holothuria leucospilota , commonly known as the black sea cucumber , is a species of marine invertebrate in the family holothuriidae .

it has been placed in the subgenus mertensiothuria making its full scientific name holothuria ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota .

it is the type species of the subgenus and is found on the seabed in shallow water in the indo-pacific .

holothuria leucospilota

holothuria leucospilota ( white threads fish ) on sealife base : technical fact sheet .
fig . 4 : holothuria leucospilota hidden beneath the substrate . image by : hazel peh
holothuria leucospilota in north australian sea cucumbers on marine species identification portal : technical fact sheet .
the present study aimed to survey antileishmanial activity of methanolic holothuria leucospilota extract against leishmania major promastigotes in vitro .
holothuria ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota was originally stichopus ( gymnochirota ) leucospilota , described by brandt , j . f . in 1835 ( fig . 8 ) [ 28 ] .
fig . 1 : holothuria leucospilota ( brandt , 1835 ) at tanjong rimau , sentosa , singapore . image by : hazel peh
fig . 7 : holothuria leucospilota sometimes found in groups under rocks . image taken with permission from : ria tan ( wildsingapore )
holothuria leucospilota on commercially important sea cucumbers of the world , by steven w . purcell , yves samyn and chantal conand , fao species catalogue .
a study by schneider et al . has shown that holothuria leucospilota as deposit feeders , ingest carbonate sand and rubble through their digestive tract and dissolves the sediment caco
[ 34 ] ratnasingham , s . & p . d . n . hebert , 2014 . barcode data : holothuria leucospilota . urltoken ( assessed 24 october 2014 ) .
observation of morphological changes in treated and untreated promastigotes with methanolic h . leucospilota extract
fig . 11 : representative barcode sequence of holothuria leucospilota ( the centroid of all available sequences for this species ) . retrieved from the barcode of life data systems [ 34 ] .
die jahreszeitlichen schwankungen des saponingehaltes der seegurke holothuria leucospilota brandt wurde untersucht . hohe saponinkonzentrationen fanden sich besonders in cuviers - drüsen und in ovarien mit eiern . höchste saponingehalte werden von juni bis august gemessen .
in singapore , holothuria leucospilota is not common and is patchily distributed [ 18 ] . it is often found in the southern islands of singapore as illustrated in the map below ( fig . 3 ) .
concerning lack of evidence on the antileishmanial effects of sea cucumber ( holothuria leucospilota species ) , the current study was aimed to evaluate probable apoptosis induction by methanolic h . leucospilota ( in the local language is called khiar daryaei ) extract in l . major promastigotes using flow cytometry and dna fragmentation methods .
: organs found in several species of sea cucumbers , all belonging to the family holothuriidae ( order aspidochirotida ) . there are two main types of tubules ; holothuria leucospilota has smooth tubules that appear as long , sticky , white threads .
to properly identify holothurians , there are several key features to be examined . holothuria leucospilota can be easily identified in the waters of singapore , although it is often misidentified as the holothuria atra jaeger , 1833 which is commonly found in the other parts of the indo - pacific region . for a pictorial key to confirm the identification of a sea cucumber , refer to this website .
the status and whereabouts of the type material of h . leucospilota is undetermined . although the original type locality was
. student research papers , fall 2012 . university of california , berkeley , 11 pp . [ 5 ] ong che , r . g . , 1990 . aspects of the feeding biology of holothuria leucospilota brandt ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) in hong kong .
an individual of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota ( brandt , 1835 ) from pangkor island , perak , malaysia .
fig . 3 : distribution of holothurian leucospilota around singapore . information retrieved from : wildsingapore . map illustration by : hazel peh
ossicle shapes in the tentacles of ( a ) h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and ( b ) s . horrens .
ossicle shapes in the dorsal cuticles of ( a ) h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and ( b ) s . horrens .
ossicle shapes in the ventral cuticles of ( a ) h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and ( b ) s . horrens .
ossicle shapes in the respiratory trees of ( a ) h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and ( b ) s . horrens .
the viability of l . major promastigotes in the presence of various concentrations of methanolic exctract of h . leucospilota which was assessed by mtt
the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of h . leucospilota can be obtained from here .
in the aqueous medium ) as a by - product of their digestive process . they contribute to the nutrient cycling process and enhance productivity in coral reefs , while buffering the seawater ph from ocean acidification [ 3 ] . thus , holothuria leucospilota can reduce the impact that ocean acidification has on coral reefs !
holothuria leucospilota is widely distributed on reef flats throughout the tropical indo - west pacific [ 19 ] . it is usually found with its body partially hidden under large boulders or rocks [ 20 ] . it is also generally found in shallow waters , up to depths of up to 10m [ 21 ] .
kamarudin kr . gamat or timun laut ? ossicle shapes of holothuria ( merthensiothuria ) leucospilota and stichopus horrens for identification . symposium in science for postgraduates 2011 ( syspage 2011 ) . ; kuantan , pahang , malaysia . 27 december 2011 . kulliyyah of science , international islamic university malaysia ( iium ) ; 2011 .
holothuria leucospilota have 2 modes of reproduction . they generally undergo asexual reproduction by transverse fission ( fig . 2 ) , although they are also capable of sexual reproduction [ 8 , 9 ] . closer inshore and shallow - water , populations are denser and hence consist of smaller individuals that reproduce mainly by transverse fission .
flow cytometry analysis : apoptosis occurrence in l . major promastigotes after treatment with h . leucospilota extract ( 2000 μg / ml ) for 72 h
the status of holothuria leucospilota on a global scale is listed as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list of threatened species . this is because of its widespread distribution and it is also very common in some parts of its range [ 17 ] . furthermore , it is not intensively fished due to its low commercial value . however , there are concerns that this species may become more popular as other species of higher commercial importance becomes depleted or reduced , such as the holothuria scabra in thailand [ 21 ] .
holothuria ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota is a marine invertebrate , with a dark brown ( almost black ) body surface . it is approximately 40 to 50cm in length when full - grown , but can be elongated to almost a metre long [ 1 ] . it has a soft and pliable , cylindrical body covered with soft papillae [ 2 ] .
each cuvierian tubule of holothuria leucospilota consists of a bounding layer of large cells beneath which are bundles of fibres embedded in a clear ground - mass . present also is an axial cavity containing a core of morula - shaped cells . immediately below the outer layer longitudinal muscles occur and , internal to these , muscle - bands which run spirally are found .
although rowe ( 1969 ) provided a tentative phylogeny based on ossicle similarity which suggested that the genus holothuria was monophyletic [ 31 ] , results presented in kerr et al . ( 2005 ) showed that holothuria was not a single lineage but a paraphyletic group that also gave rise to pearsonothuria + bohadschia and labidodemas , regardless of the tree reconstruction method ( fig . 9 ) [ 32 ] .
specimens of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and s . horrens used in this study were collected from pangkor island , perak , malaysia ( sampling site 2 ) .
isolated organs of holothuria leucospilota have been found to contain significant antifungal and cytotoxic activity [ 23 ] . in the study , extracts from the sea cucumber showed full inhibition of fungal growth at the lowest concentration tested . this has implications on human health as sea cucumbers might in future provide a natural , alternative source of antimicrobial substance to combat antibiotic - resistant pathogens .
