centruroides limbatus is a species of bark scorpion from central america .

its specific name " limbatus " is from the latin meaning " black-edged " and refers to the colored markings of this species .

centruroides limbatus

on the internet : inbio on centruroides limbatus ( in spanish ) . information about c . limbatus by scott stockwell . picture on a german site .
envenomation by the scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) outside its natural range and recognition of medically important scorpions .
a black scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) with woman ' s feet in the background , guanacaste costa rica .
centruroides limbatus juvenile typical morph x black morph ( c . rica ) [ original photo copyright © eric ythier ]
a black scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) found on the kitchen floor in playas del coco , guanacaste , costa rica .
a black scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) with woman ' s feet and broom in the background , guanacaste costa rica .
envenomation by the scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) outside its natural range and recognition of medically important scorpions . - pubmed - ncbi
centruroides limbatus ( or black edged scorpion ) and native to costa rica , honduras and panama so are imported from there .
thanks guys to fry : why just c . limbatus ? best regards a .
you almost never see actual c . limbatus a 99 % of the ones labeled as c . limbatus are nothing more than mis - identified c . gracilis .
centruroides limbatus , identified by scott stockwell , phd . a small barb at the base of the stinger may be helpful in identifying centruroides or tityus species , although its presence is variable . photo by sean bush , md .
very well done write - up on c . limbatus and as always , awesome photographs .
this scorpion is in the family buthidae . centruroides can be divided into several species groups . centruroides limbatus belongs to the gracilis species group . all of the species in this group are characterized by fairly large size ( > 100 mm ) and long , narrow pedipalps .
locations in costa rica : la amistad international park , cahuita national park , juan castro blanco national park , cocos island , tortuguero national park diet : small arthropods migration pattern : non - migratory habitat : various size : various species : centruroides limbatus , centruroides bicolor etc .
arizona bark scorpion ( centruroides sculpturatus ) bark scorpion ( centruroides sculpturatus ) . . . separated in the field from other local scorpions by anteriorly narrowed , subtriangular sternum and relatively
great write up on c . limbatus , very informative and a good coverage on the morphs . cool !
centruroides limbatus is found throughout costa rica , and in parts of nicaragua and honduras . this scorpion is quite common in costa rica . it is apparently less common in other parts of its range .
common striped scorpion ( centruroides vittatus ) ? ? background : the common striped scorpion , centruroides vittatus , is widely distributed throughout the southwestern . . . scorpions will sting if disturbed .
many congratulations on the successful mating of this rare species . may all your future limbatus breeding projects bear much fruit !
31 . de armas lf . registro más septentrional del alacrán centroamericano centruroides limbatus ( pocock , 1898 ) ( scorpiones : buthidae ) rev ibér aracnol . 2003 ; 7 ( 1 ) : 101 - 2 . [ links ]
49 . bush sp . envenomation by the scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) outside its natural range and recognition of medically important scorpions . wilderness environ med . 1999 ; 10 ( 3 ) : 161 - 4 . [ links ]
koschak a , bugianesi rm , mitterdorfer j , kaczorowski gj , garcia ml , knaus hg . subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin - 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom .
koshchak et al . , subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin - 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom . j . biol . chem . 1998 , 273 , 2639 - 2644 .
centruroides species . note the slender pincers generally characteristic of scorpions from the family buthidae . photo by sean bush , md .
smaller size is also very usual in cb broods of the genus centruroides . i observed that in broods of several spp .
common names : the specific name , limbatus , is from the latin meaning
black - edged
and refers to the coloration of the scorpion .
koschak a , bugianesi rm , mitterdorfer j , kaczorowski gj , garcia ml , et al . ( 1998 ) subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin - 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom . j biol chem 273 : 2639–2644 .
selected litterature : scorpions of costa rica by carlos viquez . bush s . - p . 1999 . envenomation by the scorpion ( centruroides limbatus ) outside its natural range and recognition of medically important scorpions . wilderness environ . med . , vol . 3 , p . 161 - 164 .
koschak , a . et al . ,
subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin˜1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom ,
j . biol . chem . 273 : 2639 - 2644 , american society for biochemistry and molecular biology , us ( 1998 ) .
koschak , a . et al . ,
subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin ~ 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom ,
j . biol . chem . 273 : 2639 - 2644 , american society for biochemistry and molecular biology , us ( 1998 ) .
centruroides ( scorpion ) immune f ( ab’ ) 2 ( equine ) . prescribing information . accessed august 9 , 2011 . [ full text ] .
