bowerbirds / ˈbaʊərbɜːrd / make up the bird family ptilonorhynchidae .

they are renowned for their unique courtship behaviour , where males build a structure and decorate it with sticks and brightly coloured objects in an attempt to attract a mate .

the family has 20 species in eight genera .

these are medium to large-sized passerines , ranging from the golden bowerbird at 22 centimetres ( 8.7 in ) and 70 grams ( 2.5 oz ) to the great bowerbird at 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) and 230 grams ( 8.1 oz ) .

their diet consists mainly of fruit but may also include insects ( especially for nestlings ) , flowers , nectar and leaves in some species .

the satin and spotted bowerbirds are sometimes considered agricultural pests due to their habit of feeding on introduced fruit and vegetable crops and have occasionally been killed by affected orchardists .

the bowerbirds have an austro-papuan distribution , with ten species endemic to new guinea , eight endemic to australia , and two found in both .

although their distribution is centered on the tropical regions of new guinea and northern australia , some species extend into central , western , and southeastern australia .

they occupy a range of different habitats , including rainforest , eucalyptus and acacia forest , and shrublands .

bowerbird

sanford’s bowerbird archboldia sanfordi is lumped with archbold’s bowerbird archboldia papuensis ( frith et al . 1995 , beehler and pratt 2016 ) , and becomes archboldia papuensis sanfordi .
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borgia g ( 1986a ) satin bowerbird parasites : a test of the bright male hypothesis . behav ecol sociobiol 19 : 355–358
donaghey rh ( 1981 ) the ecology and evolution of bowerbird mating systems . phd dissertation , monash university , victoria , australia
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vellenga re ( 1980 ) distribution of bowers of the satin bowerbird at leura , nsw , with notes on parental care , development and independence of the young . emu 80 : 97–102
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, for example , red fruit . including all bowers across the great bowerbird range , there is no relationship between the fraction of ornaments that are red and the chroma of the red wall (
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the best males will have it all ,
said coleman , who conducted a three - year satin bowerbird study in the australian bush . the top male bowerbirds have what might be called artistic talent and vigorous courtship routines .
frith , c . b . , d . gibbs , and k . turner . 1995 . the taxonomic status of populations of archbold’s bowerbird archboldia papuensis in new guinea . bulletin of the british ornithologists’ club 115 : 109 - 114 .
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janine m . wojcieszek , james a . nicholls , anne w . goldizen ; stealing behavior and the maintenance of a visual display in the satin bowerbird , behavioral ecology , volume 18 , issue 4 , 1 july 2007 , pages 689–695 , urltoken
savard , j - f , keagy , j . , and borgia , g . 2011 . blue , not uv , plumage color is important in satin bowerbird ptilonorhynchus violaceus display . journal of avian biology . 42 : 80 - 84 . [ pdf ]
frith , c . b . , gibbs , d . and turner , k . ( 1995 ) the taxonomic status of populations of archbold ' s bowerbird ( archboldia papuensis ) in new guinea . bull . brit . ornithol . club 115 : 109 - 114 .
< 0 . 0001 ) . given that dreghorn avenue walls and floors are less chromatic than 93 . 8 % of bowers at other locations , our calculations of light adaptation on the basis of the dreghorn data underestimate the degree of light adaptation in most great bowerbird bowers .
keagy , j . , savard , j - f , and borgia , g . 2009 . male satin bowerbird problem - solving ability predicts mating success . animal behaviour . 78 : 809 - 817 . [ pdf ] • featured in that issue ' s in focus section [ pdf ]
irestedt , m . , h . batalha - filho , c . s . roselaar , l . christidis , and p . g . p . ericson . 2016 . contrasting phylogeographic signatures in two australo - papuan bowerbird species complexes ( aves : ailuroedus ) . zoologica scripta 45 : 365 - 379 .
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the ‘lek’ mating system drives rapid sexual selection in bowerbirds and other species with similar breeding behaviour , such as the birds of paradise . these species typically evolve elaborate plumage and courtship behaviours , as the most ‘persuasive’ males end up fathering most of the young . the satin bowerbird displays both striking plumage and elabourate courtship rituals .
a new study finds that a young , inexperienced , female bowerbird judges a male by the manner in which he decorates his bachelor pad . once she ' s aged and mated a few times , this affinity for a swanky domicile fades , and she then relies on courtship routinea vigorous song and danceto select the most worthy suitor .
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diagram of a typical great bowerbird bower . a female stands in the centre of the avenue with her head over the central depression in the avenue floor . she has a limited field of view ( fov ) of the court , where the male displays ( see electronic supplementary material , figure a3 ) . courts are covered with uncoloured objects and most coloured objects are placed near the avenue entrance or beside the avenue .
