tarsius fuscus is a species of tarsier .

its range is in indonesia in the southwestern peninsula of the island of sulawesi , near makassar .

at one point the taxon was downgraded to a junior synonym of the spectral tarsier ( t. tarsier ) .

however , when that species ' range was restricted to the population on a single island near sulawesi , this nomen was resurrected to contain the remainder of that species .

tarsius fuscus

a preview for ' observations on tarsius fuscus ( 1897 ) ' could not be found .
estimasi populasi dan habitat tarsius sumatera ( tarsius . . . populasi dan habitat tarsius sumatera ( tarsius . . . ( 1979 ) ( 6 ) , dan mackinnon and mackinnon ( 1980 ) ( 3 ) bahwa tarsius merupakan pemakan serangga seper -
kate markham marked
spectral tarsier tarsius tarsier
as trusted on the
tarsius tarsier
page .
kento furui added an unknown common name in an unknown language to
tarsius spectrum ( pallas , 1779 )
.
gursky , s . 2010 . dispersal patterns in tarsius spectrum . international journal of primatology , 31 : 117 - 131 .
gursky , s . 2005 . predator mobbing in tarsius spectrum . international journal of primatology , 26 ( 1 ) : 207 - 221 .
gursky , s . 2002 . the behavioral ecology of the spectral tarsier , tarsius spectrum . evolutionary anthropology , 11 : 226 - 234 .
kate markham marked
file : spectral tarsier . jpg
as trusted on the
tarsius tarsier ( erxleben , 1777 )
page .
gursky , s . ( 2000 ) sociality in the spectral tarsier , tarsius spectrum . american journal of primatology , 51 : 89 - 101 .
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gursky , s . ( 2000 ) allocare in a nocturnal primate : data on the spectral tarsier , tarsius spectrum . folia primatologica , 71 : 39 - 54 .
mcnab , m . , p . wright . 1987 . temperature regulation and oxygen consumption in the philippine tarsier tarsius syrichta . physiological zoology , 60 : 596 - 600 .
rosenberger , a . 2010 . the skull of tarsius : functional morphology , eyeballs , and the nonpursuit predatory lifestyle . international journal of primatology , 31 : 1032 - 1054 .
tarsius tarsier is important to evolutionary biologists and taxonomists as it is thought to be the most primitive of the tarsiers ; therefore it can be studied to better understand primate evolution .
shekelle , m . & salim , a . ( 2008 ) . tarsius tarsier . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 1 january 2009 .
gursky , s . ( 2000 ) effect of seasonality on the behavior of an insectivorous primate , tarsius spectrum . international journal of primatology , 21 ( 3 ) : 477 - 495 .
gursky , s . ( 1994 ) infant care in the spectral tarsier ( tarsius spectrum ) sulawesi , indonesia . international journal of primatology , 15 ( 6 ) : 843 - 853 .
shekelle , m . , a . salim . 2008 .
tarsius tarsier
( on - line ) . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 . accessed november 08 , 2011 at urltoken .
roberts , m . 1994 . growth , development , and parental care in the western tarsier ( tarsius bancanus ) in captivity : evidence for a “slow” life - history and non - monogamous mating system . international journal of primatology , 15 : 1 - 28 .
gursky , s . ( 2003 ) territoriality in the spectral tarsier , tarsius spectrum . in : wright , p . c . , simons , e . l . and gursky , s . ( eds . ) tarsiers : past , present , and future . rutgers university press , piscataway , new jersey .
type for tarsius tarsier catalog number : usnm 218071 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : male ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : h . raven year collected : 1916 locality : laboea sore [ = labuasore ] , n of parigi , celebes , sulawesi tengah , indonesia , asia
like all tarsiers , the spectral tarsier is most notable for its huge eyes , which are the largest , relative to body weight , of any mammal . the head is rounded , with a short neck and small muzzle , and bears thin , membranous , naked ears , which are highly mobile and in constant motion . the soft , silky coat is grey to grey - buff in colour , lighter on the underparts , and the tail is long , with scale - like skin for most of its length , and a long , bushy tuft towards the end . as in all tarsiers , the forelimbs are short , but the hindlimbs are greatly elongated , measuring about twice the length of the head and body , a feature which gives rise to the genus name , tarsius , referring to the elongated tarsal or ankle region . the digits are long and slender , and are tipped with rounded pads , which aid grip . all the digits bear flattened nails , except the second and third toes , which are equipped with a ‘toilet claw’ , used in grooming ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
html public
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urltoken
unknown . based on the
tarsier or woolly jerboa
of buffon , 1749 , histoire naturelle , 13 , n°mccxxxv . shekelle and groves ( in prep . ) restricted the type locality to makassar ( sulawesi , indonesia ) , following hill’s ( 1953 ) previous restriction of the type locality of spectrum to that region .
cites – appendix ii ; iucn – lower risk ( nt ) as t . spectrum .