55 . koschak a , bugianesi rm , mitterdorfer j , kaczorowski gj , garcia ml , knaus hg . subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin - 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom . j biol chem . 1998 ; 273 ( 5 ) : 2639 - 44 . [ links ]
koshchak et al . :
subunit composition of brain voltage - gated potassium channels determined by hongotoxin - 1 , a novel peptide derived from centruroides limbatus venom
, j . biol . chem . , vol . 273 , 1998 , pages 2639 - 2644 , xp002109758 , doi : doi : 10 . 1074 / jbc . 273 . 5 . 2639
scorpion stings of medical relevance in central america involve species of centruroides and tityus , and it is also the objective of this review to compare both envenomation syndromes .
nearly all centruroides are like that , as are some of the small montane vaejovis spp . we call lbjs ( little brown jobs ) related to vaejovis vorhiesi .
here ' s the wc pair of c . limbatus , of mine , which have produced about 50 offspring ( male is the common yellow morph , female is the more unusual black morph ) :
nieto ar , gurrola gb , vaca l , possani ld . noxiustoxin 2 , a novel k + channel blocking peptide from the venom of the scorpion centruroides noxius hoffmann .
the information on this page is based on the website ( link above ) and the book scorpions of costa rica with permission from the author dr . carlos viquez . left : centruroides bicolor ( dark color form ) photo by graeme lowe ( c ) right : centruroides bicolor ( light color form ) photo by dr . carlos viquez ( c )
as described above in our review of scorpionism in guatemala , belize , el salvador , nicaragua and costa rica , the central american centruroides relatives of noxious north american species do not produce venoms that are lethal to vertebrates as indicated by the relatively mild symptomatology reported in envenomed humans . the accident by c . limbatus described by bush ( 49 ) was classified as grade ii envenomation based on the c . sculpturatus grades of envenomation defined by curry et al . ( 9 ) in central arizona and confirms the mildness of scorpionism cases in central american countries where c . limbatus and related species are endemic .
57 . suchard jr , hilder r . atropine use in centruroides scorpion envenomation . j toxicol clin toxicol . 2001 ; 39 ( 6 ) : 595 - 8 . [ links ]
boyer l , heubner k , mcnally j , buchanan p . death from centruroides scorpion sting allergy [ abstract ] . j toxicol clin toxicol . 2001 . 39 : 561 - 562 .
but damn luc , if you take the buthus out of yours and add either carribian centruroides species , ananteris , or microtityus it would be the same as what i would of put . lol
24 . sissom wd , lourenço wr . the genus centruroides in south america ( scorpiones : buthidae ) . j arachnol . 1987 ; 15 ( 1 ) : 11 - 28 . [ links ]
the lethal members of the buthidae family include the genera of buthus , parabuthus , mesobuthus , tityus , leiurus , androctonus , and centruroides . the following lethal scorpions are found generally in the given distribution :
martin bm , ramirez an , gurrola gb , nobile m , prestipino g , possani ld . novel k ( + ) - channel - blocking toxins from the venom of the scorpion centruroides limpidus limpidus karsch .
selisko b , garcia c , becerril b , gómez - lagunas f , garay c , possani ld . cobatoxins 1 and 2 from centruroides noxius hoffmann constitute a subfamily of potassium - channel - blocking scorpion toxins .
garcia et al , purification , characterisation and biosynthesis of margatoxin , a component of centruroides maragritatus venom that selectively inhibits voltage - gated potassium channels , j . biol . chem . 1993 , 268 , 18866 - 1887
32 . de armas lf , montoya m , víquez c . centruroides schmidti ( scorpiones : buthidae ) in costa rica . rev biol trop . 2002 ; 50 ( 1 ) : 169 - 71 . [ links ]
antivenom therapy antivenoms only available for a few centruroides species , but may be effective ( not proven ) across all members of genus . antivenom , if given early iv , is important in treatment , especially in children .
centruroides gracilis ( or slender brown scorpion ) are widley spread and come from africa , north america , guatamale ( sorry if its spelt wrong ) , central america , honduras and alot of other places were it was introduced .
if you want centruroides hentzi come next spring pm me and you will get them . . i already have a box going to the netherlands anyways . . it wouldn ' t hurt to throw in a few for ya . .
53 . marinkelle cj , stahnke hl . toxicological and clinical studies on centruroides margaritatus ( gervais ) , a common scorpion in western colombia . j med entomol . 1965 ; 2 ( 2 ) : 197 - 9 . [ links ]
25 . de armas lf , trujillo re . nueva especie de centruroides marx , 1890 ( scorpiones : buthidae ) de guatemala y honduras , américa central . bol sea . 2010 ; 47 ( 1 ) : 235 - 40 . [ links ]
garcia - calvo m , leonard rj , novick j , stevens sp , schmalhofer w , kaczorowski gj , garcia ml . purification , characterization , and biosynthesis of margatoxin , a component of centruroides margaritatus venom that selectively inhibits voltage - dependent potassium channels .
garcia et al . :
purification , characterisation and biosynthesis of margatoxin , a component of centruroides maragritatus venom that selectively inhibits voltage - gated potassium channels
, j . biol . chem . , vol . 268 , 1993 , pages 18866 - 1887
yes they are smaller by about 50 % . . . the smaller size is suspicious and might suggest a hybrid . but as far as i can tell both the mother and father are c . limbatus with the expected denticle and pectine counts . ( ruling out c . bicolor and c . koesteri )
centruroides is one of four genera belonging to the buthidae family in central america , the others being ananteris , tityus , and isometrus . venom from buthid scorpions contains potent neurotoxins acting on vertebrate voltagesensitive sodium ( nav ) and potassium ( kv ) channels , which in the americas have been isolated and characterized from mexican species of centruroides and south american tityus responsible for severe scorpionism ( for reviews see references 50 and 51 ) , with the most toxic peptides for vertebrates being those targeting nav channels ( 50 ) .