the satin bowerbird is probably the best known of all australian bowerbirds , as it occurs along the densely settled east coast . males construct an intricate and carefully decorated bower to use as a courtship arena during the breeding season . the bower is an arching structure built on the ground out of interlaced sticks , decorated with blue and / or interesting objects : parrot feathers , flowers and brown snail shells in nature ; clothes pegs , drinking straws and bottle tops around human habitation .
bowerbirds ( ptilonorhynchidae ) produce a multicomponent sexual display that includes an extended phenotype [ 9 , 10 ] . males construct and decorate bowers for the sole purpose of attracting mates , and species vary in their bower structure and decorations [ 9 ] . species vary in the bower traits favouring mating success , which may include the number of coloured decorations [ 11 ] , avenue form [ 12 ] or bower paint [ 13 , 14 ] . females may also choose mates based on physical traits such as vocal mimicry [ 15 ] and courtship movements [ 16 ] . different components of male displays may serve different functions ; for example , the white bones at the entrance of male spotted bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus maculatus ) bowers may attract females to the bower , while glass objects may stimulate the female once in the bower [ 17 ] . however , little is known about how the multiple display traits produced by the male function in mate choice in other bowerbird species .
( a ) photograph of bower walls , showing wall transect locations at bowerbird eye level ( red line ; upper wall ) and below wing level ( black line ; lower wall ) . ( b ) mean and s . d . of bower mean spectra of transects . ( c ) distribution of tetrahedral chroma of transects . higher chroma indicates greater differences between wavelengths ( ‘purity’ for humans ) . visual backgrounds outside the avenue are generally less than 0 . 02 . ( online version in colour . )
irradiance ( ambient light ) measures and mean object class reflectance measurements [ 25 ] were used for the bower wall analyses . chromatic adaptation effects were calculated for the bowerbird v - type eye [ 25 , 26 ] using the von kries correction [ 26 , 27 ] , and plotting the bowerbird eye responses for each object in lsmu colour space [ 26 ] . lsmu colour space is a plot of the relative differences in light - adapted cone captures between middle wavelength - sensitive ( mws ) and ultraviolet - sensitive ( uvs ) cones as the mu axis and relative differences between lws ( long ) and sws ( short ) cones as the ls axis , hence the name lsmu . as a consequence , hue and chroma are the polar coordinates of each stimulus in this space ; hue is the angle clockwise from the top of the ls axis ( in human terms , going from red clockwise through yellow , green , blue and uv and back again ) and chroma is the distance from the grey point ( origin ) . two calculations were performed for each object class : ( i ) eye chromatically adapted to the light outside the bower , and ( ii ) eye adapted to avenue wall radiance calculated as bower irradiance times upper wall reflectance . each light environment will be associated with a different grey point when there has been enough time for differential cone bleaching [ 27 ] ; two light environments are associated with a geometrical shift in all positions in lsmu space , including the grey point ( the origin ) .
while the absolute number , types and sequences of displayed objects predict mating success at the level of the bout , it is difficult to separate cause and effect , because displaying each object takes time . we do not know whether the presentation of many objects of diverse colours keep the female in the avenue longer , or whether more time in the court allows more time for more object displays by the male , and hence more diversity . the colour and type of decorations present at the bower is a predictor of mating success for several bowerbird species [ 12 , 30 ] . here , we have shown that , in this species , the display presentation sequence is also important , but only at the individual bout level . this suggests that these visual signals function primarily in signal salience rather than conveying signal content [ 5 , 6 ] .
we recorded the geometry of active bowers in two great bowerbird populations in north queensland , australia . nine bowers were measured at mary valley station and nature reserve ( 15 . 04° s , 143 . 77° e ) including part of adjacent artemis station in 2008 . in 2009–2011 , 61 samples from 27 active bowers were measured at dreghorn station ( 20 . 25° s 147 . 73° e ; [ 19 ] ) . approximately 700 km apart , both study sites are in eucalyptus woodland , which is typical for the species’ geographical range [ 9 ] . both locations are far from urban centres and therefore have a distribution of available bower objects more similar to those that they evolved with compared with those in cities . we measured the female ' s fov and the location , type and colour of all objects at each bower each bower using our previous methods [ 18 , 19 , 21 ] . the data for both courts of a given bower were pooled before analysis ; both courts are used for male displays and they typically do not differ significantly [ 19 ] .