the description and plate of buffon’s ( 1849 )
tarsier or woolly jerboa
clearly indicates a sulawesi tarsier ; the name therefore takes precedence over spectrum pallas ; it is not a nomen oblitum because it was used by chasen ( 1940 ) . niemitz et al . ( 1991 ) implied that this species , which they called t . spectrum , may be restricted to n sulawesi ; but the n sulawesi tarsier may not be conspecific with that from makassar . there are probably a number of undescribed species , sharply distinguished by their vocalizations ( shekelle et al . , 1998 ) and by morphological features ( groves , in prep . ) , in different regions of sulawesi , and the selayar tarsier is also distinct .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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mittermeier , rusell a . , anthony b . rylands , and don e . wilson , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 1
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( ânutla1 cutaneous specializat # ions in tnrsius . by w . ( 1 . osmas hill , m . d . , f . r . s . e . prosector , zoologicnl society o j london . i rcccivod 1 ot , h march 1952 . 1 ( with plates…
tarsiers are agile acrobats , capable of impressive leaps of up to five or six metres ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . the spectral tarsier is most active at night , the huge eyes giving good night vision , despite lacking the reflective layer , or ‘tapetum’ , typical of most other nocturnal primates ( 2 ) . in addition , the eyes are forward - facing , allowing the tarsier to accurately judge distances ( 2 ) , and the head is able to rotate nearly 360° , giving an extremely wide field of vision ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . unusually for a primate , tarsiers feed exclusively on live prey , mainly taking insects , but also occasionally small vertebrates such as lizards ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . prey may be taken in the trees or from the ground ( 7 ) .
the spectral tarsier is found in sulawesi , indonesia , and on some of the small surrounding islands ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) , but the population is thought to potentially constitute a number of distinct species , and is likely to be subdivided in the future ( 1 ) .
this species occurs in a range of habitats , including both primary and secondary forest , as well as mangrove forest , scrub , bamboo , plantations , and even urban gardens ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . the main habitat requirements appear to be adequate cover , a year - round abundance of insects , and the availability of suitable sleeping sites , such as dense thickets , vine tangles , tree holes , or the complex aerial roots of strangler figs ( 7 ) .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
although it may show some tolerance of forest conversion , the main threat to the spectral tarsier is believed to be habitat loss due to clearance for agriculture and illegal logging . it is also under threat from mining , the use of agricultural pesticides ( which may affect its insect prey ) , predation by domestic dogs and cats , and capture for the pet trade ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . although still relatively abundant in some areas ( 9 ) , and apparently one of the least threatened of the tarsiers ( 1 ) , future taxonomic study may well reveal the spectral tarsier to constitute more than one distinct species , in which case some populations are likely to be more threatened than others ( 1 ) .
wright , p . c . , simons , e . l . and gursky , s . ( 2003 ) tarsiers : past , present , and future . rutgers university press , piscataway , new jersey .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . nocturnal active at night . primary forest forest that has remained undisturbed for a long time and has reached a mature condition . secondary forest forest that has re - grown after a major disturbance , such as fire or timber harvest , but has not yet reached the mature state of primary forest . taxonomic relating to taxonomy , the science of classifying organisms , grouping together animals which share common features and are thought to have a common ancestor . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony . vertebrates animals with a backbone , including mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians and fish .
macdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .
nowak , r . m . ( 1991 ) walker ' s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london .
ankel - simons , f . ( 1999 ) primate anatomy : an introduction . academic press , san diego , california .
wolfheim , j . h . ( 1983 ) primates of the world : distribution , abundance and conservation . university of washington press , london .
mackinnon , j . and mackinnon , k . ( 1980 ) the behavior of wild spectral tarsiers . international journal of primatology , 1 ( 4 ) : 361 - 379 .
gursky , s . ( 1998 ) conservation status of the spectral tarsier tarsier spectrum : population density and home range size . folia primatologica , 69 : 191 - 203 .
gursky , s . ( 2005 ) associations between adult spectral tarsiers . american journal of physical anthropology , 128 : 74 - 83 .
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this material is based on work supported by the national science foundation under grant no . int 0107277 to m . shekelle , and grants from the margot marsh biodiversity foundation , the gibbon foundation , and primate conservation , inc . to m . shekelle . sponsorship for m . shekelle in indonesia was provided by noviar andayani of the center for biodiversity and conservation studies , university of indonesia , and by the indonesian institute for science . the indonesian department of forestry provided permits for conducting research in conservation areas and for trapping tarsiers . dr . siti nuramaliati prijono provided facilities for keeping live tarsiers . joseph voyles , emeritus professor of germanics and linguistics , provided assistance with the referential meaning of the name karl . we thank 2 anonymous reviewers for several excellent suggestions , including the map and table .
callou , c . , cuisin , j . , & groves , c . ( 2010 ) . the rediscovery of buffon’s tarsier .
de boer , l . e . m . , & de boer - van der vlist , j . ( 1973 ) . the somatic chromosomes and the idiogram of
systema regni animalis per classes , ordines , genera , species , varietates , cum synonymia et historia animalium . classis i . mammalia
gorog , a . j . , & sinaga , m . h . ( 2008 ) . a tarsier capture in upper montane forest on borneo . in m . shekelle , c . groves , i . maryanto , h . schulze , & h . fitch - snyder ( eds . ) ,
( pp . 29–33 ) . bogor : lipi press ( research center for biology , indonesian institute of sciences ) .
gray , j . e . ( 1821 ) . on the natural arrangement of vertebrose animals .
groves , c . p . ( 1998 ) . systematics of tarsiers and lorises .
groves , c . , shekelle , m . , & brandon - jones , d . ( 2008 ) . taxonomic history of the tarsiers , evidence for the origins of buffon’s tarsier , and the fate of
pallas , 1778 . in m . shekelle , c . groves , i . maryanto , h . schulze , & h . fitch - snyder ( eds . ) ,
( pp . 1–12 ) . bogor : lipi press ( research center for biology , indonesian institute of sciences ) .