33 . de armas lf , trujillo re , viquez c , agreda eo . primer registro de centruroides tapachulaensis hoffmann , 1932 ( scorpiones : buthidae ) para guatemala . bol sea . 2010 ; 46 ( 1 ) : 261 - 6 . [ links ]
29 . de armas lf , viquez c . primeros registros de centruroides exilimanus teruel & stockwell , 2001 ( scorpiones : buthidae ) para guatemala y el salvador , con la descripción de la hembra adulta . bol sea . 2005 ; 37 ( 1 ) : 169 - 70 . [ links ]
treatment summary stings by at least some centruroides scorpions can cause severe , even lethal envenoming . all cases require urgent assessment and if envenoming is severe , consideration of early iv antivenom ( where available - particularly in mexico ; not readily available in the us ) . supportive care may also be indicated .
52 . lobo ra , goldoni pam , souza car , medeiros cr . acidente causado por centruroides testaceus ( degeer , 1778 ) ( scorpiones , buthidae ) , nativo do caribe , em aeroporto brasileiro . rev soc bras med trop . 2011 ; 44 ( 6 ) : 789 - 91 . [ links ]
like all centruroides , this species lives in any type of crevice , normally near the ground . they frequent human dwellings where food and shelter are abundant . food is any small arthropod . though large in size , this species is not considered dangerous to humans . nonetheless , they are venomous and being stung by one is no picnic .
garcia - calvo , m . et al . ,
purification , characterization , and biosynthesis of margatoxin , a component of centruroides maragr . venom that selectively inhibits voltage - dependent potassium channels ,
j . biol . chem . , 268 : 18866 - 18874 , the american society for biochemistry and molecular biology , us ( 1993 ) .
in this paper , we endeavor to review the scorpionism problem in the central american region with particular emphasis on panama , where scorpion envenomation has acquired increasing epidemiological importance in recent years ( 19 ) . the reasons for the restriction of lethal cases in central america to the panamanian isthmus are discussed in light of the biogeography and toxinology of tityus and centruroides species .
of 16 shark species studied as a source of flesh , some of the better known species have high fillet yields , in excess of 45 % of the original body mass . these include squalus acanthias , mustelus manazo , and carcharinus falciformis . the yield of the hammerhead shark ( sphyrna tudes ) , at 54 . 4 % , is almost as high as the best , i . e . , the blacktip shark ( c . limbatus ) .
65 . gómez a , bonilla f , sasa m . preliminary characterization of venoms from scorpion genera centruroides and tityus ( buthidae ) from costa rica . in : proceedings of the tenth meeting of the panamerican section of the international society on toxinology ; 2010 apr 18 - 22 ; san josé , costa rica . san josé : international society on toxinology ; 2010 . 132 p . [ links ]
54 . guerrero - vargas ja , ayerbe s , rada - mendoza m , vélez p , beltran j , d ' suze g , et al . preliminary toxinological characterization of the venom of the scorpion centruroides margaritatus ( buthidae , gervais , 1841 ) of the valle of the patía , colombia . j venom anim toxins incl trop dis . 2007 ; 13 ( 1 ) : 228 . [ links ]
i was stung while trying to get another picture of a probable c . limbatus . i say probable because it ' s kind of under dispute only because this particular scorpion is on the rarer side . i have no reason to not believe the person who sold it to me because he surprised me with it and basically gave it to me for free so it wasn ' t a
rare
sale . he also knew his stuff when we discussed scorpions but i wanted to try and verify it here anyway :
habitat : this species is common in the forrest understory , where it can be found among the vegetation . in nighttime , the scorpions hide under the bark of trees , and in cracks and crevices of trees , plants etc . members of this species have also been found in houses and other buildings . the scorpion has been found from seal level to 1400 meters .
venom : no available data , but the species is not mentioned in medical literature . sting is probably very painful .
pocock , r . i . 1898 . description of some new scorpions from central and south america . annals and magazine of natural history , series 7 , 1 : 384 - 394 .
disclaimer : the views expressed here are mine alone and do not represent the views of the department of the army or the smithsonian institution . . . or anybody else for that matter . - dr . scott a . stockwell
the walter reed biosystematics unit | museum support center , mrc - 534 | smithsonian institution | 4210 silver hill rd . | suitland , md 20746 - 2863 usa | ph : 301 - 238 - 1077 ; fax : 301 - 238 - 3168 entomology branch | walter reed army institute of research | 503 robert grant avenue | silver spring , md 20910 - 7500 usa
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i was stung by a subadult of the lighter colour form of this species while trying to tail it at the cano palma research station near tortuguero , costa rica .
there was immediate pain , as if being penetrated by a thorn much larger than the actual sting . the site of the sting felt tight and as if it was burning , although there was little visible inflimation . after approximately an hour , the pain had subsided to the point where i was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9v battery .
after an additional half hour , the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it - - where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation . several hours later , this too had subsided and i felt nothing . at no point did i experience any systemic effects , nor did the symptoms extend beyond the initial sting site - - not even as far as my first joint on my thumb .
