hence the impacts have been severe .
while breeding in the dry season ( october - april / may ) it inhabits wetlands , nesting in tall trees with closed canopies and bamboo clumps around nesting trees , and historically on cliffs . breeding is thought to coincide with the dry season in order to take advantage of abundant prey as water levels recede ( singha
. in north - east india , it occurs close to and within urban areas ( barman and sharma in press , a . choudhury
. 2016 ) , feeding around wetlands in the breeding season , and dispersing to scavenge at rubbish dumps , abattoirs and burial grounds at other times . in cambodia , it breeds in freshwater flooded forest and areas of dry forest with ephemeral pools , otherwise dispersing to seasonally inundated forest , carcass dumps , tall wet grassland , mangroves and intertidal flats . it generally inhabits the lowlands but is occasionally found up to 1 , 500 m ( elliott and kirwan 2016 ) .
the key threats are direct exploitation , particularly at nesting colonies , habitat destruction , including felling of nest - trees , and drainage , conversion , pollution and over - exploitation of wetlands . additionally , the indian population is threatened by contaminated open rubbish dumps where pollutants are disposed along with carcasses and foodstuffs and it is also known to accidentally ingest polythene bags if food is wrapped inside ( j . mandal
, which may have a negative impact upon the species in the future . young birds may also become entangled in fishing nets and the species may suffer from the disturbance of arboreal animals , competition for nesting habitat from the lesser adjutant
and the exacerbation of persecution levels owing to its pest status ( mishra and mandal 2009 ) . poisoning of small wetlands to catch fish in the dry forests of northern and eastern cambodia potentially poses a significant threat , and in guwahati , india , pesticide use at open rubbish dumps where storks flocked to feed led to several mortalities in 2005 . the population at kulen promtep wildlife sanctuary in the northern plains of cambodia is now extinct owing to clearance of forest in the area ( s . mahood
. 2016 ) . a major fire occurred in prek toal in early 2016 . it is not yet known how this has impacted on the species ( s . mahood
in assam , it occurs in kaziranga , manas and dibru - saikhowa national parks , and pabitora , deepor beel , laokhowa , burhachapori and pani - dihing sanctuaries ( a . choudhury
. 2016 ) . since 1991 , there have been conservation awareness programmes in assam . in nagaon district , assam , green guards ( a local ngo ) had a project to protect nesting trees and rehabilitate chicks fallen from nests but this has now stopped ( a . choudhury
2012 ) . in cambodia , the breeding colony at prek toal is a core area of the tonle sap biosphere reserve . greater adjutants historically bred at other sites on the tonle sap , but these colonies were abandoned by 2001 . conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at prek toal have been in place since the late 1990s , with permanent teams of protectors employed since 2001 . since 2001 , c . 95 % of waterbird egg and chick collection has been prevented at prek toal . it is included in waterbird conservation awareness material in laos and cambodia . in kamrup district , assam a successful community conservation programme ran from 2009 to 2014 and during this period there were no records of nesting trees being cut down and the number of successful nests grew from 65 in 2010 - 2011 to 148 in 2013 - 2014 ( barman and sharma in prep . ) .
conduct further surveys in cambodia , bangladesh , india and myanmar . investigate seasonal movements and threats . protect nesting and feeding - sites outside protected areas , and plant trees in suitable areas ; the nest payment system in cambodia may be a suitable model . rewarding the owners of nesting trees may be a means to encourage pride in the conservation of the species ( a . r . rahmani
2012 ) . promote strict control of pesticide use around feeding areas . continue and strengthen on - going conservation actions at the prek toal colony , tonle sap lake .
draft and enforce waterbird conservation legislation at tonle sap lake . expand conservation awareness programmes and develop a structured captive breeding programme to support future reintroductions and population supplementation .
initiate a relief programme and promote alternative livelihoods to communities dependent on harvesting large waterbird colonies in cambodia . widely implement a long - term policy of rescuing , rehabilitating and releasing chicks that fall from nests for natural reasons , such as during thunder storms ( singha and rahmani 2006 , singha
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
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antoine louchart , patrick vignaud , andossa likius , michel brunet , and tim d . white
antoine louchart [ antoine . louchart @ urltoken ] , université claude bernard – lyon 1 , umr / cnrs 5125 , bât . geode , 27−43 bd du 11 novembre , 69622 villeurbanne cedex , france ; patrick vignaud [ patrick . vignaud @ univ−poitiers . fr ] and michel brunet [ michel . brunet @ univ−poitiers . fr ] , université de poitiers , faculté des sciences , laboratoire de géobiologie , biochronologie et paléontologie humaine , umr / cnrs 6046 , 40 avenue du recteur pineau , 86022 poitiers cedex , france ; andossa likius , université de n’djamena , bp 1117 , n’djamena , tchad ; tim d . white [ timwhite @ urltoken ] , department of integrative biology and laboratory for human evolutionary studies , museum of vertebrate zoology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .
this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( for details please see urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
the greater adjutant is a huge stork named for its slow , measured gait , which resembles that of a military adjutant , or officer .
the greater adjutant is found only in two small , separate breeding populations in india and cambodia .
the diet of the greater adjutant consists of a range of animal species , and it will even take injured ducks .
gathering in compact colonies at the start of the dry season in october , the greater adjutant nests on large , widely branched trees with few leaves ( 4 ) . it constructs a large platform of sticks with an outer layer of bamboo stems and lines this with leaves . two to four eggs are laid between november and january . after 28 to 30 days , the eggs hatch , and the nestlings are cared for until april . at the start of the wet season , the greater adjutants migrate to northern india ( 3 ) .
the greater adjutant feeds by sweeping its bill under the surface of the water , or by probing into the substrate . it will consume carrion , fish , frogs , reptiles , crustaceans , large insects and even injured ducks . it is also known to feed in human refuse dumps , where it will take food from other scavengers , including vultures ( 3 ) .
the greater adjutant was formerly found in south and southeast asia , but there are now just two small and separate breeding populations ; one in assam , india and one in cambodia . a migratory bird , the greater adjutant also visits viet nam , thailand and burma when not breeding ( 3 ) .
