limacina is a genus of swimming predatory sea snails commonly known as sea butterflies in the family limacinidae .

this genus contains some of the world 's most abundant gastropod species .

etymological meaning of the generic name limacina is " snail-like " .

as pelagic marine gastropods , limacina swim by flapping their parapodia , inspiring the common name sea butterflies .

sea butterflies are part of the clade thecosomata .

sea angels , similar to limacina , are in the order gymnosomata .

both of these orders are still referred to as " pteropods " .

sea butterflies of the order thecosomata have a shell , while sea angels in the order gymnosomata do not .

limacina

species limacina cucullata gould , 1852 accepted as limacina rangii f . antarctica woodward , 1854 accepted as limacina rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 )
subspecies limacina helicina antarctica woodward , 1854 accepted as limacina rangii f . antarctica woodward , 1854 accepted as limacina rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 )
species limacina balea møller , 1841 accepted as limacina retroversa ( j . fleming , 1823 ) ( synonym )
forma limacina helicina f . antarctica woodward , 1854 accepted as limacina rangii f . antarctica woodward , 1854 accepted as limacina rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 )
the earliest larvae stages of c . limacina feed on phytoplankton , but from the later laval stage this changes to limacina . [ 8 ] the developement of these two species is parallel and small c . limacina feed on limacina of a similar size , while large c . limacina avoid small limacina ( including its larvae ) .
variety clione limacina var . typica meisenheimer , 1906 accepted as clione limacina ( phipps , 1774 ) ( synonym )
the pteropod clione limacina feeds almost entirely on the genus limacina : on limacina helicina and on limacina retroversa . also the pteropod paedoclione doliiformis feeds on those two species only , but solely on juveniles with shells smaller than 1 mm .
variety clione limacina var . meridionalis pruvot - fol , 1926 accepted as clione limacina ( phipps , 1774 ) ( synonym )
the type locality of limacina helicina is
arctic seas
. limacina helicina is the only thecosome pteropod in arctic waters .
forma limacina antarctica f . rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 ) accepted as limacina rangii f . rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 ) accepted as limacina rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1834 )
left : sea angel ( clione limacina ) . right : sea butterfly ( limacina helicina ) . pictures : russ hopcroft ( arctic ocean diversity ) .
limacina helicina plays a significant ecological role as a phytoplankton grazer . limacina helicina is obligate ciliary feeder . gilmer & harbison ( 1991 ) hypothetized , that limacina helicina are
web trappers
, who are also chemically attracting its motile prey .
limacina bulimoides ( d’orbigny ) : kunz , p . 64 , pl . 2 .
the life cycle of limacina helicina lasts about 1 year or 1 . 5–2 years .
discussion – presumably this also is an undescribed species , belonging either to heliconoides or limacina .
adults feed in a predator - prey relationship almost exclusively on the sea butterflies of the genus limacina : on limacina helicina and on limacina retroversa . the feeding process of clione limacina is somewhat extraordinary . the buccal (
mouth
) apparatus consists of three pairs of buccal cones . these tentacles grab the shell of limacina helicina . when the prey is in the right position , with its shell opening facing the radula of clione limacina , it then grasps the prey with its chitinous hooks , everted from hook sacs . then it extracts the body completely out of its shell and swallows it whole .
species limacina tanzaniaensis l . j . cotton , a . w . janssen , pearson & van driel , 2017 †
species limacina timi l . j . cotton , a . w . janssen , pearson & van driel , 2017 †
limacina bulimoides ( d’orbigny ) : janssen , p . 99 , pl . 1 , figs . 6 - 8 .
catherine sutera added the english common name
sea butterfly
to
limacina helicina ( phipps , 1774 )
.
in contrast to the traditional view , it was shown in 2010 that the distribution of this species is not bipolar ; arctic and antarctic individuals belong to two genetically distinct species : limacina helicina in the arctic , and limacina antarctica in the antarctic .
limacina ( heliconoides ) inflata ( d’orbigny ) : janssen , p . 14 , pl . 2 , figs 10 , 11 .
limacina bulimoides ( d’orbigny ) : shibata & ujihara , p . 158 , pl . 43 , figs . 3 , 4 .
also juvenile , relatively low - spired limacina valvatina ( reuss , 1867 ) looks like h . sondaari , but adult specimens of l . valvatina reach larger size and lack a reinforced apertural margin . limacina valvatina is not known to occur younger than late miocene .
limacina helicina has wing - like parapodia which evolved from the original gastropod foot ( as is the case in all other pteropods ) .
dadon , j . r . , 1984b . observaciones sobre dos formas de limacina helicina ( mollusca , pteropoda ) [ obesrevations on two formae of limacina helicina ( mollusca , pteropoda ) physis ( buenos aires ) ( a ) 42 ( 102 ) : 10 , 15 .
major parts of the food of limacina helicina include tintinnid ( tintinnida ) , small crustaceans - copepods ( copepoda ) and juvenile specimen of its own species ( cannibalism ) . danish zoologist johan erik vesti boas reported diatoms ( bacillariophyceae ) , dinoflagellates ( dinoflagellata ) and tintinnids in the digestive system of limacina helicina in 1888 already . diatoms and dinoflagellates appear to pass the digestive system of adults largely intact . fecal pellets of limacina helicina contains small cells , dinoflagellates and diatoms as main largely intact food items and also few small fragments of tintinnids , limacina and copepods . all experiments performed on limacina helicina in the laboratory were done on starved specimens , because they do not feed in unnatural conditions .
limacina trochiformis ( d’orbigny ) : shibata & ujihara , p . 158 , pl . 43 , fig . 2 ( non d’orbigny ) .
( of limacina helicialis lamarck , 1819 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spiratella limacina blainville , 1824 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of limacina naticoides souleyet , 1852 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of clio limacina phipps , 1774 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
paranjape , m . a . , 1968 . the egg mass and veligers of limacina helicina phipps . veliger 10 : 322 - 326 .
researchers found 24 - 53 % individuals of limacina helicina with shells damaged by dissolution off the u . s . west coast in 2011 .
however , at the species level the geographical distribution is considered to be bipolar , as it occurs in both the arctic and antarctic oceans . remigio and hebert ( 2003 ) provided initial evidence for the genetic separation of limacina helicina helicina and limacina helicina antarctica . hunt et al . ( 2010 ) have quantified genetic distance within these taxa . hunt 2010 found a 33 . 56 % difference in cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene sequences between the
limacina helicina
which were collected from the arctic and the antarctic oceans . this degree of separation is sufficient for ordinal level taxonomic separation in other organisms , and provides strong evidence for the arctic and antarctic populations of limacina helicina differing at least at the species level . subspecies limacina helicina antarctica woodward , 1854 can be considered as a separate species limacina antarctica woodward , 1854 . a conservative divergence time estimate of 31 ma ( 95 % hpd interval 12–53 ma ) for arctic and antarctic taxa , indicates that they have undergone rapid independent evolution since the establishment of cold water provinces in the early oligocene . also there is different structure of the shell between limacina helicina and limacina antarctica .
adult limacina are absent for much of the year , leaving c . limacina without access to their main food source . a study of 138 c . limacina during a period without adult limacina found that the stomachs of 24 contained remains of amphipods and 3 contained remains of calanoids . this temporary prey change may allow them to survive in periods of starvation , although the species can survive for one year without food . under such exceptional starvation in the laboratory the length of slugs have decreased on average from 22 . 4 to 12 mm ( 0 . 88 to 0 . 47 in ) .
( of clione limacina var . typica meisenheimer , 1906 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
limacina helicina has been recognised as a species complex comprising two sub - species and at least five forms . in addition , the taxonomic category “forma” has been applied to designate at least three morphotypes of limacina helicina helicina ( acuta , helicina and pacifica ) and two morphotypes of limacina helicina antarctica ( antarctica and rangi ) . it is also known as limacina helicina rangii ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) . these forms typically have different geographical ranges , but it remains unclear as to whether forms represent morphological responses to different environmental conditions or are indeed taxonomically distinct , and if the latter , their level of taxonomic separation .
limacina ( munthea ) bulimoides ( orbigny ) : van der spoel , p . 53 , fig . 21 ( with extensive synonymy of mainly recent occurrences ) .
limacina helicina is a species of small swimming predatory sea snail in the family limacinidae , which belong to the group commonly known as sea butterflies ( thecosomata ) .
( of clione limacina var . meridionalis pruvot - fol , 1926 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
discussion – these specimens either represent heliconoides or limacina species , or even both , which can only be decided when more and more complete / adult specimens will be available .
pteropods are strict pelagic mollusks that are highly adapted to life in the open ocean . they are actively swimming in the water . limacina helicina is a holoplanktonic species . habitat of limacina helicina is upper epipelagic and glacial . it lives in temperatures from - 0 . 4 °c to + 4 . 0 °c or rarely up to 7 °c .
