the eastern cottontail ( sylvilagus floridanus ) is a new world cottontail rabbit , a member of the family leporidae .

it is one of the most common rabbit species in north america .

eastern cottontail

© copyright roger barbour . all rights reserved . sylvilagus floridanus - - eastern cottontail
the eastern cottontail occurs in the eastern united states and southern canada south to eastern mexico and into central america . another population occurs in texas , new mexico , and arizona . the eastern cottontail is more abundant than the new england cottontail . also , its range is expanding , while the new england cottontail’s range is diminishing .
an eastern cottontails is a solitary animal . they can be intolerant of other eastern cottontails .
the eastern cottontail is named for its short , fluffy , cotton - like white tail .
eastern cottontail eating milkweed leaf . ( scott loarie / eol ; cc by 3 . 0 )
bertolino s , ingegno b , girardello m . modelling the habitat requirements of invasive eastern cottontail (
silvano f . , acquarone c . and cucco m . 2000 . distribution of the eastern cottontail
there is another species of cottontail in new england , the new england cottontail ( sylvilagus transitionalis ) , that is very similar to the eastern cottontail . it has a black patch between its ears and is usually smaller than the eastern cottontail and has shorter ears . it rarely comes out into the open . both species of cottontail are found in new hampshire . the new england cottontail is native to the state . the eastern cottontail was introduced to the state from the midwest in the early 1900s .
the eastern cottontail is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
eastern cottontail resting in a form . ( nancy magnusson flickr ; cc by - nc 2 . 0 )
eastern cottontail - sylvilagus floridanus ( j . a . allen , 1890 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life
* top photo : eastern cottontail . ( minnie the pookie / flickr cc by - nc 2 . 0 )
: the eastern cottontail is an important game animal and is protected as a game species except during hunting seasons .
the eastern cottontail has a wide distribution and is found throughout most of the eastern united states . it is the most common rabbit species in virginia , and is found in every county of the commonwealth . if you see a rabbit in virginia , chances are that it is an eastern cottontail .
sylvilagus floridanus ( j . a . allen , 1890 ) – conejo serrano , lapin à queue blanche , eastern cottontail
the nuttall ' s cottontail rabbit , eastern cottontail rabbit , and snowshoe hare are classified as game animals . a hunting license and open season are required to hunt them .
the eastern cottontail has the widest distribution of any sylvilagus . it is found from southern manitoba and quebec to central and northwestern south america . in the contiguous united states , the eastern cottontail ranges from the east to the great plains in the west .
swihart r . k . and yahner r . h . 1982 . habitat features influencing use of farmstead shelterbelts by eastern cottontail (
the female eastern cottontail gives birth in a fur - lined nest , and only visits her young briefly each day to nurse them .
the new england cottontail ( s . transitionalis bangs ) is a possible current resident of the eastern and southern adirondacks . the most recent records of this species for the park are from 1930 . this rabbit is reliably distinguished from the eastern cottontail only by skull characteristics .
background : the new england cottontail is the only rabbit native to connecticut . the eastern cottontail was introduced into new england in the late 1800s and early 1900s and has been expanding its range ever since . in the mid - 1930s , new england cottontails were still considered abundant and more numerous than the eastern cottontail . however , as agricultural areas reverted to forest and these forests matured , populations of both species were reduced . the eastern cottontail is now the predominant species .
vidus rosin a , gilio n , meriggi a . introduced lagomorphs as a threat to “native” lagomorphs : the case of the eastern cottontail (
figure 1 . the eastern cottontail was introduced to washington as a game animal in the 1930s . ( photo by jo - ann ordano )
the eastern cottontail is abundant and edible , therefore making it a prominent game species . it is hunted for sport , meat , and fur .
like other rabbits , the eastern cottontail produces two types of droppings , re - ingesting the first type so they can be digested more thoroughly .
the eastern cottontail is found from extreme southern canada south to south america . in the u . s . , it is found in most of the eastern u . s . and in parts of new mexico and arizona .
historically , the eastern cottontail inhabited deserts , swamps and hardwood forests , as well as rainforests and boreal forests . currently , the eastern cottontail prefers edge environments between woody vegetation and open land . its range of habitats includes meadows , orchards , farmlands , hedgerows and areas with second growth shrubs , vines and low deciduous trees . the eastern cottontail occurs sympatrically with many other leporids , including six species of sylvilagus and six species of lepus .
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the eastern cottontail can reach speeds of up to eighteen miles per hour over short distances and can leap up to fifteen feet in a single bound .
eastern cottontails are short - lived . most do not survive beyond their third year .
the eastern cottontail prefers habitats that are between woody areas and open land . it can be found in bushy areas , fields , woodlands , swamps and thickets .
the eastern cottontail has been intensively studied ( 3 ) , but would still benefit from further research into its distribution , population size and taxonomy ( 1 ) .
swihart r . k . and yahner r . h . 1984 . winter use of insular habitat patches by the eastern cottontail . acta theriologica 29 : 45–56 .
vidus rosin a . , gilio n . and meriggi a . 2008 . introduced lagomorphs as a threat to “native” lagomorphs : the case of the eastern cottontail (
eastern cottontails are very territorial creatures and do not allow invasions of other cottontails into their territory .
figure 7 legumes such clover and alfalfa provide excellent supplemental food sources for cottontail rabbits .
eastern cottontail females construct a nest in a protected place a few days before giving birth . they care for their young in the nest and nurse them until they are about 16 days old .
male and female eastern cottontails display courtship behaviors that are collectively known as
cavorting
. this behavior occurs at night . the buck ( male eastern cottontail ) will chase the doe ( female eastern cottontail ) until the doe eventually stops and faces him . they will then spar with each other with their forepaws . after sparring , they will crouch and watch each other until one of the pair leaps about two feet into the air . this behavior is repeated by both of the rabbits before mating .
mankin p . c . and warner r . e . 1999b . a regional model of the eastern cottontail and land - use change in illinois . the journal of wildlife management 63 : 956–963 .
some local populations of the eastern cottontail , however , may be negatively affected by changes in land use and the removal of hedges and fencerows ( 1 ) ( 4 ) , as well as by the increasing use of herbicides to kill many of the weeds on which this rabbit feeds ( 4 ) . many eastern cottontail nests are destroyed by mowing , ploughing and burning , and adults are often killed on roads ( 4 ) . the eastern cottontail is also a major game animal , and millions of individuals are shot each year for sport and food ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
figure 1 the cottontail rabbit ( sylvilagus floridanus ) is a popular game species in missouri .
both species of cottontail rabbit are somewhat stocky , with large hind feet , long ears , and a short , fluffy tail that resembles a cotton ball . the long , coarse coat varies in color from reddish - brown to grayish - brown , and the underparts are white . the new england cottontail weighs between 1 . 6 and 2 . 9 pounds , measures from 14 . 2 to 18 . 8 inches , and is slightly smaller on average than the eastern cottontail . the eastern cottontail weighs between 1 . 8 and 2 . 9 pounds and measures from 14 . 8 to 18 inches .
cottontail mother feeding her babies . ( geoff chandler / dcresource ; cc by 2 . 0 )
how to improve habitat quality for cottontail rabbits by providing them with the necessary food and cover .
the eastern cottontail is the most common and geographically widespread of all north american rabbits . it ranges from costa rica through mexico to arizona and new mexico and throughout most of the united states east of the rocky mountains .
managing habitat for eastern cottontails ( pdf ) penn state college of agricultural sciences a fact sheet that provides specific steps you can take to improve habitat quality for cottontail rabbits by providing them with the necessary food and cover .
the eastern cottontail is the most widely distributed sylvilagus species ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , ranging from southern canada , through much of the eastern and central united states and central america , and into parts of northern south america ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
distribution in texas . occurs throughout eastern three - fourths of the state and in some areas of the trans - pecos .
predators : the eastern cottontail is an important component in the diets of many carnivorous animals . red - tails hawks , great horned owls , foxes , coyotes , weasels , bobcats and minks are some of their main predators .