, i think ) and i can say that the scorpion hurt a lot more , although the inflimation from the yellow jacket was much worse .
i feel a little strange posting on this site , not being a huge fan of arachnids myself , but i came across your post when trying to figure out what kind of scorpion stung me while i was in central america this summer . from pictures and your description , i think it was a female
! he said the parent ( s ) crawled into his friend ' s luggage when he was on vacation .
it ' s only about 3 or 4i . i allowed myself to become complacent and just willy nilly reached in to grab the bark to get a better picture . i don ' t have the greatest light and didn ' t realize he was right there on the top . my hand was right behind him and he just extended his tail backward and dug his little sting in . at first it just felt hot and painful . not too terrible but something like a wasp sting . in about 30 - 60 seconds the pain subsided until a couple hours later when i took a shower . the hot water was a surprise . but then after that i had no pain and the slightest amount of swelling .
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as reviewed recently by chippaux and goyffon ( 7 ) , the american continent encompasses several endemic areas of scorpionism with incidence rates at over 50 cases per 100 , 000 inhabitants , in mexico and the southwestern united states , northern south america ( including ecuador , colombia , venezuela , and the guianas ) and southeast brazil .
t . festae is the largest panamanian tityus , reaching 90 to 100 mm in adults , in comparison to t . pachyurus , which measures between 50 and 70 mm , and t . asthenes ( 70 - 90 mm ) . it can also be distinguished by the significantly intense glow it presents when exposed to ultraviolet light ( 38 ) .
t . asthenes is a much less abundant species in panama compared to colombia , where it is responsible for moderate and severe accidents in the department of antioquia ( 13 ) . this species can be found from darién province , in panamá , up to puntarenas province , in costa rica ( 40 ) ( figure 1 ) .
epidemiology of scorpionism in central america is less documented compared to accidental bites by poisonous snakes . although data are fragmentary , statistics from hospital records indicate that about 5000 snakebite cases are reported for the region annually ( 44 ) . for the purpose of this review , local health / entomological authorities and / or the literature were consulted to evaluate the case - based evidence for scorpionism in each central american country :
envenomation by scorpions as well as other arthropods is listed in the health records as
sting by unknown animal ,
making it difficult to assess the magnitude of the problem ( dr . tomás guevara , director , health surveillance division , ministry of health of honduras , personal communication , 10 / 5 / 2011 ) . we infer , however , that scorpion stings should be frequent in honduras given the statistics reported by neighboring nicaraguan and salvadoran authorities .
1 . amitai y . scorpions . in : brent j , wallace kl , burkhart kk , phillips sb , donovan jw , editors . critical care toxicology . maryland heights : elsevier mosby ; 2005 . 1213 - 20 p . [ links ]
2 . pipelzadeh mh , jalali a , taraz m , pourabbas r , zaremirakabadi a . an epidemiological and a clinical study on scorpionism by the iranian scorpion hemiscorpius lepturus . toxicon . 2007 ; 50 ( 7 ) : 984 - 92 . [ links ]
3 . martin - eauclaire mf , couraud f . scorpion neurotoxins : effects and mechanisms . in : chang lw , dyer rs , editors . handbook of neurotoxicity . new york : marcel drekker ; 1995 . 683 - 716 p . [ links ]
4 . borges a , rojas - runjaic fj , diez n , faks jg , op den camp hj , de sousa l . envenomation by the scorpion tityus breweri in the guayana shield , venezuela : report of a case , efficacy and reactivity of antivenom , and proposal for a toxinological partitioning of the venezuelan scorpion fauna . wilderness environ med . 2010 ; 21 ( 4 ) : 282 - 90 . [ links ]
5 . fletcher pl jr , fletcher md , weninger k , anderson te , martin bm . vesicle - associated membrane protein ( vamp ) cleavage by a new metalloprotease from the brazilian scorpion tityus serrulatus . j biol chem . 2010 ; 285 ( 10 ) : 7405 - 16 . [ links ]
6 . pessini ac , takao tt , cavalheiro ec , vichnewski w , sampaio sv , giglio jr , et al . a hyaluronidase from tityus serrulatus scorpion venom : isolation , characterization and inhibition by flavonoids . toxicon . 2001 ; 39 ( 10 ) : 1495 - 504 . [ links ]
7 . chippaux jp , goyffon m . epidemiology of scorpionism : a global appraisal . acta trop . 2008 ; 107 ( 2 ) : 71 - 9 . [ links ]