type species – ‘limacina elongatoides ’ ( aldrich ) = physa elongatoidea aldrich , 1887 ( eocene , ypresian ) . type species of plotophysops is p . bearnensis curry , 1982 .
limacina ( thilea ) inflata ( orbigny ) : van der spoel , 1967 , p . 50 , figs . 17 , 18 ( with extensive synonymy of recent occurrences ) .
clione limacina is found in cold waters of the arctic ocean , north pacific ocean and north atlantic ocean ] a closely related species , clione antarctica , is found in antarctic waters .
to barcode of life ( 36 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 107 publications ) ( from synonym clio helicina phipps , 1774 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 185 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) ( from synonym limacina helicina helicina ( phipps , 1774 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 29 publications ) ( from synonym spiratella limacina blainville , 1824 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 8 publications ) ( from synonym spiratella helicina ( phipps , 1774 ) ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to clemam ( from synonym clio helicina phipps , 1774 ) to clemam ( from synonym argonauta arctica fabricius o . , 1780 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym limacina helicialis lamarck , 1819 ) to clemam ( from synonym spiratella limacina blainville , 1824 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 11 nucleotides ; 10 proteins ) to genbank ( 3 nucleotides ; 3 proteins ) ( from synonym limacina helicina helicina ( phipps , 1774 ) ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to marine species identification portal to pesi to pesi ( from synonym argonauta arctica fabricius o . , 1780 ) to pesi ( from synonym clio helicina phipps , 1774 ) to pesi ( from synonym limacina helicialis lamarck , 1819 ) to pesi ( from synonym spiratella limacina blainville , 1824 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to itis
bosc l . a . g . ( 1817 ) . limacine . limacina . nouveau dictionnaire d ' histoire naturelle . 18 : 42 - 43 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
spirialis tertiaria tate spec . nov . , p . 196 [ partim , non tate , only pl . 20 , fig . 12a - c ; includes limacina tertiaria ( tate ) ] .
limacina inflata ( d’orbigny ) : collins , p . 179 , pl . 7 , figs . 3 - 5 [ partim , non figs . 6 - 8 = striolimacina imitans gabb ] .
möller , h . p . c . , 1841a . bemaerkninger til slaegten limacina lmk naturhist . tidsskrift kjøbenhavn 3 ( 4 - 5 ) or 5 - 6 ? : 481 - 490 .
falk - petersen s . , sargent j . r . , kwasniewski s . , gulliksen b . & millar r . - m . ( 2001 ) .
lipids and fatty acids in clione limacina and limacina helicina in svalbard waters and the arctic ocean : trophic implications
. polar biology 24 ( 3 ) : 163 - 170 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s003000000190 .
limacina inflata ( d’orbigny ) : janssen , p . 14 , pl . 2 , figs . 5 - 7 , pl . 3 , fig . 11 , pl . 10 , fig . 2 .
morton j . e . ( 1958 ) .
observations on the gymnosomatous pteropod clione limacina ( phipps )
. journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 37 : 287 - 297 .
wells , f . e . , 1983 . first record of the euthecosomatous pteropod limacina helicoides jeffreys 1877 from the indian ocean . j . malac . soc . aust . 6 : 89 - 90 .
to barcode of life ( 41 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 156 publications ) ( from synonym clione borealis pallas , 1774 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 226 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 3 publications ) ( from synonym clione limacina limacina ( phipps , 1774 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 376 publications ) ( from synonym clio borealis ( pallas , 1774 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 61 publications ) ( from synonym clio limacina phipps , 1774 ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) ( from synonym clione limacina limacina ( phipps , 1774 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym clio limacina phipps , 1774 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym clione borealis pallas , 1774 ) to clemam ( from synonym clio miquelonensis rang , 1825 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione filifera pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione gracilis massy , 1909 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione kinkaidi agersborg , 1923 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione minuta pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione papilionacea jeffreys , 1869 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione limacina var . typica meisenheimer , 1906 ) to clemam ( from synonym clione limacina var . meridionalis pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 17 nucleotides ; 15 proteins ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to marine species identification portal to marine species identification portal to opk opistobranquis to pesi to pesi ( from synonym clio limacina phipps , 1774 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione papilionacea jeffreys , 1869 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione minuta pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione kinkaidi agersborg , 1923 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione gracilis massy , 1909 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione filifera pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione borealis pallas , 1774 ) to pesi ( from synonym clio miquelonensis rang , 1825 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione limacina var . meridionalis pruvot - fol , 1926 ) to pesi ( from synonym clione limacina var . typica meisenheimer , 1906 ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym clio borealis ( pallas , 1774 ) ) to itis
lalli , c . m . and wells , f . e . , 1978 . reproduction in the genus limacina ( opisthobranchia : thecosomata ) . j . zool . london . 186 : 95 - 108 .
hsiao , s . c . t . , 1939a . the reproduction of limacina retroversa ( flem . ) . biol . bull . woods hole 76 ( 2 ) : 280 - 303 , 9 figs .
mileikovsky s . a . ( 1970 ) breeding and larval distribution of the pteropod clione limacina in the north atlantic , subarctic and north pacific oceans . marine biology 6 ( 4 ) : 317 - 334 .
mcgowan , j . a . , 1963 . geographical variation in limacina helicina in the north pacific . syst . assoc . publ . 5 ( speciation in the sea ) : 109 - 128 , 14 figs .
kobayashi , h . a . , 1974 . growth cycle and related vertical distribution of the thecosomatous pteropod spiratella ( ' limacina ' ) helicina in the central arctic ocean . mar . biol . 26 : 295 - 301
distribution – limacina bulimoides is widely distributed in the recent fauna of tropical and subtropical seas . pliocene specimens from the caribbean , the mediterranean and the philippines agree more closely with the recent form than the miocene specimens recorded here .
manteufel , b . p . , 1937 . contribution to the pteropod mollusc clione limacina phipps . bull . soc . natur . moscou ( biol . ) 46 ( 1 ) : 25 - 33 . [ in russian ]
hsiao , s . c . t . , 1939b . the reproductive system and spermatogenesis of limacina ( spiratella ) retroversa ( flem . ) . biol . bull . woods hole 76 : 7 - 25 , 7 figs .
beneden , p . j . van , 1841a . mémoire sur la limacina arctica . nouv . mém . acad . r . sci . bell . - lettr . bruxelles 14 : 1 - 14 , pl . 15 .
bednaršek n , feely ra , reum jcp , peterson b , menkel j , alin sr , et al . limacina helicina shell dissolution as an indicator of declining habitat suitability owing to ocean acidification in the california current ecosystem .
the larger specimen ( pl . 13 , fig . 2 ) resembles limacina valvatina ( see above ) , but as it is the only specimen of late oligocene age , i think it better to include it in open nomenclature .
lalli , c . m . & conover , r . j . 1973 . reproduction and development of paedoclione doliiformis , and a comparison with clione limacina ( opisthobranchia , gymnosomata ) . marine biology , 19 : 13 - 22 .
wells , f . e . , 1978b . subgeneric relationships in the euthecosomatous pteropod genus limacina bosc , 1817 . j . malac . soc . aust . 4 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 5 , 1 tab .
lalli , c . m . , & r . j . conover , 1973 . reproduction and development of paedoclione doliiformis , and a comparison with clione limacina ( opisthobranchia , gymnosomata ) . marine biology , 19 : 13 - 22 .
hermans c . o . & satterlie r . a . ( 1992 ) .
fast - strike feeding behavior in a pteropod mollusk , clione limacina phipps
. the biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , 182 : 1 - 7 .
hermans c . o . & satterlie r . a . ( 1992 ) .
fast - strike feeding behaviour in a pteropod mollusk , clione limacina phipps
. the biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , 182 : 1 - 7 .
rampal , j . , 1964 . etude de l ' opercule de spiratella ( = limacina ) inflata ( d ' orbigny , 1836 ) . bull . inst . océanogr . monaco 61 ( 1285 ) : 1 - 12 , 8 figs .
already constantine john phipps mentioned its
innumerable quantities
in arctic seas in 1774 . limacina helicina is a major component of the polar zooplankton . it can comprise > 50 % of total zooplankton abundance ( number of individuals per unit volume ) .
litvinova , n . m . and orlovskiy , g . n . , 1985 . feeding behaviour of clione limacina ( pteropoda ) . byull . kosk . obshch . ispyt . prir . ( otdbio . ) 90 ( 4 ) : 73 - 77 .
limacina helicina plays an important role in the marine food web as a major dietary component for predators such as large zooplankton , herring clupea sp . , chum salmon oncorhynchus keta , pink salmon oncorhynchus gorbuscha , rorquals , phoca hispida and other seals and birds .
vertical distribution is affected by the size and also by other factors . limacina helicina of the size from 0 . 2 to 0 . 4 mm lives mainly in depths from 0 m to 50 m . larger pteropods lives from 0 m to 150 m . for example , gilmer & harbison ( 1991 ) have found larger specimen of limacina helicina to occur mainly in depths 5–25 m with abundance up to 2 . 5 adults in m 3 . they do not occur much in upper 4 m probably because of turbulence .