figure 3 . the nuttall’s cottontail is found in sagebrush areas , weed and tall - grass patches , and orchards throughout eastern washington . ( from christensen and larrison , mammals of the pacific northwest : a pictorial introduction . )
the eastern cottontails is solitary and very territorial . it is mostly nocturnal , but it sometimes will come out in the early morning and at dusk and sometimes during the day on dark days . the eastern cottontail can leap distances of between 10 and 15 feet . it will sometimes stand on its hind feet to watch for predators like coyotes , foxes , weasels , eagles and hawks . when a predator is chasing it , the eastern cottontail will often leap from side to side to break its scent trail . it can run at speeds of up to 15 miles an hour .
adult eastern cottontails reach a length of 395 to 477 mm . a dense , buffy brown underfur and longer , coarser gray - and black - tipped guard hairs cover the back of the eastern cottontail . its rump and flanks are gray , and it has a prominent rufous patch on its nape . the ventral surface is white . the eastern cottontail shows the white underside of its short tail when it is running . this rabbit undergoes two molts per year . the spring molt , lasting from mid - april to mid - july , leaves a short summer coat that is more brown . from mid - september to the end of october , the change to longer , grayer pelage occurs for winter . the eastern cottontail has four pairs of mammary glands . it also has distinctive large eyes for its size .
the species survives because they reproduce up to seven times per season . for successful reproduction , the cottontails’ habitats must be in close proximity to one another . eastern cottontail rabbits do not travel far and usually spend their lives in an area no larger than 10 acres . a small area with open fields for foraging and plenty of edge brush for nesting provide the most ideal habitat . proper maintenance of these types of habitats allow eastern cottontail rabbits to thrive .
outside of its natural range , the eastern cottontail has been widely introduced to parts of western north america and europe , including italy , france , spain and germany ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
range and habitat : the eastern cottontail is found in some parts of southern canada , in mexico , and central america , and most of the eastern two - thirds of the u . s . except for northern new england . the cottontail occurs in southern , eastern , and northern lowland areas of the adirondack park . it is , like the opossum , a recent resident of these areas . the northward and eastward expansion of the range is a response to the advent of agriculture , and possibly to the many introductions by state and private agencies during the first half of this century .
new england and eastern cottontails are almost identical in appearance , except for a slight variation in color . about half of the eastern cottontail population shows a white , star - like shape on the forehead , while new england cottontails do not exhibit this trait . a comparison of skull characteristics or dna analysis are the most reliable ways to distinguish between the two species .
cottontail nest in chipped wood mulch . ( rklawton / wiki ; cc by - sa 2 . 5 )
figure 8 the protective escape cover provided by brushpiles and thickets is an important habitat component for cottontail rabbits .
up to 35 subspecies of eastern cottontail have been described ( 3 ) , which vary in their size and colouration ( 2 ) . however , the taxonomy of these different subspecies may need to be reviewed ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .
eastern cottontails cause a great deal of damage in their search for food . they are pests to gardeners and farmers in the summer . in addition , humans may contract the bacterial disease tularemia from handling the dead body of an infected cottontail .
there are several species of cottontail rabbit , but the eastern cottontail is the most common . this ubiquitous animal can be found from canada to south america and , in the united states , from the east coast to the great plains . cottontails range from reddish brown to gray , but all feature the distinctive “cotton ball” tail for which they are named .
the eastern cottontail is a very prolific species . high reproductive effort is needed to offset its low survival rate and low reproductive success . females will usually mate and become pregnant immediately after giving birth . does may have 3 - 7 litters in a year . a buck ( male cottontail ) and doe could multiply into 25 rabbits in less than a year .
the legs and feet of the eastern cottontail are usually reddish - brown to buffy - brown ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . this species’ ears are slightly darker than its back and may be bordered with black , and there is often a white spot on the animal’s forehead ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) and a light ring around each eye ( 4 ) . unlike some other rabbit and hare species , the eastern cottontail does not develop a white coat in winter ( 6 ) .
boland k . m . and litvaitis j . a . 2008 . role of predation and hunting on eastern cottontail mortality at cape cod national seashore , massachusetts . canadian journal of zoology 86 : 918–927 . doi : 10 . 1139 / z08 - 064
the eastern cottontail is found in a variety of habitats including old fields , brushy clearings , brier patches , hedgerows , orchards , and along the edges of woodlands . the komareks found this species most often in open woods and broomsedge fields . although kellogg (
eastern cottontails within a given area develop a dominance hierarchy , using aggressive and submissive behaviours to avoid physical fights . dominant males mate with most of the females ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the breeding season of the eastern cottontail varies depending on the location and the elevation , but generally occurs between january and september ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
it has been estimated that , with no mortality , one pair of eastern cottontails could potentially produce 350 , 000 descendants in just 5 years .
linduska j . p . 1947 . winter den studies of the cottontail in southern michigan . ecology 28 : 448–454 .
lord r . d . 1961 . mortality rates of cottontail rabbits . the journal of wildlife management 25 : 33–40 .
there are no specific conservation measures currently known to be in place for this abundant and successful mammal . provided that it has suitable cover , the eastern cottontail is able to breed rapidly and populate available habitat . in some cases , measures are needed to prevent this species from causing damage to orchards , ornamental trees and gardens , but the eastern cottontail plays a vital role in the food chain as prey for a variety of other animals , and as such it can reduce predation on other game species and on livestock ( 4 ) .
eastern cottontails have excellent vision , hearing , and sense of smell . eastern cottontails make many sounds . they have cries of worry that are used to startle an enemy and warn others of danger . they grunt if predators approach a nesting female and her litter . they also make squeals during mating .
the male and female eastern cottontail are similar in appearance ( 4 ) , but the female averages slightly larger than the male ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . juveniles are generally paler and buffier in colour than the adults ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
many wildlife species are secretive and elusive , and seeing them requires time and effort . not so for the eastern cottontail . from suburban yards to farm hedgerows to forest edges , cottontails are a common sight . a popular small game species , they also appeal to nonhunters .
refer to these missouri department of conservation resources to learn more about cottontail rabbits and how to manage your land for them .
allen d . l . 1938 . breeding of the cottontail rabbit in southern michigan . american midland naturalist 20 : 464–469 .
schwartz c . w . 1942 . breeding season of the cottontail in central missouri . journal of mammalogy 23 : 1–16 .
most foraging activity takes place at dawn and dusk , with the eastern cottontail resting under cover during the day ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . while resting , this species shelters in a ‘form’ , which usually consists of a small depression in the soil beneath a brush pile , thicket or dense clump of grass , where the rabbit can remain hidden ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the eastern cottontail may also shelter in the underground burrows of other animals during harsh winter weather ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
the eastern cottontail is a widespread , abundant and adaptable species which is not currently considered to be threatened . an effective coloniser , it is expanding its range in many of the areas to which it has been introduced , often causing a problem for native rabbit species ( 1 ) .
sexual maturity of the eastern cottontail occurs around two to three months after birth . breeding season is typically from mid - february through september . the onset of breeding is dependent on multiple factors , including latitude and elevation , temperature , and availability of succulent vegetation in the breeding territory .
the eastern cottontail rabbit is a popular game animal and one of the most commonly found mammals in the united states . their habitats consist of open grassy fields and dense growth along fields and woodland edges . within the last 30 years , their population has declined because of changes in land use .
mankin p . c . and warner r . e . 1999a . responses of eastern cottontails to intensive row - crop farming . journal of mammalogy 80 : 890–949 .
the crepuscular (
dusk and dawn
) pattern of foraging activity is augmented in the summer by a nocturnal time expansion . during the day , the cottontail stays safely hidden from predators in thickets , brush piles or in hollow logs . cottontails confronted with danger either freeze in place to take advantage of their cryptic coloration or dart away in a rapid , zigzag manner . running speeds of the eastern cottontail can reach eighteen miles per hour .
the eastern cottontail has speckled brown - gray fur above , reddish - brown fur around its neck and shoulders and lighter fur around its nose and on its undersides . it has big eyes and a tail that is puffy white on the underside . in the winter its fur may be more gray than brown .
