geophagus altifrons is a freshwater eartheater cichlid fish native to the amazon river basin , brazil .

introduced to singapore , it thrives in slow-moving streams and reservoirs .

its ecological impact on its adopted habitat is still unknown .

a member of the family cichlidae , it can grow up to 22.5 cm ( 8.9 in ) in standard length .

it is benthophagous by nature , taking mouthfuls of substrate ( hence its common name ) and sifting for edible items , with the remaining materials being expelled via the mouth and gill openings .

it prefers clear and blackwater environments as opposed to turbid white waters .

geophagus altifrons

a lot of geophagus are sold as altifrons or surinamensis . many , if not most , are misidentified . their care is basically the same .
acarichthyini – acarichthys and guianacara . crenicaratini – biotoecus , crenicara , dicrossus and mazarunia . geophagini – geophagus , mikrogeophagus , ‘ geophagus ‘ brasiliensis group , ‘ geophagus ‘ steindachneri group , gymnogeophagus , satanoperca , biotodoma , apistogramma , apistogrammoides and taeniacara .
geophagus and a number of related genera are often included in the putative subfamily geophaginae .
further confusion has been caused by undescribed geophagus species from various parts of the amazon basin being traded as geographic forms of g . altifrons or g . sp . aff . altifrons despite possessing prominent midlateral markings or vertical body stripes , whereas in g . altifrons sensu stricto these features are greatly reduced and absent , respectively .
geophagus altifrons is a fairly peaceful species , commonly sought out for their intense coloration as well as their larger size ( they are one of the largest geophagus species ) . they are native to various rivers and streams within the amazon river basin of south america .
geophagus : from the greek geo , meaning ‘earth’ , and phagos , meaning ‘ to eat’ .
like others in the genus sensu stricto , g . altifrons appreciates the company of conspecifics .
if that big dark spot on its side is really a big dark spot , then this is not g . altifrons . the spot on the side of altifrons is literally 1 , 2 , or 3 scales . this is one of the other geophagus species , i ' m not sure which .
– a weakly - supported sister group relationship between acarichthys and guianacara . – a well - supported ‘ satanoperca clade ‘ comprising satanoperca , apistogramma , apistogrammoides and taeniacara . – a ‘big clade ‘ with geophagus , mikrogeophagus , ‘ geophagus ‘ brasiliensis group , ‘ geophagus ‘ steindachneri group , gymnogeophagus , biotodoma , crenicara and dicrossus . – a ‘crenicarine clade ‘ with biotoecus and crenicichla .
altifrons : from the latin alto , meaning ‘high , tall’ , and frons , meaning ‘forehead , front’ .
like other geophagus species , the altifrons will continuously sift through sand in search of food . they have a base color of tan to gray , with very mild , vertical banding and gold - orange to blue - green , iridescent scales on their flanks .
only five geophagus species aren’t included , namely g . argyrostictus , g . gottwaldi , g . grammepareius , g . harreri and g . taeniopareius .
g . altifrons is gregarious and tends to exist in loose aggregations unless spawning , with juveniles in particular displaying strong grouping berhaviour .
some aquarists keep geophagus spp . alongside freshwater stingrays of the genus potamotrygon which in many cases has proven successful but in some has resulted in them disappearing at night ( ! ) .
geophagus spp . are benthophagous by nature , employing a method of feeding whereby mouthfuls of substrate are taken and sifted for edible items with the remaining material expelled via the gill openings and mouth .
group of specimens from the rio xingu traded as g . altifrons but possessing vertical flank bars suggesting it may represent another taxon ( see ' notes ' ) .
of those known in the aquarium hobby some are traded as g . sp . aff . altifrons which can be misleading as they don’t always resemble that species .
some former species were moved into the resurrected genus satanoperca while others , such as the ‘ geophagus ‘ brasiliensis and ‘ g . ‘ steindachneri groups represent distinct groupings still in need of definitive classification .
very similar in terms of care , but altifrons do need a bigger tank as they get bigger than orange heads . 180g sounds good for a small group of adult altifrons . i have them in the same tank and they get along fine . i don ' t know if you actually need any dithers for them though . . . .
what else ; they all do well at about 75 degrees , the altifrons is the most beautiful of the group in my opinion , and they all seem quite hardy .
further , the majority of geophagus species in the hobby are sold as g . surinamensis regardless of origin – a situation which continues to cause confusion and exacerbated by the fact that juveniles of most are virtually identical .
peathenster wrote : very similar in terms of care , but altifrons do need a bigger tank as they get bigger than orange heads . 180g sounds good for a small group of adult altifrons . i have them in the same tank and they get along fine . i don ' t know if you actually need any dithers for them though . . . .
the genus geophagus was rediagnosed by kullander ( 1986 ) who restricted it to include only those species with paired caudal extensions to the swimbladder lined by 6 - 12 epihemal ‘ribs’ plus a greater number of caudal than abdominal vertebrae .
okay , one last kick , i ' ve seen the altifrons also listed as proximis , surinamensis and megasema . ok , it ' s out of my system now , i promise .
lópez - fernández , h . and d . c . taphorn , 2004 - zootaxa 439 : 1 - 27 geophagus abalios , g . dicrozoster and g . winemilleri ( perciformes : cichlidae ) , three new species from venezuela .
altifrons require an aquarium of at least 55 gallons and should be provided with a fine , sand substrate and multiple places where they can find shelter ( driftwood , rock structures , or dense vegetation ) . altifrons will sift and burrow through substrate and have been known to snack on some live plant species , so live plants that attach to driftwood and rocks , or potted plants are recommended .
altifrons prefer warm , soft , acidic , and clean water as well as areas of low or subdued lighting where they can sift around for snacks . altifrons prefer to live in groups and are relatively peaceful cichlids that have been successful in a community environment , but are more commonly kept in species or biotope - specific aquariums ( or housed with other cichlids ) . tank mates should be considered carefully and should be comparable in size .
leaf litter is a typical feature of the natural environment but not really recommended in aquaria because the feeding behaviour of geophagus spp . tends to cause an excess of partially - decomposed material in suspension which not only looks unsightly but can block filter and pump mechanisms .
staeck , w . and i . schindler , 2006 - zoologische abhandlungen ( dresden ) 55 : 69 - 75 geophagus parnaibae sp . n . - - a new species of cichlid fish ( teleostei : perciformes : cichlidae ) from the rio parnaãba basin , brazil .
lucinda , p . h . f . , c . a . s . de lucena and n . c . assis , 2010 - zootaxa 2429 : 29 - 42 two new species of cichlid fish genus geophagus heckel from the rio tocantins drainage ( perciformes : cichlidae ) .
schindler , i . and w . staeck , 2006 - zoologische abhandlungen ( dresden ) 56 : 91 - 97 geophagus gottwaldi sp . n . - a new species of cichlid fish ( teleostei : perciformes : cichlidae ) from the drainage of the upper rão orinoco in venezuela .
does , but mine is 106 gallons and i have 4 red heads in it and 7 bolivians . my friend has three altifrons . two of them are females and one male . male altifrons is really agressive and he constantly picks on these two females . friend moved one female to another tank , but left one previous pair in same tank . it was ok at first , but then male started to harass female so bad , that she doen ' t have any fin left .
the altifrons is by far the most aggressive of them , but , being geos , that is not really all that aggressive at all - - chasing , no damage sort of thing . of course , more hides than fish really do help .
are they as nice looking as they seem in pics ? i wanted another geo species to go with my orange heads that looked similar but were also different & blended in well . . . altifrons seem to fit that criteria . . . do yours breed much ?
you could try , but honestly i think you should stick to what you already have . ask your friend to put a divider in temporarily ( quite unusual for geophagus i should say ) , and think about rehoming either the male or the females . usually in situations like this it ' s not going to get better . . .
right now i have 3 orange heads in a 55 gallon , 2 males 1 female . . . wanted to add another 2 - 3 females & 1 male & 3 female altifrons when i get the 180 setup . . . or should i be looking for a larger tank ?
peathenster wrote : you could try , but honestly i think you should stick to what you already have . ask your friend to put a divider in temporarily ( quite unusual for geophagus i should say ) , and think about rehoming either the male or the females . usually in situations like this it ' s not going to get better . . .
the female altifrons will lay a total of around 300 eggs in a carefully cleaned , flat location ( driftwood , flat rock / stone , slate , or large plant leaves ) and within 1 - 24 hours , will transfer the eggs to her mouth and care for them until they hatch .
altifrons are brood caring , mouth brooders and breeding them isn ' t very difficult . breeding can be induced by feeding them plenty of live and frozen foods that are high in protein , raising the water temperature to 88° f and lowering the ph levels with peat ( can be added as filter media ) .
since then it’s been recorded from most tributary drainages of the middle - to - lower amazon basin including the paru , xingu , tapajós , trombetas , madeira , negro and purus ( the fish from the rio tocantins traded as g . sp . aff . altifrons ‘tocantins’ is now described as g . neambi ) .