hall , r . ( 2001 ) . cenozoic reconstructions of se asia and the sw pacific : changing patterns of land and sea . in i . metcalf , j . smith , m . morwood , & i . davidson ( eds . ) ,
matsui , a . , rakotondraparany , f . , munechika , i . , hasegawa , m . , & horai , s . ( 2009 ) . molecular phylogeny and evolution of prosimians based on complete sequences of mitochondrial dnas .
meireles , c . m . , czelusniak , j . , page , s . l . , wildman , d . e . , & goodman , m . ( 2003 ) . phylogenetic position of tarsiers within the order primates : evidence from γ - globin dna sequences . in p . c . wright , e . l . simons , & s . gursky ( eds . ) ,
niemitz , c . ( 2010 ) . progreditur ordinaria saltando & retrorsum . . . ( normally proceeds in a leaping fashion , and backwards . . . ) .
nietsch , a . , & burton , j . ( 2010 ) . geographical variation in duet songs of sulawesi tarsiers : evidence for new cryptic species in south and southeast sulawesi .
shekelle , m . ( 2008a ) . distribution and biogeography of tarsiers . in m . shekelle , c . groves , i . maryanto , h . schulze , & h . fitch - snyder ( eds . ) ,
( pp . 13–28 ) . bogor : lipi press ( research center for biology , indonesian institute of sciences ) .
shekelle , m . ( 2008c ) . distribution of tarsier acoustic forms , north and central sulawesi : with notes on the primary taxonomy of sulawesi’s tarsiers . in m . shekelle , c . groves , i . maryanto , h . schulze , & h . fitch - snyder ( eds . ) ,
( pp . 35–50 ) . bogor : lipi press ( research center for biology , indonesian institute of sciences ) .
shekelle , m . , morales , j . c . , niemitz , c . , ichwan , l . s . i . , & melnick , d . m . ( 2008a ) . the distribution of tarsier mtdna haplotypes for parts of north and central sulawesi : a preliminary analysis . in m . shekelle , c . groves , i . maryanto , h . schulze , & h . fitch - snyder ( eds . ) ,
( pp . 51–70 ) . bogor : lipi press ( research center for biology , indonesian institute of sciences ) .
shekelle , m . , meier , r . , wahyu , i . , & wirdateti , ting , n . ( 2010 ) . molecular phylogenetics and chronometrics of tarsiidae based on 12 s mtdna haplotypes : evidence for miocene origins of crown tarsiers and numerous species within the sulawesian clade .
groves , c . & shekelle , m . int j primatol ( 2010 ) 31 : 1071 . urltoken
comments : the description and plate of buffon ' s ( 1849 )
tarsier or woolly jerboa
clearly indicates a sulawesi tarsier ; the name therefore takes precedence over spectrum pallas ; it is not a nomen oblitum because it was used by chasen ( 1940 ) . niemitz et al . ( 1991 ) implied that this species , which they called t . spectrum , may be restricted to n sulawesi ; but the n sulawesi tarsier may not be conspecific with that from makassar . there are probably a number of undescribed species , sharply distinguished b . . .
status : cites - appendix ii ; iucn - lower risk ( nt ) as t . spectrum
, are endemic to the indonesian islands of southeast asia including sulawesi , pulau peleng , and pulau selajar . the greatest densities of this species are found in the northern peninsula of sulawesi island .
wright , p . , e . simons , s . gursky . 2003 . tarsiers : past , present , and future . united states of america : rutgers university press .
spectral tarsiers have a small , round body covered in soft , velvety fur . their pelage ranges from gray to buff - gray in color . they have long scaly tails with tufts of fur only present on the distal third of the tail . spectral tarsiers exhibit sexual dimorphism : females weigh 102 to 114 g while males weight 118 to 130 g .
possess long , slender hands , feet , and digits . their hands are thought to be the longest of any living primate relative to body size . these extremely elongated hands are designed for clinging and gripping despite the lack of opposable thumbs . the third finger of
is extremely long and slender and is only 15 % shorter than the humerus . this trait is not symmetrically reproduced from the anterior to the posterior , as the fourth digit is the longest of the hindlimb digits . the second and third digits of the hindlimb are equipped with specialized toilet claws . spectral tarsiers are thought to be the most primitive tarsiers , as they lack disks on the ends of their fingers .
tarsiers are among the smallest known primates . their head - body length ranges from 9 . 5 to 14 cm and tail length ranges from 20 to 26 cm . total length ranges from 29 . 5 to 40 cm . spectral tarsiers have long legs that are specialized for their saltatory form of locomotion ; they can jump more than 40 times the length of their body . the tibia and fibula are fused together and act as a shock absorber when the animal jumps from tree to tree . the hindlimbs of tarsiers are twice as long as their head - body length . the femur , the bones of the lower leg ( the fused tibia and fibula ) , and the bones of the foot are each roughly equal in length .
tarsiers have the biggest eyes of any mammal relative to their body weight . in fact , their eyes are larger than their brain . interestingly , tarsiers lack a tapetum lucidum , a highly reflective layer behind the retina that is characteristic of most nocturnal mammals . instead tarsiers have extremely large eyes and a well - developed fovea to maximize light - gathering capacity and to allow the development of highly resolved pin - sharp vision . these adaptations have bestowed tarsiers with the most acute night vision of all primates . the eyes of spectral tarsiers are immobile due to their large size , but this is compensated for by the ability to rotate the head 180 degrees .