. the tree of life web project . urltoken ( assessed 1 november 2014 ) . [ 23 ] mohammadizadeh , f . , m . ehsanpor , m . afkhami , a . mokhlesi , a . khazaali & s . montazeri , 2013 . antibacterial , antifungal and cytotoxic effects of a sea cucumber holothuria leucospilota , from the north coast of the persian gulf . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 93 ( 5 ) : 1401–1405 . [ 24 ] yamada , k . , r . matsubara , m . kaneko , t . miyamoto & r . higuchi , 2001 . constituents of holothuroidea . 10 . 1 ) isolation and structure of a biologically active ganglioside molecular species from the sea cucumber holothuria leucospilota .
h . leucospilota were collected from the coastal areas of the persian gulf and , in order to extraction were transferred to the medicinal plant and natural product research center located at ahvaz jundishapur university of medical sciences ( ajums ) . extraction from the body wall of h . leucospilota was performed using maceration method as formerly described ( 13 ) .
[ 26 ] ridzwan , b . h . , t . c . leong & s . z . idid , 2003 . the antinociceptive effects of water extracts from sea cucumbers holothuria leucospilota brandt , bohadschia marmorata vitiensis jaeger and coelomic fluid from sticophus hermanii . pakistan journal of biological sciences , 6 ( 24 ) : 2068–2072 . [ 27 ] paulay , g . , 2014 .
( of holothuria lagoena haacke , 1880 ) deichmann , e . ( 1948 ) . the holothurian fauna of south africa . annals of the natal museum 11 ( 2 ) : 325 - 376 [ details ]
( of holothuria vagabunda selenka , 1867 ) deichmann , e . ( 1948 ) . the holothurian fauna of south africa . annals of the natal museum 11 ( 2 ) : 325 - 376 [ details ]
the methanolic extract of h . leucospilota possesses lethal effect on l . major promastigotes and induces the apoptosis in parasites . further studies are required to address the apoptosis mechanism in vivo .
. in : k . rohde ( ed . ) marine parasitology , collingwood , victoria , pp . 250–258 . [ 17 ] conand , c . , s . purcell & r . gamboa , 2013 . holothuria leucospilota . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . urltoken ( assessed 20 october 2014 ) . [ 18 ] lane , d . j . w . , 2008 .
this species is also the type species for the subgenus mertensiothuria deichmann , 1958 [ 29 ] . mertensiothuria is one of the 20 subgenera recognized under holothuria and to date , six valid species fall under subgenus mertensiothuria [ 29 ] .
( of holothuria lagoena haacke , 1880 ) ludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of holothuria vagabunda selenka , 1867 ) ludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the evolutionary history of coi mtdna gene of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and s . horrens from pangkor island , perak , malaysia inferred using the neighbor - joining method ( saitou & nei 1987 ) .
( of holothuria vagabunda selenka , 1867 ) selenka , e . ( 1867 ) . beitrage zur anatomie und systematik der holothurien . der philosophischen facultat zu gottingen in december 1866 , als dissertation vorgelegt . : pp . 291 - 374 . [ details ]
[ information from cannon & silver 1986 [ 2 ] , conand 1998 [ 11 ] and james 1995 [ 20 ] . illustration by conand 1998 [ 11 ] . photo of holothuria atra by : © florent charpin ( reefguide . org ) permission pending ]
( of holothuria lamperti ludwig , 1887 ) ludwig , h . ( 1886 ) . die von g . chierchia auf der fahrt der kgl . ital . corvette vittor pisani gesammelten holothurien . zool . jb . ii : pp . 1 - 36 . [ details ]
( of stichopus ( gymnochirota ) leucospilota brandt , 1835 ) deichmann , e . ( 1948 ) . the holothurian fauna of south africa . annals of the natal museum 11 ( 2 ) : 325 - 376 [ details ]
analysis of morphology in light microscopy ( magnification , x 100 ) of l . major promastigotes following treatment with h . leucospilota extracts a . l . major 0 hours after treatment and b . l . major 72 hours after treatment
timun laut is a local name for all species of sea cucumbers in malaysia , including gamat species , and can also be used to refer to all non - gamat species . in this study , the latter definition is used . holothuria ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota ( brandt , 1835 ) , a timun laut species , is suggested to be the most abundant sea cucumber species in malaysia ( kamarudin et al . 2010 , 2011 ) . this species is also known as bat puntil , bat hitam or balat hitam . the corresponding author prefers to refer to it as lintah laut . in terms of commercial value , h . leucospilota is one of the commercial species exploited as food in malaysia , thailand , indonesia , the philippines and vietnam ( choo 2008 ) .
ossicle shapes in five body parts of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota ( timun laut ) and s . horrens ( gamat emas ) from pangkor island , perak , malaysia . microscopic observations were done using nikon eclipse 80i digital compound microscope .
( of holothuria vagabunda selenka , 1867 ) rowe , f . w . e & gates , j . ( 1995 ) . echinodermata . in ‘zoological catalogue of australia’ . 33 ( ed a . wells . ) pp xiii + 510 ( csiro australia , melbourne . ) [ details ]
( of holothuria lagoena haacke , 1880 ) rowe , f . w . e & gates , j . ( 1995 ) . echinodermata . in ‘zoological catalogue of australia’ . 33 ( ed a . wells . ) pp xiii + 510 ( csiro australia , melbourne . ) [ details ]
( of holothuria gelatinosa heding , 1939 ) heding , s . g . ( 1939 ) . the holothurians collected during the cruises of the m / s monsunen in the tropical pacific in 1934 . vidensk . medd . naturh . foren . kjob 102 : pp . 213 - 222 . [ details ]
( of holothuria lagoena haacke , 1880 ) haacke , w . ( 1880 ) . holothurien . in : beitrage zur meeresfauna der inseln mauritsius und der seychellen bearbeit von k . moebius , f . richters und von mertens nach sammlungen angelegt auf einer reise nach mauritsius von moebius . berlin . [ details ]
( of stichopus ( gymnochirota ) leucospilota brandt , 1835 ) ludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of holothuria oxurropa sluiter , 1887 ) sluiter cp . 1887 . die evertebraten aus der sammlung des königlichen naturwissenschaftlicher vereins in niederländisch indien in batavia . die echinodermen . 1 . holothuroidea . natuurkundig tijdschrift voor nederlandsch indië . 47 , 8e serie . 8 : 181 - 220 , 2 pls . [ details ]
the evolutionary history of coi mtdna gene of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and s . horrens from pangkor island , perak , malaysia inferred by using the maximum likelihood method based on the hasegawa - kishino - yano model ( hasegawa et al . 1985 ) .
natural compounds formerly have been used in traditional medicine , nowadays have created new hopes for the treatment of leishmaniasis . methanolic extract of h . leucospilota possesses lethal effects on l . major promastigotes and leads to the inducing of the apoptosis in parasites . further studies , especially in vivo , are required to identify the exact mechanism effect of this extract in order to explore and reach drug or suitable medicinal compounds for the treatment of leishmaniasis . furthermore , we recommend in future studies that different fractions of h . leucospilota be purified initially and then examined .