piehl , a . , 2006 . gemeinsames auftreten der pteropoden limacina hospes rolle , 1861 und vaginella chattica janssen , 1979 im sternberger gestein ( chattium , oberoligozän ) . der versuch einer feinstratigraphischen positionierung von zwölf geschiebefundstücken . geschiebekunde aktuell , 22 : 5 - 20 .
conover , r . j . and lalli , c . m . , 1972 . feeding and growth in clione limacina ( phipps ) , a pteropod mollusc . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 9 : 279 - 302 , 8 figs .
gilmer , r . w . and harbison , g . r . , 1991 . diet of limacina helicina ( gastropoda . thecosomata ) in arctic waters in midsummer . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 77 ( 2 - 3 ) : 125 - 134 .
in svalbard , the life cycle of c . limacina appears to be at least 2 years . it is a hermaphrodite and observations suggest this is simultanious . it breeds during the spring and summer , and the eggs are about 0 . 12 mm ( 4 . 7 thou ) .
clione limacina is a prey of planktonic feeders , such as the baleen whales , which historically led to sailors naming it
whale - food
. some fishes are also its predators . for example , the chum salmon , oncorhynchus keta , is a major predator of sea angels .
( of limacina contorta sykes , 1905 ) janssen a . w . ( 2012 ) late quaternary to recent holoplanktonic mollusca ( gastropoda ) from bottom samples of the eastern mediterranean sea : systematics , morphology . bollettino malacologico 48 ( suppl . 9 ) : 1 - 105 . [ details ]
( of clio limacina phipps , 1774 ) phipps , c . j . ( 1774 ) . a voyage towards the north pole undertaken by h . m . command 1773 . london . i - viii , 1 - 253 . page ( s ) : 195 - 196 [ details ]
lalli , c . m . and wells , f . e . , 1973 . brood protection in an epipelagic thecosomatous pteropod , spiratella ( ' limacina ' ) inflata ( d ' orbigny ) . bull . marine sci . 23 ( 4 ) : 933 - 941 , 2 figs .
the first written record of this species was by friderich martens from spitsbergen in 1675 . limacina helicina was also observed during an 1773 expedition to the arctic led by constantine john phipps on the ships hms racehorse and on hms carcass and the species was described one year later , in 1774 .
kallevik , i . h . f . ( 2013 ) . alternative prey choice in the pteropod clione limacina ( gastropoda ) studied by dna - based methods . biology field of study - arctic marine ecology and resource biology . bio - 3950 ( 60 ect ) . the university center in svalbard .
discussion – although there are just two specimens , it was decided to introduce a new taxon as the characteristics are peculiar . the large size distinguishes the present species from similar eocene planispiral limacinids , such as heliconoides nitens ( lea , 1833 ) , h . texana ( garvie & hodgkinson in hodgkinson et al . , 1992 ) , limacina convolutus hodgkinson in hodgkinson et al . , 1992 or l . wechesensis hodgkinson in hodgkinson et al . , 1992 . although more or less similar in general shape , these species lack any apertural reinforcement structures ( limacina ) or these structures have an entirely different morphology .
( of limacina helicialis lamarck , 1819 ) lamarck [ j . - b . m . ] de . ( 1819 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres . tome sixième , 1re partie . paris : published by the author , vi + 343 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
limacina helicina is a protandric hermaphrodite . males are smaller , at sizes of 4–5 mm and then they change to females , which are larger than 5 mm . sperm is transferred by spermatophores during copulation . they lay eggs in ribbon - like clusters mainly in summer , but also a little in winter .
( of clione limacina var . typica meisenheimer , 1906 ) meisenheimer j . ( 1906 ) . die pteropoden der deutschen sud - polar expedtion 1901 - 1903 . deutsche sudpolar - expedition 1901 - 1903 9 ( zool . ) , 1 ( 2 ) : 92 - 152 pl . 5 - 7 [ details ]
pelseneer , p . , 1914 . l ' influence des courants dans la dispersion des organismes marins , 4 . extension de ' limacina lesueuri ' jusque dans la manche . ann . soc . r . zool . malacol . belgique 48 ( vol . jub . ) : 19 - 22 , fig . 3 .
conover , r . j . and lalli , c . m . , 1974 . feeding and growth in clione limacina ( phipps ) , a pteropod mollusc , 2 . assimilation , metabolism , and growth efficiency . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 16 : 131 - 154 , 7 figs .
very similar is a specimen illustrated by hodgkinson et al . ( 1992 , p . 21 , pl . 5 , figs . 1 - 3 ) under the name of limacina wechesensis hodgkinson . that specimen , however , has a differently shaped aperture , without reinforcements , and a wider umbilicus . its age is lutetian .
böer m . , graeve m . & kattner g . ( 2006 ) .
exceptional long - term starvation ability and sites of lipid storage of the arctic pteropod clione limacina
. polar biology 30 ( 5 ) : 571 - 580 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00300 - 006 - 0214 - 6 .
they produce large mucus webs to filter - feed on phytoplankton but also small zooplankton . they eat the web with the captured prey and then re - reproduce a web net . the web is large and spherical and it is difficult to see during the day because of diffuse reflection . webs are easier to see at night . limacina helicina is easily disturbed ( like all other thecosomata ) ; when disturbed , it retracts into its shell and destroys its web . gilmer & harbison ( 1991 ) have assumed , that limacina helicina feeds while motionless ( without actively swimming ) . its web enables them neutral buoyancy or allow them slow sinking only .
the large numbers of sea butterflies on the other hand are prey to another swimming species of sea gastropod , the sea angel , clione limacina . this marine gastropod owes its name to its large wing - like parapodia . it also feeds on jellyfish , whose nettle - cells are of little effect against the snail ' s slime .
( of limacina contorta sykes , 1905 ) sykes e . r . ( 1905 ) . on the mollusca procured during the
porcupine
expeditions 1869 - 1870 . supplemental notes , part ii . proceedings of the malacological society of london 6 : 322 - 332 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 323 [ details ]
conover r . j . & lalli c . m . ( 1972 ) .
feeding and growth in clione limacina ( phipps ) , a pteropod mollusc
. journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 9 ( 3 ) : 279 - 302 . doi : 10 . 1016 / 0022 - 0981 ( 72 ) 90038 - x .
( of clione limacina var . meridionalis pruvot - fol , 1926 ) pruvot - fol a . ( 1926 ) . mollusques pteropodes gymnosomes provenant des campagnes du prince albert ier de monaco . résultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht par albert 1er , prince souverain de monaco 70 : 1 - 60 pl . 1 - 3 [ details ]
sakthivel , m . , 1967 . a preliminary report on the distribution and relative abundance of euthecosomata with a note on the seasonal variation of limacina species in the indian ocean . in : proc . symp . ' indian ocean ' march 1967 . bull . n . i . s . i . 38 : 700 - 717 , 17 figs .
remarks – the taxon munthea van der spoel , 1967 ( p . 37 ) , was introduced as a subgenus of limacina for three recent species , viz . l . bulimoides ( d’orbigny , 1836 ) , l . ‘ cochlostiloides ’ tesch , 1907 , and l . trochiformis ( d’orbigny , 1834 ) , but without designation of a type species . according to art . 13 . 3 iczn , therefore , munthea is not an available name . janssen ( 2003 , p . 165 ) referred to munthea van der spoel , 1967 , and designated limacina trochiformis as type species . this fulfills arts . 13 . 1 . 2 and 13 . 3 of the code , but not art . 16 . 1 .
sakthivel , m . , 1973b . studies on limacina inflata d ' orbigny ( thecosomata , gastropoda ) in the indian ocean . in : b . zeitschel and s . a . gerlach ( eds ) . the biology of the indian ocean . ecological studies 3 . berlin , heidelberg , new york ( springer ) : 383 - 397 , 13 figs .
böer m . , gannefors c . , kattner g . , graeve m . , hop h . & falk - petersen s . ( 2005 ) .
the arctic pteropod clione limacina : seasonal lipid dynamics and life - strategy
. marine biology 147 ( 3 ) : 707 - 717 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00227 - 005 - 1607 - 8 .
the specimens recorded by hodgkinson et al . ( 1992 ) do not belong to this species , but seem to be related to limacina gormani ( see above ) . spiratella pseudopygmaea eames , 1952 ( p . 150 , pl . 6 , fig . 146a - b ) , based on juvenile specimens from the eocene of india / pakistan , might be related or even identical .
bandel , k . von , almogi - labin , a . , hemleben , c . and deuser , w . c . , 1984 . the conch of limacina and peraclis ( pteropoda ) and a model for the evolution of planktonic gastropods . n . jb . geol . paleont . , abhandl . 168 ( 1 ) : 87 - 107 , 2 tabs , 25 figs .
hunt b . , strugnell j . , bednarsek n . , linse k . , nelson r . j . , pakhomov e . , seibel b . , steinke d . & würzberg l . ( 2010 ) . poles apart : the
bipolar
pteropod species limacina helicina is genetically distinct between the arctic and antarctic oceans . plos one 5 ( 3 ) : e9835 . [ details ]
other marine gastropods have perfected the art of swimming and in so doing dispense with all their shell protection . the gastropod limacina helicina also called a sea butterfly , has changed its foot into two great parapodia , with the help of which it gets enough buoyancy to float through the water . sea butterflies feed on plankton , small crabs and gastropod larvae they catch from the water with a slime net .
discussion – considering the number of available specimens it seems very likely that the shells are fully grown . they represent a species unknown to date and their small size makes them incomparable to any known holoplanktonic gastropod . the presence of subsutural crests resembles similar structures present in species of the pseudothecosomatous genus peracle , but also , like limacina gormani ( see above ) , the columellar structures do not bear a resemblance to any species of that genus . there is some resemblance , both in size and shape , with the pseudothecosomatous genus cymbulia ( compare janssen , 2007a , pl . 22 , figs . 4 - 9 , late holocene red sea specimens ) . these shell forms , however , are relatively wider , have a large umbilicus and no subsutural crests . therefore , the species is included in the genus limacina with a query .