the ears of spectral tarsiers are thin and membranous and are able to move independently . tarsiers possess sharp , heterodont teeth and quadrate molars . the dental formula of tarsiers is : i2 / 1 , c1 / 1 , p3 / 3 , m3 / 3 = 34 . spectral tarsiers have a low basal metabolic rate and a low body temperature . they do not exhibit torpor , yet brown adipose tissue can be found in adults within the interscapular area ; this is likely a retained paedomorphic trait .
macdonald , d . 2006 . the encyclopedia of mammals . new york : facts on file .
mackinnon , j . , k . mackinnon . 1980 . the behaviour of wild spectral tarsiers . . international journal of primatology , 1 ( 4 ) : 361 - 379 .
napier , j . , p . napier . 1985 . the natural history of the primates . great britain : mit press .
type : miller , g . s . & hollister , n . 1921 jun 30 . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 34 : 103 .
spectral tarsiers are found in primary and secondary rainforests , though they prefer secondary growth forests . this is likely due to the greater abundance of food items in secondary growth forests . their habitat ranges from the lowland evergreen rainforest near sea level to the lower montane rainforest up to 1500 m . spectral tarsiers have also been found in mangroves and scrub forest .
spectral tarsiers feeds exclusively on live animals . they primarily prey on flying insects such as
. spectral tarsiers listen with their independently moving ears to locate potential prey . once a prey item is targeted , a tarsier ambushes its prey with a sudden lunge , grasps it with its long , slender fingers , and bites to kill it . the tarsier then returns to its perch to consume its prey . this form of ambush hunting requires excellent hand - eye coordination . spectral tarsiers can collect their prey out of the air , on the ground , or off leaves and branches . tarsiers can eat 10 % of their own body weight every 24 hours , and they drink water several times throughout the night .
spectral tarsiers appear to take advantage of the moonlight when foraging . this is an unusual behavior , as most small , nocturnal mammals exhibit lunar phobia as a predator avoidance mechanism . tarsiers cope with this increased risk of predation by foraging in groups .
spectral tarsiers may influence populations of their insect prey . they host intestinal parasites such as hookworms and tapeworms . a related species ,
. if a predator , particularly a snake , is identified , they emit an alarm call . this initiates mobbing behavior , in which numerous tarsiers gather and approach the predator as a group , screaming , lunging , and even biting . mob groups usually consist of adult males from neighboring groups , which is interesting as most spectral tarsier social groups only contain one territorial adult male . this grouping by neighboring males suggests some form of cooperation among males during predator mobbing . if spectral tarsiers spot a bird of prey such as an owl , they sound an alarm call and participate in avoidance mechanisms such as moving further away from the predator and increasing cryptic behaviors .
species - specific vocalizations of spectral tarsiers include trills and twitters , alarm calls , duet songs , and family choruses . twitters and trills are used to converse or to make their location known to other group members while foraging . alarms calls serve as a warning system to others when a predator is spotted and also encourage predator mobbing . duet songs and family choruses convey territoriality and function as a mate guarding mechanism . as morning approaches , the female of the duet pair initiates a song once she has returned to the family’s sleeping site . the male and female sing very different but equally high - pitched songs , which can be heard up to 100 m away . species - specific vocal acoustics are used in conjunction with morphogenetics to assess classification of tarsiers .
spectral tarsiers use their urine as well as secretions from the epigastric gland , ano - genital gland , and circum - oral gland to mark the boundaries of their territory . males scent mark twice as frequently as females .
physical contact appears to contribute to tarsier sociality , and members of the same group often rest and socialize while touching . spectral tarsiers sit next to one another and intertwine tails and are know to snuggle .
visual communication appears to be most effective when group members are in close contact with one another . they communicate by changes in facial musculature and body posture . folded ears seem to convey uneasiness , and a crouched posture is taken when defensive . when aggressive , a tarsier stands on its hind feet with its mouth open .
burton , j . , a . nietsch . 2010 . geographical variation in duet songs of sulawesi tarsiers : evidence for new cryptic species in south and southeast sulawesi . international journal of primatology , 31 : 1123 - 1146 .
gursky - doyen , s . , j . supriatna . 2010 . indonesian primates . new york : springer . accessed november 08 , 2011 at urltoken ; = 3 & locus ; = 48 .
one spectral tarsier was 10 years and 9 months of age at the conclusion of a mark and re - capture study , and the only signs of aging in this individual were gray / light hair on the face . therefore , this probably does not represent the longest lifespan of spectral tarsiers in the wild .
a female tarsier greater than 5 years of age currently resides at the singapore zoo . a closely related species ,
has a lifespan of 17 years and 7 months in captivity . it is likely that
shekelle , m . , a . nietsch . 2008 . primates of the oriental night . west java : west java : indonesia institute of sciences , research center for biology .
observations : little is known about the longevity of these animals . it has been reported that they can live for 12 years ( lindenfors 2002 ) , which is possible but has not been confirmed . one animal was still alive after 8 . 2 years in captivity ( richard weigl 2005 ) . further studies are necessary to better estimate the maximum longevity of this species .
the majority of tarsiers are monogamous ; however , spectral tarsiers may practice facultative monogamy or polygyny . monogamy appears to be the prevalent mating system in this species due to limited numbers of high - quality sleeping sites . each individual female requires a high - quality sleeping site for herself and her young . fig trees with large diameters are preferred but rare , which generally leads males and females to share sleeping sites and thus to form monogamous pairs .