8 . dehesa - dávila m , possani ld . scorpionism and serotherapy in mexico . toxicon . 1994 ; 32 ( 9 ) : 1015 - 8 . [ links ]
9 . curry sc , vance mv , ryan pj , kunkel db , northey wt . envenomation by the scorpion
. j toxicol clin toxicol . 1983 ; 21 ( 4 - 5 ) : 417
10 . borges a , de sousa l . una aproximación multidisciplinaria para el estudio del envenenamiento por arácnidos en venezuela . in : arrivillaga j , el souki m , herrera b , editors . enfoques y temáticas en entomología . caracas : ediciones astrodata ; 2009 . 137 - 53 p . [ links ]
11 . daisley h , alexander d , pitt - miller p . acute myocarditis following tityus trinitatis envenoming : morphological and pathophysiological characteristics . toxicon . 1999 ; 37 ( 1 ) : 159 - 65 . [ links ]
12 . barona j , otero r , núñez v . toxicological and immunological aspects of scorpion venom ( tityus pachyurus ) : neutralizing capacity of antivenoms produced in latin america . biomedica . 2004 ; 24 ( 1 ) : 42 - 9 . [ links ]
13 . gómez jp , quintana jc , arbeláez p , fernández j , silva jf , barona j , et al . tityus asthenes scorpion stings : epidemiological , clinical and toxicological aspects . biomedica . 2010 ; 30 ( 1 ) : 126 - 39 . [ links ]
14 . gómez jp , otero r . ecoepidemiología de los escorpiones de importancia médica en colombia . rev fac nac salud pública . 2007 ; 25 ( 1 ) : 50 - 60 . [ links ]
15 . lourenço wr . scorpions of brazil . paris : les éditions l ' if ; 2002 . 307 p . [ links ]
16 . pardal pp , castro lc , jennings e , pardal js , monteiro mr . epidemiological and clinical aspects of scorpion envenomation in the region of santarém , pará , brazil . rev soc bras med trop . 2003 ; 36 ( 3 ) : 349 - 53 . [ links ]
17 . de roodt ar , lago nr , salomón od , laskowicz rd , neder de román le , lópez ra , et al . a new venomous scorpion responsible for severe envenomation in argentina : tityus confluens . toxicon . 2009 ; 53 ( 1 ) : 1 - 8 . [ links ]
18 . de roodt ar , coronas fi , lago n , gonzález me , laskowicz rd , beltramino jc , et al . general biochemical and immunological characterization of the venom from the scorpion tityus trivittatus of argentina . toxicon . 2010 ; 55 ( 1 - 2 ) : 307 - 19 . [ links ]
19 . coronado l , alvarado m , dutari je . características clínicas y epidemiológicas del alacranismo . período 2002 - 2007 . hospital del niño , panamá . pediátr panamá . 2008 ; 37 ( 2 ) : 36 - 46 . [ links ]
20 . e armas lf , maes jm . lista anotada de los alacranes ( arachnida : scorpiones ) de américa central , con algunas consideraciones biogeograficas . rev nicar entomol . 1998 ; 46 ( 1 ) : 23 - 38 . [ links ]
21 . de armas lf , maes jm . enmiendas a la
lista anotada de los alacranes de américa central ( arachnida : scorpiones )
. cocuyo . 2001 ; 10 ( 1 ) : 16 - 7 . [ links ]
22 . schwartz ef , camargos ts , zamudio fz , silva lp , bloch c jr , caixeta f , et al . mass spectrometry analysis , amino acid sequence and biological activity of venom components from the brazilian scorpion opisthacanthus cayaporum . toxicon . 2008 ; 51 ( 8 ) : 1499 - 508 . [ links ]
23 . gao b , tian c , zhu s . inducible antibacterial response of scorpion venom gland . peptides . 2007 ; 28 ( 12 ) : 2299 - 305 . [ links ]
26 . francke of , stockwell sa . scorpions ( arachnida ) from costa rica . special pub texas tech univ . 1987 ; 25 ( 1 ) : 1 - 64 . [ links ]
27 . lourenço wr , méndez e . inventario preliminar sobre la fauna de escorpiones de panamá , con algunas consideraciones taxonómicas y biogeográficas . rev biol trop . 1984 ; 32 ( 1 ) : 85 - 93 . [ links ]
28 . teruel r , stockwell sa . a revision of the scorpion fauna of honduras , with the description of a new species ( scorpiones : buthidae , diplocentridae ) . rev ibérica aracnol . 2002 ; 6 ( 1 ) : 111 - 27 . [ links ]
30 . armas lf , montoya m . escorpiones ( arachnida ) del archipiélago de bocas del toro , panamá . rev biol trop . 2002 ; 50 ( 1 ) : 155 - 60 . [ links ]
34 . lourenço wr . tityus cerroazul , nouvelle espèce de scorpion de panamá ( scorpiones , buthidae ) . bull mus natl hist nat sect a : zool biol ecol anim . 1986 ; 8 ( 3 ) : 637 - 41 . [ links ]
35 . quintero ad , miranda rj . tityus cerroazul lourenço ( scorpiones : buthidae ) : nueva sinonimia , notas sobre su biología , nuevos registros de distribución en panamá , descripción del macho previamente desconocido y picadura mortal de un niño . tecnociencia . 2007 ; 9 ( 2 ) : 121 - 35 . [ links ]
36 . viquez c , de armas lf , lourenço wr . presencia de tityus cerroazul lourenço , 1986 ( scorpiones : buthidae ) en costa rica y descripción del macho . bol sea . 2005 ; 36 ( 1 ) : 93 - 6 . [ links ]
37 . borelli a . scorpioni raccolti nel darien dal dott . e . festa . bol mus zool anat comp univ torino . 1899 ; 14 ( 338 ) : 1 - 3 . [ links ]