( of holothuria homoea clark , 1938 ) clark , h . l . ( 1938 ) . echinoderms from australia , an account of collections made in 1929 and 1932 . memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college . 55 : 1 - 597 ( 28 plates ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
taxa incorporated for the phylogenetic analyses of coi mtdna gene of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota and s . horrens from pangkor island , perak , malaysia . a number of four sequences of known species were obtained from the genbank , ncbi , us national library of medicine as corresponding sequences .
remark stichopus leucospilota is type species of the subgenus : ( mertensiothuria ) deichmann , 1958 . type locality : ualan , marshall islands . rowe ( 1969 ) places h . lamperti ludwig , 1886 and h . oxurropa and h . infesta and h . fusco - rubra and h . homoea and h . gelatinosa heding , 1939 and h . lubrica as a synonym of h . ( mertensiothuria ) leucospilota . in subgenus ( mertensiothuria ) . type data : status and whereabouts undetermined . type locality : ' in lagunis insulae valan ' rowe & gates , 1995 ) . [ details ]
( of stichopus ( gymnochirota ) leucospilota brandt , 1835 ) rowe , f . w . e & gates , j . ( 1995 ) . echinodermata . in ‘zoological catalogue of australia’ . 33 ( ed a . wells . ) pp xiii + 510 ( csiro australia , melbourne . ) [ details ]
characteristics of pcd were seen after l . major promastigotes exposure with h . leucospilota extract . some of these changes include cell shrinkage , nuclear morphology changes , blebbing of cell membrane , mitochondria function loss , formation of apoptotic masses , and phosphatidylserine ( ps ) externalization from inner to outer plasma membrane with maintaining membrane integrity ; though no laddering pattern was observed .
( of holothuria infesta sluiter , 1901 ) sluiter , c . p . ( 1901 ) . die holothurien der siboga - expedition . monogr . xliv . uitkomst . h . m . siboga . . . uitgegeven max weber . die holothurien der siboga - expedition . monogr . xliv . uitkomst . h . m . siboga . . . uitgegeven max weber . : 142 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
a study conducted in darwin , australia , has shown that fission could occur regardless of the maturity stage of individuals [ 10 ] . on the other hand , scattered individuals from deeper or outer reef populations are larger and they reproduce sexually [ 11 ] . sexual reproduction is characterized by “ dioecism , external fertilization and a planktonic larval stage” [ 9 , 10 ] . the reproductive period of h . leucospilota is affected by environmental factors including water temperature and the timing of food resources [ 12 ] . in southern taiwan ( located at the northern limits of the tropics ) , h . leucospilota has an annual reproductive season , in late spring or summer , where environmental conditions are optimal for the development of planktonic larvae [ 12 ] .
our results demonstrated that l . major promastigotes were sensitive to methanolic extract of h . leucospilota at different concentrations in time and in dose - dependent manner . apoptosis occurs in leishmania promastigotes after exposure with some chemical compounds , plant extracts , and drugs ( 12 , 16 , 28 , 29 ) . in addition , the induction of pcd by sea cucumbers was previously verified in different cells ( 35 , 36 ) ; therefore , we aimed to evaluate the apoptosis induction in l . major promastigotes . our findings are the first report of apoptosis induction by methanolic h . leucospilota extract against l . major promastigots . during apoptosis , many alterations occurs in three important stages ; they are : cell membrane changes , cytoplasmic or mitochondrial pathway , and cell nucleus changes ( 27 ) .
the status of h . leucospilota is listed as vulnerable ( vu ) on the red list of threatened animals in singapore [ 18 ] . this is due to continued threats from continued coastal reclamation and developments , which has caused loss of populations of this species in several locations [ 19 ] . to prevent this species from going extinct in the wild , sizeable marine protected areas ( mpas ) in the southern islands of singapore has to be created [ 18 ] .
ualan , marshall islands , attempts to obtain specimens from there were unsuccessful [ 29 ] . thus , the neotype was created from a specimen obtained from the solomon islands [ 30 ] . the specimen was kept as part of a collection in the natural history museum , london 1968 . 7 . 3 . 105–6 . based on article 76 . 3 of the international code of zoological nomenclature , the solomon islands are the type locality of h . leucospilota [ 29 ] .
the ic 50 value of h . leucospilota extract at three time points of 24 , 48 , and 72 h was estimated 2000 , 300 and 85 μg / ml , respectively . in addition , the extract revealed a dose and time - dependent antileishmanial activity . furthermore , various characteristics of apoptosis appeared after l . major promastigotes treatment , which included cell shrinkage , formation of apoptotic bodies , blebbing of the cell membrane , and externalization of phosphatidylserine , although no laddering pattern was observed .
( of stichopus ( gymnochirota ) leucospilota brandt , 1835 ) brandt , j . f . ( 1835 ) . echinodermata ordo holothurina . in : prodromus descriptionis animalium ab h . mertensio in orbis terrarum circumnavigatione observatorum . fasc . i : 75 pps . petropoli . pp . 42 - 62 . , available online at urltoken ; = frontcover & dq ; = prodromus + descriptionis + animalium & hl ; = ja & sa ; = x & ved ; = 0ahukewizw _ sfnkhvahviwbwkhafkcwyq6aeiltab # v = onepage & q ; = prodromus % 20descriptionis % 20animalium & f ; = false [ details ]
fig . 10 : molecular phylogenetic tree in the global commercial sea cucumber species based on neighbour - joining analyses of 16s rrna gene sequences . numbers above branches indicate bootstrap values ( percentage of 1000 replicates ) higher than 85 from neighbor - joining analysis . the ncbi accession numbers behind the species indicate the representative sequence of 16s rrna gene . g1 , g2 , and g3 were the three taxonomic groups studied : families caudinidae ( g1 ) , holothuriidae ( g2 ) and stichopodidae ( g3 ) . clades 1–4 are the four genera holothuria ( clade 1 ) , bohadschia ( clade 2 ) , actinopyga ( clade 3 ) and stichopus ( clade 4 ) [ 33 ] wen et al . ( 2011 ) .
a small piece of tissue from each of the external body parts ( the tentacles , dorsal cuticle , and ventral cuticle ) and internal body parts ( the respiratory tree and gastrointestine ) was cut with a sterile blade . each piece of tissue was placed on a glass microscope slide and then covered with several drops of liquid household bleach to dissolve the soft tissue . the ossicles , usually in the form of white pellets , remained in the liquid , and a cover slip was placed gently on each microscope slide covering the ossicles . the prepared slide was then observed under a nikon ( tokyo ) eclipse 80i digital compound microscope , and all of the captured images were saved for the identification of ossicle shapes . as the main focus in this study was to identify the shapes of ossicles and then to compare their varieties between h . leucospilota and s . horrens , the size of each ossicle type was not precisely measured under the microscope .