polygynous groups occur 19 % of the time . monogamous groups often consist of two or three females with one reproducing female and one territorial male , while polygynous groups consist of six or more individuals with multiple reproducing females and a single male . the presence of large testes in t . tarsier suggests that polygyny is fairly common , as large testes have been related to promiscuous mating systems .
spectral tarsiers breed twice a year , and copulation occurs during either may or november . the gestation period is approximately 6 months , and births also usually occur during may or november . females give birth to a single offspring , which is born fully furred and with its eyes open . newborns are precocial and are able to climb at just one day of age . among mammals , tarsier offspring are the largest relative to the mother ' s body mass . newborns weigh on average 23 . 7 g , nearly 22 % of the mother ' s body mass . a large proportion their weight is invested in the brain mass , eyes , and cranium .
lactation generally lasts up to 80 days . weaning occurs between 4 and 10 weeks of age , and independence occurs directly after weaning as offspring are capable of hunting on their own . spectral tarsiers reach sexual maturity at 17 months of age . females possess a bicornuate uterus and haemochorial placenta .
young spectral tarsiers are precocial and receive only maternal care . mothers pick up and carry their infants by mouth for the first 3 weeks and cache them trees while they forage . offspring are left alone for an average of 27 minutes at a time , and then they are moved to new locations . mothers generally remain within 4 m of their young when foraging . caching young in trees reduces the energetic cost of foraging , as carrying offspring is costly and offspring can weigh up to one third of the mother’s weight . mothers sling offspring older than 3 weeks of age under their bellies while leaping and moving from tree to tree .
gursky - doyen , s . 2010 . infraspecific variation in the mating system of spectral tarsiers . international journal of primatology , 31 : 1161 - 1173 .
spectral tarsiers are currently abundant on the island of sulawesi , particularly among the northern peninsula with a density ranging from 156 to 800 individuals per square kilometer . however , this species is still considered vulnerable due to habitat destruction caused by logging . logging reduces tarsier densities through the destruction of preferred sleeping sites such as
. strangler figs are removed from human - utilized forests because they are seen as a threat to other commercially valuable trees .
within t . tarsier , sensu lato , the best studied population comes from tangkoko , which is at the extreme northeast peninsula of sulawesi , whereas makassar , the type locality of t . tarsier sensu stricto , is at the extreme southwestern peninsula , and has not been the subject of systematic study . population density estimates at tangkoko are 70 / km 2 ( mackinnon and mackinnon 1980 ) and 156 / km 2 ( gursky 1997 ) . merker ( 2003 ) estimated population densities for t . dentatus in a variety of pristine and human disturbed habitats near kamarora , on the edge of lore lindu national park . the values he calculated were 270 / km 2 in pristine habitat , 190 / km 2 for slightly disturbed , 130 / km 2 for moderate disturbance , and 45 / km 2 in heavily disturbed habitat .
tarsiers are protected by international treaties , including cites appendix ii , as well as by national law . many portions of the range of this taxon are within conservation areas , but there needs to be improved management of these areas to ensure the continued survival of the species . public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures . indeed , the species might actually be beneficial to crops , as they eat , and may even have a dietary preference for , some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers .
spectral tarsiers kept as pets frequently host parasites , such as intestinal worms , that can be transmitted to humans . tarsiers do not survive well as pets due to their high energetic diet requirements .
spectral tarsiers are primarily insectivorous , and may aid in the mitigation of insect pest populations . tarsiers also draw tourists to the indonesian islands and are beneficial to humans financially as a form of ecotourism . tarsiers are occasionally kept as pets , though they do not survive well .
in measurements females weigh between 102 and 114 grams ( 3 . 6 and 4 . 0 oz ) while males are 118 to 130 grams ( 4 . 2 to 4 . 6 oz ) . it has a head - body length of 9 . 5 to 14 centimetres ( 3 . 7 to 5 . 5 in ) and its tail length ranges from 20 to 26 centimetres ( 7 . 9 to 10 . 2 in ) . the average lifespan in the wild is thought to be 10 years , however in captivity the closely related
can live up to 17 years and it is thought the spectral tarsier may have a similar longevity .
groves , c . p . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p . 128 . oclc 62265494 . isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4 .
groves , c . ; shekelle , m . ( 2010 ) .
the genera and species of tarsiidae
. international journal of primatology 31 ( 6 ) : 1071–1082 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10764 - 010 - 9443 - 1 .
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citation : driller c , merker s , perwitasari - farajallah d , sinaga w , anggraeni n , zischler h ( 2015 ) stop and go – waves of tarsier dispersal mirror the genesis of sulawesi island . plos one 10 ( 11 ) : e0141212 . urltoken
copyright : © 2015 driller et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
data availability : accession numbers of all relevant sequence data are within the paper and its supporting information files . dna sequences generated in the framework of this study have been archived in genbank under accession numbers kp642169 - kp642493 and kr337026 - kr337090 . sources of published sequence data are mentioned within the methods section and listed in s2 text and s3 table .
funding : this work was funded by the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft ( dfg , urltoken ) . grants zi568 / 6 - 1 and zi568 / 6 - 2 were allocated to hz . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
overview of individuals analyzed for five autosomal loci , the cytb gene , and the sry gene .
x : new sequences are printed in bold type , sequences obtained from previous studies appear in normal lettering .
additionally , our study comprised wga - amplified dna probes of 95 central sulawesi tarsiers from seven populations ( fig 1d ) sampled during previous studies [ 7 , 17 ] . dna samples of the philippine and of the western tarsier were provided by j . brosius and j . schmitz ( university of muenster , germany ) , and by y . rumpler ( les hôpitaux universitaires de strasbourg , france ) , respectively .