to determine how females perceive the light environment within the bower , reflectance spectra of the avenue walls and coloured objects were taken at dreghorn in 2011 , using our previous methods [ 25 ] . reflectance spectra were taken in two rows of five samples each near the top and near the bottom of both inner avenue walls ; 10 samples at bowerbird eye level and 10 samples near the avenue floor . we also analysed avenue stick spectra collected at different locations during a previous study ( [ 25 ] and unpublished data 1998–2012 ) . we sampled stick reflectance spectra from 20 to 30 upper and lower inner walls and floor sticks from 178 bowers at 23 locations that were spread across the entire distribution of great bowerbirds from broome to cape york and townsville ( see electronic supplementary material ) . direct comparison with the upper and lower walls at dreghorn is not possible because , although we sampled all parts of the inner avenue in the geographical survey , we did not label the transects separately ; consequently , comparisons between the species dataset and dreghorn have to be made with the average of upper and lower dreghorn wall transects . bower locations were categorized as ‘city’ bowers if they were located within suburbs of townsville or darwin or ‘bush’ bowers if they were not located in or near a city . we also recorded the number and colour of all decorations on every bower .
satin bowerbirds steal bower decorations regularly ( borgia and mueller 1992 ; madden 2002 ; frith cb and frith dw 2004 ) , but few studies have specifically investigated patterns of stealing behavior in this species . borgia and gore ( 1986 ) tracked the movement of rosella ( platycercus elegans and platycercus eximius ) tail feathers among males in the wallaby creek population in new south wales . stealing was frequent between males whose bowers were in close proximity and many pairs of males were involved in specific “stealing relationships , ” most of which involved reciprocal stealing between pairs of males ( i . e . , stealing back and forth between a pair of males as opposed to a thief stealing from a nonreciprocating victim ) . in contrast , it appeared that some males did not form stealing relationships at all and it was suggested that such behavior was linked to male dominance levels . rosella tail feathers and blue plastic bottle tops were the decorations most frequently stolen by satin bowerbird males in the bunya mountains ( wojcieszek et al . 2006 ) . it is likely that males preferred these decorations because they reflected higher amounts of ultraviolet light , offered a high degree of contrast to other aspects of the bowerbirds ' visual display and therefore provided a “better” display ( wojcieszek et al . 2006 ) . given that possession of these decorations—feathers in particular—correlates with mating success ( borgia 1985b ) , and plays a role in competition among males , they may be honest signals of a male ' s quality .
the decorations on the 10 bowers in cluster two were labeled and their movements recorded as described previously . after monitoring stealing for 21 days ( decorations surveyed 11 september–16 october 2004 ) , the decorations on all 10 bowers were experimentally manipulated . this involved removing each male ' s collection of blue decorations and replacing these with identical collections of decorations for all 10 bowers . all the replaced items were “new” to the birds ; that is , they were not sourced from bowers , although they were identical to decorations that had been seen on bowers in the bunya mountains satin bowerbird population . each new collection included 1 blue crimson rosella tail feather , 2 blue straws , 2 blue plastic bottle tops , 2 blue bottle rings , and 4 blue pegs . these 11 objects were placed at the northern end of each bower platform—where satin bowerbirds ' objects are concentrated ( borgia 1995b ) . a total of 604 decorations were removed from the 10 bowers during this manipulation and these were replaced by a total of 110 new decorations . because each of the 10 males now held identical collections , they each held 10 % of the total decoration pool available to the group . this manipulation took place on one evening ( 16 october 2004 ) between 1900 and 2100 h . thus , each male owner arrived at his bower the following morning to a new “standardized” set of bower decorations . stealing events were quantified for 21 days after the manipulation ( decorations surveyed 17 october–18 november 2004 ) and at the end of the experiment all the original decorations were returned to their source bowers .
whether a pair of males interacted by stealing depended exclusively on the proximity of their bowers . in fact , all but 2 of the males observed stole at least once from their nearest neighbors . although the home ranges of adult male satin bowerbirds are yet to be established , those of juvenile males range from 3 . 59 to 28 . 67 ha ( maxwell et al . 2004 ) , thus it is conceivable that adult males would have been able to steal from any other adult males in the observed pool of bowers , rather than being limited to stealing from neighboring bowers . studies have consistently shown , however , that distances between bowers are important in determining male–male interactions in bowerbird species ( borgia and gore 1986 ; diamond 1986 ; borgia and mueller 1992 ; borgia 1995a ) . most of the observed stealing occurred between reciprocally stealing pairs and although most stealing occurred between near neighbors , reciprocal relationships were not always between nearest neighbors ( wojcieszek j , unpublished data ) , as was also found by borgia and gore ( 1986 ) . when males acquire bower decorations via theft , they not only improve their own decoration collection but also diminish that of a rival ( morrel and kokko 2004 ) . by targeting near neighbors , males need not leave their bowers unattended for extended periods of