inhabits wetland habitats , especially those that are partially dry and where fish are abundant , including lakes , swamps , river beds , stagnant pools and paddy fields ( 3 ) .
the greater adjutant is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed under schedule iv of the wildlife act 1972 ( 3 ) .
loss of nesting habitat and feeding sites has had a huge impact on this stork species . suitable wetland habitats have been cleared , drained , polluted with pesticides and disturbed by humans . adult birds are hunted and chicks and eggs are collected for trade ( 3 ) .
whilst legally protected in india , bangladesh , burma , thailand , cambodia and laos , and occurring in three national parks in assam , india , the greater adjutant still suffers from hunting and egg collection due to poor enforcement of protection . there has been some successful control of egg and chick collection following efforts by the wildlife protection office staff in cambodia , which resulted in higher numbers of storks the following year . it has been proposed that the greater adjutant should be moved from schedule iv to schedule i of the indian wildlife act of 1972 to give it greater priority . effective land management is necessary for the survival of this species , particularly the control of pesticide use around feeding areas and the protection of feeding areas and nesting sites found outside protected areas . further research into the seasonal movements of these birds and the threats that face them is also important ( 3 ) .
birdlife international . ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .
carrion dead flesh . colonies a group of organisms living together . individuals in the group are not physiologically connected and may not be related , such as a colony of birds . crustacea diverse group of arthropods ( a phylum of animals with jointed limbs and a hard chitinous exoskeleton ) characterised by the possession of two pairs of antennae , one pair of mandibles ( parts of the mouthparts used for handling and processing food ) and two pairs of maxillae ( appendages used in eating , which are located behind the mandibles ) . includes crabs , lobsters , shrimps , slaters , woodlice and barnacles .
stattersfield , a . j . and capper , d . r . ( 1998 ) threatened birds of the world . birdlife international , cambridge , u . k . .
singha , h . , rahmani , a . r . , couller , m . c . and javed , s . ( 2002 ) nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india . waterbirds , 25 ( 2 ) : 214 - 220 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
the marabou stork is found throughout africa . however , it usually resides somewhere between the sahara desert and south africa . ( dinsmore , 1997 ; deignan , 1982 )
sub - saharan africa : all s of sahara except forest area , around gabon , n angola and w south africa .
sub - saharan africa : all s of sahara except forest area around gabon , n angola and w south africa .
clements , j . f . , t . s . schulenberg , m . j . iliff , d . roberson , t . a . fredericks , b . l . sullivan , and c . l . wood . 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . 9 . downloaded from urltoken
is a large , unusual looking bird . it stands on long , grey legs at about 1 . 5 meters tall . the bird ' s upper body and wings are black or dark grey , and its underparts are white . its soft , white tail feathers are known as marabou . its neck and head contain no feathers . the marabou stork has a long , reddish pouch hanging from its neck . this pouch is used in courtship rituals . ( dinsmore , 1997 )
the habitat of the marabou stork includes aquatic , arid areas of africa . the bird is also frequently found near landfills or fishing villages . ( lincoln park zoo , 1999 )
the marabou stork is a scavenger . it primarily relies on the carcasses of dead animals as their source of food . however , they also eat live prey , such as fish , reptiles , and locusts . ( campbell , 1974 ; dinsmore , 1997 )
maximum longevity : 44 . 7 years ( captivity ) observations : in the wild , these birds may live up to 25 years urltoken in captivity , one specimen lived 44 . 7 years ( brouwer et al . 1992 ) .
is known as a colonial breeder . it reaches sexual maturity when it is approximately four years old and usually mates for life . the stork lays its eggs in small nests made of sticks that hold two or three of its eggs . the marabou breeds during the dry season because at this time the water levels are low , which make it easier to catch frogs and fish to feed the young . this stork may live up to 25 years . ( microsoft encarta , 1999 ; campbell , 1972 )
due to its ability to adjust to human activity , the population of marabou storks may actually be increasing . ( national zoo , 2000 )
the marabou stork does not appear to have any negative effects on humans or the environment .
the marabou stork reduces the spread of disease by cleaning up animal carcasses . ( national zoo , 2000 )
: large specimens are thought to reach a height of 152 cm ( 60 in ) and a weight of 9 kg ( 20 lb ) .
a wingspan of 3 . 7 m ( 12 ft ) was accepted by fisher and peterson , who ranked the species as having the largest wing - spread of any living bird . even higher measurements of up to 4 . 06 m ( 13 . 3 ft ) have been reported , although no measurement over 3 . 19 m ( 10 . 5 ft ) has been verified . it is often credited with the largest spread of any landbird , to rival the
. typical weight is 4 . 5–8 kg ( 9 . 9–17 . 6 lb ) , unusually as low as 4 kg ( 8 . 8 lb ) , and length ( from bill to tail ) is 120 to 130 cm ( 47 to 51 in ) . females are smaller than males . bill length can range from 26 . 4 to 35 cm ( 10 . 4 to 13 . 8 in ) .
the marabou is unmistakable due to its size , bare head and neck , black back , and white underparts . it has a huge bill , a pink gular sac at its throat , a neck ruff , and black legs and wings . the sexes are alike , but the young bird is browner and has a smaller bill . full maturity is not reached for up to four years .
like most storks , the marabou is gregarious and a colonial breeder . in the african dry season ( when food is more readily available as the pools shrink ) it builds a tree nest in which two or three eggs are laid .
it also resembles other storks in that it is not very vocal , but indulges in bill - rattling courtship displays . the throat sac is also used to make various noises at that time .
the marabou stork is a frequent scavenger , and the naked head and neck are adaptations to this livelihood , as it is with the vultures with which the stork often feeds . in both cases , a feathered head would become rapidly clotted with blood and other substances when the bird ' s head was inside a large corpse , and the bare head is easier to keep clean .
but will opportunistically eat almost any animal matter it can swallow . it occasionally eats other birds including
. during the breeding season , adults scale back on carrion and take mostly small , live prey since nestlings need this kind of food to survive . common prey at this time may consist of
though known to eat putrid and seemingly inedible foods , these storks may sometimes wash food in water to remove soil .
when feeding on carrion , marabou frequently follow vultures , which are better equipped with hooked bills for tearing through carrion meat and may wait for the vultures to cast aside a piece , steal a piece of meat directly from the vulture or wait until the vultures are done .