in our analyses we included five nuclear autosomal loci ( exonic : adora3 , axin1 , rag1 ; intronic : abca1 , ttr ) of the “phylogenomic toolkit” [ 18 ] , in total yielding around 3400 bp of sequence information . primers and conditions were partly modified ( s1 table ) and applied to a pruned sample set comprising 28 specimens from sulawesi , and one specimen from each the philippine and the western tarsier ( table 1 , genbank accession numbers kp642169 - kp642408 and kp642434 - kp642493 ) for pcr amplification and sequencing ( for more details see s1 text ) . sulawesian populations / study areas were represented by two individuals each constituting a terminal taxon of a preliminary cytochrome b maximum likelihood tree estimated from sequence data of 151 specimens ( table 1 , s2 text and s1 fig ) . mitochondrial sequences were newly amplified for the 65 individuals sampled in 2009 and 2010 ( table 1 , genbank accession numbers kr337026 - kr337090 ) and obtained from previous studies [ 7 , 17 , 20 ] ( table 1 and s2 text ) .
we further pcr amplified and sequenced ( for more details see s1 text ) a fragment of the y - chromosomal sry gene for 24 males ( 630 bp , genbank accession numbers kpkp642409 - kp642433 , for more details see table 1 and s1 text ) adopting pcr primers and conditions from merker et al . [ 7 ] . data sets from former studies and comprising 35 males [ 7 , 17 ] ( table 1 , genbank accession numbers fj614510 - 13 , fj614517 - 21 , fj614523 - 34 , fj614562 - 68 , hm115985 - 91 ) were incorporated for further analyses .
sequencing was performed on an abi 3130xl genetic analyzer ( applied biosystems ) . sequences were edited in bioedit 7 . 0 . 9 . 0 [ 21 ] and aligned using muscle v . 3 . 8 . 31 [ 22 ] . multiple sequence alignments were generated using gblocks v . 0 . 91b [ 23 ] and refined manually .
models of dna sequence evolution were selected based on akaike´s information criterion corrected for small sample sizes ( aicc ) using treefinder v . march 2011 [ 24 ] . we included substitution models for each locus ( s2 table ) into subsequent phylogenetic analyses as outlined below .
multilocus species trees were estimated from combined nuclear markers of the “phylogenomic toolkit” [ 18 ] employing * beast v . 1 . 6 . 2 [ 25 ] . we consulted the ucld . stdev and the coefficient of variation parameter of preliminary simulations under an uncorrelated relaxed lognormal clock to reveal deviations from a global clock . both parameters indicated low rate variation among lineages thus , we used a strict molecular clock model to analyze multilocus sequence data . we ran ten independent chains of 1x10e7 length sampling every 10 , 000 generations and leaving the other priors at their default values . for mcmc diagnostics we examined ess values of the beast output in tracer v . 1 . 5 [ 26 ] and awty [ 27 ] . in all analyses , ess values were generally above 1 , 000 , chains converged and mixed well . awty´s plots for comparisons of split frequencies across all paired mcmc chains further confirmed convergence . we combined two of the ten analyses to create a final multilocus species tree .
we reconstructed phylogenies for y - chromosomal data conducting maximum likelihood ( ml ) and bayesian analyses . ml trees were estimated using garli v . 2 . 0 [ 28 ] with two search replicates and stepwise - addition starting trees . bootstrap support was assessed by 100 replicates of which a majority rule consensus tree was inferred with the program consense of the phylip package v . 3 . 69 [ 29 , 30 ] . bayesian phylogenies were generated by mrbayes v . 3 . 2 [ 31 ] . we ran four independent analyses of 5x10e6 with four markov chains , sampling every 1 , 000 generations . we verified convergence of the four runs by examining the average standard deviation of split frequencies ( asdsf ) , the stationarity of log likelihood values ( lnl ) of the cold chain , the chain swap acceptance rate , and the potential scale reduction factor ( psrf ) . asdsf decreased to ≤ 0 . 01 within the first 800 , 000 generations , lnl reached stationarity distribution in the first thousand generations , the swap acceptance rate between chains was between 20–60 % , and psrf values were close or equal to 1 . on this basis , we concluded that all four runs converged , discarded the burn - in ( 25 % ) and built a majority rule tree from the resulting trees .
moreover , we reconstructed haplotype networks of each autosomal marker and of the sry gene based on non - identical sequences and using the tcs method [ 32 ] as implemented in the popart package v . 1 . 7 [ 33 ] .
a ) multilocus bayesian species tree . numbers at nodes indicate posterior probability values above 0 . 5 . b ) genealogy of ten sry - haplotypes from 59 males . node support values of bayesian / maximum likelihood analyses above / below nodes represent posterior probabilities ( pp ) and bootstrap values ( % ) , respectively . numbers behind the population label / sampling site correspond to the number of males carrying the respective haplotype . each terminal branch represents a distinct sry haplotype .
shown are the statistical parsimony network based on 10 sry - haplotypes obtained from 59 males and haplotype distribution on sulawesi . the white circle indicates an inferred missing haplotype . mutation steps are shown as hatch marks .
tarsiers have a scarce fossil record [ 35 , 36 ] notoriously impeding the choice of calibration points for a robust estimation of divergence times on the tarsier lineage . we therefore used mean node age estimates of a recently published primate phylogeny based on comprehensive genomic and fossil data [ 34 ] . furthermore , we applied a relaxed clock method to increase the accuracy of divergence time estimation [ 37 ] .