in order to obtain the 50 % inhibitory concentration ( ic 50 ) , 3 - ( 4 , 5 - dimethylthiazol - 2 - yl ) - 2 , 5 - diphenyltetrazolium bromide ( mtt ) kit was employed . for preparation of mtt reagent , 5 mg mtt powder in 1 ml pbs sterile solution ( 5 mg / ml ) was dissolved . 96 - well microplate was used for the mtt assay ( 5 mg / ml , 20μl / well ) . briefly after adding 2×10 6 promastigotes / 100 μl / well , methanolic h . leucospilota extract in different increasing concentrations ranged from 0–156 mg / ml were added to treat the parasites ( 15 , 28 ) . plates incubated in 25±1°c and after 24 , 48 and 72 h , promastigotes viability using mtt assay were examined . then , absorbance at 540 nm wavelength was measured using elisa reader device . cell viability percentage of exposed and unexposed samples acquisition was carried out by the following formula :
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this species is widespread in the indian and tropical pacific , and is very common in some parts of its range . it is fished , but not intensively given its low commercial value . it is listed as least concern .
this species is widespread throughout the indo - pacific and red sea and persian from south africa to india , china to australia , hawaii , polynesia , and east to central america from mexico to peru .
in malaysia , this is among the most abundant species ( choo 2008 ) . in vietnam , there was overexploitation of sea cucumbers ; after the boom in catches in the late 1980s the average catch per diver of this species dropped . before 1997 , there were catches of many hundreds of tonnes per year of this species , and after 1997 it decreased to less than 100kg ( choo 2008 ) . in la réunion , it is one of the dominant species ( conand 2008 ) , present in all sampling stations with total mean densities of 0 . 59 ± 0 . 38ind * m - 2 . highest densities were in back reefs ( mean 0 . 84 ± 0 . 38ind * m - 2 versus 0 . 39 ± 0 . 26ind * m - 2 in inner reef flats ) , with a maximum density of 1 . 4 ± 0 . 7ind * m - 2 in planch - alizés station ( conand and frouin 2007 ) .
bonham and held ( 1963 ) estimated the total number of individuals of this species at rongelap atoll , marshall islands to be about 200 , 000 around peripheries of the larger islets and some reef and lagoon areas .
. inshore , shallow water populations are denser , and composed of smaller individuals ( palomares and pauly 2009 ) .
2008 ) . in malaysia , it prefers dead corals , in the shoreward side of the reef in depths up to 10m ( choo 2008 ) . in the africa and indian ocean , it prefers the back reef and reef flats over sand and rubble between 0 and 10m ( conand 2008 ) . in madagascar , it can be found in the inner slope , seagrass , microatoll and detrital fringe with higher densities in the inner slopes ( conand 2008 ) . in kenya , it hides under live coral heads in most coral reef habitats and at the fringes of seagrass beds ( muthiga
2007 ) . in china , this species lives in shallow waters up to 15m ( li 2004 ) . in the comores , it typically inhabits the calm and shallow zones over sandy bottoms or over coral rubble ( samyn
it is often found in the intertidal area of the seaward sides of the islets at the edge of the reef - flat nearest shore ( marshall islands ) . it can occupy pools of water from a few centimeters to about one half meter deep at low tide , and is occasionally entirely exposed ( bonham and held 1963 ) .
in the great barrier reef ( australia ) , this species reproduces between november and march whilst in the northern territory ( australia ) it does so in april . in the cook islands , the information available states that this species reproduces from january to april and in november and december , or from october to january ( kinch
2008 ) . in taiwan province of china , this species reproduces between june and september ( choo 2008 ) . in la réunion , it reproduces twice a year , the first one in february and the second one in may . it reaches som at 180g ( conand 2008 ) .
this species is fished in many parts of its range , but has a very low value .
is commercially exploited in guam , fsm , marshall islands , kiribati , samoa , tonga , cook islands , png , solomon islands and fiji where it is consumed either whole or their intestines and / or gonads as delicacies or as protein in traditional diets ; local consumption is of greater importance in times of hardship ( i . e . following cyclones ) . in southern cook islands , this species is exploited for their gonads by women and children all year long with special emphasis in the summer months . the removal of the organs does not seem to affect the general well being of the animal , with the wound healing afterwards . it is used in a subsistence fishery in samoa , cook islands and tonga ( kinch
2008 ) . in asia , it is fished in china , malaysia , thailand , indonesia , philippines and vietnam . in countries of south east asia , this species is known to be part of the
worm
sea cucumbers , lower value , higher volume species ( choo 2008 ) . it is fished in madagascar ( rasolofonirina 2007 ) , and china ( chen 2004 , li 2004 ) .
although not one of the most important species ( low value ) for fishery purposes , it can be expected that this species may become more popular after the depletion or reduction of other species of higher commercial importance and value . as seen in thailand after the decline of h . scabra ( choo 2008 ) .
there are no known species specific conservation measures for this species . however , it may be present in some marine protected areas within its range .
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a small one ( about 10cm long ) . pulau tekukor , jan 10 sentosa , aug 05 tentacles with bushy tips . st . john ' s island , jan 06
chek jawa , aug 13 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his blog .
east coast pcn , apr 17 photo shared by loh kok sheng on facebook .
terumbu hantu , jun 13 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his blog .
terumbu berkas , jan 10 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his flickr .
pulau senang , jun 10 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his flickr .
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davison , g . w . h . and p . k . l . ng and ho hua chew , 2008 . the singapore red data book : threatened plants and animals of singapore . nature society ( singapore ) . 285 pp .
gosliner , terrence m . , david w . behrens and gary c . williams . 1996 . coral reef animals of the indo - pacific : animal life from africa to hawaii exclusive of the vertebrates sea challengers . 314pp .
allen , gerald r and roger steene . 2002 . indo - pacific coral reef field guide . tropical reef research . 378pp .
is a black / red , medium to large ( 400 - 500 mm ) , cylindrical and elongate sea cucumber . its body is soft , pliable , and covered with soft
rocky shores , south to new south wales , usually more or less concealed below rocks . it is common on
brandt , j . f . 1835 . prodromus descriptions animalium ab h . mertensio . . . observatorum . fasc . 1 , pp 1 - 75 .
cannon , l . r . g . and silver , h . 1986 . sea cucumbers of northern australia . queensland museum , south brisbane , australia , 60 pp .
clark , a . m . and rowe , f . w . e . 1971 . ' monograph of shallow water indo - west pacific echinoderms . ' ( london : british museum ) .
clark , h . l . 1921 . the echinoderm fauna of torres strait : its composition and its origin . papers from the department of marine biology of the carnegie institution of washington 10 : 1 - 223 .
clark , h . l . 1938 . echinoderms from australia . memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology of the harvard college 55 : 1 - 596 .
deichmann , e . 1958 . the holothurioidea collected by the velero iii and iv during the years 1932 - 1954 . part 2 . aspidochirota . allan hancock pacif . exped . 11 : 249 - 349 .
ludwig , h . 1881 . revision der mertens - brandtschen holothurien . ztschr . f . wissensch . zool . 35 : 575 - 599 .
rowe f . w . e and doty , j . e . 1977 . the shallow water holothurians of guam . micronesica 13 : 217 - 50 .
rowe , f . w . e . 1969 . a review of the family holothuriidae ( holothurioidea aspidochirotida ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) ( zoology ) 18 : 119 - 70 .
selenka , e . 1867 . beiträge zur anatomis un systematik der holothurien . ztschr . fl . wissensch . zool . 17 : 291 - 374 .
semper , c . 1868 . holothurien . in ' reisen im archipel der philippinen . 2 . wissenschaftliche resultate . ' ( wiesbaden : kreidel ) .
description colour in life : deep charcoal - grey over all surfaces only relieved on the sole by pale grey tube feet ( humphreys , 1981 ) . . . .