cryptocochylis is a genus of moths belonging to the family tortricidae .

it contains only one species , cryptocochylis conjunctana , which is found in germany , italy , croatia , hungary , ukraine , romania , bulgaria , the republic of macedonia , greece and asia minor .

the larvae feed on achillea nobilis .

cryptocochylis

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by t . m . gilligan 1 , j . baixeras 2 , j . w . brown 3 , and k . r . tuck 4
urltoken is pleased to offer the complete world catalogue of the tortricidae ( t @ rts ) ! this is a complete list of all world species , utilizing the world catalogue published in 2005 as the foundation for the database . version 3 . 0 of the online catalogue contains 15 , 099 records representing 10 , 883 species . more than 1 , 600 records have been updated from ver 2 . 0 ( jul , 2012 ) , and more than 3 , 000 records have been updated from the original catalogue . the database is completely searchable and contains photos of over 1 , 200 type specimens .
t @ rts will be updated regularly both with corrections from the original world catalogue and with additions since its publication . as such , these pages will serve as the most up to date information on current tortricid nomenclature . if you find any errors in the data presented here or have any questions / comments , please use the contact form to send the authors an email .
we are indebted to all of the original authors of the world catalogue ( j . w . brown , j . baixeras , r . brown , m . horak , f . komai , e . metzler , j . razowski , and k . tuck ) for providing the basis for this project . we would also like to thank the dozens of individuals who have provided corrections or updates to the database since it was first placed online in 2007 .
gilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2014 . t @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 3 . 0 ) . urltoken
1 colorado state university , bioagricultural sciences and pest management , 1177 campus delivery , fort collins , co 80523 , usa 2 institut cavanilles de biodiversitat i biologia evolutiva , universitat de valencia , apartat oficial 2085 , 46071 valencia , spain 3 systematic entomology laboratory - usda [ retired ] , smithsonian institution , p . o . box 37012 , national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa 4 curator - microlepidoptera [ retired ] , entomology department ( dc2 - 2n ) , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk
unless noted , all images on these pages are copyright © 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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website © jim wheeler 2016 - 2018 . nola - x database system © jim wheeler 2018 . - sponsored by urltoken & urltoken
2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr leif aarvik
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pesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi
download free le nouveau monde . coutumes , m urs et sce nes de la vie ame ricaine . [ comprising trois ans aux e tats - unis and le nouveau monde . sce nes de la vie ame ricaine . with a preface by louis jourdan . ] by jean pierre oscar comettant 9781241758998


liopteridae is a family of wood-boring parasitoid wasps .