white and black arrows symbolize our proposed dispersal routes of the two lowland lineages on sulawesi . the dotted pattern indicates a possible origin of the extant sulawesi tarsier population that is unknown so far .
our reconstruction of a crown tarsiid phylogeny again strengthens a sister group relationship between western and philippine tarsiers suggesting their divergence in late miocene [ 9 , 50 ] . the median node age at 9 . 8 mya perfectly matches the period of lowest tertiary sea level [ 1 , 19 , 51 ] possibly facilitating tarsier dispersal from sundaland to mindanao ( philippines ) [ 52 ] .
aware that the use of secondary calibration points bears the risk of erroneous divergence time estimates [ 53 ] , we are confident that relatively narrow confidence intervals , the obvious correspondence between tarsier divergence times and major geological events and climate fluctuations , as well as good node support for several sub - clades build a reliable framework for our inferences about tarsier diversification . moreover , median node ages of crown tarsiers , the western - / philippine tarsier split and the initial speciation event in sulawesi tarsiers are consistent with estimates by [ 9 , 50 ] further strengthening the reliability of internal split times obtained in this study .


rhinocarcinosoma is a genus of silurian eurypterid , with a triangular carapace , laterally positioned eyes , and a curved telson .

in 2002 , a new species was described from the dô son formation of the dô son peninsula of northern vietnam .

rhinocarcinosoma

rhinocarcinosoma dosonensis , c . 20cm long ( from braddy et al . , 2002 )
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parent taxon : carcinosomatidae according to s . j . braddy et al . 2002
full reference : s . j . braddy , p . a . selden , and d . n . truong . 2002 . a new carcinosomatid eurypterid from the upper silurian of northern vietnam . palaeontology 45 : 897 - 915
type specimen : igmr bt166 / 1 , a carapace . its type locality is ngoc xuyen , locality 1 , which is in a pridoli fluvial - deltaic shale in the do son formation of vietnam .
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onychopterella augusti , c . 7cm long ( from braddy et al . , 1995 )
eurypterids are a diverse group that lived from the ordovician to the permian ( approximately 450 to 250 million years ago ) . they are characterised by a differentiation of the opisthosoma into pre - and post - abdomen ( meso - and metasoma ) , and the presence of genital appendages [ although these are not defining characteristics of eurypterida - dunlop , 2002 ] . eurypterids could reach over 2 m in length and therefore represent some of the biggest arthropods ever known .
eurypterids were aquatic predators . during their reign they moved from being fully marine to inhabiting freshwater , and some groups even developed amphibious habits , being able to move across land , and respiring using book lungs similar to those of scorpions . they may have resembled
in exhibiting ' mass - moult - mate ' behaviour : coming ashore to moult and breed ( as suggested by beds showing multiple parallel fossil trackways ) . they may also have resembled
in having complex mating behaviour , involving terrestrial sperm transfer in the form of spermatophores ( ' sperm sacs ' ) ( as suggested by the anatomy of the genital appendages ) .
forfarella mitchelli , c . 12mm long ( adapted from dunlop et al . , 1999 )
chasmataspids are a rare group of aquatic palaeozoic arthropods , known only from the ordovician of north america ( around 450 million years ago ) and devonian of europe ( around 400 million years ago ) ( dunlop , 2002 ) . they resemble xiphosurans and eurypterids , but are distinguished on the basis of their segmentation . further work may establish them as part of the eurypterid group ( dunlop , 2002 ) . they were probably predators , in a manner similar to xiphosurans and eurypterids .
trigonotarbids were a diverse and important order of palaeozoic arachnids . they are characterised by a laterally - divided opisthosomal plates . trigonotarbids are most commonly found in carboniferous coal forest deposits ( around 300 million years old ) but are known from as early as the late silurian ( around 415 million years ago ) . this makes them some of the earliest terrestrial animals , and their importance in early terrestrial ecosystems is known from deposits such as the rhynie chert of scotland .
haptopoda : an extinct arachnid order known only from one carboniferous species , possibly close to trigonotarbids ( dunlop , 2002 ) .
generalised phalangiotarbid , c . 1 . 5cm long ( redrawn from beall , 1991 ) ( only half the appendages illustrated )
phalangiotarbids are an unusual order of palaeozoic arachnids , most commonly found in carboniferous coal forest deposits ( around 300 million years ago ) . they had highly reduced chelicerae and pedipalps ( it is not known how they fed ) , and respiratory spiracles suggesting that they were terrestrial . they may be related to harvestmen ( order opiliones - see modern groups ) .
the relationships between the different chelicerate groups , and between chelicerates and other groups , are difficult to resolve . however , it is useful to consider the different groups in a wider context . the following diagram shows a cladogram ( tree of relationships based on analysis of morphological characters ) superimposed on the fossil record of various groups ( redrawn from dunlop and selden , 1997 ) . this view of chelicerate phylogeny must be viewed as ' work in progress ' .
heavy lines indicate known fossil ranges of each group , dotted lined represent ' ghost ranges ' ( inferred existence but no fossil record ) and vertical lines represent relationships between the groups . true chelicerates ( as defined by dunlop and selden , 1997 ) are distinguished from relatives and ancestors .
the timeline runs through the palaeozoic , from the cambrian ( starting 545 million years ago ) to the permian ( finishing 250 million years ago ) . arrow on the ' xiphosurida ' , ' scorpiones ' and ' other arachnids ' lines indicates that they survive to the present day . chasmataspids and eurypterids are now extinct , as are several other fossil groups which have been placed as ' sister taxa ' to chelicerata . chelicerata can be seen to be set within a wider ' arachnomorph ' grouping , which includes cambrian forms such as the aglaspids .
future work may be expected to modify some of these relationships , and confirm or deny hypotheses such as a eurypterid ancestry for terrestrial scorpions .