time and they have the potential to outcompete their most geographically immediate rivals . it is also possible that the stealing relationships observed are operating under a “retaliatory” or tit - for - tat strategy ( as has been suggested previously by borgia and gore 1986 ; pruett - jones ma and pruett - jones m 1994 ) . tit - for - tat behavior involves a pair of “players” interacting via some activity ( stealing in this instance ) and the tit - for - tat pattern emerges when each member of the pair reacts by imitating the previous actions of the opponent ( axelrod 1984 ) . future work could investigate whether stealing between reciprocal males operates under a tit - for - tat strategy via manipulating the bower decorations ( particularly the most popular decorations—crimson rosella tail feathers and blue plastic bottle tops ) of individual males to determine whether this instigates thievery .
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hamilton and zuk proposed that bright male plumage may have evolved in males of polygynous species as a result of female preferences for males that are able to demonstrate their resistance to disease . they predicted an inverse correlation between female mating preferences and the level of parasitic infection of males . we found such a correlation between the level of infection by a common ectoparasite ( myrsidea ptilonorhynchi : menoponidae ) and mating success of male satin bowerbirds ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) . in addition , we tested and were able to confirm three other predictions derived from their model : that ( 1 ) older males had fewer parasites than their younger counterparts , ( 2 ) levels of individual parasitic infection are highly correlated between years , and ( 3 ) that individuals resighted in successive years are less parasitized than those that fail to return . these results support the bright male model , but they are also consistent with two other hypotheses that may explain plumage dimorphism based on the level of parasitic infection . the correlated infection model suggests that females choose males with few ectoparasites because of a correlation between the level of ectoparasitic infection and heritable resistance to internal infections . in the parasite avoidance model , females favor parasitefree males because it lowers their own prospects for parasitic infection . our data did not show the predicted relationship between parasite numbers with plumage quality that is needed to support the bright male hypothesis , nor did it show the inverse correlation between male condition and parasite numbers that is predicted by both the bright male and correlated infection hypotheses . our results are most consistent with the parasite avoidance hypothesis .
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borgia g ( 1979 ) sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems . in : ma blum ( ed ) sexual selection and reproductive competition . academic press , new york , pp 19–80
borgia g ( 1986b ) sexual selection in bowerbirds . sci am 254 : 92–100
bradbury j , andersson m ( eds ) ( 1987 ) sexual selection : testing the alternatives . j wiley , new york
charlesworth b ( 1988 ) the evolution of mate choice in a fluctuating environment . j theor biol 130 : 191–204
darwin c ( 1871 ) the descent of man and selection in relation to sex . john murray , london
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falconer ds ( 1981 ) introduction to quantative genetics . john wiley , new york
fisher ra ( 1930 ) the genetical theory of natural selection . clarendon press , oxford
gilliard et ( 1956 ) bower ornamentation versus plumage characters in bowerbirds . auk 73 : 450–451
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gilliard et ( 1969 ) birds of paradise and bower birds . weinden - field and nicholson , london
hamilton wd , zuk m ( 1982 ) heritable true fitness and bright birds : a role for parasites . science 218 : 384–387
kirkpatrick m ( 1986 ) the handicap mechanism of sexual selection does not work . am nat 127 : 222–240
lande r ( 1981 ) models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits . proc natl acad sci ( usa ) 78 : 3721–3762
marshall aj ( 1954 ) bower - birds : their displays and breeding cycles . oxford university press , oxford
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parker ga ( 1983 ) mate quality and mating decisions . in : bateson p ( ed ) mate choice . cambridge university press , new york , pp 141–166
partridge l , harvey p ( 1986 ) contentious issues in sexual selection . nature 323 : 580–581
pomiankowski a ( 1987a ) sexual selection : the handicap principle does work — sometimes . proc r soc london ser b 231 : 123–145
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read af ( 1987 ) comparative evidence supports the hamilton and zuk hypothesis on parasites and sexual selection . nature 328 : 68–70