( of halodeima dicorona heding , 1934 ) heding , s . ( 1934 ) . on some holothurians from hong kong . hong kong nat . suppl . 3 : pp . 15 - 25 . [ details ]
rowe , f . w . e . ( 1969 ) . a review of the family holothuriidae ( holothurioidea : aspidochirotida ) . bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ( zool . ) 18 ( 4 ) : 119 - 170 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
tortonese , e . ( 1980 ) . researches on the coast of somalia . littoral echinodermata . monitore zoologico italiano ns supplemento xiii 5 : 99 - 139 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
ludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
kei lwk . & lau sck . ( 1994 ) . baseline information survey of shelter island - a potential marine park . final report . submitted to the agriculture and fisheries department , the hong kong sar government . [ details ]
classification from world register of marine species ( worms ) selected by frédéric ducarme - see more .
frédéric ducarme marked
cucumariidae > trachythyone elongata ? sea cucumber 37
as hidden on the
trachythyone
page .
frédéric ducarme marked
cucumariidae > trachythyone elongata ? sea cucumber 37
as untrusted on the
trachythyone
page . reasons to untrust : misidentified
frédéric ducarme marked
cucumariidae > trachythyone elongata ? sea cucumber dscf7164
as hidden on the
trachythyone
page .
frédéric ducarme marked
cucumariidae > trachythyone elongata ? sea cucumber dscf7164
as untrusted on the
trachythyone
page . reasons to untrust : misidentified
frédéric ducarme marked
cucumariidae > trachythyone elongata ? sea cucumber dscf7165
as hidden on the
trachythyone
page .
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promastigotes were cultured in rpmi 1640 and after reaching the stationary phase , the study was conducted with different concentrations of the extract . afterwards , mtt colorimetric assay for the obtaining of 50 % inhibitory concentration ( ic 50 ) was utilized . furthermore , in order to determine the possible induction of apoptosis in l . major promastigotes , flow cytometry and dna fragmentation methods were employed using annexin - v fluos staining kit and dna ladder kit , respectively .
leishmaniasis is a vector - borne tropical / subtropical disease caused by the obligate intracellular parasite belonging to leishmania genus , which , according to clinical manifestation and etiological agents , are classified into at least three categories including cutaneous leishmaniasis ( cl ) , mucocutaneous leishmaniasis ( mcl ) , and visceral leishmaniasis ( vl ) ( 1 , 2 ) . the infection has a wide spectrum that ranges from self - healing cutaneous ulcers , to progressive and fatal mucocutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis ( 2 , 3 ) . leishmaniasis transmits to the vertebrate hosts by the mosquito bite of the infected female phlebotomus genus in the old world or lutzomyia in the new world ( 2 , 4 ) .
according to who , leishmaniasis is considered a major global health problem in five continents with economic wastage and 12 million people are currently infected worldwide in about 100 countries and territories ( 3 ) . in addition , it is estimated that 350 million people are at risk of infection . the annual incidence of new cases of cl and vl is approximately 0 . 7–1 . 2 million and 0 . 2–0 . 4 million , respectively ( 3 ) . despite many efforts and human advances in disease control , leishmaniasis continues to be considered a major health concern , particularly in developing countries ( 3 , 5 , 6 ) . the majority ( approximately 70–75 % ) of cl cases are found in ten countries worldwide annually , such as brazil , peru , costa rica , colombia , algeria , north sudan , ethiopia , afghanistan , syria , and iran ( 3 ) .
since herbal medicines and marine invertebrates contain valuable ingredients , easily available , and inexpensive , the use of such native plants and marine invertebrates could be considered rich sources of antileishmanial compounds ( 11 – 13 ) . approximately 80 % of the world’s individuals tend to use traditional medicines to remedy their ailments ( 14 ) . therefore , there is an urgent need to discover more affordable , cheaper , more effective , and safer antileishmanial drugs . in recent years , several studies have been completed on the efficacy of different plant extracts against leishmania spp . worldwide and , of course , in iran , giving these compounds the ability to create new hopes for the treatment of leishmaniasis ( 11 , 12 , 15 – 20 ) .
) . for different species of sea cucumber , various properties have been mentioned such as antioxidant , anti - inflammatory , anti - histamine , anti - anaphylactic , wound healing , anti - angiogenic , anticoagulant , anti - thrombotic , anti - hypertension , antitumor and anti - cancer , antiviral , antibacterial and antifungal activities . sea cucumbers contain various compounds with therapeutic properties and health functions that can be related to certain bioactive substances , namely triterpene glycosides ( saponins ) , glycosaminoglycan ( gags ) , chondroitin sulfates , sulfated polysaccharides , phenolics , sterols ( glycosides and sulfates ) , lectins , cerberosides , peptides , glycosphingolipids , glycoprotein , and essential fatty acids (
apoptosis , or programmed cell death ( pcd ) , phenomenon regulates homeostasis and number of cells in multicellular animals physiologically . primarily , it was believed that pcd just occurred in multicellular animals however recent studies have verified that the process of pcd also occurs in eukaryotic organisms like leishmania , plasmodium , trypanosoma , toxoplasma , trichomonas , blastocystis , entamoeba and giardia ( 12 , 27 ) . consequently , if each compound and drug is able to initiate apoptosis in leishmania parasite , it could be claimed as an effective drug against leishmaniasis ( 12 , 16 , 28 ) . leishmania major promastigotes , after exposure with some drugs like miltefosine ( an anticancer drug ) , undergo pcd ( 29 ) .
l . major iranian standard strain promastigotes ( mrho / ir / 75 / er ) were purchased from pasteur institute ( tehran , iran ) . in addition , all materials obtained were the following : dimethyl sulfoxide ( dmso ) , 4 - ( 2 - hydroxyethyl ) - 1 - piperazine - ethanesulfonic acid ( hepes ) , 3 - ( 4 , 5 - dimethylthiazol - 2 - yl ) - 2 , 5 - diphenyltetrazolium bromide ( mtt ) colorimetric assay kit , phosphate - buffered saline ( pbs ) , and l - glutamine were purchased from sigma chemical co . ( st . louis , missouri , usa ) . in addition , annexin - v fluos staining kit and apoptotic dna ladder kit were purchased from roche - applied - science ( berlin , germany ) . rpmi 1640 ( roswell park memorial institute ) , fetal bovine serum ( fbs ) , and antibiotic ( streptomycin and penicillin ) were purchased from gibco ( gibco , new york , usa ) . reference drug , glucantime ® ( meglumine antimoniate , 85 mg sbv / ml ; batch 020 , rhodia sa , brazil ) were purchased from brazil , kept at 4 °c , and diluted with rpmi 1640 medium at the time of incubation .
l . major promastigotes ( mrho / ir / 75 / er ) were routinely cultured in rpmi 1640 media ( without phenol red ) at 25±1 °c in 25 mm hepes ( ph 7 . 2 ) and enriched by 10 % heat - inactivated fbs , antibiotics ( 100 μg / ml streptomycin and 100 iu / ml penicillin ) and l - glutamine ( 2 mm ) as previously described . each flasks’ culture was examined every day in order to detect bacterial and fungal contamination . flasks were incubated at 25±1 °c . eventually on promastigotes that were reached at the stationary phase , next tests were performed ( 16 , 30 ) . all tests were repeated three times .