the described members of the group are g . abalios , g . altifrons , g . brachybranchus , g . brokopondo , g . camopiensis , g . dicrozoster , g . megasema , g . neambi , g . parnaibae , g . proximus , g . surinamensis , g . sveni and g . winemilleri .
anyone own or have owned geophagus altifrons ? looking for opinions on how they are to take care of & any concerns about them ? they ' d be housed with 3 - > 5
orange heads / red heads
in a 180 gallon . . . also anyone own
orange heads / red heads
& have dither fish with them ? i ' ve got this one male that has seemed to make a sport of killing off any tetra ' s or diano ' s that get put in the tank . . . he goes after them from the bottom of the tank straight up like a great white shark looking for some small dither opinions & pref south american as well . . .
why not go with the very popular red head tapajos ? they grow up to ~ 6
and are very mellow . i ' ve kept them with emeperor tetras and random corys . i did also have
surinamensis
which were probably more likely altifrons and they did fine with the same mentioned fish as the red heads .
the altifrons is an omnivore that generally feeds from the bottom of the aquarium ( but will surface for frozen bloodworms ) and should be fed a variety of foods , such as live , prepared , frozen or freeze - dried : brine shrimp , bloodworms , blackworms , krill , flake food , and soft , sinking , cichlid pellets .
i ' ve kept an altifrons for about 18 months now in a dedicated geophagus 90 gallon tank , one fish per species ( 4 total ) and i ' m deliberately going to use the common name i come across most often for them , as it ' s really getting on my nerves that binomial names seem to change by the hour . it was a great idea when linneus or however he spelled his name invented the idea , kept everyone on the same page when talking about the same fish , but now it is more the common name that stays put , where in the last 15 or so years the satanoperca jurupari has undergone two genus names and i think 3 specific names . end of rant , thankfully , as i believe you asked a question .
they have iridescent gold - orange to blue - green patterns on their operculum as well as a variety of blue - green to orange - red markings on their translucent fins . altifrons also have ( to varying intensity ) a black ocellus spot on and below their upper lateral line . although a difficult species to sex , the males are generally larger than females .
their natural diet includes lots of insects , so is rather high protien ; i raise composting worms to feed various fish , and the altifrons both enjoy and thrive on them ( they really are excellent food , not that i ' m saying that from a taste perspective ) . gut fed crickets are always a hit as well , as is any commercial food hiding in the substrate .
g . altifrons occurs sympatrically with literally hundreds of other species across its range but as an example some of those inhabiting the rio purus include acestrorhynchus falcatus , leporinus friderici , aphyocharax alburnus , hemigrammus ocellifer , hyphessobrycon bentosi , leptagoniates pi , moenkhausia oligolepis , prionobrama filigera , tetragonopterus argenteus , triportheus angulatus , thoracocharax stellatus , corydoras armatus , c . trilineatus , hemiodontichthys acipenserinus , lamontichthys filamentosus , otocinclus vittatus , rineloricaria lanceolata , bujurquina sp . cf . syspilus and colomesus asellus .
i ' ve found that it depends on the fish and how they were raised . i ' ve bred several clutches of geophagus abalios and grew a number of the fry out to adulthood and they never showed any interest in smaller fish . they were never fed anything live . almost all their aggression was conspecific . but i also picked up some larger satanoperca leucosticta at one point , which are supposed to be one of the more peaceful eartheaters and they constantly chased around smaller fish . i ' m assuming the guy i bought them from must have fed them feeders at some point . if you buy your geos young and raise them up yourself i think you should be fine . certainly with the rams , diamond tetras and cories . the rummynoses are the only ones i ' d potentially be worried about .
oh they are very bit as nice looking as they are in pictures . but different variants can look very different , so pick yours well . imo g . altifrons
tapajos
maybe somewhat dull compared to others . i ' m keeping two groups , 5 adult
manuas
( first pic ) and 4 young
tocantins
( second pic ) . the lighting and wb are different but you can still tell the difference -
manaus
seem to have more blue in the body and
tocantins
has more red in the fins . they are not as easy to breed as the orange heads . my
manuas
bred before but are not in the
mood
now
has anyone kept geophagus with smaller fish at all ? on seriously fish they mention that this species wont eat smaller fish in your tank , where other sites go with the general rule of thumb that if it is small enough to fit in their mouths they will eat it ( which i ' m inclined to agree with ) . i ' ve also read other claims on forums and what not that theirs didn ' t eat any for a bit , but then fish would start to disappear at night . so i ' m just wondering if anyone has any input on that . i was thinking of putting some in with maybe bolivian rams , some diamond tetras , a school of rummy nose , and some cory ' s . are there any that i could keep on that list , like maybe the bolivians ? or should i forget about keeping them together
peathenster wrote : oh they are very bit as nice looking as they are in pictures . but different variants can look very different , so pick yours well . imo g . altifrons
tapajos
maybe somewhat dull compared to others . i ' m keeping two groups , 5 adult
manuas
( first pic ) and 4 young
tocantins
( second pic ) . the lighting and wb are different but you can still tell the difference -
manaus
seem to have more blue in the body and
tocantins
has more red in the fins . they are not as easy to breed as the orange heads . my
manuas
bred before but are not in the
mood
now
well , i have 6 in a 135 , it turns out they are three pairs and they get along , as long as everyone minds their p ' s and q ' s . i don ' t know how you will sex them , there are no external sex differences that i am aware of , in the book - south american earth eaters
they state there is no sexual dimorphism . and i can only tell if they are spawning , and then it only lasts a few days , and then i can ' t tell . they are housed with 3 large ( 10 - 11 inch ) uaru , 8 smaller jurupari and a host of somewhat fancy plecos . the altifrons are around 8 inches now , not including very long fin extentions .
i personally wouldnt do the red heads over the altifrons they altis just look much better ! ! my friend has a few in his 125 and they look amazing ! ! even vs the redheads there in the 55g they just outshine them hands down . just dont get fin nippers for tank mates . here is a link to what his look like the price is up there but its has the exact genetics the 2nd place has and its 6 - 7
+ urltoken vs urltoken you should be able to see a clear difference so look for good genetics even in small fish . i wouldnt keep anything that can fit into there mouth is just asking to be eaten , as for plants just gotta worry about them diggin them up just get some ceramic pots put them upside down and put the plants in the hole should really help and probably solve that issue easy , if you want to match the substrate glue / epoxy the substrate to the outside so if they do dig it matches the surounding and doesnt stand out . good luck
the red heads really only look good in groups if you ask me , and you can ' t really do a good sized group in anything smaller than a 180 . stick with an altifrons , look into what cats you like ( tbh , i like those port catfish that look like elongate cories , i ' ve always wanted some ) , look into some nice deeper bodied tetras or rainbow fish or even gourami , maybe think about even some sort of smaller cichlids like rainbow cichlids , convicts , fire mouths , ect . point is , with a 75 gallon tank and a geo , there are a ton of options . i ' m going to be uploading some more pics of my tank later today , i ' ll make a new thread about it in the journal thing that will be linked in my sig . if you need any ideas just ask me , i ' m big into the idea of bigger fish with plants , and i originally started as a cichlid and oddball fish kinda guy so i ' ve mulled over a ton of options .
greek , gea = the earth + greek , phagein = to eat ( ref . 45335 )
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 26 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 111518 ) ; max . published weight : 277 . 00 g ( ref . 111518 )
kullander , s . o . , 2003 . cichlidae ( cichlids ) . p . 605 - 654 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 36377 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01380 ( 0 . 00754 - 0 . 02527 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 2 ±0 . 1 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .
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urltoken
the rio purus is home to a form of this species . it flows through the peruvian amazon before entering brazil .
this form was collected close to the city of altamira so should also be from the xingú .
described from ‘barra do rio - negro’ which corresponds to the fort of são josé da barra do rio negro , built by the portugese at the site of what is now the city of manaus , amazonas state , brazil .
different populations exhibit variations in colour and patterning which has lead to unconfirmed speculation that the species as currently accepted might represent a complex of closely - related , but distinct , taxa .
it’s also been introduced to some streams and inland reservoirs in singapore where it appears to be thriving .
predominantly found in the lower reaches of rivers , appearing to be restricted by the first stretch of rapids encountered , and has also been collected from floodplain lakes in várzea ( literally ‘flooded forest’ ) regions .
it’s said to show a preference for clear and black water environments as opposed to turbid ‘white’ waters and tends to inhabit gently sloping marginal zones around shores or islands with substrates of sand , fine gravel and mud .
depending on locality other habitat features can include scattered rocks , submerged tree roots and branches .
the most essential item of décor in a set - up for this species is a soft , sandy substrate so that the fish can browse naturally ( see ‘diet’ ) .
coarser materials such as gravel or small pebbles can inhibit feeding , damage gill filaments and even be ingested with the potential of internal damage or blockages .
additional furnishings are as much a case of personal taste as anything else but the most favoured set - ups tend to feature relatively dim lighting plus some chunks of driftwood and scattered roots or branches .
one or two flattish , water - worn rocks can also be included to provide potential spawning sites if you wish .
water quality is of the utmost importance since these cichlids are extremely susceptible to deteriorating water quality and swings in chemical parameters so should never be introduced to a biologically immature aquarium .
the best way to achieve the desired stability is to over - filter the tank using a combination of external canister filters and / or a sump system and perform minimum weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % .
if the maintenance regime is insufficient health issues such as head and lateral line erosion or stunted growth can occur .
mechanical filtration should also be tailored to trap small particles stirred up by the fish as sand can cause blockages and wearing issues with filter mechanisms if allowed to continually run through the system .
ph : in its natural waters ph values of 4 . 8 – 6 . 6 have been recorded and wild - collected specimens are likely to do best within this range . captive - bred examples can normally be maintained under neutral conditions .
for this reason they’re commonly termed ‘eartheaters’ and the provision of a suitable substrate is essential to their long - term well - being .
once settled they readily rise into the water column when food is introduced but continue to browse normally at other times .
the stomach contents of wild specimens mostly comprise small aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates , plant material in the form of seeds , organic detritus and sediment .
even as adults these cichlids seem unable to properly ingest larger food items meaning the diet should contain a variety of high quality , fine - grade prepared foods plus small live or frozen bloodworm , tubifex , artemia , mosquito larvae , etc .
at least some of the dried products should contain a high proportion of vegetable matter such as spirulina or similar .
home - made , gelatine - bound recipes containing a mixture of dried fish food , puréed shellfish , fresh fruit and vegetables , for example , are proven to work well and can be cut into bite - sized discs using the end of a sharp pipette or small knife .
rather than a single large meal offer 3 - 4 smaller portions daily to allow natural browsing behaviour as this seems to result in the best growth rate and condition .
unless breeding this species is surprisingly peaceful and will not predate on fishes larger than a few millimetres in length .
suitable tankmates are far too numerous to list but include most peaceful species enjoying similar environmental conditions .
best avoided are aggressive or territorial substrate - dwelling species , or those requiring harder water .
a group of 5 - 8 individuals should be the minimum purchase and these will form a noticeable dominance hierarchy .
when maintained in smaller numbers weaker specimens can become the target of excessive antagonism by dominant individuals or the group may fail to settle and behave nervously .
no external differences have been observed except during spawning when the ovipositor of the female is visible .
substrate - spawning , ovophilous , biparental mouthbrooder that has been bred on numerous occasions in aquaria .
there doesn’t appear to be any particular trigger for the spawning process with the main requirements being good diet and stringent maintenance regime involving relatively large weekly water changes .
since accurate sexing is essentially impossible it’s best to begin with a group of young fish and allow pairs to form naturally .
a degree of patience is also required since it can be at least a year until they become sexually mature .
courtship is relatively unobtrusive consisting of fin flaring , circling , gaping and head jerking displays , and when ready to spawn a pair will select a suitable site .
this is normally a piece of décor such as a flat rock or section of driftwood although it’s not unknown for the base of the aquarium to be used , and once chosen the area is then cleaned and defended against intruders .
spawning occurs in typical substrate – spawning fashion with the female laying one or more rows of eggs before the male moves in to fertilise them , the process being repeated numerous times over a period of several hours .
maximum brood size is around 200 eggs which are normally taken up by the female though on rare occasions both adults may be involved from the start .
some males may become aggressive post - spawning and drive the female away to care for the eggs alone , but the most common scenario involves her holding the fry while he defends the surrounding territory .
once the fry are swimming freely brood care is shared although this also varies depending on the male with some individuals becoming involved earlier and others not at all .
the parents may participate in mouthbrooding duties simultaneously or by exchanging the entire brood on a more - or - less daily basis , the transfer usually occurring in a sheltered location such as a depression in the substrate .
when not brooding the adults will normally feed , and may even take some small morsels while holding fry .
at 77 – 82 . 4°f / 25 – 28°c the fry become free swimming at 8 - 11 days of age and the parents begin to release them to feed , initially with caution but for increasingly longer periods . if danger is sensed the fry are shepherded back into the adults’ mouths , with rapid movement of the ventral fins appearing to act as a signal .
as time elapses and the fry gorw they may only return to their parents’ mouths at night while the size of the territory becomes correspondingly larger .
they’re easily - fed , accepting good quality powdered dry foods , artemia nauplii , microworm , etc . , as soon as the free - swimming stage is reached .
if maintaining the adults in a community situation it’s recommended to remove brooding females as the fry become easy prey for other fishes , including conspecifics , once released .
despite its designation as type species this is among the most frequently - misidentified members of the genus .
this is in part because its natural distribution was earlier considered even more extensive than the still - substantial range recognised today , with populations from the río orinoco , guianas and rio tocantins now recognised as species in their own right .
it’s a member of the putative g . surinamensis ‘group’ of closely - related species within the genus and can be identified by a combination of characters including : no dark preopercular marking ; no vertical bars on the flanks even when stressed or preserved ; dark midlateral marking reduced to 1 - 2 scales width or even absent in adults .
the latter is important because it’s unique to the species and can be used to distinguish it from all other congeners as things stand .
juveniles are very difficult to identify though as the size of the midlateral markings is comparable to that seen in other species at the same age .
representatives of the g . surinamensis assemblage are diagnosed by their relatively deep head and body shape , possession of a variably - sized dark spot on each flank and presence or absence of a small , dark preopercular marking .
there are currently thirteen described members but diversity is predicted to eventually prove much greater with a number of undescribed forms known some of which , such as g . sp . ‘orange head’ and g . sp . ‘pindare’ , are regularly available in the aquarium trade .
these are most easily separated on the basis that they all possess a complete infraorbital stripe but oddly have not had their own group name assigned , usually being referred to simply as ‘non - g . surinamensis group’ species .
accurate identification of g . surinamensis group members has been problematic for a number of reasons , not least that prior to kullander ( 1986 ) g . surinamensis itself was thought to range throughout the orinoco , amazon and guianas river systems but is now considered endemic to the rio surinam and ri0 maroni / marowijne watersheds in eastern suriname .
several former ‘populations’ have thus been described as species in their own right since the turn of the century , meaning older literature can be somewhat unreliable .
g . surinamensis is in fact almost never traded and very few privately - owned specimens exist .
the number of species awaiting description is unconfirmed but it seems feasible that certain rivers within the río orinoco , rio amazonas , rio tocantins and rio parnaíba basinsm , plus coastal drainages of the guianas , contain one or two endemic forms .
later molecular studies by farias et al . ( 1999 , 2000 , 2001 ) resulted in the additions of crenicichla and teleocichla to the geophaginae , a result supported by lópez - fernández et al . ( 2005 ) who conducted the most detailed molecular analysis of the grouping to date including 16 of the 18 genera and 30 species .
no representatives of teleocichla or mazarunia were included in the study but the former is well - established as sister to crenicichla while the latter has grouped closely with dicrossus and crenicara in earlier works .
the other main conclusions of the paper are confirmation that geophaginae is a monophyletic group exhibiting strong signs of having undergone rapid adaptive radiation .
heckel , j . j . , 1840 - annalen des wiener museums der naturgeschichte 2 : 325 - 471 johann natterer ' s neue flussfische brasilien ' s nach den beobachtungen und mittheilungen des entdeckers beschrieben ( erste abtheilung , die labroiden ) .
dos anjos , h . d . b . , j . zuanon , t . m . p . braga and k . n . s . sousa , 2008 - check list 4 ( 2 ) : 198 - 213 fish , upper purus river , state of acre , brazil .
farias , i . p . , g . ortí and a . meyer , 2000 - the journal of experimental zoology 288 ( 1 ) : 76 - 92 total evidence : molecules , morphology , and the phylogenetics of cichlid fishes .
farias , i . p . , g . ortí , i . sampaio , h . schneider and a . meyer , 1999 - journal of molecular evolution 48 ( 6 ) : 703 - 711 mitochondrial dna phylogeny of the family cichlidae : monophyly and fast molecular evolution of the neotropical assemblage .
farias , i . p . , g . ortí , i . sampaio , h . schneider and a . meyer , 2001 - journal of molecular evolution 53 ( 2 ) : 89 - 103 the cytrochrome b gene as a phylogenetic marker : the limits of resolution for analyzing relationships among cichlid fishes .
kullander , s . o . , 1986 - swedish museum of natural history , stockholm : 1 - 431 cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru .
kullander , s . o . and h . nijssen , 1989 - e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands : i - xxxii + 1 - 256 the cichlids of surinam .
lópez - fernández , h . , r . l . honeycutt , m . l . j . stiassny and k . o . winemiller , 2005 - zoologica scripta 34 ( 6 ) : 627 - 651 morphology , molecules , and character congruence in the phylogeny of south american geophagine cichlids ( perciformes , labroidei ) .
pereira , p . r . , c . s . agostinho , r . j . de oliveira and e . e . marques , 2007 - neotropical ichthyology 5 ( 3 ) : 399 - 404 trophic guilds of fishes in sandbank habitats of a neotropical river .
reis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds ) , 2003 - edipucrs , porto alegre : i - xi + 1 - 729 checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . cloffsca .