the shell is sinistral , subglobose , subdiscoidal , hyaline and very thin . the spire is depressed but it can be considered rather high in comparison of other limacina species . the shell has 5 - 6 transversally striated whorls . the suture is distinct . the last whorl is large and with very obscure keel next to its umbilicus . the shell has a wide umbilicus . the aperture is higher than it is wide .
4 . twelve nominal species of pteropods are described herein as new to science , viz . heliconoides daguini , h . merlei , h . pyrenaica , limacina ? vegrandis , from the ypresian ; creseis antoni and vaginella gaasensis from the rupelian , clio lozoueti and clio vasconiensis from the chattian ; diacrolinia cluzaudi from the aquitanian ; creseis roesti from the aquitanian / burdigalian ; and heliconoides mermuysi and creseis tugurii from the early burdigalian .
limacina helicina possesses a pair of flexible , wing - like appendages called parapodia which it beats in a complex 3d stroke pattern which resembles the wing kinematics of flying insects . by doing so , the animal effectively flies through the water . the sea butterfly uses a high angle of attack of approximately 45 - 50 degrees to generate lift , and it beats its wings 4 to 10 times per second . it propels itself using a version of the clap and fling mechanism described by torkel weis - fogh in small insects such as thrips . another aspect of locomotion by limacina helicina is the extreme , forward - back pitching ( called hyper - pitching ) which it experiences during each half - stroke of its wings . the animal rocks forward and backward by up to 60 degrees during each half - stroke . no other species is known to experience such extreme hyper - pitching during normal locomotion .
distribution – apart from the north sea basin and central paratethys , limacina valvatina is known from the langhian of northern italy and sicily , and from the chattian / aquitanian to langhian of malta ( janssen , 2004a and unpublished , rgm collections ) . in aquitaine , it occurs during the early and middle miocene , up to the serravallian . the mediterranean occurrences , like those from aquitaine , merely represent small specimens . obviously , this species preferred somewhat cooler water .
specimens illustrated by hodgkinson et al . ( 1992 ) as limacina pygmaea , from the stone city and cook mountain formations , wheelock marl member ( texas , u . s . a . ) , closely resemble l . gormani and , judging from the illustrations , i would not hesitate to include them in the present species . curiously , however , the age of these deposits is considered to be bartonian ( hodgkinson et al . , 1992 , text - fig . 1 ) , which makes their identity unlikely .
bednaršek , n . , feely , r . a . , reum , j . c . p . , peterson , b . , menkel , j . , alin , s . r . , & hales , b . ( 2014 ) . limacina helicina shell dissolution as an indicator of declining habitat suitability owing to ocean acidification in the california current ecosystem . proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences , 281 ( 1785 ) , 20140123 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2014 . 0123
to make the ‘new’ name munthea gen . nov . available , i here refer to van der spoel’s ( 1967 ) description and designate l . trochiformis as its type species . for the time being , however , this is a purely academic question , as i consider munthea to be a junior synonym of limacina bosc , 1817 . whenever a new nomenclature will be necessary for the limacinidae , the name munthea will at least be available . i thank philippe bouchet ( mnhn ) , who drew my attention to this situation ( in litt . , march 2006 ) .
discussion – for extensive synonymy of recent occurrences see van der spoel ( 1967 , p . 53 ) . the few specimens recovered from several localities in the aquitaine basin are all juvenile or severely damaged , and therefore difficult to compare with the recent species limacina bulimoides , with which they agree in proportions . one of the larger available specimens is compared ( pl . 10 , fig . 4 ) with an equally sized recent specimen ( pl . 10 , fig . 5 ) , which demonstrates that especially the early whorls in the miocene shell are slightly more convex .
sem images of shells of the pteropod limacina helicina helicina f . pacifica sampled during the 2011 cruise showing signs of in situ dissolution from ( a ) an onshore station , with the entire shell affected by dissolution , and ( b ) from the offshore region , with only the protoconch ( first whorl ) affected . indicated in the figure are : a , intact surface ; b , type i dissolution ; and c , severe dissolution ( type ii or type iii ) : see material and methods for description of dissolution types . ( online version in colour . )
description – in its typical form , this species has the ‘ideal’ limacina - shape ; a regularly conical spire , approximately as wide as high , straight tangents along the whorls , a semicircular aperture , a not reinforced apertural margin and a narrow umbilicus . the aquitaine specimens are all small to very small , the largest specimen ( pl . 12 , fig . 7 ) reaching just 0 . 75 mm . they show a slight variability in h / w - ratio , some are slightly higher than wide , some are relatively wider . apparently exclusively juvenile specimens were found .
excellent illustrations of the larval shell of paedoclione doliiformis danforth , 1907 , were published already by lalli & conover ( 1973 , p . 12 , figs . 4 , 5 ; 1976 , p . 237 , figs . 1 - 6 ) , who also gave illustrations of the larval shell of two other gymnosomatous gastropods , viz . clione limacina ( phipps , 1774 ) and pneumoderma atlanticum ( oken , 1815 ) . van der spoel & diester - haass ( 1976 , p . 88 , 2 figs . ) illustrated quite similar , but specifically unidentified quaternary gymnosomatous larval shells .
specimens identified as limacina aff . gramensis , recorded by janssen ( 1990a , p . 11 ) from five localities in southern australia , are all juvenile , but only one of these has a h / w - ratio over 110 , which is considered a reliable discriminating parameter to distinguish between l . valvatina and l . gramensis ( janssen & zorn , 1993 , p . 169 ) . most other specimens have a lower h / w - ratio , agreeing with l . valvatina . the available material from australia is too scarce and too juvenile to conclude on a specific identity .
janssen , a . w . 2000b . notes on the systematics , morphology and biostratigraphy of fossil holoplanktonic mollusca , 7 - 9 . 7 , clio lucai spec . nov . from the plio / pleistocene of northern italy , with notes on evolutionary lineages of the genus clio ; 8 , cavolinia grandis ( bellardi , 1873 ) from the early pliocene of new zealand , a further example of long - distance correlation by means of pteropods ; 9 . apertural reinforcements in limacina atypica ( laws , 1944 ) from the miocene of new zealand . basteria , 64 : 35 - 50 .
δ 15 n signatures of larvae and juveniles of t . capensis ( divided into size classes ) and potential prey items . similar groups from different cruises were calculated separately and ordered in sequence of season from austral winter to summer . phytoplankton samples were mixed samples dominated by coscinodiscus walesii ( “bacillariophyta” , diatoms ) or noctiluca scintillans ( “dinoflagellata” ) . “gastropoda” is limacina sp . and “harpacticoida” is microsetella sp . outlier box–whisker plot represents the median and first and third quartile . labels on the x - axis show taxonomic levels , larval size classes in mm standard length sl , and time of year ( mm / yy ) . shading indicates data already presented in schukat et al . ( 2014 ) .
discussion – this is a further record of pliocene occurrences of this species . janssen ( 1998 ) mentioned nine specimens from the piacenzian of the bowden shell beds ( jamaica ) , and referred to specimens from the pliocene of southern france and italy . in the present samples , the first records of pacific pliocene specimens , l . bulimoides is a common species , but most shells are damaged or deformed , commonly with the apices pressed down . from japan this species has only been recorded from the pleistocene ( blow zone n 23 ) ( shibata & ujihara , 1983 ; shibata , 1986 ) . the specimen illustrated by shibata & ujihara ( 1983 ) as limacina trochiformis is a juvenile shell of l . bulimoides .
discussion – for extensive synonymy see janssen & zorn ( 1993 , p . 179 ) . limacina valvatina is a common pteropod in the north sea and central paratethys basins , occurring from the late oligocene ( chattian ) to the late middle miocene ( ‘langenfeldian’ = serravallian ) . they reach their largest sizes in the ‘badenian’ ( = langhian ) of the paratethys ( janssen & zorn , 1993 ) with a shell height to over 2 mm . especially during the langhian / serravallian of the north sea basin and paratethys , l . valvatina develops rapidly in two directions , one with a very high shell , l . gramensis ( rasmussen , 1968 ) , with a shell height to over 3 mm and a h / w - ratio over 110 , and on the other hand to forms with a depressed to planorboid shell shape , namely l . ingridae janssen , 1989 , l . wilhelminae janssen , 1989 , and l . atlanta mörch , 1874 , the latter species continuing during the pliocene ( gürs & janssen , 2002 ) .