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honest signals that indicate male quality have been observed in many species and are thought to have evolved to allow males to assess rivals accurately and respond to “cheaters . ” females could potentially also use the same honest signals as reliable indicators of male quality . in bowerbirds , the numbers of specific bower decorations may serve as an honest signal of male quality : this study investigates whether decoration stealing among male satin bowerbirds at the bunya mountains , australia , may also involve honest signals . in this study , we aimed to determine 1 ) predictors for the degree to which individual male satin bowerbirds steal , and are stolen from , and 2 ) predictors for why some male pairs interact by stealing , whereas other pairs do not . we also assessed how experimentally standardizing the number of decorations on bowers would affect the 1 ) frequency of stealing , 2 ) specific interactions among males , and 3 ) distribution of decorations across bowers . bower decorations were labeled and tracked through one breeding season . males that were successful stealers , stole from other successful stealers , had many feathers and bottle tops on their bowers and painted their bower walls often . male pairs were more likely to interact by stealing if their bowers were in close proximity . most of the stealing observed was of a reciprocal nature . after we standardized the numbers and types of decorations on a small group of males ' bowers , the mean number of daily stealing gains and the total number of males interacting by stealing did not change . in addition , no significant novel stealing interactions were initiated after the manipulation . the average number of all bower decorations and the average number of rosella feathers on a given male ' s bower prior to the manipulation were proportional to the average numbers for the period after the manipulation . furthermore , males that originally had better collections of decorations tended to suffer fewer losses due to stealing after the manipulation . our results suggest that the total number of decorations , the total number of rosella feathers on a male ' s bower , and possibly stealing behavior , may form part of the basis of an honest signal indicating male quality and therefore might be correlated with mating success .
honest signals that indicate male quality have been observed in many species and are thought to have evolved to allow males to assess rivals accurately and respond to “cheaters” ( rohwer 1975 ; johnstone 1995 ; berglund 1996 ) . females could potentially also use the same honest signals as reliable indicators of male quality ( johnstone 1995 ; berglund 1996 ; borgia and coleman 2000 ; madden 2002 ) . in a study on spotted bowerbirds ( chlamydera maculata ) , madden ( 2002 ) supplied males with “free” bower decorations and surprisingly not all males took advantage of them . in fact , many males with experimentally enhanced levels of bower decoration suffered from increased instances of bower destruction . this showed that for some males these free bower decorations incurred a substantial cost . madden therefore proposed that the numbers of specific bower decorations may serve as an honest signal of male quality in this species ( madden 2002 ) . the current study investigates whether decoration stealing among male satin bowerbirds may also involve honest signals .
during the breeding season , male satin bowerbirds ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) attract females by building elaborate stick structures , known as bowers . these bowers are the focal point of a male ' s display as it is here that males exhibit the various natural and artificial colorful decorations they have collected , perform courtship dances , and eventually mate with females ( frith cb and frith dw 2004 ) . satin bowerbirds are polygynous and males do not care for young ( frith cb and frith dw 2004 ) . because a male ' s only contribution to females is his sperm , females may choose mates based on traits that are indicative of “good genes” ( borgia 1986b ; borgia and collis 1990 ) . in fact , many aspects of a male ' s display are correlated with mating success , including bower quality and the numbers and types of decorations ( borgia 1985b , 1986a ; borgia and gore 1986 ; patricelli et al . 2003 ; coleman et al . 2004 ) . however , in isolation , such correlations are not necessarily indicative of male quality . male–male competition is also intense among male satin bowerbirds , as males often steal bower decorations from , and destroy , rival males ' bowers during the breeding season ( marshall 1954 ; vellenga 1970 ; borgia 1985a ) . because both male–male competition and female choice focus on the same suite of traits , investigation into stealing interactions among males may clarify whether females are in fact selecting for good genes .
in this study , we observed one group of males to obtain baseline data on stealing to determine 1 ) predictors for the degree to which individual male satin bowerbirds steal , and are stolen from , and 2 ) predictors for why some male pairs interact by stealing , whereas other pairs do not . we used a second group of males in the same population to assess how experimentally standardizing the number of decorations on bowers would affect the 1 ) frequency of stealing , 2 ) specific interactions among males , and 3 ) distribution of decorations across bowers . given the correlation between female mate choice and the number of some types of bower decorations ( borgia 1985b ) , determining the contribution made by stealing to the distribution of decorations will help in understanding whether females are assessing an aspect of a male ' s display that is indicative of a potential mate ' s quality .