there are two rabbit species in missouri . the eastern cottontail is most common and is found across the state . the larger swamp rabbit ( sylvilagus aquaticus ) lives only in the bootheel area in the southeastern part of the state . although many people refer to both as cottontails , they are two distinct species .
native rabbits the nuttall ' s cottontail ( sylvilagus nuttallii , fig . 3 ) averages 14 inches in length , is gray or brownish - gray , and has a relatively short , inconspicuous white tail . it is found in sagebrush areas , weed and tall - grass patches , and orchards throughout eastern washington .
foxes ( both gray and red ) are among the cottontail’s most significant predators . cottontails may comprise nearly 50 percent of the fox diet .
hamilton w . j . jr 1940 . breeding habits of the cottontail rabbit in new york state . journal of mammalogy 21 : 8–11 .
eastern cottontails are found in many places and are good to eat . because of this , they are widely hunted . they are hunted for sport , meat , and fur .
morgan k . a . and gates j . e . 1983 . use of forest edge and strip vegetation by eastern cottontails . the journal of wildlife management 47 : 259–264 .
eastern cottontails cause a great deal of damage in their search for food . they are pests to gardeners and farmers in the summer . in the winter , they are a threat to the orchardist , forester and landscaper . in addition , humans may contract the bacterial disease tularemia from handling the carcass of an infected cottontail .
because the necropsied animals ( i . e . , two hares and one cottontail ) were naturally infected by ebhs , the identified strains from both species were amplified , sequenced and compared . the capsid protein ( vp60 ) amplified by rt - pcr from the cottontail was completely sequenced ( genbank
although absent from canada at the time of european settlement , the eastern cottontail has since colonised the region as clearance for agriculture and the planting of hedgerows made the habitat there more favourable ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . in south america , this species is known only from colombia and venezuela ( 1 ) ( 5 ) .
whitaker jr , j . o . and hamilton jr , w . j . ( 1998 ) mammals of the eastern united states . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .
dusi j . l . 1952 . the food habits of several populations of cottontail rabbits in ohio . the journal of wildlife management 16 : 180–186 .
eastern cottontails are herbivores . most of their diet consists of grass . in the summer they also eat wild strawberries , clover , and garden vegetables . in the winter they will eat twigs and bark of trees . in order to get all of the nutrition out of these plants , eastern cottontails will eat their own feces to have a second chance to absorb the nutrients .
results of serological analysis for ebhs in hare and cottontail sera after the clinical case . results of serological analysis for ebhs in hare ( n = 25 ) and cottontail ( n = 11 ) sera after the outbreak in cerro maggiore in 2011 ( black columns = hares ; grey columns = cottontails ) .
hamilton , w . j . 1940 . breeding habits of the cottontail rabbit in new york state . journal of mammalogy , 21 : 8 - 11 .
the eastern cottontail feeds on a wide range of plant species . in the summer months , it mainly takes green vegetation such as grasses , clover and various weeds , but in the winter when these are scarce it will also eat woody material such as the bark , stems and buds of trees and shrubs . like other rabbits and hares , the eastern cottontail produces two types of droppings . the first type , which is soft and green , is re - ingested so that the rabbit can digest it more thoroughly . the second type is small and hard and is not eaten , having had all the nutrients extracted from it ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
the eastern cottontail is a vegetarian , with the majority of its diet made up of complex carbohydrates and cellulose . the digestion of these substances is made possible by caecal fermentation . the cottontail must reingest fecal pellets to reabsorb nutrients from its food after this process . their diet varies between seasons due to availability . in the summer , green plants are favored . about 50 % of the cottontail ' s intake is grasses , including bluegrass and wild rye . other summer favorites are wild strawberry , clover and garden vegtables . in the winter , the cottontail subsists on woody plant parts , including the twigs , bark and buds of oak , dogwood , sumac , maple and birch . as the snow accumulates , cottontails have access to the higher trunk and branches . feeding activity peaks 2 - 3 hours after dawn and the hour after sunset .
wildlife damage control no . 7 ,
cottontail rabbits .
available free of charge from your county extension office or the college of agricultural sciences web site .
equipment used in studying new england cottontail movement patterns . top to bottom : radio collar , receiver , and ear tag , all used to identify individual rabbits .
in connecticut , research into new england cottontail distribution had begun as early as october 2000 , and the state has been engaged in all facets of the regional new england cottontail initiative since its 2009 inception . to date , hundreds of acres of habitat on connecticut’s public and private lands have been enhanced in patches ranging from 6 to 100 acres in size . these projects benefit not only the new england cottontail , but more than 50 species of greatest conservation need that depend on young forest habitat .
whereas the snowshoe hare inhabits dense coniferous forests , even at the highest elevations , the eastern cottontail thrives in deciduous forest clearings and edges , meadows , farmlands , brushy fields , the edges of swamps and marshes , and residential areas , generally at elevations below 300 m ( 1000 ft ) . forms ( shallow depressions worn or scratched in the soil and located in thick vegetation or brush piles ) and at times , hollow logs or the unused burrows of other mammals , provide shelter for the cottontail ; it does not dig burrows .
the eastern cottontail is the most familiar rabbit in virginia and easily recognized by most virginians . the upper body parts are typically reddish - brown , lower parts are white , and it often has a white spot on the forehead . its short , fluffy tail is also white , hence the name cottontail . they are typically about 16 . 5 inches long and weigh approximately 3 lbs . rabbits resemble rodents , but are actually lagomorphs . unlike rodents , rabbits have a short tail , large hind legs , and two sets of upper incisors .
gonzales j . , lara c . , vazquez j . and martinez - gomez m . 2007 . demography , density , and survival of an endemic and near threatened cottontail
eastern cottontail kits might be born in an old burrow , but it’s more likely to be a narrow hole 4 to 6 inches deep ( 10 to 15 . 3 cm ) , dug by their mother in tall grasses , under thick bushes or another place she thinks is safe . the hiding place is lined with grass and soft fur she plucked from her own body for insulation .
in spring and summer , new england and eastern cottontails feed almost entirely on tender grasses , leaves , and herbs . cottontails , and eastern cottontails in particular , may also feed on crops , such as peas , beans , and lettuce . in winter , bark , twigs , and buds of shrubs and young trees are eaten . rabbits will also re - ingest their own fecal pellets , increasing their level of vitamins and minerals .
captive reared new england cottontail ready to be released at a site that contains appropriate habitat ( young forest ) . biologists will monitor the rabbit through the use of radio telemetry .
the eastern cottontail’s soft , dense fur varies from brown to reddish - brown or grey on the upperparts of the body ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) , with a sprinkling of black ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . there is usually a reddish - brown patch on the back of the neck ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) , but this may be yellowish - brown to black in individuals from south america ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the underside of the eastern cottontail’s body is white , as is the underside of its tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the tail is usually held up against the animal’s back , meaning that this white surface is clearly visible ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
eastern cottontails are solitary , except when mating or raising young . despite this , they have a sense of community : they may warn others about perceived danger by stamping their hind feet to transmit vibrations through the ground .
the eastern cottontail is predated by many different animals , including foxes , coyotes , hawks , owls , cats , dogs , weasels and snakes ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . this species usually relies on its ability to remain hidden to avoid predators , but to escape danger it will also suddenly dash away , its white tail flashing ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .
chapman j . a . and morgan ii r . p . 1973 . systematic status of the cottontail complex in western maryland and nearby west virginia . wildlife monographs 36 : 3–54 .
scribner k . t . and warren r . j . 1990 . seasonal demography and movements of cottontail rabbits on isolated playa basins . the journal of wildlife management 54 : 403–409 .
the eastern cottontail mates between february and september . the female builds a nest in a depression in the ground and lines it with soft materials and fur from her chest . the female gives birth about a month after mating . she has between one to nine babies , although she usually will have four to five young . the female feeds the young twice a day . the babies are weaned after about three weeks and leave the nest after about seven weeks . the female may mate again just hours after giving birth . females can have three or four litters a year . eastern cottontails are ready to mate when they are three months old .
introduced rabbits the eastern cottontail ( sylvilagus floridanus ) was introduced to several areas in washington as a game animal beginning in the 1930s . it averages 17 inches in length and is light brown in color ; the white underside of its 2 - inch tail is readily visible when the rabbit runs . it is commonly seen along roads , brushy fencerows , and blackberry thickets in and around areas where it has been introduced .