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* note - this list may not be up to date , or include every single eurypterid genera known .
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. modified from ciurca , page d19 , eurypterid biofacies of the silurian - devonian evaporite sequence : niagara peninsula , ontario , canada and new york in new york state geological association 62nd annual meeting september , 1990 ( field trip guidebook western new york and ontario , fredonia state university college .
should be directed much lower in the stratigraphic section as it is only known from the illion - sconondoa members of the lockport group in central - eastern new york .
( reconstruction ) , new york and pennsylvania . see clarke & ruedemann ( 1912 ) the eurypterida of new york for an interesting description of this bizarre eurypterid .
this chart does not show all of the eurypterid horizons known , only those in which species have been described . within the salina group , there are additional horizons with distinctive eurypterid occurrences - unfortunately , these have not been studied in enough detail to date . within the very thick lockport group , consisting mostly of massive dolostone ( some highly quartzose ) , little is known except for occasional finds of pieces of eurypterid material . in western new york , the eurypterid horizons are all within the uppermost beds . the genus
) . an unknown carcinosomatid occurs above niagara falls associated with large stromatolites ( the specimen is in the peabody museum of natural history at yale university ) . in ontario , canada , beds within the lockport - guelph are slowly yielding additional eurypterid faunas . perhaps one of the rarest is
( see clarke & ruedemann , 1912 , for an early description based on an almost complete individual ) . based upon its construction , i wonder if
was actually a reef - dweller ( coral and stromatoporoid ) . after almost 200 years since the dis - covery of the first eurypterid , there are still many new horizons within ontario , canada and the appalachian basin to be described ( especially pennsylvania ) .
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eurypterids ( sea scorpions ) are an extinct group of arthropods related to arachnids which include the largest known arthropods that ever lived . they are members of the extinct order eurypterida ( chelicerata ) ; which is the most diverse paleozoic chelicerate order in terms of species .
about two dozen families of eurypterids are known . perhaps the best - known genus of eurypterid is eurypterus , of which around 16 fossil species are known . the genus eurypterus was described in 1825 by james ellsworth de kay , a zoologist . he recognized the arthropod nature of the first ever described eurypterid specimen , found by dr . s . l . mitchill . in 1984 , that species , eurypterus remipes was named the state fossil of new york .
there are 246 valid species of eurypterids as of 2011 . all of them are extinct . they are grouped into the following :
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eupithecia andrasi is a moth in the geometridae family .

it is found in north-western china ( shaanxi ) .

the wingspan is about 18 mm .

eupithecia andrasi

12 new species of eupithecia ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) are described from china .
ash pug ( angle - barred pug ) ( eupithecia innotata f . fraxinata )
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investigations in the
eupithecia inepta - sacrosancta
and the
e . lasciva
groups ( lepidoptera : geometridae )
前報に引き続き中国産カバナミシャク属eupitheciaの新種を記載した . 今回記載した12種は次の通りである . e . andrasi mironov & galsworthy ( 陜西 ) , e . levata mironov & galsworthy ( 雲南 ) , e . omissa mironov & galsworthy ( 陜西・甘粛 ) , e . testacea mironov & galsworthy ( 雲南 ) , e . fenita mironov & galsworthy ( 雲南 ) , e . burselongata mironov & galsworthy ( 雲南 ) , e . minutula mironov & galsworthy ( 雲南・チベット ) , e . hainanensis mironov & galsworthy ( 海南島 ) , e . molybdaena mironov & galsworthy ( 陜西 ) , e . lamata mironov & galsworthy ( 青海 ) , e . mediocincta mironov & galsworthy ( 甘粛・四川 ) , e . tepida mironov & galsworthy ( 陜西 ) .
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to date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !
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the ribbon is 32 millimetres wide , with a 5 millimetres wide pale buff band , a 1½ millimetres wide navy blue band , a 5 millimetres wide pale buff band , a 9 millimetres wide army red band , a 5 millimetres wide pale buff band , a 1½ millimetres wide air force blue band and a 5 millimetres wide pale buff band . the pale buff represents the sand of the sahara desert while the royal navy and merchant navy , the armies and the air forces are represented by the dark blue , red and light blue bands respectively .
the wingspan is about . the forewings are pale buff and the hindwings are somewhat paler .
the wingspan is about 18 mm . the fore - and hindwings are pale buff .
the wingspan is about 16–17 mm . the fore - and hindwings are pale buff - brown .
the wingspan is about 16 mm . the fore - and hindwings are pale buff .
the wingspan is about 22 . 5 mm . the forewings are pale buff and the hindwings are dirty white .
the wingspan is about 21 mm . the forewings are pale pale buff and the hindwings are white .
the wingspan is about 19–20 mm . the forewings are pale buff and the hindwings are white .
the wingspan is about 18–22 mm . the forewings are very pale buff and the hindwings are dingy white .
the adult moth has a body length of . the hind - wings are creamy - white with pale buff tips .