ultimately , findings expressed by ic 50 ( that inhibited half of the promastigotes growth ) and in the experimental group were compared to positive controls ( promastigotes treated with 100 μl of glucantime ® 85 mg / ml ) and negative controls ( promastigotes treated with 100 μl of dmso 1 % without extract ) ( 13 , 30 , 31 ) .
ic 50 dose related to 24 h were used to examine the morphological changes . after 72 h incubation period , promastigotes were centrifuged at low speed ( 1000g for 3 minutes ) and suspended in pbs . then , cells were examined using an optical microscope under ×100 magnification . morphological changes of treated and untreated promastigotes with extract , including cell shrinkage and motility , were evaluated at different times and at least 20 microscopic fields for each sample were observed . finally , the experimental group in terms of morphological changes and motility was compared with the control group ( 16 , 31 ) .
for qualitative measure of the total gdna fragmentation , agarose gel electrophoresis was employed as formerly described ( 29 ) . briefly , l . major promastigotes ( 5×10 6 parasites / ml ) were harvested at different growth time points . then , in order to extract dna from apoptosis - induced and non - induced promastigotes , apoptotic dna ladder kit was utilized in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol . ten μg from each extracted dna was electrophoresed in 1 . 5 % agarose gel for 2 h at 80 v . eventually , it was analyzed using gel doc device ( uvidoc , gel documentation system , cambridge , uk ) .
in vitro antileishmanial activity , which expressed as ic 50 , was obtained using spss software version 19 with linear regression test ( spss inc . , chicago , il , usa ) .
value of extract at three time points of 24 , 48 , and 72 h was estimated about 2000 μg / ml , 300μg / ml , and 85μg / ml , respectively . in addition ,
value at three time points of 24 , 48 , and 72 h was obtained 37 μg / ml , 22 μg / ml , and 14 μg / ml by mtt assay .
extract ( 2000 μg / ml ) leads to obvious alterations in treated promastigotes including cell shrinkage , cytoplasmic condensation , and immobility . furthermore , the average number of promastigotes at the initial treatment ( 0 h ) was approximately 2×10
cells / ml , so that the decreasing trend in number of live cells was continuous in other intervals up to 72 h . on the other hand , in the control group no visible changes were seen in cells morphology , as well as multiplication of promastigotes . morphological alterations in exposed and unexposed promastigotes at time points are illustrated in
in order to differentiate between necrosis and apoptosis , annexin - v fluos staining kit was employed and obtained findings analyzed using flow cytometry method . after 72 h incubation of exposed
dose ( 2000 μg / ml ) , the status of cells was assessed . the percentage of promastigotes in early and late phases of apoptosis in the experimental group was 6 . 23 % and 83 . 41 % , respectively . however , in the control group , the status of the cells was 2 . 96 % and 6 . 33 % , respectively . more details are illustrated in
) . the major limitation of this technique is the need for a large number of cells to undergo apoptosis in order to obtain appropriate dna to produce the laddering pattern ( low sensitivity ) . dna laddering is not a quantitative technique ; demonstrating only apoptosis in a cell population , but does not assess the degree of apoptosis of individual cells (
) . according to the aforementioned reasons , our findings could be justified with low amount of extracted dna and low sensitivity of this method .
dna ladder assay : lane m . dna size marker ; lane 1 . unexposed l . major promastigotes ( dna fragmentation did not occur ) ; lane 2 . positive apoptotic cell ( positive control ) ; lane 3 . exposed l . major promastigotes ( dna fragmentation did not occur )
leishmaniasis is considered as one of the major public health problems worldwide , particularly in tropical and subtropical zones ( 3 , 5 ) . nowadays , pentavalent antimonial compounds are the most important drugs being used for the treatment of leishmaniasis ( 7 ) .
certain reported disadvantages of these compounds include : painful of administration , various systemic side effects , expensive cost , long course of treatment , leishmania parasite resistance , and failure treatment ; thus , researchers are constantly looking for cheaper , safer , and more effective drugs ( 9 ) .
fatty acids of sea cucumber , containing arachidonic acid , docosahexaenoic acid , and eicosapentaenoic acid , appear to have a potential role in wound healing and tissue repairing ( reduction of wound healing period by helping to enhancement of tissue regeneration ) ( 23 ) . lipid fractions of sea cucumber were introduced as responsible for wound healing and tissue repairing ( 37 ) . in addition , sea cucumber has a potential role in the coagulation process , which can lead to wound healing . “for this reason , many parts of the world utilize sea cucumbers as a traditional treatment for burns and cuts” ( 37 – 39 ) . further studies are required to address wound healing properties of sea cucumber on cutaneous ulcers caused by leishmania species in vivo , in future .
sea cucumber proteins are rich of glutamate , glycine , and arginine . glutamic acid and glycine are key elements for glutathione synthesis in cells and can provoke the proliferation and activation of immune system cells like nk cells . in addition , glycine can provoke the production of b cell antibodies and il - 2 release , which helps to increase immunity . arginine also enhances the cellular immunity by t - cell activation ( 40 ) . for these reasons , sea cucumber and their possession of these amino acid ingredients could contribute to the immunomodulatory activity .
recently , the effectiveness of methanol extract and n - butanol fraction of sea cucumber ( actinopyga lecanora species ) has been reported against l . donovani , both in vitro and in vivo , considered as causative agent of vl . one hundred μg / ml of methanol extract leads to 88 . 5 % and 72 . 4 % inhibition of promastigotes and amastigotes , respectively . antileishmanial effects of both methanolic extract and n - butanol fraction against l . donovani - infected hamsters leads to reduction of the parasite burden ( 44 ) .
the authors would like to thank the research deputy of ahvaz jundishapur university of medical sciences ( code no . cmrc - 125 ) . this article was extracted from msc thesis of masoud foroutan - rad , msc student of medical parasitology . the authors declare no conflict of interests .
akhoundi m , kuhls k , cannet a , votypka j , marty p , delaunay p , et al .
alvar j , velez id , bern c , herrero m , desjeux p , cano j , et al .
karimi a , hanafi - bojd aa , yaghoobi - ershadi mr , akhavan aa , ghezelbash z .
khademvatan s , salmanzadeh s , foroutan - rad m , bigdeli s , hedayati - rad f , saki j , et al .
tiuman ts , santos ao , ueda - nakamura t , filho bp , nakamura cv .
sundar s , more dk , singh mk , singh vp , sharma s , makharia a , et al .
saki j , khademvatan s , pazyar n , eskandari a , tamoradi a , nazari p .
in vitro activity of cordia myxa mucilage extract against leishmania major and l . infantum promastigotes
in vitro activity of camellia sinensis extracts against l . major and l . infantum promastigotes using the colorometric mtt assay
harsha ns , kumar g , al - wesali ms , rasool st , ibrahim fas .
althunibat oy , hashim rb , taher m , daud jm , ikeda m - a , zali b .
adibpour n , nasr f , nematpour f , shakouri a , ameri a .
ben kahla - nakbi a , haouas n , el ouaer a , guerbej h , ben mustapha k , babba h .