they occur worldwide with concentrations in the african tropics .

these insects have a petiolate abdomen .

there are 13 genera and more than 143 species known .

liopteridae

benoit , p . l . g . 1955 . les liopteridae oberthurellinae du congo belge .
phylogeny , biogeography , and revision of the subfamily dallatorrellinae ( hymenoptera , liopteridae ) . american museum novitates ; no . 3353
liopteridae - mesocynipinae nouveaux du congo belge ( hym . - cynipoidea ) . revue de zoologie et de botanique africaines 53 : 51 - 56 .
phylogeny and classification of the liopteridae , an archaic group of cynipoid wasps ( hymenoptera ) . entomologica scandinavica , supplement 46 : 1 - 74 .
benoit , p . l . g . 1955 . les liopteridae oberthurellinae du congo belge . revue de zoologie et de botanique africaines 52 : 283293 .
the cynipoid genus paramblynotus : revision , phylogeny , and historical biogeography ( hymenoptera , liopteridae ) . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 304 :
ronquist , f . 1995 . phylogeny and classification of the liopteridae , an archaic group of cynipoid wasps ( hymenoptera ) . entomologica scandinavica supplement 46 : 1 - 74 .
van noort , s . & buffington , m . l . 2013 . revision of the afrotropical mayrellinae ( cynipoidea , liopteridae ) , with the first record of paramblynotus from madagascar . journal of hymenoptera research 31 : 1 - 64 .
quinlan , j . 1979 . a revisionary classification of the cynipoidea ( hymenoptera ) of the ethiopian zoogeographical region . aspicerinae ( figitidae ) and oberthuerellinae ( liopteridae ) . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( entomology ) 39 : 85 - 133 .
the liopteridae are represented in the afrotropical region by two subfamilies : oberthuerellinae and mayrellinae , with the former having been recently revised by buffington and van noort ( 2012 ) and the latter by liu et al . ( 2007 ) . an identification key to afrotropical liopterid genera was published in buffington and van noort ( 2012 ) and is also available online at : urltoken . the other two liopterid subfamilies , liopterinae and dallatorrellinae , are restricted to the neotropical and indo - australasian regions respectively ( ronquist 1995 ) .
unknown , but possibly parasitoids of wood - boring insects ( coleoptera : buprestidae ; hymenoptera : siricidae ) .
liu , z , ronquist , f . & nordlander , g . 2007 .
, a . j . 1993 . superfamily cynipoidea ( pp . 521 - 536 ) . in goulet , h . & huber , j . ( eds ) . hymenoptera of the world : an identification guide to families . research branch , agriculture canada , ottawa , canada , 668 pp .
1999 . phylogeny , classification and evolution of the cynipoidea . zoologica scripta 28 : 139–164 .
matt buffington ( systematic entomology laboratory , usda / ars ) and mattias forshage ( swedish museum of natural history ) both played an integral role in the development of the cynipoidea pages .
citation : van noort , s . 2018 . waspweb : hymenoptera of the afrotropical region . url : urltoken ( accessed on < day / month / year > ) .
. - - these insects have a petiolate abdomen , which is attached above the bases of the hind coxae . three are rare species about which few details are known .
oberthuerellinae has a noticeable spine on the underside of the metafemur ; liopterinae has the metasomal petiole elongated ; and the petiole of the mesocynipinae is shorter than wide .
some species are believed to be parasitic on wood - boring insects ( coleoptera : buprestidae ; hymenoptera : siricidae ) .
there were 13 genera more than 143 species known worldwide as of 2011 , but they are found primarily in tropical areas .
ritchie , a . j . 1993 . superfamily cynipoidea ( pp . 521 - 536 ) . in : goulet , h . & j . huber ( eds ) . hymenoptera of the world : an identification guide to families .
ronquist , f . 1999 . phylogeny , classification and evolution of the cynipoidea . zoologica scripta 28 : 139164 .
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liopterids are parasitoids of wood - boring insects in the families buprestidae ( coleoptera ) and siricidae ( hymenoptera ) .
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, cynipidae y figitidae ) y todas estan representadas en esta coleccion ( tabla iv ) .
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