pennsylvania ' s cottontail rabbit population was relatively small prior to european settlement , when forests covered much of the state . by the early 1900s , most of pennsylvania ' s forests had been cleared . during the 1920s to 1930s cottontail populations peaked , as cleared areas grew into brush and young forests , and small farms with fencerows , brushy areas , and old fields were common .
body : eastern cottontail rabbits are named for their short , white cottony - looking tail . the hair on the upper part of their body consists of a dense , buff - brown underfur covered by longer , coarser , gray - and black - tipped guard hairs . their underside is white . they shed their hair twice a year . their summer coat is short and brown , and their winter coat is longer and grayer .
eastern cottontails have two different fur coats each year . during the summer they have short brown fur with a white belly . during the winter the fur becomes longer and grayer , with a white belly . all year long the underside of the tail is white . this white tail is the source of their common name . adult eastern cottontails reach a length of 395 to 477 mm . they also have very large eyes for their size . females are slightly larger than males .
the eastern cottontail is a typical rabbit with long ears and hind legs . the tail is short , fluffy , 30 - 70 mm ( 1 . 2 - 2 . 8 in ) in length , brown above and white below . except for the rust colored nape , the upper parts of the body and chest are pinkish or reddish to grayish brown sprinkled with black . the underparts are white to grayish white . the large protruding brown eyes are encircled with white or buff . a white or light brown spot or blaze is present on the forehead . adults are 380 - 461 mm ( 15 - 18 in ) in length and weigh approximately 825 - 1350 g ( 1 . 8 - 3 . 0 lb ) . females are slightly larger than males . the eastern cottontail is smaller than the snowshoe hare and does not develop a white winter coat .
friley c . e . jr 1955 . a study of cottontail habitat preferences on a southern michigan farming area . michigan department of conservation , pittman - robertson project no . 48 : 1–42 .
historically , eastern cottontails inhabited a variety of habitat types , including deserts , swamps , and forests . they are now most often found in meadows , orchards , farmlands , bushes and areas with low bushes , vines and low deciduous trees .
full grown eastern cottontails are about 15 to 19 inches long ( 38 to 49 cm ) and weigh 2 to 4 pounds ( 0 . 9 to 1 . 8 kg ) . males and females are generally the same size and color .
ears and hearing : eastern cottontails have large ears , about 2 to 3 inches long ( 4 . 9 to 7 . 6 cm ) , which they hold straight up and can swivel independently . their sense of hearing is very keen .
habitat and diet : eastern cottontails tend to use open fields , meadows , yards , and other grassy areas . new england cottontails require large patches of shrubland or young forest , often called thickets , with dense , tangled vegetation . these young forests are generally less than 25 years old . once large trees grow in a stand , the shrub layer tends to become thin , creating habitat that the new england cottontail no longer finds suitable .
cottontail populations have declined over the past fifty years or so . the cause of the decline has been the loss of early successional habitat ( particularly woody escape cover ) due to conversion of farmland to other uses , changes in farming practices , and urbanization . these habitat changes have likely been exacerbated by increases in the cottontail’s important predators . however , areas with good habitat can still support abundant populations .
the cottontail breeding season typically begins in late february and lasts through september . however , some breeding activity occurs in january . gestation lasts 27 - 32 days and most young are born march - july .
eastern cottontails are solitary . they will chase other rabbits our of their home ranges . they are most active during the night but especially in the early morning hours and at dusk . they do not hibernate , so they can be seen during the winter .
) . cottontails depend more on ducking and dodging than upon speed to escape their enemies and will often travel in a circuitous route and return to near their starting place . eastern cottontails do not take to water readily , but they can swim if necessary .
because the necropsied animals ( i . e . , two hares and one cottontail ) were naturally infected by ebhs , the identified strains from both species were amplified , sequenced and compared . the capsid protein ( vp60 ) amplified by rt - pcr from the cottontail was completely sequenced ( genbank jx195102 ) and compared to the sequence of virus isolated from one hare found dead in the same area and period ( genbank kf591083 )
eastern cottontails have 17 , 000 taste buds ( humans have 8 , 000 to 10 , 000 ) , so they enjoy an intense flavor array , with subtleties we humans can’t imagine . perhaps that’s what makes greens tasty to them and boring to many humans .
the single most effective way to increase cottontails on an area is to increase both the quantity and quality of cottontail habitat . the main goal is to provide plenty of escape cover in close proximity to feeding areas .
chapman j . a . , harman a . l . and samuel d . e . 1977 . reproductive and physiological cycles in cottontail complex in western maryland and nearby west virginia . wildlife monographs 56 : 1–73 .
an adaptable and successful species , the eastern cottontail is able to survive in a wide variety of different habitats , including forests , prairies , swamps , deserts , farmland , pasture , hedgerows , glades and even urban areas ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . however , it often prefers open areas with nearby cover , such as mixed farmland and hedgerow , or open brushy or forest - border habitats ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
rabbits are short - lived ; probably none die of old age . research conducted on eastern cottontails suggests that only about 25 percent of individuals survive for two years , with the average lifespan about 15 months . mortality rates and lifespans for new england cottontails are probably similar .
: the eastern cottontail is a medium - sized rabbit in which the nape of the neck is rusty . the dorsal coloration varies from reddish - brown to grayish - brown sprinkled with black . the ears are dark grayish - tan bordered with black . the underparts are grayish - white except for the chest which is brownish . the short , fluffy tail is brownish above and white below . because the tail is usually turned upward when the rabbit runs , the white part is the most conspicuous and is the source of the common name , cottontail . the tops of the hind feet are tan to whitish . five toes are present on the forefeet and four on the hind feet . females possess four pairs of mammae .
leite e . a . 1965 . relation of habitat structure to cottontail rabbit production and harvest rates . ohio division of wildlife federal aid in wildlife restoration projects w - 103 - r - 8 , job 12 : 1–17 .
a cottontail ' s home range is dependent on food supply and terrain . the territory can encompass a range of five to eight acres and can increase during the breeding season . males usually have a larger home range than females .
sasse c ( 1983 ) ecological consequences of the introduction of the american cottontail , sylvilagus floridanus , into europe . report council of europe sn - us , 83 , research institute for nature management , leersum , the netherlands , p 33
sasse c ( 1983 ) ecological consequences of the introduction of the american cottontail , sylvilagus floridanus , into europe . report council of europe sn - us , 83 , research institute for nature management , leersum , the netherlands , p 33
) . the number of cottontail carcasses examined each year was highly variable and depended on local surveillance programs ( 3 on 2006 , 23 on 2007 , 12 on 2008 , 2 on 2009 , 50 on 2011 and 18 on 2012 ) .
living in extensive areas of thick young forest and shrubland habitat makes it less likely that a cottontail will become a predator’s meal - - and more likely that a population of new england cottontails will persist in a given area over the years .
eastern cottontails are mostly crepuscular ( active at dawn and dusk ) and spend most of the day hidden within thick cover ; or burrows in harsh weather . they occasionally pop out in mid - day to nibble along the edge of shrubs , in the flower garden or in a patch of grasses .
results of serological analysis for rhd and ebhs antibodies in cottontails during the first survey . results of serological analysis for rhd and ebhs in cottontail sera from three areas in the alessandria province ( black columns = abrhdv ; grey columns = abebhsv ) .
bond b . t . , leopold b . d . , burger l . w . jr and godwin k . d . 2001 . movements and home range dynamics of cottontail rabbits in mississippi . the journal of wildlife management 65 : 1004–1013 .
hudson r . , rodriguez - martinez l . , distel h . , cordero c . , altbacker v . and martinez - gomez m . 2005 . a comparison between vegetation and diet records from the wet and dry season in the cottontail rabbit
eastern cottontails share habitats with seven other cottontails and six species of hares . they have been transplanted to areas outside their historically widespread range , which included swamps , prairies , woodlands , and forests . they have two ways of escaping danger : a zig - zag dash or a slink , in which they creep along , low to the ground , with their ears back . eastern cottontails are among the most prolific lagomorphs . females can have seven litters a year , producing as many as 35 young . litters , usually of 3 6 , are born in a fur - lined nest of dried grasses and leaves .