38 . miranda r . aspectos biológicos . in : borges a , editor . los escorpiones y el escorpionismo en panamá . panamá : editora novoart ; 2011 . p . 13 - 20 . 1 vol . [ links ]
39 . eruel r , cozijn mac . a checklist of the scorpions ( arachnida : scorpiones ) of panama , with two new records . euscorpius . 2011 ; 133 ( 1 ) : 1 - 6 . [ links ]
40 . víquez c . escorpiones de costa rica . santo domingo , heredia : instituto nacional de biodiversidad ( inbio ) ; 1999 . 84 p . [ links ]
41 . lourenço wr . nouvelle proposition de découpage sous - générique du genre tityus c . l . koch , 1836 ( scorpiones , buthidae ) . bol sea . 2006 ; 39 : 55 - 67 . [ links ]
42 . mello - leitão c . escorpiões sul - americanos . arq museu nac . 1945 ; 40 ( 1 ) : 1 - 468 . [ links ]
43 . borges a , bermingham e , herrera n , alfonzo mj , sanjur oi . molecular systematics of the neotropical scorpion genus tityus ( buthidae ) : the historical biogeography and venom antigenic diversity of toxic venezuelan species . toxicon . 2010 ; 55 ( 2 - 3 ) : 436 - 54 . [ links ]
44 . gutiérrez jm . el envenenamiento ofídico en centroamérica . in : organización panamericana de la salud , editors . consulta técnica sobre accidentes con animales ponzoñosos en latinoamérica . são paulo : ops ; 2007 . 27 p . [ links ]
45 . rosales - mejía j . desarrollo de antivenenos biotecnológicos [ internet ] . in : proceedings , xv congreso nacional de urgencias y emergencias pediátricas , querétaro , méxico . 2009 . available from : urltoken . [ links ]
46 . trujillo sosa re . impacto del cambio de uso del suelo sobre la diversidad de alacranes ( arachnida : scorpiones ) en el monte espinoso de la cuenca del río motagua . [ master ' s thesis ] . guatemala : universidad de san carlos de guatemala ; 2009 . 68 p . [ links ]
47 . meerman j . some interesting invertebrates from belize [ internet ] . belize : biological - diversity . info ; 20022005 [ updated 2004 dec 11 ] . available from : urltoken . [ links ]
48 . leveridge y . accidente y cuadro clínico por la «picadura» de alacranes en costa rica . rev costarric cienc méd . 2000 ; 21 ( 3 - 4 ) : 161 - 7 . [ links ]
50 . rodríguez de la vega rc , schwartz ef , possani ld . mining on scorpion venom biodiversity . toxicon . 2010 ; 56 ( 7 ) : 1155 - 61 . [ links ]
51 . cologna ct , marcussi s , giglio jr , soares am , arantes ec . tityus serrulatus scorpion venom and toxins : an overview . protein pept lett . 2009 ; 16 ( 8 ) : 920 - 32 . [ links ]
56 . shah k , tom blake j , huang c , fischer p , koo gc . immunosuppressive effects of a kv1 . 3 inhibitor . cell immunol . 2003 ; 221 ( 2 ) : 100 - 6 . [ links ]
58 . chowell g , díaz - dueñas p , bustos - saldaña r , mireles aa , fet v . epidemiological and clinical characteristics of scorpionism in colima , mexico ( 2000 - 2001 ) . toxicon . 2006 ; 47 ( 7 ) : 753 - 8 . [ links ]
59 . freire - maia l , campos ja , amaral cf . approaches to the treatment of scorpion envenoming . toxicon . 1994 ; 32 ( 9 ) : 1009 - 14 . [ links ]
60 . otero r , navío e , céspedes fa , núñez mj , lozano l , moscoso er , et al . scorpion envenoming in two regions of colombia : clinical , epidemiological and therapeutic aspects . trans r soc trop med hyg . 2004 ; 98 ( 12 ) : 742 - 50 . [ links ]
61 . mazzei de dàvila ca , dàvila df , donis jh , bellabarba ga , villarreal v , barboza js . sympathetic nervous system activation , antivenin administration and cardiovascular manifestations of scorpion envenomation . toxicon . 2002 ; 40 ( 9 ) : 1339 - 46 . [ links ]
62 . schiavon e , sacco t , cassulini rr , gurrola g , tempia f , possani ld , et al . resurgent current and voltage sensor trapping enhanced activation by a beta - scorpion toxin solely in nav1 . 6 channel . significance in mice purkinje neurons . j biol chem . 2006 ; 281 ( 29 ) : 20326 - 37 . [ links ]
63 . leipold e , hansel a , borges a , heinemann sh . subtype specificity of scorpion beta - toxin tz1 interaction with voltage - gated sodium channels is determined by the pore loop of domain 3 . mol pharmacol . 2006 ; 70 ( 1 ) : 340 - 7 . [ links ]
64 . monge - nájera j . editorial : escorpiones de costa rica / costa rica scorpions . rev biol trop . 2001 ; 49 ( 34 ) : 1293 - 4 . [ links ]
66 . nishikawa ak , caricati cp , lima ml , dos santos mc , kipnis tl , eickstedt vr , et al . antigenic crossreactivity among the venoms from several species of brazilian scorpions . toxicon . 1994 ; 32 ( 8 ) : 989 - 98 . [ links ]
57 . borges a . los escorpiones y su veneno : ¿por qué el veneno de los escorpiones puede ser mortal para el ser humano ? in : borges a , editor . los escorpiones y el escorpionismo en panamá . panamá : editora novoart ; 2011 . 21 - 30 p . 1 vol .