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after 1 - 2 weeks the fry should be free - swimming , but the parents will continue with mouth , brood - care until the fry have matured for a few weeks . the fry can be fed a diet of baby brine shrimp or crushed flake food and then be moved to other foods as they mature .
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discussion regarding only south american cichlid species . ( oscars , geophagines , discus , apistogramma , green terrors , angels , severums , pikes , etc . )
well with the dithers i wanted something small & active as a side piece species that goes with the geo atmosphere in the tank , not so much as what an actual dither is meant for . . .
they look really lovely . oh and one question . i have similar tank like
how old are yours do you think ? how long would you say your manuas will max out @ ? ty for sharing your pics btw , really gives a more honest view then some of the pics i ' ve seen . . . not breeding much part is a plus , that was something i was hoping to hear as i ' ve got enough fry all the time to deal with
yeah it is quite unusual . a month ago , he had a pair and a harased female . he then moved harased female to another tank . it was all good in this aquarium ( they even spawned ) but now everything changed to worse . male is constantly harasing female .
they were wild caught so i have no idea now old they are . still growing slowly . . . . . not sure how much bigger they ' ll get - i guess i ' ll find out .
the members of this forum have come together to share our knowledge and experiences of fish keeping . we want to answer your questions , offer advice and fill the galleries with pictures of the fish we have all grown to love . we are a unique community of fish keepers who seriously take our hobby to extremes and the next level . the majority of our fish collections include rare & exotic species of all sizes , big fish with big appetites and big tanks . it ' s not easy for most people or other
regular
fish keepers to understand why we maintain this type of collection and spare no expense on this fascinating hobby . hopefully , through this site and discussion forums we can encourage the next generation of monster fish keepers to have the same passion and love we have for the hobby and our monster fish . as one of the founding members , i personally invite you to register and join us today . currently you are viewing this site as our guest which only gives you limited access to view most discussions , articles and photo galleries . registration is free and very easy ! when you register , you ' ll have instant access to . . . .
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i have 11 geos in my 90g of course they will out grow it . . . i say at least a 135
just to make sure this is for their entire lives . so 135 - 150 ?
for life . . . . . the bigger the footprint the better . if your gonna get a 150 , i would jump up to a 180 just for the bigger footprint ( 6 ' x2 ' ) . just my opinion .
i agree with titansfever - i had a group of 6 that i grew out in a 125 and they seemed cramped . a 180 would be a good tank for life .
i got 8 in a 240 . 6 of em are 3
youngsters and 2 are 5
young adults .
when i was growing out my juvies in my 60g they were cool with each other . now that there in a 240g some are starting to chase others , not fatal tho .
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yes , you can keep geo ' s with things like rams and larger bodied tetras . larger or fully grown cories can go as well ( i ' m thinking about when everything is fully grown , if you got a small geo then you will surely be fine ) . skip the rummynoses , its not a good idea with the goes . how big of a tank are you planning on having ?
i picked up a 70 g the other day 48 * 18 * 18 . i ' m still thinking about what i want to do with it , because i want to have plants but the geos would probably tear them out unless i dump big rocks around them i ' m guessing so i ' m still on the fence . i ' ve been reading more about them online and the red heads do seem appealing , especially with the flare of colour and all . how many would you put in a 70 g would be my other question . some other options i ' m tossing around are keyholes and mesonauta festivum instead since it seems they ' d likely be easier on my flora .
i keep geo with my plants , i mean look at my profile picture lol keyholes are nice , i have rainbows as well . they tore apart wisteria though , and for a while pulled up any sort of val . blood parrots work as well . pm me for any cichlid and plant questions , since i ' m one of the few who like risking plants with cichlids . i also keep snails with that so i ' m a tad crazy xd
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i have never seen that fish , before , but it sure is neat - lookin ' ! judging by the position of its mouth , the wee one is a bottom - feeder . i googled the fellow , and it says that it is a type of cichlid that prefers either clear or blackwater environments and a slow - moving current , native to the amazon river basin . they ' ll scoop up
in their mouths and spit out whatever they can ' t eat . i suggest getting
. the pictures i ' ve found online are spectacular . yours is going to grow into an amazingly gorgeous adult !
furthermore , these are long - lived fish that can live a dozen years or more . among the downsides , we must count the difficulty of keeping certain species in excellent health ( some
lol ! i just hit control - f and did a search for
year
. i went through ten websites before i found that ! xd
awesome ! it seems like corydora are just the friendliest of fish species . i don ' t think it ' s supposed to be
normal
, but it happens with my fish . my tetras follow my cory because my cory are better at finding tasty treats . my cory would attempt to school with my tetras , which freaked them out . woo !
ooo ! i love eartheaters . they are one of my favorites . i actually started with them lol
, and it ' s best to use it so they don ' t get mouth sores . it ' s really fun to watch them sift through the sand
i loved mine , some day i will have a huge tank full of them .
they do require a large tank tho , like at least a 75 gal .
i also keep a jurupari , a red hump earth eater , and a brasiliensis , and am saving room should a balzani magically appear .
in fairly hard water . like the group as a whole , they need clear water having very little nitrate
they are fairly big fish , i have seen 12
listed , but never seen one quite that large , but like all the group , they do seem to vary quite a bit in size .
if yours doesn ' t get over his shyness in a few days , i would suggest dither fish , just anything that you like and isn ' t likely to scare , rather then reassure him .
that ' s about all i have off hand , other than to say that they are great fish , very rewarding , and not prone to illness .
i would expect at least 10 plus years , and growth rate will depend a great deal on on how you manage your nitrogenous waste - - the closer to zero nitrate , the better , as , among other nasty things like hole in the head , it tends to limit growth .
if he is just yet a wee thing , a 30 should do you quite awhile .
to the gut loading food . - - - - - - - - - - rick
, but they have no problem taking food from the surface , as well . just fit the size of the cricket to the size of the fish .
i also feed composting worms ( great food , incidentally , low in fat , high in protein and chock full of vitamins ) ; anyway , in a rather disgusting act , i fed a worm too large for the fish to handle ; 3 days later , i found him chugging along the tank bottom , so i suppose that any of the eartheaters can also eat worm that burrow into the substrate , as well .


the andros island iguana or andros iguana ( cyclura cychlura cychlura ) is an endangered subspecies of northern bahamian rock iguana of the genus cyclura that is found on andros island on the western edge of grand bahama .

its status is endangered , with a wild population of 3,500 animals , and it can be found on the iucn red list .

cyclura cychlura cychlura

iguana cychlura cuvier 1829 : 45 iguana cychlura — cuvier 1831 : 133 cyclura cychlura — schwartz & thomas 1975 cyclura cychlura — schwartz & henderson 1991 : 394 cyclura cychlura — lemm & alberts 2012 cyclura cychlura cychlura cuvier 1829 cyclura baelopha cope 1861 : 123 ( nomen nudum ) cyclura baelopha cope 1862 cyclura baeolopha [ sic ] — cope 1886 : 263 cyclura baeolopha — barbour 1904 : 58 cyclura cychlura cychlura - schwartz & thomas 1975 cyclura cychlura cychlura — lemm & alberts 2012 cyclura cychlura cychlura — buckley et al . 2016 cyclura cychlura figginsi barbour 1923 cyclura figginsi barbour 1923 cyclura cychlura figginsi — schwartz & thomas 1975 cyclura cychlura figginsi — lemm & alberts 2012 cyclura cychlura figginsi — buckley et al . 2016 cyclura cychlura inornata barbour & noble 1916 cyclura inornata barbour & noble 1916 cyclura cychlura inornata — schwartz & thomas 1975 cyclura cychlura inornata — lemm & alberts 2012 cyclura cychlura inornata — buckley et al . 2016
cyclura cychlura cuvier , 1829 - later given the tautonym cyclura cychlura cychlura by schwartz & carey , 1977 . synonyms = iguana cychlura cuvier , 1829 ; cyclura baeolopha cope , 1861 .
ocular health assessment , tear production , and intraocular pressure in the andros island iguana ( cyclura cychlura cychlura ) .
home » cyclura cychlura ssp . cychlura ( andros iguana , andros island iguana , andros island rock iguana , andros rock iguana )
northern bahamian rock iguanas , ( nominate race , cyclura cychlura cychlura ) , male and female . southern andros island , the bahamas .