eastern cottontails are only native to the nearctic region . they are found from southern ontario and manitoba in canada to central and northwestern south america . in the united states , they range from the east coast to the great plains in the west . they have been introduced into portions of the western united states .
the eastern cottontail is an early successional species . they may be encountered in a variety of habitats , but are most abundant in areas that contain a mixture of weeds , grasses , and short brush . since rabbits are the favorite prey of so many predators , patches of escape cover in the form of dense shrub thickets , brushy fencerows , hedgerows blackberry thickets , and brush piles are crucial . areas where these patches are in close proximity to feeding areas provide ideal habitat . well - drained fields of dense grass , such as switchgrass , provide prime nesting cover .
connecticut has been engaged in all facets of the new england cottontail regional initiative since its inception in 2009 . the collaboration between state and federal natural resource agencies , non - governmental organizations , land trusts , and private landowners has set a new standard for wildlife conservation . to date , habitat on approximately 700 acres of public land and 600 acres of private land have been enhanced in patches ranging from six to 100 acres in size . these projects benefit not only the new england cottontail , but also 47 other high priority species that are dependent upon young forest habitat identified in connecticut’s wildlife action plan . although we are celebrating the success of our efforts to date , work will continue for many years to ensure the long - term stability of the new england cottontail .
bond b . t . , burger l . w . jr , leopold b . d . , jones j . c . and godwin k . d 2002 . habitat use by cottontail rabbits across multiple spatial scales in mississippi . the journal of wildlife management 66 : 1171–1178 .
] . in particular , the cottontail is blamed for having caused a drastic decline in hare populations in simplified agro - ecosystems , i . e . in areas with a low biodiversity and landscape heterogeneity , in which the two species are sympatric , competing for daytime refuges and feeding sites [
the results of the second serological survey conducted across a ten - year period confirmed the presence of specific ebhsv antibodies among cottontail populations in north - central italy . the prevalence found in cottontails was similar to that commonly detected in hares hunted in low - density hare populations in northern italy [
range : the new england cottontail occurs in new york east of the hudson river and across new england in connecticut , rhode island , and massachusetts , and into southern portions of new hampshire and maine . although historically found in vermont , new england cottontails no longer exist in that state .
as you may already know , rabbits are birthing machines . males may be sexually mature at one month of age and females within their first year . eastern cottontail breeding season is from about january through june , with most young born in may and june . mating and births occur a little later in the north and earlier in southern climates . the female is capable of producing a litter of up to eight or more babies ( called kits or kittens ) every 30 days , through five pregnancies per season . usually , they have three litters producing four or five kits . a different male fathers each litter . males don’t participate in the parenting .
the cottontail rabbit is a popular game species throughout its range . the regular hunting season in connecticut occurs from fall into winter . consult the current connecticut hunting and trapping guide for specific season dates and information . the guide is available at town halls , deep offices , and on the deep website .
for most landowners , cottontail management will not be a primary objective . however , habitat provided on marginal areas of your property can benefit cottontails as well . for example , on the edges of crop fields and pastures , you can “cut back” the woods and allow shrubs and young trees to naturally regenerate .
shortly before the litter arrives , the female cottontail digs a nest cavity in the ground about 15 to 18 cm deep . this depression is usually hidden by tall grass or bushes . the nest , or form , is lined with grass , and tufts of fur pulled from the female ' s body .
today , more intensive agricultural practices have produced larger fields and fewer fencerows , hedgerows , and other
wild
areas . urban sprawl with the associated increase in highways and roads has eaten up habitat , and young forest habitat has declined as forests have matured . as a result , cottontail populations have fallen .
teeth : their teeth are adapted to ripping and gnawing on plants , including tree bark . their upper front teeth grow continuously , which allows them to gnaw without wearing their teeth away . indeed , they must gnaw to keep their teeth “filed” to the proper length . so , eastern cottontails chew on our precious plants and shrubs for the food , but also because they need to .
eastern cottontails are chiefly nocturnal , leaving their forms with the approach of dusk and remaining active until late morning . most of the daylight hours are spent in a burrow , in a form amid dense vegetation , or in the shelter of a brush pile . most species of cottontails do not construct their own burrows , but , instead , occupy burrows made by other animals , particularly woodchucks .
the results of the second serological survey conducted across a ten - year period confirmed the presence of specific ebhsv antibodies among cottontail populations in north - central italy . the prevalence found in cottontails was similar to that commonly detected in hares hunted in low - density hare populations in northern italy [ 39 , 40 ] .
with its eyes located on the sides of its head , a rabbit has excellent peripheral vision that takes in a wide field of view . large ears and keen hearing let a rabbit listen closely to its surroundings to detect danger . a cottontail generally will hop from place to place , but it can put on a burst of speed and dodge quickly when fleeing a predator . a fox or coyote chasing a cottontail usually focuses on the rabbit’s white bobbing tail – when the rabbit suddenly stops and crouches , or ducks into a hiding place , its tail is no longer visible , and the predator may lose track of its prey .


the eastern mudsnail , tritia obsoleta , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family nassariidae , the nassa mud snails .

this species was previously known as ilyanassa obsoleta .

tritia obsoleta

nassariidae » tritia obsoleta , id : 336456 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
nassariidae » tritia obsoleta , id : 359029 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
gastropods eastern mudsnail - - ilyanassa obsoleta ( now tritia obsoleta ) including three or four live ones , and a lot of empty shells . also eggs of this species laid on red algae .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : tritia obsoleta ( t . say , 1822 ) - id : 1951900000
ilyanassa obsoleta shells that had washed up on the shore in san francisco bay .
i . obsoleta is also host to several trematode species including one that causes swimmers itch .
ilyanassa obsoleta on a green seaweed ( ulva lactuca ) , on a mudflat in san francisco bay .
informations on ilyanassa obsoleta has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
ilyanassa obsoleta on the left , with the native hornsnail cerithidea californica on the right . shells from san francisco bay .
( of ilyanassa obsoleta ( say , 1822 ) ) malacolog - western atlantic gastropod database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : ilyanassa obsoleta . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
ilyanassa obsoleta in a tide pool in a discarded tire , grazing among the green seaweeds ulva lactuca and enteromorpha intestinalis , in san francisco bay .
the eastern mudsnail ( ilyanassa obsoleta ) is a benthic prosobranch gastropod with a black or dark brown conical shell about 1 . 5 - 3cm in length containing 5 - 6 whorls ( cohen , 2005 ) .
ilyanassa obsoleta egg capsules on a log lying on a mudflat in san francisco bay . at the left and bottom of the image are the larger , smoother , urn - shaped egg capsules of the snail urosalpinx cinerea .
( of nassa obsoleta say , 1822 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
ilyanassa obsoleta most likely reached the pacific coast with shipments of atlantic oysters ( crassostrea virginica ) , traveling either as snails or as eggs that had been laid on the oysters . it has been collected in oyster beds on the atlantic coast , and shipments of these oysters to san francisco bay started in 1869 and peaked in the 1890s . ilyanassa obsoleta ' s first record on the pacific coast is in 1907 , on beds of atlantic oysters in san francisco bay . oysters were also shipped from the atlantic coast to willapa bay and boundary bay in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , and later from san francisco bay to willapa bay , and those shipments could have introduced ilyanassa obsoleta snails or eggs into the two northern bays .
brenchley , g . a . 1982 . predation on encapsulated larvae by adults : effects of introduced species on the gastropod ilynassa obsoleta . marine ecolology - progress series . vol9 , 256 - 262 . summary : journal article describing predators of nassarius obsoletus larvae .
several species of trematode flatworms parasitize ilyanassa obsoleta . one of these , the avian schistosome austrobilharzia variglandis , apparently reached the west coast with ilyanassa and caused outbreaks of
swimmers ' itch
in san francisco bay in the 1954 and near vancouver in 2001 .