jimenez - ruiz a , alzate jf , macleod et , luder cg , fasel n , hurd h .
feily a , saki j , maraghi s , moosavi z , khademvatan s , siahpoosh a .
khademvatan s , adibpour n , eskandari a , rezaee s , hashemitabar m , rahim f .
ghaffarifar f , esavand heydari f , dalimi a , hassan zm , delavari m , mikaeiloo h .
sugawara t , zaima n , yamamoto a , sakai s , noguchi r , hirata t .
janakiram nb , mohammed a , zhang y , choi ci , woodward c , collin p , et al .
fredalina bd , ridzwan bh , abidin aa , kaswandi ma , zaiton h , zali i , et al .
zhao q , wang j - f , xue y , wang y , gao s , lei m , et al .
kalinin vi , aminin dl , avilov sa , silchenko as , stonik va .
triterpene glycosides from sea cucucmbers ( holothurioidea , echinodermata ) . biological activities and functions
zou z - r , yi y - h , wu h - m , wu j - h , liaw cc , lee k - h .
singh n , kumar r , gupta s , dube a , lakshmi v .
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deichmann , e . 1958 ,
the holothurioidea collected by the velero iii and iv during the years 1932 to 1954 . part ii . aspidochirota
, allan hancock pacific expeditions , vol . 11 , no . 2 , pp . 253 - 349 pls 1 - 9
clark , h . l . 1938 ,
echinoderms from australia . an account of collections made in 1929 and 1932 .
, memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , vol . 55 , pp . 1 - 596 , figs 1 - 64 , pls 1 - 28
selenka , e . 1867 ,
beiträge zur anatomie und systematik der holothurien
, zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche zoologie , vol . 17 , pp . 291 - 374 pls 17 - 20


the balanidae comprise a family of barnacles of the order sessilia , containing these genera : † alessandriella carriol , 2001 amphibalanus pitombo , 2004 arossia newman , 1982 austromegabalanus newman , 1979 balanus da costa , 1778 † concavus newman , 1982 fistulobalanus zullo , 1984 fosterella buckridge , 1983 megabalanus hoek , 1913 menesiniella newman , 1982 notomegabalanus newman , 1979 paraconcavus zullo , 1992 perforatus pitombo , 2004 † tamiosoma conrad , 1857 tetrabalanus cornwall , 1941 † zulloa ross & newman , 1996

balanidae

balanidae .
a dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
balanidae .
a dictionary of earth sciences . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
balanidae .
a dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
balanidae .
a dictionary of earth sciences . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
what made you want to look up balanidae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
eocene balanidae of florida , including a new genus and species with a unique plan of
turtle - barnacle
organization . american museum novitates ; no . 2288
details - eocene balanidae of florida , including a new genus and species with a unique plan of
turtle - barnacle
organization . american museum novitates ; no . 2288 - biodiversity heritage library
ty - book ti - eocene balanidae of florida , including a new genus and species with a unique plan of
turtle - barnacle
organization . american museum novitates ; no . 2288 ur - urltoken py - 1967 au - newman , william a . ( william anderson ) , 1927 - au - ross , arnold . er -
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southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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mclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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resemble the second rather than the fourth , and in which there are no caudal appendages . the family includes the familiar barnacles exposed at low tide , of the genus
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© a dictionary of earth sciences 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .
newman , william a . ( william anderson ) , 1927 - ross , arnold .
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sphinx oberthueri is a moth of the family sphingidae .

it is found from central and south-western china to northern thailand .

the larvae feed on pinus massoniana in yunnan .

sphinx oberthueri

sphinx oberthueri , female , underside . thailand , chiang mai , doi suthep - pui np
sphinx oberthueri , female , upperside . thailand , chiang mai , doi suthep - pui np
sphinx oberthueri ( china , yunnan ) ( gp 2016 - 2888 ) ( r . brechlin ) male genitalia
sphinx oberthueri ( china , yunnan ) ( gp 2016 - 2887 ) ( r . brechlin ) male genitalia
sphinx oberthueri ( china , yunnan , yulong county , lijiang , 13 . vi _ . 2016 ) ( zhuo - heng jiang ) male genitalia
sphinx oberthueri ( china , yunnan , yulong county , lijiang , 13 . vi _ . 2016 ) ( zhuo - heng jiang ) male upperside & underside
with the discovery of sphinx centrosinaria kitching & jin , 1998 in xizang / tibet ( thierry vaglia , pers . comm . 2007 ) , and the description of sphinx bhutana brechlin , 2015 , from bhutan , and sphinx yunnana brechlin , 2015 , from yunnan , it is possible that the specimens recorded from that area by wang ( 1988 ) are not sphinx oberthueri but one of these other species .
sphinx justiciae ( = sphinx merops ) ; godman & salvin , 1881 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 23
sphinx andromedae boisduval , 1870 ; considérations lépid . guatemala : 74 ; tl : honduras
hyloicus oberthueri rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 119 ( key ) , 149 . type locality : china , [ yunnan , ] tsé - kou [ yanmen , 28°04 ' n 98°54 ' e ] .
mesosphinx cockerell , 1920 ; can . ent . , 52 : 33 ; ts : sphinx separatus neumoegen
larval hostplants . recorded in yunnan ( as sphinx jordani ) on pinus massoniana ( mell , 1922b ) .
sphinx eremitoides strecker , 1874 ; lep . rhopal . het . ( 10 ) : 93 ; tl : kansas
sphinx franckii neumoegen , 1893 ; ent . news 4 ( 4 ) : 133 ; tl : kansas city , missouri
sphinx eremitus mccrearyi clark , 1929 ; proc . new england zool . cl . 11 : 22 ; tl : mccreary , manitoba
sphinx luscitiosa benjamini clark , 1932 ; proc . new england zool . cl . 13 : 42 ; tl : charlton , ontario
sphinx drupiferarum marginalis clark , 1936 ; proc . new england zool . cl . 15 : 71 ; tl : riding mts . , manitoba
sphinx maura burmeister , 1880 ; descr . phys . rép . arg . 5 , atlas ( 2 ) : 57 ; tl : tucuman
synonym . sphinx jordani mell , 1922 , dt . ent . z . 1922 : 113 . type locality : china , w . yunnan .
larva : full - fed 70 - - 75mm . very similar to the larva of sphinx caligineus caligineus ( butler , 1877 ) from japan .