at stations where none of the top 100 m of the water column was undersaturated , almost no evidence of severe dissolution was present ( with the exception of station 21 where undersaturation started at 111 m ) . by contrast , higher percentages of water column undersaturation corresponded to an increase in the proportion of individuals with severe dissolution ( figure 3 ) , making this habitat less favourable for pteropods as it increases the tendency of their shell dissolution . consequently , with further shoaling of the depth of undersaturation in the upper 100 m , pteropod vertical habitat suitability declines . comparing the stations between offshore and onshore , we found 53 % of onshore individuals and 24 % of offshore individuals on average to have severe dissolution ( table 1 ) . limacina helicina from onshore regions showed dissolution that was evenly spread over the entire surface of shells ( figure 2 a ) , while in offshore regions only the first whorl ( protoconch ) showed evidence of dissolution ( figure 2 b ) . this suggests that less corrosive offshore conditions only affected pteropods during early stages , while prolonged exposure to more severe undersaturated conditions in onshore regions resulted in dissolution covering the whole shell .
( of spiratella limacina blainville , 1824 ) defrance j . l . m . ( 1804 - 1845 ) . [ mineralogie et geologie ] in dictionnaire des sciences naturelles dans lequel on traite méthodiquement des diffrents êtres de la nature . ( par plusieurs professeurs du jardin du roi . . . , georges cuvier , ed . ) . paris vol . 1 - 2 [ 1804 ] . vol . 3 - 4 [ 1806 ] . suppl . 1 [ 1816 ] . vol . 5 - 9 [ 1817 ] . vol . 10 - 12 [ 1818 ] . vol . 13 - 15 [ 1819 ] . vol . 16 - 17 [ 1820 ] . vol . 18 - 22 [ 1821 ] . vol . 23 - 25 [ 1822 ] . vol . 26 - 29 [ 1823 ] vol . 30 - 33 [ 1824 ] . vol . 34 - 38 [ 1825 ] . vol . 39 - 44 [ 1826 ] . vol . 45 - 51 [ 1827 ] . vol . 52 - 53 [ 1828 ] . vol . 54 [ 1829 ] . vol . 55 - 57 [ 1828 ] . vol . 58 - 59 [ 1829 ] . vol . 60 [ 1830 ] . vol . 61 [ 1845 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
des mollusques holoplanctoniques collectés dans environ 60 localités du cénozoïque ( eocène - yprésien à miocène - serravallien ) du bassin d’aquitaine ( sud - ouest de la france ) sont représentés par 75 taxons : cinq heteropoda ( pterotracheoidea ) supposés et 70 pteropoda ( 69 thecosomata , une gymnosomata ) . tous les heteropoda et 19 espèces de pteropoda ont dû être laissés en nomenclature ouverte ou comportent un doute . douze espèces de ptéropodes sont décrites comme nouvelles pour la science : heliconoides daguini sp . nov . , h . merlei sp . nov . , h . pyrenaica sp . nov . et limacina ? vegrandis sp . nov . , de l’yprésien ; creseis antoni sp . nov . et vaginella gaasensis sp . nov . , du rupélien ; clio lozoueti sp . nov . et clio vasconiensis sp . nov . du chattien ; diacrolinia cluzaudi sp . nov . , de l’aquitanien ; creseis roesti sp . nov . de l’aquitanien / burdigalien ; et heliconoides mermuysi sp . nov . et creseis tugurii sp . nov . , du burdigalien inférieur . des néotypes sont désignés pour diacrolinia aquensis , d . orbignyi et vaginella depressa . les assemblages du bassin d’aquitaine sont corrélés avec la zonation de mollusques holoplanctoniques existant pour le bassin de la mer du nord . les zones 9 ( yprésien ) , 10 ( lutétien ) et 11 / 12 ( priabonien ) ont pu être reconnues dans l’éocène du bassin d’aquitaine , les zones 15a ( rupélien ) et 16b ( chattien ) dans l’oligocène , et les zones 17 ( aquitanien - burdigalien ) , 18 ( burdigalien supérieur ) , 18a ( langhien ) et 19 ( serravallien ) dans le miocène . la zone 17 a pu être subdivisée sur la base des occurrences observées en aquitaine en trois sous - zones , 17a ( aquitanien ) , 17b ( burdigalien basal ) et 17c ( burdigalien moyen ) .
distribution – apart from the occurrences at gan , altaspiratella bearnensis is also present in north sea basin ypresian deposits . such occurrences were not yet known to janssen & king ( 1988 ) , but specimens of a . bearnensis were since recognised from the london clay , divisions c ( ? ) , d and e ( eocene , ypresian ) from several locations : bmnh not registered / 1 , warden point , sheppey , leg . d . j . ward , january 1978 , found in a mixed sample referred to in cooper ( 1984 , p . 8 ) , also containing heliconoides mercinensis ( watelet & lefèvre , 1885 ) , limacina taylori curry , 1965 , and l . tutelina curry , 1965 ( london clay formation , division c or d ) ; rgm 229 301 - 303 / 36 , rgm 229 362 / 1 , london , highgate , highgate archway exposure , leg . / don . c . king ( london clay formation , division e , unit 3 ; see king , 1981 , p . 39 ) ; rgm 286 639 / 6 , warden point , sheppey , collected ex situ from foreshore gravels by a . lawson , donated by s . tracey , 1 june 1996 ( london clay formation , division d ) ; rgm 286 640 / 5 , creeksea near burnham - on - crouch ( england , essex ) , collected ex situ ( foreshore sample ) by a . lawson , donated by s . tracey , 1 june 1996 ( london clay formation , division d ) ; rgm 286 641 / 5 , burnham - on - crouch ( england , essex ) , cliff reach , collected ex situ by a . lawson , donated by s . tracey , 1 june 1996 ( london clay formation , division d ) ; rgm 515 553 / 1 juvenile specimen , warden point , collected ex situ in foreshore gravels by d . j . ward , january 1978 , don . 1986 .
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figure 1 . wade loofborough , skipper of the adf & g ; research vessel medeia , with a jumbo squid ( dosidicus gigas ) . photo by joe orsi .
( of heterofusus j . fleming , 1823 ) fleming j . ( 1823 ) . on a reversed species of fusus ( fusus retroversus ) . memoirs of the wernerian natural history society ( edinburgh ) 4 ( 2 ) : 488 - 500 pl . 11 [ details ]
van der spoel s . ( 1967 ) euthecosomata , a group with remarkable developmental stages ( gastropoda , pteropoda ) . gorinchem : noorduijn en zoon . 378 pp . [ 20 november 1967 ] [ details ]
( of lornia marwick , 1926 ) maxwell , p . a . ( 1992 ) eocene mollusca from the vicinity of mcculloch’s bridge , waihao river , south canterbury , new zealand : paleoecology and systematics . new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin , 65 , 1–280 . [ details ]
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1 . larag , université de bordeaux 1 , 351 cours de la libération , f - 33405 , talence cedex , france , b . cahuzac @ urltoken
2 . netherlands centre for biodiversity naturalis , p . o . box 9517 , 2300 ra leiden , the netherlands and 12 triq tal’hamrija , xewkija xwk 9033 , gozo , malta , ariewjanssen @ urltoken
keywords : heteropoda , pteropoda , taxonomy , biostratigraphy , new species , aquitaine basin , eocene - miocene .
mots - clés – heteropoda , pteropoda , taxonomie , biostratigraphie , espèces nouvelles , bassin d’aquitaine , eocène - miocène .
the rich and world - famous mollusc faunas from the miocene of the aquitaine basin were monographed by 19th and early 20th century researchers such as b . de basterot ( 1825 ) , de grateloup ( 1827 , 1828 , 1836 , 1840 - 1847 ) , and e . - a . benoist ( 1873 - 1874a , 1874b , 1889 ) , but the most famous publication series from this realm , beyond doubt , is the ‘conchologie néogénique de l’aquitaine’ , started in 1909 , by m . cossmann and a . peyrot and , after cossmann’s death in 1924 , continued by peyrot until 1935 . this monograph appeared more or less simultaneously in the ‘actes de la société linnéenne de bordeaux’ , as well as in a six volume separate edition ( with a different pagination ) , constituting a voluminous book honoured as ‘ouvrages couronnés par l’académie des sciences , arts et belles - lettres de bordeaux’ . it is certainly because of the rich mollusc faunas that the names of two international miocene stages , aquitanian and burdigalian ( named after the city of bordeaux ) , found their origin in this part of france .
the aquitanian gssp ( global boundary stratotype section and point ) , however , was not defined in france , but in northern italy , 35 m from the top of the lemme - carrosio section , carrosio village , north of genoa ( ratified by the international union of geological sciences , 1996 , as published by steininger et al . , 1997 ) , defining also the beginning of both the neogene system and the miocene series . a gssp for the start of the burdigalian has not yet been ratified .
in 1932 peyrot , describing the pteropods , was not able to add further species and basically referred to the same taxa as benoist , although he , correctly , arrived at the conclusion that hyalaea orbignyi and h . aquensis are not synonyms . at that time , pteropod species from the various eocene and oligocene deposits were still unknown .
the rich pteropod assemblage from the ypresian of gan , referred to by curry ( 1965 , p . 357 ) and monographed by curry ( 1982 ) , yielded no less than 12 species , seven of them being introduced as new to science . curry ( 1982 ) included furthermore some occurrences of pteropods in the late eocene clays of biarritz , arriving at a total of 14 species . the first three species from rupelian deposits in southwest france were recorded by lozouet & maestrati ( 1982 ) . a single lutetian species was documented in lozouet & le renard ( 2007 ) , and three chattian species were added by zorn & janssen ( 1993 ) and janssen ( 2008a , 2008b ) , bringing the total number of species for the cenozoic of aquitaine to 29 .
in the present paper , the result of a long period of collecting started back in the 1980s and covering material housed in numerous collections , no less than 75 holoplanktonic mollusc species ( five supposed heteropoda , 70 pteropoda ) are recorded from c . 60 localities . all heteropods and 19 pteropods had to be included in open nomenclature or with a query , and 12 pteropod species are described as new to science .
the aquitaine basin , bordered in the south by the mountain chain of the pyrenees , opens widely towards the atlantic ocean and the bay of biscay in the west . during the early tertiary , it was structurally composed of a north aquitaine platform and a deep southern , pre - pyrenean trough , these two separated by an intermediate zone .
the north aquitaine platform shows restricted subsidence . during the tertiary , neritic sediments built up to a maximum thickness of 600 m . in the south this platform is bordered by a flexure zone called ‘celtaquitaine flexure’ , running from arcachon to toulouse .
, fig . 2 ) and location of studied localities ( black stars ) .
all over the southern aquitaine , during the eocene , facies and palaeobathymetries were variable geographically , according also to the situation with respect to anticlines and synclines which were very active during this epoch .