68 . baerg wj . the effect of the venom of some supposedly poisonous arthropods of the canal zone ( centipede , scorpion , spider ) . ann entomol soc amer . 1925 ; 18 ( 4 ) : 471 - 82 . [ links ]
69 . méndez e . insectos y otros artrópodos de importancia médica y veterinaria . panamá : impresora pacífico s . a . ; 1999 . 341 p . [ links ]
70 . álvares ess , maria m , amâncio ff , campolina d . primeiro registro de escorpionismo causado por tityus adrianoi lourenço ( scorpiones : buthidae ) . rev soc bras med trop . 2006 ; 39 ( 4 ) : 383 - 4 . [ links ]
71 . mcintyre ne . influences of urban land use on the frequency of scorpion stings in the phoenix , arizona , metropolitan area . landscape urban plann . 1999 ; 45 ( 1 ) : 47 - 55 . [ links ]
72 . kant r , acosta de patiño h . panamá . in : organización panamericana de la salud , editors . consulta técnica sobre accidentes con animales ponzoñosos en latino américa . são paulo : ops ; 2007 . 32 - 4 p . [ links ]
73 . celis a , gaxiola - robles r , sevilla - godínez e , orozco mj , armas j . tendencia de la mortalidad por picaduras de alacrán en méxico , 1979 - 2003 . rev panam salud pública . 2007 ; 21 ( 6 ) : 373 - 80 . [ links ]
74 . borges a , miranda r , pascale jm , vega n , acosta de patiño h . scorpions from the genus tityus in panamá : collection and maintenance , geographical distribution , and venom reactivity towards antivenoms . in : proceedings of the 10 th meeting of the panamerican section of the international society on toxinology ; 2010 apr 18 - 22 ; san josé , costa rica . san josé : international society on toxinology ; 2010 . 161 p . [ links ]
75 . guerrero - vargas ja , mourão cb , quintero - hernández v , possani ld , schwartz ef . identification and phylogenetic analysis of tityus pachyurus and tityus obscurus novel putative na - channel scorpion toxins . plos one . 2012 ; 7 : e30478 .
correspondence to : adolfo borges instituto de medicina experimental , facultad de medicina , universidad central de venezuela apartado postal 50587 , caracas 1050 , venezuela phone : + 58212 6053608 . fax : + 58212 6628877 email : borges . adolfo @ urltoken
received : january 5 , 2012 . accepted : february 29 , 2012 . abstract published online : march 6 , 2012 . full paper published online : may 31 , 2012 . conflicts of interest : the authors declare no conflicts of interest . financial source : secretaría nacional de ciencia , tecnología e innovación ( senacyt ) from panama is gratefully acknowledged for financial support through research grants sum08 - 005 and col10045 , whose goals inspired this review .
caixa postal 577 18618 - 000 botucatu sp brazil tel . / fax : + 55 14 3814 - 5555 | 3814 - 5446 | 3811 - 7241 jvat @ urltoken
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author : david cheng , md ; chief editor : joe alcock , md , ms more . . .
a scorpion has a flattened elongated body and can easily hide in cracks . it has 4 pairs of legs , a pair of claws , and a segmented tail that has a poisonous spike at the end . scorpions vary in size from 1 - 20 cm in length .
see arthropod envenomation : from benign bites to serious stings , a critical images slideshow , for help identifying and treating various envenomations .
out of 1500 scorpion species , 50 are dangerous to humans . scorpion stings cause a wide range of conditions , from severe local skin reactions to neurologic , respiratory , and cardiovascular collapse . envenomation from most scorpions results in a simple , painful , local reaction that can be treated with analgesics , antihistamines , and symptomatic / supportive care . this article focuses on scorpions that generally are considered more dangerous to humans .
almost all of these lethal scorpions , except the hemiscorpius species , belong to the scorpion family called the buthidae . the buthidae family is characterized by a triangular - shaped sternum , as opposed to the pentagonal - shaped sternum found in the other 5 scorpion families .
scorpions from the family buthidae ( which includes almost all of the potentially lethal scorpions ) generally can be identified by the triangular sternal plate . in other families of scorpions , this feature is more square or pentagonal . photo by sean bush , md .
in addition to the triangular - shaped sternum , poisonous scorpions also tend to have weak - looking pincers , thin bodies , and thick tails , as opposed to the strong heavy pincers , thick bodies , and thin tails seen in nonlethal scorpions .
however , these scorpions may be found outside their natural habitat range of distribution when inadvertently transported with luggage and cargo .
in general , scorpions are not aggressive . they are ambush predators , often hiding and waiting for their prey . scorpions are nocturnal creatures ; they hunt during the night and hide in crevices and burrows during the day to avoid the light . thus , accidental human stinging occurs when scorpions are touched while in their hiding places , with most of the stings occurring on the hands and feet .
scorpions use their pincers to grasp their prey ; then , they arch their tail over their body to drive their stinger into the prey to inject their venom , sometimes more than once . the scorpion can voluntarily regulate how much venom to inject with each sting . the striated muscles in the stinger allow regulation of the amount of venom ejected , which is usually 0 . 1 - 0 . 6 mg . if the entire supply of venom is used , several days must elapse before the supply is replenished . furthermore , scorpions with large venom sacs , such as the parabuthus species , can even squirt their venom .
the most potent toxin is the neurotoxin , of which two classes exist . both types of neurotoxin are heat - stable , have low molecular weight , and are responsible for causing cell impairment in nerves , muscles , and the heart by altering ion channel permeability .