ocular health assessment , tear production , and intraocular pressure in the andros island iguana ( cyclura cychlura cychlura ) . - pubmed - ncbi
home » cyclura cychlura ssp . inornata ( allen cays iguana , allen cays rock iguana )
twelve microsatellite loci developed for cyclura spp . that were screened for polymorphism in cyclura cychlura inornata using the specified annealing temperatures ( t a ) .
the jamaican iguana is one of ten living species of rock iguanas ( cyclura ) occurring in the greater antilles of the caribbean . this species is sister to the clade comprising cyclura cychlura , cyclura nubila , cyclura lewisi , and cyclura rileyi ( malone et al . 2000 ) .
cyclura cychlura cychlura : bahama is . : andros i . type locality :
caroline
; restricted by schwartz and carey , 1977 , to andros island , bahama islands .
the endangered andros iguana , cyclura cychlura cychlura , is the largest native terrestrial vertebrate , and the only iguana ( of 3 species ) in the bahamas that is not confined presently to small cays .
jungnickel , j . 2009 . cyclura cychlura inornata of leaf cay , bahamas . sauria 31 ( 1 ) : 39 - 40 - get paper here
knapp , chuck ; buckner , sandra 1998 . geographic distribution . cyclura cychlura figginsi . herpetological review 29 ( 1 ) : 51 - get paper here
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taxonomy . the grand cayman blue iguana , cyclura lewisi grant , is endemic to the island of grand cayman . its closest relatives are cyclura nubila on cuba , and cyclura cychlura in the bahamas , all three having apparently diverged from a common ancestor at some stage during the last 3 million years .
monan rock iguanas , cyclura stejnegeri . two males and a female . mona island .
hines , kirsten n . 2017 . on the distribution of northern bahamian rock iguanas ( cyclura cychlura ) in the exuma islands herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 28 - 31 - get paper here
hines , kirsten n . 2016 . food habits of northern bahamian rock iguanas ( cyclura cychlura ) in the exuma islands , with a < br / > dietary review of rock iguanas ( genus cyclura ) . herp . cons . biol . 11 ( monograph 6 ) - get paper here
geographic variation in nesting behavior and reproductive biology of an insular iguana ( cyclura cyc . . .
aplasca ac , iverson jb , welch me , colosimo g , hekkala er . 2016 . genetic diversity and structure in the endangered allen cays rock iguana , cyclura cychlura inornata . peerj 4 : e1793 - get paper here
pairwise f st ( weir & cockerham , 1984 ) values among sampled populations of cyclura cychlura inornata spanning their current range in the bahamas ( genepop v 4 . 1 ; raymond & rousset , 1995 ; rousset , 2008 ) .
the largest american lizard : the anegadan rock iguana , cyclura pinguis . guana island , british virgin islands .
central bahamian rock iguana , cyclura rileyi , female . green cay , off san salvador , the bahamas .
southern bahamiam rock iguanas , ( nominate race , cyclura carinata carinata ) , two males and a female .
banded rock iguana , cyclura ricordii , male . enriquillo national park , south - western dominican republic , hispaniola .
iverson , john b . , francois , kristoff , jollay , jill , buckner , sandra d . and knapp , charles r . 2017 . cyclura cychlura figginsi ( exuma rock iguana ) allogrooming herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 188 - get paper here
iverson , j . b . ; hines , k . n . & valiulis , j . m . 2004 . the nesting ecology of the allen cays rock iguana , cyclura cychlura inornata in the bahamas . herpetological monographs 18 : 1 - 36 - get paper here
knapp , c . r . , iverson , j . b . and owems , a . k . ( 2006 ) geographic variation in nesting behaviour and reproductive biology of an insular iguana ( cyclura cychlura ) . canadian journal of zoology , 84 : 1566 - 1575 .
the bahamian andros iguana ( cyclura cychlura cychlura ) is an endangered lizard threatened by habitat loss , illegal hunting , impacts from historic large - scale logging practices and predation by feral animals ( e . g . cats , dogs and hogs ) . there is interest by local and national conservation organisations to demarcate protected areas for the iguana in the southern portion of its range . however , no . . . [ show full abstract ]
effects of tourism on body size , growth , condition , and demography in the allen cay iguana , cyclura . . .
iverson , j . b . , hines , k . n . and valiulisc , j . m . ( 2004 ) the nesting ecology of the allen cays rock iguana , cyclura cychlura inornata , in the bahamas . herpetological monographs , 18 ( 1 ) : 1 - 36 .
southern bahamiam rock iguanas , ( nominate race , cyclura carinata carinata ) , females feeding on turk ' s cap cacti fruits .
lewis , c . b . ( 1944 ) notes on cyclura . herpetologica , 2 ( 6 ) : 93 - 98 .
southern bahamiam rock iguana , ( booby cay race , cyclura carinata bartschi ) , male and female . booby cay , the bahamas .
lemm , j . m . & alberts , a . c . 2012 . cyclura . elsevier / academic press , 221 pp .
smith , geoffrey r . ; and john b . iverson 2016 . effects of tourism on body size , growth , condition , and demography in the allen cays iguana , cyclura cychlura inornata , on leaf cay , the bahamas . herp . cons . biol . 11 ( monograph 6 ) - get paper here
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l knapp , c . r . & buckner , s . d . 2004 ( 2004 ) cyclura cychlura ssp . figginsi in : iucn 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2009 . 1 . urltoken retrieved on 05 december 2009 .
woodley , j . d . 1980 . survival of the jamaican iguana , cyclura collei . journal of herpetology 14 : 45 - 49 .
iguanids are represented in the west indies by three groups : the sister genera cyclura and iguana , and ctenosaura . all these creatures are mainly herbivores , though they are as well facultative carnivores . both iguana and cyclura may devour small mammals and birds when such are within their reach .
cuban rock iguanas , ( mainland cuban race , cyclura nubila nubila ) , male and female . guantanamo naval base , south - eastern cuba .
cuban rock iguanas , ( mainland cuban race , cyclura nubila nubila ) . from a population introduced into isla magueyes , off southern puerto rico .
a female anegadan rock iguana , cyclura pinguis , stands high on its legs in a threat display to me . guana island , british virgin islands .
intraspecific comparisons among geographically separated populations of wide - ranging species are particularly useful in elucidating variation in behavioral and reproductive life histories resulting from proximate and ultimate causes . from 2001 to 2004 , we investigated geographic variation in nesting behavior and reproductive biology of a large - bodied bahamian iguana ( cyclura cychlura cuvier , . . . [ show full abstract ]
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woodley , j . d . ( 1980 ) survival of the jamaican iguana , cyclura collei . journal of herpetology , 14 ( 1 ) : 45 - 49 .
weiwandt , t . a . 1977 . ecology , behavior , and management of the mona island ground iguana , cyclura stejnegeri . ph . d . dissertation , cornell university .
hudson , r . ( 2000 ) jamaican iguana ( cyclura collei ) . west indian iguana specialist group newsletter , 3 ( 2 ) : 10 - 11 . available at : urltoken
estimated census population sizes ( n ) , island sizes ( ha ) , expected heterozygosity ( h e ) , inbreeding coefficients ( f is ) , allelic richness ( α ) , number of private alleles ( a p ) , and effective population sizes ( ne ) based on eight polymorphic microsatellite loci for known cays supporting the allen cays rock iguana ( cyclura cychlura inornata ) in the exuma islands , the bahamas .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) . subspecies : cyclura cychlura cychlura ( andros iguana , andros island iguana or andros island rock iguana ) is classified as endangered ( en ) ; c . c . inornata ( allen’s cay iguana or allen’s cay rock iguana ) is classified as endangered ( en ) , and c . c . figginsi ( the exuma island iguana or exuma island rock iguana ) is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) . all subspecies are listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .
lemm , j . m . and alberts , a . c . ( 2012 ) cyclura : natural history , husbandry , and conservation of west indian rock iguanas . academic press , london .
alberts , a . c . ( 1993 ) the most endangered lizard in the world : the jamaican iguana ( cyclura collei ) . vivarium , 5 ( 1 ) : 12 - 14 .
study of the population biology of the allen cays rock iguana ( cyclura cychlura inornata ) in the bahamas has been ongoing since 1980 , and most aspects of the reproductive biology and demography of this taxon have been elucidated . i used recapture data to produce the first estimate of juvenile survival . of 16 juveniles captured and marked at age 0 . 5 years , nine were alive at age 12 . 5 yrs . . . [ show full abstract ]
vogel , p . 1994 . evidence of reproduction in a remnant population of the endangered jamaican iguana , cyclura collei ( lacertilia : iguanidae ) . caribbean journal of science 30 : 234 - 241 .
the jamaican iguana ( cyclura collei ) is a large species of lizard of the genus cyclura endemic to jamaica . it is the largest native land animal in the country , and is critically endangered , even considered extinct between 1948 and 1990 . once found throughout jamaica and on the offshore islets great goat island and little goat island , it is now confined to the forests of the hellshire hills .
grant , t . d . 2010 . jamaican iguana ( cyclura collei ) population analysis and breeding plan for the aza rock iguana species survival plan . san diego zoo institute for conservation research , california .
grant , t . d . , gibson , r . & wilson , b . s . ( 2010 ) . cyclura collei . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 .