curtis , l . a . and hurd , l . e . 1983 . age , sex , and parasites : spatial heterogeneity in a sandflat population of ilyanassa obsoleta . ecology vol . 64 no . 4 819 , 828 . summary : a sampling study in delaware .
ilyanassa obsoleta deposits its eggs in small , bristly , faceted capsules that are attached to hard surfaces . each capsule is about 3 mm high and contains several eggs . the capsules are often laid in rows on eelgrass blades , or in rows or clusters on shells , stones or debris on the mudflats . the young snails emerge as free - swimming larvae . the larvae drift in the plankton for 20 - 30 days , feeding on phytoplankton , before settling to the bottom and metamorphosing into tiny snails . ilyanassa obsoleta can live for up to 5 years .
in san francisco bay , ilyanassa obsoleta has been collected from the upper end of the carquinez strait and mare island strait in the north to the southernmost end of the bay , where it can be extremely abundant . it has been collected at angel island , but not from sites closer to the mouth of the bay .
the eastern mudsnail ( ilyanassa obsoleta ) is a facultative scavenger and deposit feeder which consumes diatoms , minute worms , algae , fish and crustacean remains , and other organic matter , including faeces ( frankenberg 1967 ) found on underwater surfaces . the mudsnail ingests sediment wholly and its digestive tract breaks down organic matter leaving almost completely inorganic waste ( scheltema 1964 ) .
ilyanassa obsoleta has been reported from but is apparently not established in birch bay in northern puget sound [ collected in the early 1950s ] , and in humboldt bay [ collected in 1932 ] , bodega harbor [ collected in 1968 ] , tomales bay [ collected in the 1920s - 1930s ] and bolinas lagoon [ collected in the 1920s or earlier ] in california .
( of ilyanassa obsoleta ( say , 1822 ) ) galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors
kelaher , brendan p ; levinton jeffrey s ; hoch j . matthew . , 2003 . foraging by the mud snail , ilyanassa obsoleta ( say ) , modulates spatial variation in benthic community structure . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , 2003 , vol . 292 , no2 , pp . 139 - 157 [ 19 page ( s ) ( article ) ] ( 2 p . 3 / 4 )
( of ilyanassa obsoleta ( say , 1822 ) ) galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
the eastern mudsnail , ilyanassa obsoleta ( = nassarius obsoletus ) , was originally only present on the atlantic coast of north america . it is now extremely abundant in north american pacific coast locations . in the san francisco bay it is reported to have overtaken the native california horn snail ( cerithidea californica ) , and reduced its population by means of competition and larval predation , leaving only small populations in secluded marsh pans , which are too salty for it to establish .
eastern mudsnail ( ilyanassa obsoleta ) egg capsules hatch into larvae after about ten days . the larvae are free swimming but rely primarily on currents for transport . larvae feed on phytoplankton 20 - 30 days before settling and metamorphosing ( cohen , 2005 ) , although this may be delayed until they find desirable substata ( scheltema , 1961 ) . they remain dormant during the winter and almost all of their growth takes place during the summer months . n . obsoletus has a life span of approximately 5 years ( scheltema , 1964 ) .
galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 343 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of nassarius obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) ) brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of nassarius obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) ) rosenberg , g . 2004 . malacolog version 3 . 3 . 2 : western atlantic gastropod database . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of nassarius obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
( of buccinum noveboracensis wood , 1828 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
( of buccinum oliviforme kiener , 1834 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
( of nassarius ( ilyanassa ) obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
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turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .
common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
( say , 1822 ) . accessed through : kennedy , m . k . , l . van guelpen , g . pohle , l . bajona ( eds . ) ( 2018 ) canadian register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 876835 on 2018 - 07 - 09
kennedy , m . k . , l . van guelpen , g . pohle , l . bajona ( eds . ) ( 2018 ) . canadian register of marine species .
galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 343 [ details ] available for editors
galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors
( of nassarius obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) ) brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors
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fofonoff pw , ruiz gm , steves b , simkanin c , & carlton jt . . national exotic marine and estuarine species information system . urltoken . access date :
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the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
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canada . british columbia . delta . boundary bay . on intertidal mud flats . ex - coll . d . & m . meyer . june 1989 .
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united states of america . new york . long island . nassau county . found on a muddy cove east of the fishing piers on the bayside of jones beach state park . may 1998 .
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eastern mudsnails are believed to be transported to the pacific along with atlantic oysters on which it lays its eggs ( cohen , 2005 ) .
principal source : carlton , j . t . 1992 . introduced marine and estuarine mollusks of north america : an end - of - the - 20th century perspective . journal of shellfish research , vol . 11 no . 2 , 489 - 505 . \ r \ n cohen , a . n . 2005 guide to the exotic species of san francisco bay . san francisco estuary institute , oakland , ca . www . exoticsguide . org . \ r \ n scheltema , r . s . 1964 . feeding habits and growth in the mud - snail nassarius obsoletus . chesapeake science . vol . 5 , no . 4 , 161 - 166 .
review : dr . james ( jeb ) byers , assistant professor , dept . of zoology , department of zoology university of new hampshire . usa
) introduction to the pacific coast of north america has caused a change in the native fauna . in the san francisco bay the once dominant california horn snail (
) has been reduced to small populations where habitats overlap . where the salinity is higher the populations of the california horn snail is able to survive ( race , 1982 ) .
. seasonal migration of these two species has demonstrated that their competition is a recurring problem and not an isolated incident . the invading eastern mudsnail has been found in other pacific locations but its ecological effects have yet to be evaluated . it is believed to be transported along with atlantic oysters , the eastern mudsnail poses a threat to new habitats and should be monitored ( race , 1982 ) .
miller , a . whitman , gregory m . ruiz , mark s . minton , richard f . ambrose . , 2007 . differentiating successful and failed molluscan invaders in estuarine ecosystems . marine ecology progress series . vol . 332 : 41�51 , 2007 published march 5
barnett , p . r . o . 1979 . effects of warm water effluents from power stations on marine . proceedings of the royal society of london . series b , biological sciences , vol . 180 , no . 1061 , a discussion on freshwater and estaurine studies of the effects of industry . ( mar . 21 , 1972 ) , 497 - 509 . summary : examination of effects of power stations on surrounding marine life .
byers , j . e . 1999 . competition between two estuarine snails : implications for invasions of exotic species . ecology : vol . 81 , no . 5 , 1225 - 1239 . summary : similar invasive competing with the native cerithidea californica .
carlton , j . t . 1992 . introduced marine and estuarine mollusks of north america : an end - of - the - 20th centrury perspective . journal of shellfish research , vol . 11 no . 2 , 489 - 505 . summary : article depicting several invsive species and their new locations . available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 august 2007 ]
cohen , a . n . 2005 guide to the exotic species of san francisco bay . san francisco estuary institute , oakland , ca , www . exoticsguide . org . summary : profile on nassarius obsoletus compiled by the san francisco estuary institute . available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 august 2007 ]
frankenberg , d . and smith jr . , k . l . 1967 . coprophagy in marine animals . limnology and oceanography , vol . 12 , no . 3 , 443 - 450 . summary : study determining coprophagy rates among various marine animals .
itis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2008 . online database nassarius obsoletus ( say , 1822 ) summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ value = 74111 [ accessed march 25 2008 ]
race , m . s . 1982 . competitive displacement and predation between introduced and native mud sails . oecologia . vol . 54 , no . 3 , 337 - 347 . summary : study on the effects of the invasive nassarius obsoletus on native cerithidea californica after its introduction to the san francisco bay .
rittschof , d ; sawardecker , p . ; and petry , c . 2001 . chemical mediation of egg capsule deposition by mud snails . journal of chemical ecology , vol . 28 , no . 11 , 2257 - 2269 . summary : examination of the use of chemoreception to determine the location of egg deposition in nassarius obsoletus .
scheltema , r . s . 1961 . metamorphosis of veliger larvae of nassarius obsoletus ( gastropoda ) in response to bottom sediment . biol . bull . vol . 120 , 92 - 109 . summary : shows that nassarius obsoletus larvae delay metamorphosis unil they find a desireable substrata .