this study was conducted at the bunya mountains , approximately 160 km northwest of brisbane , australia ( 26°51′s , 152°50′e ) . the site was a mixture of cleared paddocks and araucarian simple notophyll vine rain forest ( webb 1968 ) . thirty - one male satin bowerbirds were observed in this study . twenty - four of these males were already individually color banded from previous studies ( robson et al . 2005 ; bravery et al . 2006 ) . two birds were banded during this study using the methods described in bravery et al . ( 2006 ) . although some males were not banded , we can be confident that the same birds were observed throughout this study as bower ownership usually continues for many years ( vellenga 1970 ) . banding was done under license from the australian bird and bat banding scheme .
stealing of bower decorations among males was monitored in 2 separate clusters of bowers ( see figure 1 ) . these clusters were approximately 1 . 5 km apart , and no stealing was observed between males from different clusters during the study . the 21 bowers in cluster one remained in their natural state throughout the study , whereas the 10 bowers in cluster two were used in an experimental manipulation . this study was approved by the queensland parks and wildlife service ( scientific purposes permit : wisp02093904 ) and the university of queensland animal experimentation ethics committee ( reference : zoo / ent / 355 / 04 / uq ) .
map showing location of study site relative to main roads ( heavy black lines ) and the village of dandabah . grey shading indicates rain forest ; white indicates cleared paddock with scattered trees . cluster one bower locations are given by the circles , cluster two bowers by the triangles , and each peripheral bower by a cross .
decorations on all bowers were individually marked , and the stealing of bower decorations was monitored for the bowers in cluster one between 11 september and 1 december 2004 . bowers were visited each day , at the same time and in the same sequence . during this time period , there were 44 pairs of consecutive days when stealing could be inferred . at each visit , it was noted if a bird had gained a decoration that was present on another bower the previous day ; this was defined as a stealing gain . similarly , if a male had lost a decoration to another monitored bower this was defined as a stealing loss . for further details regarding the decoration labeling and subsequent inferring of stealing see wojcieszek et al . ( 2006 ) . at the end of the season , we determined which male pairs were involved in stealing relationships . stealing relationships were further categorized into reciprocal and thief–victim relationships . reciprocal relationships existed where each male of a pair stole at least once from the other male , whereas thief–victim relationships consisted of at least one theft by one male in a pair with no reciprocal stealing by the other male in the pair .
we measured various characteristics of the 21 males from cluster one and their bowers to determine whether any of these characteristics predicted 1 ) a male ' s stealing activity or 2 ) why some pairs of males interacted by stealing . most of the males observed had been banded as birds in mature satin blue plumage , thus they could only be assigned a minimum age . because the exact age could only be determined for 8 out of the 21 males , age was excluded from all further analyses . morphological data were used in our analyses as they were available for 17 of the 21 males ( variables included body weight , head - bill size , wing length , tarsus length , and tail length ) .
at each of the 21 bowers , 3 sessions of continuous behavioral observation , each of 90 min , were performed over the season , providing 270 min of behavioral data per male . observation periods commenced 1 h after sunrise and observers sat approximately 10 m from bowers . start and finish times for the following categories of behaviors were recorded : ( a ) owner out of sight , ( b ) owner manipulating sticks , ( c ) owner manipulating decorations , ( d ) owner removing objects from bower , ( e ) owner masticating or painting ( bowerbirds regularly masticate various types of leaves and sticks and subsequently “paint” this mixture onto their bower walls ; see bravery et al . 2006 ) , ( f ) owner perching quietly on the ground or in a tree within observer ' s sight , ( g ) owner vocalizing , ( h ) marauding male present at bower and / or chased by owner , ( i ) owner displaying with no other birds observing , ( j ) owner displaying with birds observing ( juvenile males and females were distinguished , if possible , based on bill and plumage differences ; vellenga 1970 ) , and ( k ) owner on bower platform . we then determined the total time spent in each of the above categories of behavior . the total times spent “on bower” ( total of b + c + d + e + i + j + k ) and spent on “bower maintenance” ( total of b + c + d + e ) were also determined . tallies were made of 1 ) the number of copulations received during the observation period , 2 ) the numbers of each type of vocalization performed , and instances of visitation by 3 ) juvenile males and 4 ) females .
each bower was mapped using a “garmin etrex” global positioning system . the locations of all bowers were then mapped ( see figure 1 ) and the distances between all pairs of bowers calculated . instances of complete bower destruction were noted during the daily decoration surveys . complete bower destruction was defined as little or no evidence of the bower avenue remaining ( modified from hunter and dwyer 1997 ) . once each month the following 4 variables were subjectively ranked at each bower : 1 ) symmetry of walls , 2 ) stick size , 3 ) stick density , and 4 ) overall quality of construction ( borgia 1985b ) . each of these 4 aspects was ranked on a scale of 1 to 5 , with scores of 5 given to bowers with symmetrical walls , sticks of similar size , high stick density , and of an overall “neat” appearance ( modified from borgia 1985b ) . bower quality scores were then determined for each bower by obtaining the means of these 4 variables . digital photographs of each bower were also taken and 2 naive observers , with no knowledge of the males studied , were asked to assign bower quality to ensure against bias ( in accordance with bravery et al . 2006 ) . these values were correlated with those from the field ( p < 0 . 005 ) . the field scores were therefore used to generate a mean bower quality score for each male .