( a ) structure barplot ( k = 2 ) using 8 microsatellite loci for the allen cays rock iguana ( cyclura cychlura inornata ) . 1 = leaf , 2 = u , 3 = alligator , 4 = flat rock reef , 5 = allen , 6 = second , 7 = se flat rock reef . alligator cay ( 3 ) is an experimentally translocated population from leaf ( 1 ) . ( b ) delta k values for k = 1 - - 9 indicating highest likelihood at k = 2 .
like all cyclura species the blue iguana is primarily herbivorous , consuming leaves , flowers and fruits from over 100 different plant species . this diet is very rarely supplemented with insect larvae , crabs , slugs , dead birds and fungi .
schwartz , a . and carey , m . 1977 . systematics and evolution in the west indian iguanid genus cyclura . stud . fauna curaçao and carib . is . 53 ( 173 ) : 15 - 97 . - get paper here
naturally occurring populations of the allen cays rock iguana ( cyclura cychlura inornata ) are found on two cays in the northern bahamas , leaf and u cay , marked by the symbol , . islands with recently documented iguanas ( allen , flat rock reef , southeast flat rock reef , and second cay ) are marked by the symbol , . the experimentally translocated population on alligator cay located farther south in the exuma island chain of the bahamas is not shown . ( adapted from hines , 2011 ; iverson , hines & valiulis , 2004 . )
barbour , t . and noble , g . k . 1916 . a revision of the lizards of the genus cyclura . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 60 ( 4 ) : 139 - 64 . - get paper here
sadly , almost all populations of this genus are threatened as a result of any combination of habitat destruction , introduced predators , and hunting by humans . in fact , one species is already extinct : the navassa island ' s rock iguana , cyclura onchiopsis .
malone , catherine l . ; charles r . knapp , jeremy f . taylor & scott k . davis 2003 . genetic consequences of pleistocene fragmentation : isolation , drift , and loss of diversity in rock iguanas ( cyclura ) . conservation genetics 4 : 1–15
beolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( cyclura collei , pp . 56 - 57 ) .
the genus ctenosaura , the spiny - tailed iguanas , is found in some extreme western caribbean islands , being there invaders from central america . although not as large as some cyclura , they are similar , and are likewise mainly herbivorous , as well as have tails with spiny scales .
. . . despite this naturally fragmented and mosaic landscape , dispersal and gene flow may be high in the andros iguana . there is anecdotal and documented evidence of this species dispersing across water channels [ 12 ] . additionally , c . c . cychlura hatchlings have been documented to readily disperse from nesting areas across a variety of different habitat types [ 14 ] . . . .
searcy , r . a . , villers , l . m . , reams , r . d . , wyatt iii , j . e . and pilarski , j . ( 2009 ) captive reproduction of the jamaican iguana ( cyclura collei ) . zoo biology , 28 ( 4 ) : 343 - 349 .
at least as far as external morphology is concerned , the difference between the genera cyclura and iguana is not fully clear - cut . the very name of the first genus ( from the greek
cyclos
-
circle
, and
urus
-
tail
) makes reference to the whorls of enlarged spine - like scales surrounding their tails . this trait is absent in iguana but , in fact , one member among the cyclurids , namely cyclura pinguis of the puerto rican insular bank , lacks those , as well . perhaps the species of the two groups are all iguana , but the matter does not seem to be settled .
malone , c . l . , wheeler , t . , taylor , j . f . and davis , s . k . 2000 . phylogeography of the caribbean rock iguana ( cyclura ) : implications for conservation and insights on the biogeographic history of the west indies . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 17 : 269 - 279 .
malone , c . l . ; wheeler , t . ; taylor , j . f . & davis , s . k . 2000 . phylogeography of the caribbean rock iguana ( cyclura ) : implications for conservation and insights on the biogeographic history of the west indies . mol . phylogen . evol . 17 ( 2 ) : 269 - get paper here
for future planning , it is important to recognize that high levels of natural inbreeding in this insular species in combination with anthropogenic and environmental stressors could send the species into an extinction vortex ( caughley , 1994 ; brook , sodhi & bradshaw , 2008 ) . consistent with this interpretation are the number of other natural populations of c . cychlura between the current ranges of inornata and figginsi in the exumas that have gone extinct ( schwartz & carey , 1977 ) .
. . . we then examined the population structure in the context of the species ecology and the associated landscape to infer patterns of gene flow . we hypothesized that the high dispersal rates inferred from anecdotal accounts and telemetry studies [ 12 , 14 ] limit genetic divergence among local demes of c . c . cychlura on andros island despite their patchy distribution across geographically isolated sites . if true , we anticipate limited evidence for genetic structure across the island . . . .
deliberately feeding wildlife is an increasingly popular tourism - related activity despite a limited understanding of long - term impacts on the species being fed . as a result , tourist behaviours that may have adverse impacts on imperiled species have often been encouraged without the necessary evaluation or oversight . here , we report the responses of northern bahamian rock iguanas ( cyclura . . . [ show full abstract ]
the largest terrestrial vertebrate in jamaica ( 6 ) , the jamaican ground iguana ( cyclura collei ) was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in the 1990s ( 7 ) . today , the only known population consists of only 100 or so individuals , making the jamaican ground iguana one of the most endangered reptile species in the world ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) .
cyclura iguanas are mainly terrestrial , though the occasional individual will climb a tree . at night or when threatened they seek refuge in burrows excavated with their powerful legs . for such formidable creatures , some species can be very skittish , but they quickly become accustomed to human presence in places where they are not harassed or hunted . in a few places they concentrate in great numbers due to people who feed them table scraps .
members of the genus cyclura , the rock iguanas , are endemic to the greater antilles and the bahamas . the genus formerly inhabited some of the northern lesser antilles , as well . some of them , like the anegadan , cuban , grand cayman ' s , rhinoceros and mona island ' s rock iguanas , are the largest lizards of the americas . in fact , among west indian terrestrial reptiles , they are surpassed in size only by the two native crocodiles and by some of the boa and epicrates snakes .
. . . however , other studies on the effects of ecotourism on the c . cychlura inornata on leaf cay suggest negative impacts on the individual iguanas . for example , the items consumed by iguanas on the leaf cay beach contained such things as trash and non - native foods , as well as sand ( hines 2011 ) . one consequence of the altered diet was the consumption of foods with higher water content , resulting in hardened feces ( hines 2011 ) , especially if such foods are consumed with sand ( see fig . 1in knapp et al . 2013 ) , that may cause cloacal prolapse and possibly death ( hines et al . 2010 ) . . . .
. . . one consequence of the altered diet was the consumption of foods with higher water content , resulting in hardened feces ( hines 2011 ) , especially if such foods are consumed with sand ( see fig . 1in knapp et al . 2013 ) , that may cause cloacal prolapse and possibly death ( hines et al . 2010 ) . in addition , c . cychlura inornata from leaf cay are less wary of humans than other islands where they are not fed ( hines 2011 ) , potentially making it easier to poach these iguanas . furthermore , large iguanas on the feeding beach , especially males , may also become more aggressive as they become entrained to human presence ( pers . . . .
both members of iguana can attain more than two meters in length . however they are not as massive as the largest species of cyclurids . by comparison , they are slender and long - tailed , as well as far more partial to climbing trees . common and lesser antillean iguanas are habitually docile animals . however , as happens with their cyclura relatives , antagonizing a large adult frequently lends to unpleasant consequences . a frightened individual on a tree will think nothing of throwing itself down from amazing heights to the ground or water , and thus escape its attacker .
. . . for example , the items consumed by iguanas on the leaf cay beach contained such things as trash and non - native foods , as well as sand ( hines 2011 ) . one consequence of the altered diet was the consumption of foods with higher water content , resulting in hardened feces ( hines 2011 ) , especially if such foods are consumed with sand ( see fig . 1in knapp et al . 2013 ) , that may cause cloacal prolapse and possibly death ( hines et al . 2010 ) . in addition , c . cychlura inornata from leaf cay are less wary of humans than other islands where they are not fed ( hines 2011 ) , potentially making it easier to poach these iguanas . . . .