glyphidocera wrightorum is a moth in the autostichidae family .

it was described by adamski and metzler in 2000 .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from indiana and ohio .

the length of the forewings is 5.5-6.7 mm .

the forewings are mostly brown , intermixed with pale yellow scales .

the area of the cell is paler than the outer parts of the wing and there are two brown spots in the cell , one central and one distal .

the hindwings are pale grey .

glyphidocera wrightorum

another moth first collected at the prairie in 1994 is rightfully named glyphidocera wrightorum , or
of the wrights .
glyphidocera wrightorum adamski & metzler , 2000 , n . sp . , proc . ent . soc . wash . , v . 102 , p . 301 - 307 .
in 2000 , a moth species new to science was discovered at the prairie . following verification by the smithsonian institution , the moth was named glyphidocera wrightorum in honor of wilbur and orville wright .
the meadow is also an excellent place to take in plenty of birds , moths , butterflies and prairie plants . in fact , orville was introduced to the area by his high school biology teacher , who led his students on field expeditions at huffman prairie . when huffman prairie was being restored in the 1990s , scientists working there discovered a new species of moth , glyphidocera wrightorum , naming it in honor of the wright brothers and the work they did there .
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
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after their successful first flight at kitty hawk , nc in 1903 , the wright brothers wanted a place to fly closer to home so that they could continue their experiments and perfect their machine and at the same time be close to an engineering center . in 1903 they were delayed twice when they had to return to dayton to fix their propeller shafts .
the 1903 wright flyer had demonstrated that flight was possible , but it was an experimental machine . it was unstable in flight and required further refinement to make flying a practical reality .
in the spring of 1904 at the kindness of torrence huffman , a vice - president of the fourth national bank and a family friend , they obtained the use of an isolated cow pasture eight miles northeast of dayton that became known as huffman prairie . orville was familiar with the site because his ninth grade biology class under the guidance of teacher , william werthner , had visited the site on a field trip for the purpose of sketching wildflowers .
an electric interurban traction line ran by the field . simms road station was conveniently located fifty yards away . it took less than 30 minutes for the brothers to make the trip from their home in west dayton .
the wrights actively used the field for eight years . the first two years , 1904 - 1905 , were used for experimentation with improved machines . then , after a hiatus for several years , they returned during the years of 1910 – 1916 to train pilots and test new types of planes from their factory and provide the home base for their exhibition business . nine new types of planes were tested at huffman .
“we are in a large meadow of about 100 acres . it is skirted on the west and north by trees . this not only shuts off the wind somewhat , but gives a slight downward trend . however , this is a matter we do not consider anything serious . the greater troubles are the facts that in addition to the cattle there have been a dozen or more horses in the pasture and as it is surrounded by barbwire fencing we have been at much trouble to get them safely away before making any trials . also , the ground is an old swamp and is filled with grassy hummocks some six inches high , so that it resembles dog town”
a rededication ceremony during the “inventing flight” celebration marked the culmination of a 10 - year effort to restore the prairie to its former state . a replica of the 1905 wooden hanger has been built and there are plans to build the catapult used to launch the airplanes and rebuild the train platform at simms station .
a new historical marker was presented by the ohio historical society and the ohio bicentennial commission for placement at the front entrance . two new plaques from the national park service and the american institute of aeronautics and astronautics were placed at the cornerstones marking the park boundaries .
huffman had permitted the use of the prairie on the condition that the wrights moved the cattle and horses out of the way before doing any flying . it was used as a pasture because of flooding from the nearby mad river .
the brothers felt obligated to stay within the boundaries of the approximately 84 acres allocated to them so as not to disturb the neighbors . also , if they flew beyond the fence line , they would have to lug the airplane back over it .
that meant flying an egg - shaped flight path bounded by power lines to the north , 50 - foot trees to the west , and hebble creek to the south . hebble creek was named after my great - great grandfather henry e . hebble who had built a house near huffman prairie in 1841 .
the house still exists on wpafb . it is known as the arnold house now in honor of general hap arnold who once lived there as the commanding officer of the base in 1929 - 31 .
the small field was confining , they could fly less than 1 , 000 feet in a straight line . it did well serve one of their major goals . that was to learn how to make controlled turns .
their first hanger , the size of a garage , was built near hebble creek on the opposite side of the prairie as far away as they could get from the traction line in order to maintain privacy .
in 1904 , the wrights flew flyer ii 105 times for a total flying time of 49 minutes . at first progress was slow . it was not until their 49th attempt that they were able to fly longer than their best attempt at kitty hawk .
the terrain was swampy dotted with grassy hummocks , persistent insects , gusty winds and summer storms . when i was there during the “inventing flight” celebration , i walked the flight path and ended up with over 20 mosquito bits .
the lack of strong and consistent wind and dayton’s less dense air gave them great difficulty in getting airborne even though they extended the launch rail four times as long as the one used in kitty hawk . they solved the problem by constructing a 20 - foot high derrick from which a 1 , 600 - pound weight was dropped to catapult the flyer to a speed near 25 mph to achieve take - off .
on may 23rd , before the construction of the derrick , they invited the press to observe their plane fly . about 12 reporters showed up on a windless day . the flyer ran down the rail and and didn’t rise a single inch . the wrights invited them back the next day and 3 showed - up . the flyer did fly between 20 and 60 feet , depending on whose account you read . after that the reporters left them alone .
on september 20 , wilbur flew the world’s first controlled circle in an airplane . ames i . root who published an account of the event in his magazine , gleanings in bee culture , witnessed the event . root wrote :
“when it turned that circle , and came near the starting - point , i was right in front of it , and i said then and i believe still , it was… the grandest sight of my life . imagine a locomotive that has left its track , and is climbing right toward you – a locomotive without any wheels… but with white wings instead… well , now , imagine that locomotive with wings that spread 20 feet each way , coming right toward you with the tremendous flap of its propellers , and you have something like what i saw . ”
the total number of flights flown that year was 105 for a combined flying time of 49 minutes . two flights of 3 miles each were flown on november 9 and december 1 , respectively .
in 1905 , flyer iii partially built with parts from flyer ii , made 50 flights . the longest was over 24 miles flown in 39 minutes 23 4 / 5 seconds on october 5 . in making the extraordinary flight , wilbur circled the field 29 times and landed only because he ran out of gas .
the machine could not only turn in circles , but also performed figure eighths . the engine could produce nearly 21 horsepower or almost twice that of the 1903 kitty hawk flyer , and had been modified with oiling and feeding devices to permit longer run time . the wrights after six years of hard work , inventiveness and perseverance had mastered controlled flight and had developed the world’s first practical airplane .
they were now ready to find buyers for their airplane . while negotiating with potential buyers , they stored their machine in nov . 1905 and didn’t fly again until april 1908 . by that time they had secured contracts with the u . s . army and in europe .
in late 1909 , they established the wright company to manufacture their airplanes . in may 1910 , the wrights returned to huffman prairie where they operated the wright company school of aviation and the wright exhibition company and also tested company manufactured airplanes . they built a much larger hanger in the spring of 1910 . the hanger remained standing on the prairie until ww ii .
“the wright company operates a permanent school of aviation at the historic grounds at simms station near dayton , where the wright brothers carried on their experiments . the field is admirably adapted to training purposes , the ground being level and free from obstructions .
the course of instruction consists of four hours of actual practice , given in a series of flights ranging in duration from five to fifteen minutes , or perhaps longer , depending on the weather and the desires of the instructor and the pupil . every pupil is given individual training , and with the excellent facilities available , not only at the field , but at the factory in dayton , a course of training in this school is without question superior to any in this country , if not in the world . the machines that are used for school work and the method of dual control adopted , give almost perfect results , and students are often turned out as competent pilots eight or ten days later after their first trip in an aeroplane .