sphinx phalerata kernbach , 1955 ; zeitschrift lepid . 3 : 101 - 103 , f . 1 , 2a - b ; tl : n . argentina , tucuman
sphinx arthuri rothschild , 1897 ; novit . zool . 4 ( 2 ) : 307 , pl . 7 , f . 1 ; tl : la paz , bolivia
sphinx plota strecker , 1876 ; lep . rhopal . het . ( 13 ) : 115 , pl . 13 , f . 13 ; tl : montreal , quebec
sphinx leucophaeata ; godman & salvin , 1881 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 23 ; [ hmw ] ; [ mabl ]
sphinx lugens ; godman & salvin , 1881 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 23 ; [ hmw ] ; [ mabl ]
sphinx porioni ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2002 , neue ent . nachr . 53 : 69 - 75 , pl . 4 , f . 1 - 2
sphinx dolli australis clark , 1922 ; proc . new england zool . cl . 8 : 7 ; tl : washington mts . , 30 mi se of nogales , arizona
sphinx porioni cadiou , 1995 ; lambillionea 95 : 500 - 501 , f . 26 - 27 ; tl : peru , jaen , cajamarca , pucaara , rio huancabamba , 900m
sphinx xantus cary , 1963 ; ann . carn . mus . 36 : 196 - 197 , f . 3 ; tl : mexico , san josé del cabo , baja california
sphinx kalmiae j . e . smith , 1797 ; in smith & abbot , nat . hist . rarer lepid . ins . georgia 1 : 73 , pl . 37 ; tl : georgia
sphinx lanceolata r . felder , [ 1874 ] ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 4 ) : pl . 78 , fig . 3 ; tl : mexico
sphinx gordius f . coxeyi cadbury , 1931 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 57 ( 3 ) : 319 , pl . 28 , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : greenly island , [ quebec ]
sphinx nogueirai haxaire , 2002 ; lambillionea 102 ( 4 , i ) : 459 , f . 1a - b , 2a ( m . gen ) ; tl : mexico , sonora , route de yecora à santa rosa ,
nueva galicia
1695m
the forewing uppersides vary , being very lightly marked in some , while others bear heavy dark streaks and thick transverse lines similar to those found in sphinx pinastri . many , but not all , individuals are also more grey when freshly emerged , but this fades to light brown after a few days as per the examples below .
china : 10 - 19 . iii ( simao / pu ' er , yunnan ) ; iv ( jiangkoushan , shanxi ) ; 7 . v ( xishuangbanna , yunnan ) ; 18 - 22 . v ( jinggu yizhi ) ; 23 . v ( lijiang , yunnan ) ; vi ( songzishanding , yunnan ; simao / pu ' er , yunnan ) ; vii ( dianchang shan , yunnan ) ; 9 . vii ( lijiang , yunnan ) ; 22 - 25 . vii ( huili , sichuan ) ; viii ( goligong shan , yunnan ) ; 1 . viii ( taiyue shan , shanxi ) ; 3 . viii ( xichang , sichuan ) ; 8 . viii ( dali , yunnan ) ; 9 . viii ( zhaozhou , yunnan ) ; ix ( xunyang , shaanxi ) .
china : shanxi ( taiyue shan , 2000m ; jiangkoushan , 1600m ) ; shaanxi ( jiangkoushan , liuba county , 1600m ) ; sichuan ( xichang ; huili ) ; yunnan ( simao / pu ' er ; yanmen ; dianchang shan ; lijiang , 2000m ; xishuangbanna , 650m ; gaoligong shan , 1500 - 2000m ; kunming ; dali ; jinggu yizhi , 900 - 1700m ; songzishanding , 2500m ; zhaozhou ; jize ) ; ? xizang / tibet ( mutu , namjagbarwa region , 850m ) .
originally thought to be confined to southwestern china . the records from the mienshan ( = taiyue shan ) ( danner et al . , 1998 ) extends considerably northeastward the known range of this species .
central and southwestern china to northern thailand ( inoue et al . , [ 1996 ] ) .
holarctic ; eastern palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : monocentric - - yunnan refugium .
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arizona , colorado , nevada , utah , new mexico . see [ maps ]
hyloicus perelegans f . asellus rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 133 , pl . 13 . f . 2 ; tl : durango , colorado
hyloicus aurigutta rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 120 , pl . 11 , f . 4 ; tl : peru , chanchamayo
newfoundland - new york , ohio , michigan , w . ontario , missouri , arkansas . see [ maps ]
hyloicus chersis pallescens rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 129 . ; tl : prescott , arizona
hyloicus chisoya schaus , 1932 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 22 : 141 ; tl : mexico
nova scotia - na . georgia , mississippi - arkansas , kansas - colorado , utah , california , maryland , virginia , british columbia . see [ maps ]
north carolina - arkansas , colorado , manitoba , michigan , new york . see [ maps ]
hyloicus geminus rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 123 , pl . 11 , f . 3 ; tl : jalapa , mexico
hyloicus gordius oslari rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 136 ; tl : glenwood springs , colorado
hyloicus istar rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 126 , pl . 12 , fig . 2 ; tl : mexico
na . georgia - newfoundland - se . saskatchewan - arkansas , mississippi , north carolina , new york , michigan . see [ maps ]
600x900 ( ~ 51kb ) larva finland , u : järvenpää 670 : 39 , ( ex . ovo ) 25 . 6 . 1977 , photo © pertti pakkanen
900x596 ( ~ 45kb ) ova finland , u : järvenpää 670 : 39 , ( ex . ) 17 . 6 . 1977 , photo © pertti pakkanen
780x900 ( ~ 50kb ) larva finland , u : järvenpää 670 : 39 , 5 . 8 . 1979 , photo © pertti pakkanen
943x610 ( ~ 125kb ) female belgium , antwerpen , 21 . 7 . 2004 , photo © toon verbruggen
943x609 ( ~ 111kb ) female belgium , antwerpen , 21 . 7 . 2004 , photo © toon verbruggen
962x620 ( ~ 63kb ) female belgium , antwerpen , 21 . 7 . 2004 , photo © toon verbruggen
larva on ribes aureum , rubus idaeus , spiraea , s . salicifolia , s . chamaedryfolia , sorbaria sorbifolia , aruncus silvestris , malus domestica , fraxinus excelsior , syringa vulgaris , s . josikaea , viburnum opulus , lonicera tatarica , l . xylosteum , symphoricarpos rivularis [ sprk ] , ligustrum
nova scotia - new jersey , michigan , wisconsin - alberta , utah . see [ maps ]
900x594 ( ~ 44kb ) larva finland , kuhmoinen , ( ex . ovo ) 16 . 8 . 1981 , photo © pertti pakkanen
755x759 ( ~ 104kb ) russia , moscow area ( 36°25 ' e , 56°00 ' n ) , 14 . 6 . 2009 , photo © d . smirnov
larva on pinus silvestris , p . strobus , p . cembra , larix sibirica , l . decidua , picea abies [ sprk ]
700x880 ( ~ 167kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo © markku savela
texas - california , kansas , missouri , montana , alberta , british columbia , manitoba . see [ maps ]
hyloicus gerhardi barnes & benjamin , 1924 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 26 ( 6 ) : 166 ; tl : clark co . , nevada
1000x942 ( ~ 162kb ) usa : washington , chelan co . , lepsoc 2010 moth night at eagle creek , 9 . 7 . 2010 , photo © markku savela
the dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
histoire naturelle des insectes . species général des lépidoptéres hétérocéres . tome premier . sphingides , sésiides , castnides
reports on the margaret m . cary and carnegie museum expedition to baja california , mexico , 1961 . 2 . the family sphingidae
die schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil ii . supplement . zweiter abscnitt . die abendschmetterlinge
reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
biologia centrali - americana ; or contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of mexico and central america . zoology . lepidoptera . heterocera
sammlung exotischer schmetterlinge , vol . 2 ( [ 1819 ] - [ 1827 ] )
systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition
walker , 1856 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 1 - 271 ( 1856 )
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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