scheltema , r . s . 1964 . feeding habits and growth in the mud - snail nassarius obsoletus . chesapeake science . vol . 5 , no . 4 , 161 - 166 . summary : examination of the diet and life cycle of nassarius obsoletus . available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 august 2007 ]
webpage dr . byers ecological research interests involve the study of species interactions in nearshore , estuarine , and marsh environments . the majority of his research focuses on quantitatively measuring impacts of non - indigenous species on native biota in invaded marine communities . some of his additional projects and interests include the study of : modification of ecological interactions by parasites ; physical - biological coupling in estuaries ; design and function of marine reserves ; development of biological indicators for detection of environmental perturbations and community - level effects of paralytic shellfish poisoning on aquatic systems .
the global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use
has a plain , dark black or brown shell , 1 . 5 - 3 cm high , with 5 - 6 whorls ( a whorl is one complete turn of the spiral shell ) and a blunt , conical spire . the shell ' s surface is decorated with a network of weak , beaded lines . the aperture ( the opening through which the snail emerges ) is roughly oval and about half the height of the shell , with a notch at the bottom . the outer rim of the aperture is thin and sharp , and the inner side of the aperture has a spiral fold near its base . the inside surface of the shell is a deep , purplish black . the shell is often covered with mud and algae ( and sometimes with the atlantic bryozoan
) , and in most older snails the tip of the shell is eroded .
carlton , j . t . 1979 . history , biogeography , and ecology of the introduced marine and estuarine invertebrates of the pacific coast of north america . ph . d . thesis , university of california , davis , ca ( pp . 404 - 412 ) .
cohen , a . n . and j . t . carlton . 1995 . nonindigenous aquatic species in a united states estuary : a case study of the biological invasions of the san francisco bay and delta . u . s . fish and wildlife service , washington , dc ( pp . 52 - 53 ) .
morris , r . h . , d . p . abbott and e . c . haderlie . 1980 . intertidal invertebrates of california . stanford university press , stanford , ca ( p . 289 ) .
race , m . s . 1982 . competitive displacement and predation between introduced and native mud snails . oecologia 54 : 337 - 347 .
cite this guide as : cohen , andrew n . 2011 . the exotics guide : non - native marine species of the north american pacific coast . center for research on aquatic bioinvasions , richmond , ca , and san francisco estuary institute , oakland , ca . revised september 2011 . urltoken
text searches may yield weird results when combined with other filters . if you want to find observation of a particular species , use the taxon filter .
found apparently drowned in the swimming pool , but revived after half an hour out of the water .
this was the only adult tree i could find in carl schultz park today , and this tree is on its last legs - - probably it will have to be cut down completely in a year or two .
i suppose that almost all the seedlings that i found today in this park came from seeds from this tree .
development of mantle organs , feeding , and locomotion in postlarval macoma balthica ( l . ) ( lamellibranchiata ) | request pdf
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development of mantle organs , feeding , and locomotion in postlarval macoma balthica ( l . ) ( lamellibranchiata )
. . . the smallest , most recently settled juveniles may be unable to overcome the challenges of suspension feeding at low re . as recent settlers , many species of bivalves use a form of deposit feeding known as pedal feeding before eventually switching to suspension feeding [ 41 , 42 ] . experiments with even more recently settled juvenile bivalves than those studied here may reveal a minimum size for siphonate suspension feeding . . . .
. . . the smallest , most recently settled juveniles may be unable to overcome the limitations of suspension feeding at low re . many species of bivalves perform a form of deposit feeding known as pedal feeding upon settling before eventually switching to suspension feeding ( caddy , 1969 ; reid et al . , 1992 ) . we hypothesize that experiments with more recently settled siphonate juvenile bivalves may reveal a minimum size and re for siphonate suspension feeding . . . .
. . . the planktonic life stage ( ca . 6 weeks ) ends when the individual has reached a sufficient size and developmental stage ( including increased mobility of the foot ) to metamorphose and settle to the seafloor ( caddy , 1969 ) . the majority of the very newly settled bivalves encountered in the baltic sea have a size of 250–300 µm ( ankar , 1980 ; elmgren et al . , 1986 ; olafsson , 1989 ) . peak settling in the northern parts of the baltic sea typically occurs in july . . . .
. . . the observed inconsistency between the growth and settling of the early - stage bivalves can be explained by proximate factors that regulate settling . for successful meta - morphosis and settling from the planktonic phase to the benthos , the individuals need to reach a sufficient size or weight and developmental stage , including increased mobility / appearance of the foot ( caddy , 1969 ; drent , 2002 ) . shell growth alone , the growth measure used in our experiment as in many other studies , does not automatically reflect the overall biomass production and developmental stage of the organism ( lewis and cerrato , 1997 ; wood et al . , 2008 ) . . . .
. . . m . balthica spawning starts after water temperature has reached approximately 7uc in spring and continues until a temperature of about 14uc is reached [ 36 ] . the growth rates in the area are not well recorded , but the time spent in the plankton is generally longer than in fully marine systems ( 2–5 weeks [ 37 ] ) , and it is estimated that the duration of the planktonic phase could be . 6 weeks long . . . .
. . . weeks long . the planktonic life stage ends when the individual has reached a sufficient developmental stage ( including increased mobility of the foot ) and size ( shell length ) to metamorphose and settle to the seafloor [ 37 ] . a majority of the very newly settled bivalves encountered in our system have a size of 250–300 mm383940 . . . .
. . . p . persica presents two noteworthy characters that seem to be constant through subfamily tellininae : an outer demibranch with a single lamellae and a pericardial region with no recovering outer demibranch . macominae , represented by genus macoma , presents an outer demibranch with both lamellae throughout the gill ( caddy , 1969 ; kennedy et al . , 1989 ; thiriot - quiévreux & wolowicz , 1996 ; arruda & domaneschi , 2005 ; although in simone & wilkinson , 2008 , the assumed macominae representative , macomona , has a
tellininae
gill type ) . in p . persica the presence of outer demibranchs is just in the third distal region of the gill , whereas in others representatives of tellininae , the outer demibranch seems to be located at half end of the gill ( simone & wilkinson , 2008 ) . . . .
. . . all of these present anterior adductor muscle less elongated than p . persica . this character is common in others tellinids , such as macoma balthica ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( caddy , 1969 ) and m . biota ( arruda & domaneschi , 2005 ) , species that presents the most dorso - ventrally elongated anterior adductor muscles . the foot protractor muscle in p . persica presents an insertion area penetrating in the superior third of the anterior adductor muscle insertion area , not completely separating this muscle , as in s . capsoides , moerella nitens , pinguitellina pinguis , tellinides timorensis ( simone & wilkinson , 2008 ) and tellina petitiana ( barón & ciocco , 1997 ) . . . .
. . . when the juveniles are ¢ltering , without using foot - sweeping or pedallocomotory behaviour , the inhalant current is created by cilia on the foot but the foot is not extended , as described in interstitial pedal feeding . many bivalve species exhibit these distinct modes of feeding ( caddy 1969 , lopez & holopainen 1987 , reid , mcmahon , foighil & finnigan 1992 . some bivalves , such as corbicula £uminea ( reid et al . 1992 ) and pisidium spp . . . .
. . . some bivalves , such as corbicula £uminea ( reid et al . 1992 ) and pisidium spp . ( lopez & holopainen 1987 ) , use these feeding behaviours throughout their lives , whereas other bivalves exhibit pedal feeding only as juveniles ( caddy 1969 ) . similar pedal feeding behaviours were described for juveniles of the marine lamellibranch macoma balthica by caddy ( 1969 ) . . . .
. . . ( lopez & holopainen 1987 ) , use these feeding behaviours throughout their lives , whereas other bivalves exhibit pedal feeding only as juveniles ( caddy 1969 ) . similar pedal feeding behaviours were described for juveniles of the marine lamellibranch macoma balthica by caddy ( 1969 ) . . . .