after monitoring stealing for 44 days , each male ' s total numbers of stealing gains and losses were determined . a correlation matrix was made using all the explanatory variables and if 2 variables were correlated at r ≥ 0 . 70 , one of these variables was removed from all further analyses . only 2 sets of variables were intercorrelated ; the proportion of time males spent performing bower maintenance was positively correlated with the time spent manipulating sticks and the proportion of time males were on their bowers was negatively correlated with the time they were out of sight . the proportion of time that males were out of sight was not used in further analyses ; the time spent on the bower platform was selected as it provided a more reliable measure of males ' attendance at their bowers . this is because there would have been times when a male was within the vicinity of his bower , but obscured from the view of observers . the time males spent manipulating sticks was removed from further analyses in favor of the bower maintenance measure , as this was a more complete measure of a male ' s activity while on his bower .
all data were analyzed using the statistical program “r” ( version 1 . 9 . 1 ) . to determine predictors for the degree to which individual male satin bowerbirds steal , and are stolen from , correlation tests were performed between all the uncorrelated explanatory variables and 2 response variables—the total numbers of stealing gains and stealing losses of each male . if an explanatory variable was not correlated with either of the response variables , it was not considered for any further analysis . all possible combinations of the variables that were significantly correlated with the stealing success or stealing losses of males were then examined using generalized linear models . optimal models were selected using akaike ' s information criterion corrected for small sample sizes ( aic c ) . the aic “method” allows one to select the model with the best predictive power from a list of alternative models and the degree to which a given model “fits” the data can be reported using the “akaike weight . ” the closer the akaike weight is to 1 . 0 the better the predictive power of the model ( see burnham and anderson ( 2002 ) for more details regarding the aic method ) . stealing events were count data , thus poisson error distributions were specified when modeling both stealing gains and stealing losses . the “offset” function in r was utilized in these models to account for the fact that individual males started building and attending bowers at different times during the mating season , thus were not stealing and being stolen from for the same lengths of time .
the same explanatory variables were used to determine why some male pairs interacted by stealing , whereas other pairs did not . each possible male pair was assigned a single value for each of the explanatory variables . this variable was the difference between the measures determined for each bird in a pair for that variable . we included as another explanatory variable the distances between the bowers of each pair of males . generalized linear models with binomial error distributions were then created ( the binary response being scored “yes” if a male pair interacted by stealing and “no” if they did not ) . in these models , the number of days in which both males of a pair were simultaneously attending bowers was used as the offset .
we compared the distribution of blue objects across bowers for 21 days preceding , and 21 days after , the manipulation . we examined whether the stealing interactions among males resulted in blue objects , in particular the favored feathers and bottle tops , being distributed among the bowers in the same relative proportions as before the manipulation . rates of stealing losses and gains and stealing relationships were also compared for specific males before and after the manipulation . we determined the proportion of the total decoration pool that each male held on the day prior to the manipulation . at the manipulation , males were given decoration collections that equated to possessing 10 % of the total pool of decorations . if a male ' s new decoration collection meant he then possessed more than the proportion of decorations he held prior to the manipulation he was termed a “cheater . ” for example , one male possessed only 4 % of the total decoration pool prior to the manipulation ; he was therefore labeled a cheater once his decoration collection was experimentally enhanced to 10 % . three birds were classified as noncheaters and 7 as cheaters .
the decorations of nonmanipulated males around the periphery of the 10 manipulated males ' bowers were monitored during the study and no labeled decorations were ever found on any of these peripheral bowers . it was therefore assumed that the main stealing interactions were confined to the 10 males we included in our experimental manipulation .