not more than four or five pupils are under the care of one instructor , and the lessons are given in regular rotation . in all of the training flights the pupil is accompanied by the instructor on a machine equipped with duplicate control levers . as the pupil begins to acquire the feel of the air , the instructor gradually relinquishes the levers to the pupil , but he is ever present and ready to resume control should the pupil make any serious mistake . by this method the usual dangers are eliminated but the presence of the instructor by no means suggests that the pupil himself is not flying , as it is the customary practice for the instructor to make sure that the pupil knows that he is running the machine himself . pupils usually learn to fly in two to three hours of actual practice in the air , but the work for one day is on the average restricted to one - half hour .
the rate of tuition in the wright school is fixed at $ 250 . 00 payable at time of enrollment . contrary to the practice in many aviation schools the pupil is not held responsible for any breakage of the machine . the fee covers every expense for tuition . ”
the wrights delegated most of the teaching to instructors , but orville would regularly check up on student progress . he would sometimes ask the students if they had done any “mushroom hunting” today . by “mushroom hunting” he meant very low flying , something that orville often did . for the students it meant that they had to be very alert not to drag the wings on the ground or make some other serious error while flying .
“we went out there about half past three or four and lined up with scores of other autos and vehicles on the side of the road stretching along the aviation field .
at five o’clock the sensation of the week took place in the flight of orville wright over the city of dayton and back . we watched him start , try the air in a few circles and then fly away up in the blue until he was finally a mere speck and we could no longer hear the whir of the big paddles . he disappeared , but in about 20 minutes the sharpest eyes discovered him again and we watched him return . it was like a giant beetle to hear it coming louder and louder . then he neared the field again and flew right over our heads , fairly scaring one and circling , landed amid the cheers and clapping and honks of the automobiles . ”
* on may 25 , wilbur and orville flew together for the first and last time . they had promised their father they would never do that . their father had relented for that one time . they flew a wright model a / b and circled counterclockwise for about six minutes .
* their father watched his sons fly that day and then it was his turn . milton , 81 years old , had never flown before . he enjoyed the ride , telling orville to “fly higher and higher” during the flight .
* the world’s first commercial flight was flown by phil parmalee , a wright exhibition team member . orville and sister katharine were present when parmalee took off in a wright model b from huffman prairie on his way to columbus , ohio on november 7 . he was carrying a cargo of silk strapped to the passenger seat .
* charlie taylor , the wrights’ chief mechanic who manufactured the engine that powered the 1903 kitty hawk flyer and latter was assigned to manage the huffman flying field , tells a story of his flight with orville . charlie says that orville tried to scare him one day in may . orville acted as if he was having trouble controlling the machine as it pitched violently . after they landed , orville asked charlie if he was scared . “no , if you weren’t , why should i ? ” orville thought it was very funny .
henry “hap” arnold , who commanded the u . s . army air forces in world war ii and became a five - star general , was one of the more famous pilots that learned to fly at huffman prairie . arnold soloed in 10 days after 28 flights totaling 3 hours and 48 minutes .
from 1929 - 1931 , major “hap” arnold lived in a house on wilbur wright field that was built by my great , great - grandfather henry e . hebble . the house at that time was used to house the base commander . henry hebble built the house in 1841 after he migrated from pennsylvania . residents of the house could see huffman prairie and the flying activities associated with the flying school .
major arnold occasionally entertained orville in the house . the house is now known as the arnold house and is preserved as the oldest building at wright - patterson air force base .
wilbur wright died in 1912 of typhoid fever . the loss greatly affected orville and he lost interest in running the wright company . he sold it in 1915 . in the fall of 1916 , the flying school also closed .
in 1919 , orville was asked by some officials to identify the 119 pioneer pilots including three women that were trained at huffman prairie . an effort was made to exclude one pilot from the list who was suspected of being a draft dodger . orville would have none of that . orville wrote to edward deeds and demanded that the name be included on the official list . draft dodging wasn’t the issue to orville , accuracy was
in 1917 the government was interesting in establishing a major military airfield near dayton , the home of aviation . orville was asked to provide a recommendation of where it might be built . not surprisingly , he recommended the land around huffman prairie now owned by the miami conservancy district . one of his technical reasons was that , “the ground was soft and spongy and cushioned the shock of landing . ”
the u . s . army subsequently leased 2 , 074 acres of the land to establish an aviation school . the new installation was given the name of wilbur wright field in honor of one of the founding fathers of flight .
soon after , the army added another 40 acres adjacent to the aviation field to house the fairfield aviation general supply depot .
the army also leased a third parcel of land just north of downtown dayton to serve as an engineering and research facility . this land was formerly known as north field and was owned by the dayton - wright company , headed by dayton businessmen , edward deeds and charles kettering . both were friends of orville’s and orville was a technical consultant to the company but not part of management . the army named this field , mccook field .
mccook field outgrew it facilities in the 1920s . with no room to expand in their current location , the army was considering relocating the facility to another location in the country . dayton civic leaders headed by ncr president john patterson were not going to let that happen .
on may 5 , 1922 , underscoring his interest in aviation , patterson arranged a gala reception for general mitchell , at which a campaign was activated to keep mccook field in dayton open as a military base . patterson also supported mitchell’s proposal that aviation , which had proved itself in war , should be made a separate military service directly responsible to a civilian cabinet officer . on saturday may 6 , 1922 patterson died while on a trip .
one dayton newspaper editor wrote that the “angle of death has called . ” stanley c . allyn , later to become ceo of ncr , said , “i don’t suppose the angel had such another reception in town until the decease of orville wright in 1948 .
in 1924 the dayton air service committee was organized under the leadership of the ncr and raised enough money to purchase the existing leased land for wilbur wright field and added 2 , 500 additional acres . they sold the entire property to the government for a grand sum of $ 1 . 00 .
the entire tract of new land , including huffman prairie , and the newly relocated activities from mccook field was renamed wright field in october 1927 .
the formal dedication ceremony was held on october 12 , 1927 . orville raised the flag on the new engineering center .
the buildings of mccook field were razed and a city recreation park was established . when i was a kid i played many baseball games on diamonds built in this park .
the year 1931 brought another name change . the portion of the base that previously had contained huffman prairie flying field , the wilbur wright field and fairfield depot was renamed patterson field .
lt . frank stuart patterson , 28 , the nephew of ncr founder john h . patterson was killed during an experimental flight at wilbur wright field in 1918 . he was also part of a military program at mccook that tested aerial engines , weapons and photography for the government .
the area constructed to house the transplanted mccook field , was renamed wright field .
in 1948 the newly created u . s . air force merged wright and patterson fields to form the wright - patterson air force base . and that is what it remains today .
the huffman prairie survives today in its original state . it escaped the construction activity of the rapidly expanding air force facilities . the site has the distinction of being the only wright brothers’ site that still appears much as it did when they used it . it is listed on the national register of historic places and is a national historic landmark .
the prairie is also listed as a state natural landmark . the prairie contains many rare species of native grasses and flowering plants and is home to several rare or endangered species of birds .
a partnership consisting of the nature conservancy , the national park service and the u . s . department of defense today manages huffman prairie . a new modern visitor center located at the wright memorial on wright - patterson afb greets visitors to the prairie . from the high hill on which the wright memorial is located , the huffman prairie can be seen in the distance .