. . . effects of live coralline cue ( present vs . absent ) and rhodolith structural complexity ( high vs . low ) on the ln - transformed total number of settlers and post - settlement size ( maximum shell depth in µm ) using a 2 - way fixed factor anova substrates and thus may provide micro - successional mechanisms favorable to larval settlement ( bourget et al . 1994 ) . it is unclear exactly what role biofilms play in scallop settlement , but it may be related to the transition from feeding with a ciliated velum to the gill filament of the benthic phase ( caddy 1969 ) . this may serve as a mechanism by which complex rhodolith surfaces contribute to enhancing larval settlement and needs further examination . . . .
progressive loss of byssus attachment with size in the sea scallop , placopecten magellanicus ( gmelin . . .
byssus formation persists after metamorphosis in placopecten magellanicus ( gmelin ) , but only a proportion of the population is attached at any one time ; any individual alternates between attached and unattached phases . the proportion attached decreases progressively from 75 % for juveniles 2–5 mm in diameter to almost zero for scallops larger than 120 mm . time to 50 % attachment ranges from 7 . . . [ show full abstract ]
the divergence between most stock assessments and studies in marine ecology is characterized by the low priority usually given to assessing the holding capacity of marine habitats . habitats of high structural complexity are relatively uncommon in shelf waters , are contagiously distributed , and are damaged incidentally by bottom - towed gear . structurally complex habitats are used by many . . . [ show full abstract ]
underwater observations on tracks of dredges and trawls and some effects of dredging on a scallop gr . . .
tracks of three types of fishing gear in bottom sediments were observed from a submersible in chaleur bay ( gulf of st . lawrence ) . tracks left by past otter trawling activities covered at least 3 % of the bottom by area and were considered to have been made by trawl doors . shallow tracks made by inshore and offshore scallop dredges during the course of the study could be distinguished from each . . . [ show full abstract ]
the efficiency of an 8 - ft scallop drag was estimated from population density measurements by scuba divers . density measurements had to be made with an enclosed quadrat because of scallop swimming activity . scallops responded to approaching objects by facing away from them and swimming . a steep rise usually preceded level swimming at a mean height of 0 . 4 m from bottom . point - to - point swimming . . . [ show full abstract ]
peaceful beach . . . or is it . . . | exotic shells in weird places
i naively assumed there would be very little at all . but i was wrong !
first i should explain that the harlem
river
is not actually a river - - it is a tidal inlet , and so is the east
river
. they are both part of the complex geography of the estuary of the hudson river . thus the harlem river is saltwater , not freshwater , but the water may almost never be at full seawater salinity , because it is an estuarine environment .
on randall ' s island park during low tide , there is a very small sand beach on the harlem river . there is usually some beach drift there , and it is quite interesting . so far i have found three crab species , a jellyfish species , a comb jelly , and various species of green , brown , and red algae .
with a lot of careful and thorough searching over a number of visits , i / we have also managed to find a surprising number of marine mollusk species , including four live species and quite a few fresh - dead shells in good condition .
the species i have found so far are listed here , in decreasing order of commoness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bivalves
these three species are very surprising for such an urban locality , the shining macoma being the biggest surprise of all , as this species was thought to be very particular about where it lives , and it is usually only found far out on long island where there is very little pollution .
because on this beach i have seen quite a lot of shells of mya arenaria which have a neat hole drilled in them , i was expecting at some point to find the shell of a moon snail .
this shell is fairly fresh but very broken - - presumably the snail was eaten by a large crab or a strong - jawed fish .
a very tiny live juvenile on the inner surface of the broken shell of neverita duplicata .
that might tend to suggest that the moon snail shell was inhabited by a hermit crab before the shell was broken and the contents eaten by a predator .
i took this red alga home to photograph it better , and i was amazed to see that it had several rows of tiny eggs attached to it .
they are very tiny , only about 2 mm across . they look identical to the egg masses of this species .
a tiny live example of mercenaria mercenaria - - i put it back of course .
this observation is for the upper shell - - the pink rayed tellin , not the all - white one at the bottom , which is ameritella agilis .
these two tellin shells were photographed while they were still in a small but sturdy plastic ziplock bag , which is why the photo looks a little odd .
my friend steve rosenthal sent two of the exact same kind of pink - rayed tellins from long island to harry g . lee , and harry looked at the pallial line inside the shells , and confirmed that they were definitely angulus versicolor .
two are paired valves , and two , including the largest one , are single valves .
probably very few shell hunters on the harlem river . lots of time for accumulation .
that sounds logical sarka , and that probably helps in some ways , but in general , beach drift does not get a chance to accumulate there .
that ' s because the harlem river is fairly narrow , and the beach is quite small and fairly flat . every time a boat such as the ferry boats and the circle line boats go by , the waves created by the boat ' s wake run all the way up the little beach to the sea wall and back down again , washing almost every shell back into the water again ! many of the shells are thin and fragile , and they do not last long when they are washed around roughly like that .
yesterday there were seven neighborhood children from east harlem on this little beach , and they were playing in the water , and also collecting some shells . : ) maybe when it gets to be full summer more children will visit there .
i would be interested in digging a few holes , see that ' s in there and also test the soil for contaminants . also the water . that would be interesting & fun : )
there was a fish count supposedly going on yesterday on the island . i will try to see if i can get the results . maybe they tested the water ?
@ sarka - - i wish you were close enough to do that , then also i could learn from you .
that would be nice . no , i don ' t go that way anymore . however , when you are down in the caribbean next time , i ' ll go out of my way ! always looking for somewhere new to go . btw , i bumped into your publications in reseachgate a while back .
ed and i will almost certainly be on nevis next year again as usual for 4 weeks in april or may . but nevis is a little expensive to get to .
i have to get a lot more of my publications up on researchgate - - i just never seem to get around to doing that .
the salinity was tested there during the annual fish count last week , and it was 20 . 5 ppt .
i am amazed that all these species can tolerate brackish water . i did not know that .
don ' t take that number as gospel . sometimes the refractometers get out of calibration . it may not have been reading correctly . if you send me a water sample i can double check it for you .
that ' s very kind of you sarka . the water is very murky though - - is that a problem ?
5 tablespoons will be more than enough . it doesn ' t need to get here fast .
let me first see if i can get the ripa staff to test it again for me .
yesterday the natural areas staff told me the ranges of salinity that they get when they test it . it is often around 20 . apparently it ranges from 30 down to 12 .
trigonia fósil de la formación san juan raya de haec aprox . 100 millones de años .
i bought it from a museum . simply labeled “mammoth” , i’m going to have to assume it’s a primigenius .
found in 2010 . not from a living organism mind you ; ) more than 5 million years old .
bought at a museum in florida , they claimed it was real . if so , it was from a very , very big shark .
might i add , that i think the taxon page for meg should be changed from carcharodon megalodon , to carcharocles megalodon , as the general consensus among scientists is that the shark belonged to a different genus and whole different family from great white sharks .
we’re putting tiny ice age fossils to work to tell a story about ancient ecosystems around what is now los . . .
i made this field to help keep track of the occasional fossil observation that ' s added .
we used to track fossils as one of the drop - down values in our field
animal sign and song
but that wasn ' t as elegant ( e . g . , there were fossil plants ) . having a separate fossil field also allows us to also add
animal sign and song
to observations with values like
shell / exoskeleton
, or
scat
for the coprolites .
i could add that while fossil observations are welcome , the inaturalist tree of life doesn ' t attempt to maintain all of the extinct species .
i ' ve just added
sub - fossil
to the drop - down list for use flagging observations of centuries extinct remains that have not yet fossilized ( such as new zealand ' s extinct moa ) .
so in the data quality page , should something marked fossil not be marked
recent evidence of organism
? they seem incompatible .
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distribution range : 48°n to 28 . 5°n ; 81 . 1°w to 64°w . distribution : canada ; canada : gulf of st . lawrence , new brunswick ; usa : . . .
distribution range : 48°n to 28 . 5°n ; 81 . 1°w to 64°w . distribution : canada ; canada : gulf of st . lawrence , new brunswick ; usa : massachusetts , new york , new jersey , virginia , north carolina , south carolina , georgia , florida ; florida : east florida , west florida [ details ]
brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
rosenberg , g . 2004 . malacolog version 3 . 3 . 2 : western atlantic gastropod database . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]