the pindani ( pseudotropheus socolofi ) is a species of cichlid endemic to lake malawi preferring areas with sandy substrates and nearby rocks where the males establish their territories .

this species can reach a length of 6.7 centimetres ( 2.6 in ) sl .

it can also be found in the aquarium trade .

pindani

ashtamichira , kodungallur , irinjalakuda , chalakudy are the near by cities to pindani .
do you know about pindani ? . write information about this place , history , origin . how to reach there ? . share complete info about pindani let world discover this place .
irinjalakuda rail way station , chalakudi rail way station are the very nearby railway stations to pindani .
pindani is surrounded by mala block towards east , kodungallur block towards south , mathilakam block towards west , chendamangalam block towards south .
pindani is a small village / hamlet in vellangallur block in thrissur district of kerala state , india . it comes under puthenchira panchayath . it belongs to central kerala division . it is located 33 km towards south from district head quarters thrissur . 5 km from vellangallur . 249 km from state capital thiruvananthapuram
prefers shallow intermediate habitat between 4 - 10 m . feeds on algae from the rock surface . males are weakly territorial wandering through the habitat like females . this species lacks sexual dichromatism . known as
pseudotropheus pindani
in the aquarium trade . max . size : in the wild it attains a total length of about 7 cm ( in captivity it can grow up to 16 cm ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
eschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2017 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 30 june 2017 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 30 june 2017 ) .
this species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus pseudotropheus regan , 1922 but is now valid in the genus chindongo li , konings & stauffer , 2016 .
snoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )
justification : endemic to lake malawi where it is fairly widespread throughout the rocky shores of the southeast arm of the lake . it has no known major widespread threats .
endemic to lake malawi . occurs along the eastern shore of the lake from tumbi point to cobue ( mozambique ) . introduced at thumbi west island and otter point ( although the introduced populations failed to thrive and may even have become extinct ) .
this species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus pseudotropheus regan , 1922 but is now valid in the genus chindongo li , konings & stauffer , 2016 . an amended assessment has been produced to reflect this taxonomic change .
( amended version of 2006 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t61176a117807518 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
. . : : pseudotropheus saulosi & socolofi @ 44 gallon fish tank : : . .
greek , pseudes = false + greek , tropaion = defeat , a memorial of a fighting war , trophy ; because of their specialized teeth were such an obvious feeding adaptation ( ref . 45335 )
freshwater ; demersal ; depth range 4 - 10 m . tropical ; 24°c - 26°c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 11°s - 14°s
africa : endemic to lake malawi . occurs on the mozambique coast of the lake . probably introduced in otter point and thumbi west island .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5684 )
inhabits shallow areas , mostly over sand but territorial males stay close to rocks . feeds from the biocover on the rock and sand ( ref . 5595 ) .
maréchal , c . , 1991 . pseudotropheus . p . 401 - 415 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 5684 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 ±0 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tm < 1 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
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the nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .
the genus is currently recognized as containing two species , blue mbuna labeotropheus fuelleborni ahl 1927 and scrapermouth mbuna l . trewavasae fryer 1956 ; both have large , protruding , fleshy snouts and exhibit polychromatism ( ribbink et al . 1983 ) . ribbink et al . ( 1983 ) and lewis et al . ( 1986 ) described the various color morphs and distinguished between the two known species . color photographs were given in ribbink et al . ( 1983 ) , axelrod et al . ( 1985 ) , lewis et al . ( 1986 ) , and axelrod ( 1993 ) .
large numbers of juveniles and adult blue african cichlids were observed by c . r . robins in large rock pits at or near the metrozoo in south miami , dade county , florida , ca . 1987 ( courtenay , personal communication ) . robins initially reported that the species , tentatively identified as l . trewavasae , was apparently established ; however , no additional reports of this species are known from the site . the metrozoo record was apparently the basis for the listing of labeotropheus sp . in later publications as introduced but not established in florida ( e . g . , courtenay and stauffer 1990 ; courtenay et al . 1991 ) .
table 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations† . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of pseudotropheus socolofi are found here .
axelrod , h . r . 1993 . the most complete colored lexicon of cichlids . tropical fish hobbyist publications , inc . , neptune city , nj .
axelrod , h . r . , w . e . burgess , n . pronek , and j . g . walls . 1985 . dr . axelrod ' s atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes . tropical fish hobbyist publications , inc . , neptune city , nj .
courtenay , w . r . , jr . , and j . r . stauffer , jr . . 1990 . the introduced fish problem and the aquarium fish industry . journal of the world aquaculture society 21 ( 3 ) : 145 - 159 .
courtenay , w . r . , jr . , d . p . jennings , and j . d . williams . 1991 . appendix 2 : exotic fishes . pages 97 - 107 in robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , 5th edition . american fisheries society special publication 20 . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .
johnson , d . s . 1974 . three new cichlids from lake malawi . today ' s aquarist 1 ( 3 ) : 38 - 42 .
konings , a . 1990 . koning ' s book of cichlids and all the other fishes of lake malawi . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey .
lewis , d . , p . reinthal , and j . trendall . 1986 . a guide to the fishes of lake malawi national park . world wildlife fund , gland , switzerland . 71 pp .
petrovicky , i . 1988 . aquarium fish of the world . hamlyn , london , england .
ribbink , a . j . , b . a . marsh , a . c . marsh , a . c . ribbink , and b . j . sharp . 1983 . a preliminary survey of the cichlid fishes of rocky habitats in lake malawi . south african journal of zoology ( zoology dierkunde ) 18 ( 3 ) : 149 - 310 .
leo nico , and bill loftus , 2018 , pseudotropheus socolofi johnson , 1974 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 4 / 30 / 2018 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018
this information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .
the data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .
citation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .
contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .
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cpm , jpss , cpi , inc are the major political parties in this area .
st joseph ' s training college , b . ed & t . t . c . , pavaratty
address : puthenchira , vellangallur , thrissur , kerala . pin - 680682 , post - puthenchira