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thirty minutes on the treadmill raced by as i listened to pulitzer prize - winning author david mccullough talk to wosu’s ann fisher about two intellectually curious brothers who loved to read , to learn and to keep to themselves . these determined models of integrity who invented powered , human - controlled flight are the subject of mccullough’s new book , the wright brothers .
mccullough’s interview prompted me to visit some of the historic dayton , ohio sites associated with the wright brothers , but a dapper aviator teddy bear turned it into an exciting day of discovery . join me in my quest to bring home wilbear wright !
is an initiative of wright dunbar , inc . , a nonprofit organization dedicated to the revitalization of the dayton neighborhood where the wright brothers and their high school classmate , african - american author paul laurence dunbar , lived . to join the race , pick up a passport , tour the one required site — the wright - dunbar interpretive center — and a minimum of five of the remaining eight aviation sites in the dayton area , receive a stamp at each of those sites , and turn in the passport to earn a free wilbear wright .
the wright - dunbar interpretive center and the aviation trail visitor center are part of the national park service’s dayton aviation heritage national historical park . a full - size replica model of the wright brothers’ 1902 glider , which helped them discover balance and control , is on display here .
the center is filled with clever exhibits that tell stories of the brothers’ lives . for example , i
n 1878 , their father , milton wright , brought home a toy “helicopter” for young wilbur and orville that was made of paper , bamboo and cork with a rubber band to twirl its rotor . the boys played with it until it broke , and then they built their own . later , they said the toy sparked their interest in flying .
that ingenuity continued when 12 - year - old orville saw a series of woodcut illustrations in a magazine and decided to teach himself how to engrave , fashioning a carving tool from a pocket knife and carving wood blocks . when he was in high school , orville began a small printing business with his friend , ed sines , and later , wilbur . during their stint as job printers , the brothers printed letterheads , business cards , tickets , programs , church - related publications , and a small current events magazine called snap - shots . they also printed the dayton tattler , a newspaper dunbar edited for dayton’s black community .
f rom 1890 through 1895 , the wrights operated a print shop on the second floor of the hoover block on the corner of third and williams streets , the building where the wright - dunbar interpretive center is located . exhibits recreate the composing room , where they set type by hand , and the job press room , where they printed small jobs . the rooms feature some of the original printing equipment once owned and used by the wright brothers .
here , you can also learn about the pinnacles , a once - popular picnic area located south of dayton , near moraine . the pinnacles featured unusual 40 - to 80 - feet - high geological rock formations , known as the devil’s backbone . from 1897 to 1899 , the wright brothers came here to observe turkey vultures soaring above the pinnacles . while watching the birds twist the tips of their wings as they flew , the brothers developed their wing - warping theory . the pinnacles was destroyed during road construction and is now an abandoned farm .
the brothers put wing - warping into action with their remarkable hip cradle , which allowed the pilot to roll the plane left or right . as he flew from a lying - down position , he swung his hips in the direction he wanted to go . the hip cradle then activated the warping cables , twisting the wings and turning the plane . at the center
ee how the hip cradle works by placing your hand in a model of the cradle , moving your hand to either side , and watching how the wings of the model move .
the wright brothers became interested in bicycles in 1892 , when this new form of transportation became a national craze , and decided to venture into the bicycle business , which they continued until 1908 . in fact , my great - grandfather , louis stein , was one of the wright cycle company’s employees .
the wrights’ fourth bicycle shop , located at 22 south williams street and adjacent to the wright - dunbar interpretive center , is now the only remaining building that housed their bicycle business . while running their business here from 1895 to 1897 , the wrights began to design and build their own models of bicycles , the van cleve , named after wright ancestors who were among the first to settle in dayton and the st . clair . this restored site is also where the brothers researched and developed their interest in flying .
walk one block to 7 hawthorne street , the site of the wright family home from 1871 to 1878 and from 1885 to 1914 . orville was born in the house in 1871 , the brothers lived there while they were developing their flying machine , and wilbur died there in 1912 . the actual house was moved to greenfield village in 1936 , but the site is now a commemorative area . part of the home’s front porch has been reconstructed , while lines of concrete blocks trace the placement of its first - floor rooms .
huffman prairie flying field , now part of wright - patterson air force base , is an 84 - acre prairie pasture a few miles outside dayton . here , the wright brothers continued the work they did at kitty hawk , north carolina in teaching themselves to fly . during 1904 and 1905 , they took a 10 - minute interurban electric trolley ride from their dayton home to the simms station stop almost every day . the platform is still standing .
at huffman prairie , the brothers learned to control and maneuver their flying machine . you can see a replica of the hangar and catapult launching device that they used to perfect the world’s first practical airplane , the 1905 wright flyer iii . from 1910 to 1915 , the wrights operated the wright school of aviation here , training many of the world’s first pilots .
the huffman prairie flying field interpretive center contains exhibits focusing on the wright brothers’ work at huffman prairie . take a ride in a 1911 wright model b flight simulator , using outboard sticks to move the plane up and down and the center stick to roll the plane left and right . “on great white wings , ” a 30 - minute film narrated by martin sheen , recreates the brothers’ achievements by flying a full - scale replica of the wright flyer iii on site at huffman prairie . steps away from the center is the wright memorial on wright brothers hill , a 27 - acre landscape featuring a 17 - foot pink granite obelisk that was dedicated on august 19 , 1940 , orville’s 69 th birthday .
at the national aviation hall of fame , located in the national museum of the united states air force on wright - patterson air force base , see a scale model of orville and wilbur preparing for their first powered flight at kitty hawk on december 17 , 1903 . the same materials found on the original aircraft were used , such as laminated spruce for the propeller , spruce and ash on the forward supports , and chain links punched from metal . the sculpted landscape it sits upon is covered with sand taken from the beaches of kill devil hill at kitty hawk .
wilbur and orville purchased a 17 - acre tract of land in the dayton suburb of oakwood in 1912 and began plans to build a home there . while wilbur passed away before
, a blue flag with a white airplane flies over the wright family plot , where wilbur and orville are buried . following tradition , visitors to the gravesite place coins on the plain granite markers as a sign of respect .
the dayton aviation heritage national historical park also includes the wright brothers aviation center in carillon historical park . this site features the 1905 wright flyer iii , which orville helped restore , and the van cleve bicycles that the wright brothers designed . in 1910 , the wright brothers opened the wright company factory , the first factory in the united states designed especially for building airplanes . the factory is a new part of the park and is not open to the public yet .
one of the most complete collections of wright material in the world . the collection includes the wrights’ personal library ; wright family letters , diaries and financial records ; and over 4 , 000 photographs documenting the invention of the airplane and the lives of the wright family .
the collection is open for public research , but making an appointment to do so is necessary .
recently , the library partnered with the dayton metro library to create an online archive of the most complete run of the wright brothers’ newspapers available to date . over 150 of the papers are now available to search and read online .
wilbur wright birthplace . wilbur was born in this small farmhouse on april 16 , 1867 .
click here to listen to david mccullough’s interview about the wright brothers on the june 4 edition of all sides with ann fisher . it begins at the 31 : 30 mark .
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your blog is most informative ; however i was specifically looking for the items mentioned in the article in the nordic needle e - newsletter . where are they ?
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polemograptis miltocosma is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found on borneo , pulo laut , peninsular malaysia , and in indonesia and the philippines ( luzon ) .

polemograptis miltocosma

this is the place for miltocosma definition . you find here miltocosma meaning , synonyms of miltocosma and images for miltocosma copyright 2017 © urltoken
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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