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saint croix ' s whiptail , pholidoscelis polops , male . protestant cay , off northern saint croix , united states virgin islands .
at a distance of 150 , 000 , 000 kilometers from us lies a yellow dwarf star , a sphere of compressed gas in a state of plasma 1 , 400 , 000 kilometers in diameter . it contains about 99 . 9 percent of the mass in our solar system . its thermonuclear engine transforms more than 400 , 000 , 000 metric tonnes of hydrogen into helium every second . the output of radiation of that chemical reaction provides earth ' s surface with most of its extra - planetary energy .
thus , this star provides for the organic life of the blue island floating in space . indeed , some terrestrial vertebrates seem to be very fond of the sun .
ancient reptiles , like their anapsid ancestors , were among the first amniotes and , as such , among the first truly terrestrial vertebrates in that they severed their reproductive ties to open water .
until rather recently the term
reptile
had quite a specific
popular
definition that included just lizards , snakes , turtles , crocodiles , and tuataras . that has changed with the ever - increasing use of information on genetics and a better understanding of cladistics and phylogenies , coupled with the disuse of morphology to define species and lower taxa .
according to the best ( at present ) cladistic definition , and without discussing the scientific terminology that describes common traits , a
reptile
is
the most common recent ancestor of extant turtles , crocodilians , and saurians , and all of their descendants
. in other words , the diapsids . thus , the group actually includes not only the aforementioned poikilothermic organisms popularly known as
reptiles
, but also endotherms such as pterosaurs and dinosaurs ( including the avian dinosaurs , namely birds ) .
however , i will follow the traditional taxonomic usage of the term
reptile
to refer to turtles , crocodiles , lizards , snakes , and amphisbaenians , and will treat birds in their own sections .
no other vertebrate group is as varied in this region as reptiles , and no other has as many endemics per island as it does . hundreds of species live in the caribbean , and even the smallest cays are inhabited by some reptiles , as long as they have some woody vegetation on them . in fact , although the number of genera is low if compared with that of the continental neotropics , the reptilian fauna of the antilles comprises more species ( perhaps more than 700 ) than the sum total of all other terrestrial vertebrates in the region .
some antillean genera are widespread , and two reign supreme by the sheer number of their species : anolis ( anoles ) and sphaerodactylus ( dwarf geckoes ) . anoles and dwarf geckoes are everywhere in the caribbean islands : in deserts , rain forests , coastal thickets , pine woodlands , grasslands , swamps , and from sea level to the cold summits of the high mountains . in fact , anolis is the largest known genus of reptiles , with about 400 species described to date . probably many more remain to be discovered in both genera and , while they are also found in the american continents , it is in the west indies where they reach unparalleled degrees of diversity and ecological adaptation .
lizards and snakes ( order squamata ) are the largest extant group of reptiles . they inhabit every continent except antarctica , as well as many islands continental and oceanic . a few eurasian species are even found within the arctic circle .
for the sake of an orderly presentation , i will treat lizards apart from snakes , but it must be understood that there is not a clear phylogenetic separation between the two groups .
most species of lizards are diurnal , although many are primarily nocturnal , particularly among geckoes ( gekkonidae ) and night lizards ( xantusiidae ) . they range in size from the minute jaragua sphaero ( sphaerodactylus ariasae ) , to the three meter - long komodo monitor , ( varanus komodoensis ) , of indonesia .
highly adaptable , lizards have invaded almost every niche on earth , and can be found everywhere from deserts to rain forests , on the ground , underground , and on trees , and just below the snow line of alpine regions . most species have strong legs , and some can run very fast , indeed . others have vestigial limbs or have lost them altogether , their resulting morphologies and means of locomotion being serpentine . a number of them are semi - aquatic in freshwater and marine habitats , although no modern species have severed their ties to land completely . ( the gigantic mosasaurs , extinct relations of the modern monitors , were truly marine ) . by far , most species reproduce by eggs , although some are ovoviviparous .
unlike several groups of snakes , lizards have not developed poison glands and means to inject venom into their prey . none , that is , except for the helodermatids of north america . however , it has been recently discovered that just because most lizards - and , for that matter , most snakes - do not possess a specialized mechanism to inject venom , it seems that many , if not most , possess virulent enzymes in their saliva that can be moderately to deadly toxic to their habitual prey . it has been know for some time that the earless monitor of borneo , and a few species of varanus monitors , all in the old world , have toxins in their saliva . yet it might sound strange , but nonetheless be true , that a
cute and harmless
lizard like an anole or curlytail can be deadly venomous . . . just not to humans . after all , many toxins are highly specific in their targets , and anoles do not usually eat people .
diurnal lizards frequently possess excellent color vision , indeed probably better than ours . the gaudy colors of many iguanids , agamids , and chameleonids serve as inter - and intra - specific means of recognition . nocturnal species , like most gekkonids and xantusiids , possibly have a very limited ability to see color but , instead , they have a highly developed capability of seeing in poor light conditions .
lizards of many different groups possess the capacity to shed their tails when attacked and held by such organs . the vertebrae have a fracture point , usually located in their middle , which breaks under pressure . once separated from the body the tail will reflexively thrash about and distract the predator from the rest of the animal , which will then flee to safety .
the majority of lizards lay their eggs un secluded areas or bury them in soft and humid earth . lizard eggs can be soft - or hard - shelled ( mineralized ) . a number of species , on the other hand , are ovoviviparous , giving birth to miniature replicas of themselves .
like snakes , male lizards have a double set of intromitent organs for copulatiom : the hemipenes . only one is used at a time and , interestingly , some species seem to be either
right -
or
left - handed
when it comes to sex .
a pair of puerto rican giant anoles , anolis cuvieri , copulate on a tree . after mating , the left hemipenis of the male is still visible outside its vent . cambalache state forest , north - western puerto rico .
most lizards lay rubbery eggs which need to remain humid in order to survive .
these were laid in an excavation under a rock , by a puerto rican giant whiptail , pholidoscelis exsul .
altogether , eleven families of lizards are found in the west indies : anguidae , gekkonidae , gymnophthalmidae , iguanidae , phyllodactylidae , polychrotidae , scincidae , sphaerodactylidae , teiidae , tropiduridae , and xantusiidae . some of them , namely polychrotids , teiids , tropidurids , and xantusiids are exclusively american .
among the new world groups , some have very similar morphological , ecological , and behavioral counterparts in the old world , with which they perhaps have an ancestor in common . thus the iguanids and polychrotids are paralleled by the agamids of africa , asia , and australia . similarly , the teiids have a a parallel in the lacertids of the eastern hemisphere .
all the antillean families of lizards are discussed here save for the polychrotids , which are treated in the next section .
gekkotans comprise several cosmopolitan families with similar traits . often , they possess eyes covered with transparent scales ( like those of snakes ) , and are generally nocturnal . also , most species have some sort of specialized scales on their toes (
lamellae
) which allow them to be good climbers . some are able to climb sheer glass , and even hang upside - down from it . three families are present in the antilles : gekkonidae ( typical geckoes ) , phyllodactylidae ( leaf - toed geckoes ) , and sphaerodactylidae ( dwarf geckoes and caribbean tree geckoes ) .
because their sensitive eyes are perpetually exposed to visual stimuli , the pupil , like a cat ' s , contracts to a slit in nocturnal species , or to a tiny dot in diurnal ones . if the scales that cover the eyes become dirty , the lizards will lick them clean with their wide , mobile tongues .
these lizards are notorious for being among the most vocal of reptiles . several large species bark or croak spontaneously to declare their territory . in the west indies , some members of aristelliger are good examples of species with this faculty . smaller species , like hemidactylus and phyllodactylus , emit thin squeals and growls when captured or when fighting . members of sphaerodactylus seem to be voiceless . ( the very name
gecko
is an onomatopoeia of the call of one asiatic species , the huge and beautiful tokay , gecko gecko , from which the infraorder obtains its name ) .
members of this group exhibit social interaction patterns that can be highly complex . tongue - flicks , arched backs , jumps , waving and thrashing tails , head - bobbing , chirps , hisses , and croaks are all part of the communication repertoire that allow geckoes to avoid , threaten , search for , and engage others of their kind . some of the tiny sphaerodactylus geckoes can even stand straight up on their two hind legs in order to survey their territories for rivals or mates , highly visual organisms that they are . unfortunately , since many species are highly secretive or nocturnal , these
shows
are seldom seen by the casual human observer .
with their large , unblinking eyes , and often possessing bizarre shapes and colors , many geckoes have a strange , otherworldly appearance and are therefore feared by many people . however , even the largest species are totally harmless to humans , unless provoked into biting .
some west indian geckoes are among the giants of their kind , like the cuban tarentola americana , the hispaniolan aristelliger lar and , in the lesser antillean islands , thecadactylus rapicauda . at the other end of the size scale , geckoes of this region include the smallest known reptiles on earth : sphaerodactylus ariasae of navasa island , and s . parthenopion , of the virgin islands , both about 16 millimeters in snout - vent length .
some geckoes have a degree of binocular vision . these are male and female sphaerodactylus roosevelti .
a female sphaerodactylus klauberi stares at the camera . guilarte state forest , central puerto rico .
there are typical geckoes in every corner of planet earth except the arctic regions . while being one of the most species - rich lizard groups of earth there is , however , only one native representative in the west indies . this is the neotropical house gecko . widespread in the american tropical regions , in the antilles it is only found in saint lucia , lesser antilles . even there , it seems to be restricted to the maria islands , off the south - eastern coast of saint lucia itself .
, female . maria major island , off south - eastern saint lucia , lesser antilles .
leaf - toes are so called because of the shape of their lamellae , which resemble two spreading leaves or a fan - like structure at either side of the tip of their toes . the antillean members of the genus
are found in barbados , lesser antilles , as well as in the greater antillean banks of hispaniola and puerto rico .
puerto rican leaf - toed geckoes ( puerto rican race , phyllodactylus wirshingi ) male and female .
this species lives exclusively in xeric regions - usually with a limestone base - of puerto rico .
this gecko hides in crevices and under rocks during the day , but at night will climb boulders and trees in search of insects .
its enormous eyes are very well adapted to see in the dark , as is the case with most geckoes . unlike most diurnal reptiles ,
nocturnal geckoes probably see only in black and white , having sacrificed color vision for sensitivity to light .
phyllodactylus wirshingi , juvenile . guanica state forest , south - western puerto rico .
unlike adults , juveniles of this species are strikingly banded in light and dark gray .
dominican leaf - toed gecko , phyllodactylus hispaniolae . azua , south - western dominican republic , hispaniola . ( photograph courtesy of mr . joseph burgess ) .
the thick - tailed gecko , thecadactylus rapicauda , is common in the forests and sub - urban areas of the lesser antilles and some of the virgin islands . it is most often seen at night , clinging to buildings ' walls and tree trunks , lying in wait for passing insects and smaller lizards . its skin , strikingly leathery to the touch , tears easily and its strange , webbed feet seem to be out of proportion to its body . usually placid , the occasional individual may still display an egregiously bad temper if held against it will . across its wide range , the species displays a wide array of color patters depending on population . during the day , an individual may be discovered resting under some object or inside a crevice , in a coiled position that seems to mimic a dangerous - albeit small and fat - viper .
the thick - tail is one of the largest leaf - toed gecko in the antilles and the americas . unlike its
close - up of a female thick - tailed gecko , thecadactylus rapicauda . eggleston , south - central dominica , lesser antilles .
a female thick - tailed gecko , thecadactylus rapicauda , cleans its eye with its tongue .
thick - tailed geckoes , thecadactylus rapicauda , male seeking shelter in a hole in a cave , and female .
first photograph : cabrits national park , north - western dominica , lesser antilles .
aside of the lesser antilles and the puerto rican bank ( in some of the virgin islands ) .
. found in cuba and jamaica , they can grow quite large . sadly , the jamaican species seems to be extinct .
oriente tuberculate gecko , tarentola crombiei , female . el verraco , santiago , south - eastern cuba . ( photographs courtesy of mr . joseph burgess ) .
second only to anoles in the number of west indian species , this family is found in both the old and the new worlds . the three genera present in the region are all exclusively american , and mostly neotropical . one of their traits is that in most species the egg clutch is reduced to only one . such egg is often quite large for the size of its parent .
range in size from quite small to the largest gecko overall in the caribbean : the hispaniolan giant gecko . this huge affair of a climbing lizard sometimes spooks people as it clings to walls and ceilings , seemingly staring at humans who walk by . ( in fact
lar
is a
household spirit
in latin ) .
other species , like the jamaican croaker , emit astonishingly loud calls than can be heard from a couple hundred meters away .
hispaniolan giant gecko , aristelliger lar , two males and a juvenile . los haitises national park , northern dominican republic , hispaniola .
its latin epithet (
lar
) refers to a household guardian deity or spirit .
hispaniolan desert geckoes , aristelliger expectatus . first two photographs : male . neiba , south - western dominican republic , hispaniola . last photograph : female jaragua national park , south - western dominican republic , hispaniola .
first three photographs : two males and a juvenile . windsor , north - central jamaica . fourth photograph : male . negril , western jamaica .
fifth photograph : female . sheffield , western jamaica . last photograph : juvenile . negril , western jamaica .
the loud calls of males and females are characteristic sounds in lowland areas of jamaica .
caicos geckoes , aristelliger hechti . first two photographs : males . french cay , turks and caicos . last two photographs : male and juvenile . big ambergris cay , turks and caicos .
) there is a great number of species , most of them endemic to single insular banks , and often to small regions within an island . these small lizards depart from what is the norm in their kind , in that many species are diurnal or crepuscular , though still highly secretive and seldom seen by the merely casual observer . another of their peculiarities is their general appearance . instead of the wide and flattened bodies and heads , and the huge eyes of most nocturnal geckoes ,
are rather elongated , their heads are slim and pointed , and have relatively small eyes .
sphaerodactylus ( dwarf geckoes or
sphaeros
) are tiny lizards that inhabit every terrestrial ecosystem in the caribbean . unlike other geckoes with series of adhesive lamellae on their toes , members of sphaerodactylus possess a single , enlarged adhesive scale under the tip of each digit ( notice such scales in several of the close - up photographs shown below ) . these scales are circular , a fact that gives the genus its name ,
sphaira - dactylos
:
round finger
. the tiny adhesive pad points to the mainly terrestrial habits of most species . indeed , sphaeros are not as agile at climbing as are many other geckoes and the majority of species in the genus is decidedly ground - based .
first photograph : male . next three photographs : females . mahoe bay , western virgin gorda , british virgin islands .
this fantastically tiny lizard can confortably perch on the tip of a vertically - held human finger .
among west indian reptiles , they are second only to anoles in number of species and absolute abundance , with close to 100 species known to date , in the region . unlike most anoles , however , they are mainly terrestrial , although some species will climb trees and cacti , and some
under the peeling bark of standing trees . those that live on the ground are frequently found under fallen logs and rocks , or while they stalk tiny invertebrates amidst the leaf litter of forests ' floors .
as with anoles , a number of species have arisen in small cays found near one or another of the larger islands , where the parent species from which they evolved still lives .
the fact is that , aside from these generalizations , the lines dividing sphaerodactylid ecomorphs are presently very poorly understood , when compared to those dividing ecomorphs among anoles .
some species can be extremely abundant in some habitats , like the leaf - litter ground cover of littoral sea grape ( coccoloba uvifera ) forests and of lowland xeric forests . every acre of such places may harbor from hundreds to tens of thousands of individuals . however , in spite of being present in almost every terrestrial habitat in the antilles and of being mostly diurnal , sphaeros are so small and secretive that months can go by without seeing one unless one looks for them on purpose .
this is a female guantanamo bay sphaero , sphaerodactylus ruibali . guantanamo naval base , guantanamo , south - eastern cuba .
partly b ecause sphaeros are so tiny , the different species are often difficult to tell apart . some are divided into several subspecies , which themselves can be either very similar or strikingly different . sphaerodactylus macrolepis is one of such taxa . it ranges widely in the puerto rican island bank , where it is found everywhere except in some xeric areas . its biogeography is peculiar in that it is one of the few native puerto rican reptiles that is endemic to more than one insular bank , since it is also found in saint croix , united states virgin islands ( possibly as an unwitting man - made introduction ) .
, photographed with a united states ten - cent coin for scale . guanica state forest , south - western puerto rico .
with their elongated bodies and narrow , pointy heads , sphaeros are very picturesque . some species are colored in drab , monochromatic grays or browns , while others exhibit gorgeous and complex patterns of bands , spots , or stripes . these can be on beige , yellow , orange , slate blue , or purplish background colors . in many species , one or both sexes have a dark patch above the shoulders or on the back . this patch often encloses two light ocelli , and the pattern might fulfill a color - disruptive function or might deviate the attention of a predator away from the lizard ' s head . the trait is shared by some of their
many sphaeros have a patch of dark scales surrounding two white ocelli . this pattern may have a dissuading purpose , serving as false eyes to intimidate potential predators .
this is a pair of puerto rican eyespot sphaeros , ( northern race , sphaerodactylus macrolepis guarionex , male at lower level ) . caguas , east - central puerto rico .
some species of sphaerodactylus exhibit a very strong sexual dichromatism . sometimes the dissimilarity is enough for the sexes to look like different species ( see the photographs of spharodactylus macrolepis spanius and sphaerodactylus torrei , lower down on this page ) . in other species , sexes are alike and can only be distinguished by the presence , in males , of a patch of flattened scales before the vent . in some species , these extend into the ventral surface of the thighs .
cuban broad - banded sphaeros , ( guantanamo bay race , sphaerodactylus torrei spielmani ) , male and female , captive specimens .
un - pigmented scales , extending somewhat unto the ventral surface of its thighs .
for all their tiny size , sphaeros seem to be pugnacious creatures . that , together with the fact that many other animals prey on them , makes it rare to find an individual without a regenerated tail and pieces of skin . in some species , complete tails can be told by their black and white tip .
female sphaeros lay single eggs with a calcareous shell , only a few millimeters in length , yet large for the size of the adult .
haitises banded sphaeros , sphaerodactylus samanensis , females . los haitises national park , northern dominican republic , hispaniola .