the long - chain polypeptide neurotoxin causes stabilization of voltage - dependent sodium channels in the open position , leading to continuous , prolonged , repetitive firing of the somatic , sympathetic , and parasympathetic neurons . this repetitive firing results in autonomic and neuromuscular overexcitation symptoms , and it prevents normal nerve impulse transmissions . furthermore , it results in release of excessive neurotransmitters such as epinephrine , norepinephrine , acetylcholine , glutamate , and aspartate . meanwhile , the short polypeptide neurotoxin blocks the potassium channels .
the causes of scorpion envenomation are primarily accidental . scorpions are shy creatures and only sting if threatened , cornered , or disturbed ( eg , being sat or stepped upon ) . curious individuals are at risk because of increased interaction with the scorpion .
androctonus crassicauda ( saudi arabia ) - 0 . 08 - 0 . 5 mg / kg
generally , most lethal scorpions have an ld50 below 1 . 5 mg / kg .
milking the venom gland produces approximately a 4 - fold increase in yield amount compared to electrical excitation .
the 2015 annual report of the american association of poison control centers ' national poison data system ( npds ) reported 15 , 632 case mentions for scorpion envenomations , with 25
major
outcomes and 0 deaths . [ 6 ] however , because of underreporting , this is probably an underestimation of the true number of stings .
scorpion stings occur in temperate and tropical regions , especially between the latitudes of 50°n and 50°s of the equator . furthermore , stings predominantly occur during the summer and evening times . [ 1 ] in addition , the majority of patients are stung outside their home .
accurate statistics on scorpion envenomation are not available . many potentially dangerous scorpions inhabit the underdeveloped or developing world . consequently , numerous envenomations go unreported , and true incidence is unknown . however , it has been estimated that there are 1 . 2 million scorpion stings per year . [ 3 ]
a 5 - year surveillance study in saudi arabia found 6465 scorpion sting cases with a mean patient age of 23 years , a male - to - female ratio of 1 . 9 , and a higher incidence of stings in the months of may through october . [ 7 ]
in khuzestan province of iran , 12 , 150 annual cases occurred , with nocturnal envenomations occurring 60 . 9 % of the time , 39 . 3 % stings occurring on the hands , and 37 . 3 % stings occurring on the feet . june was the highest month for stings , at 16 % , and february , the lowest at 0 . 6 % . [ 8 ]
females may be more susceptible than males to the same amount of scorpion venom because of their lower body weight .
adults , especially those of workforce age , are stung more often than children . however , children are more likely to develop a more rapid progression of symptoms after a scorpion sting , with increased severity and higher mortality because of their lower body weight , [ 9 ] with a global rate of 10 deaths per 1000 cases in children . [ 10 , 11 ] furthermore , elderly persons are more susceptible to stings because of their decreased physiologic reserves and increased debilitation .
accurate worldwide data are not available . scorpion stings are underreported because many envenomations occur in sparsely populated areas with little public health and medical infrastructure . furthermore , reporting is generally not required .
most deaths occur during the first 24 hours after the sting and are secondary to respiratory or cardiovascular failure .
the highest reported mortality rate is recorded in data from mexico , with estimates as high as 1000 deaths in 1 year . in the united states , 4 deaths were reported in an 11 - year period according to one source . [ 12 ] however , no deaths were reported to the american association of poison control centers from 1983 to 1999 . only one death from the arizona bark scorpion ( c sculpturatus ) has been reported since 1964 . [ 13 ]
children and elderly persons are at the greatest risk for morbidity and mortality . a smaller child , a lower body weight , and a larger ratio of venom to body weight lead to a more severe reaction . a mortality rate of 20 % is reported in untreated babies , 10 % in untreated school - aged children , and 1 % in untreated adults , but these rates vary across years and regions .
in terms of venom lethality , the venom of androctonus australis and leiurus quinquestriatus are the most toxic . c sculpturatus venom is low in toxicity compared with most scorpions of medical importance .
furthermore , patients in rural areas tend to fare worse than patients in urban areas because of the delay in getting medical help due to a longer travel time to medical centers and the lack of advanced medical treatments . [ 14 ] fortunately , better public education , improved control of the scorpion population , increased supportive therapies , more technologically advanced intensive care units and advances in immunotherapy have combined to produce a substantial decrease in mortality from these envenomations . [ 15 ]
prognosis is dependent on many factors , including species of scorpion , patient health , and access to medical care . most patients recover fully after scorpion envenomation .
symptoms generally persist for 10 - 48 hours . if the victim survives the first few hours without severe cardiorespiratory or neurologic symptoms , the prognosis is usually good . furthermore , surviving the first 24 hours after a scorpion sting also carries a good prognosis .
a worse prognosis can be expected with the presence of systemic symptoms such as cardiovascular collapse , respiratory failure , seizures , and coma . specifically , the following were associated with poor outcomes : glasgow coma score less than 8 ( odds ratio [ or ] , 9 . 87 ) and pulmonary edema ( or , 8 . 46 ) . [ 16 ]
in children , the following factors were associated with a higher mortality : metabolic acidosis , tachypnea , myocarditis , pulmonary edema , encephalopathy , and priapism . [ 17 ]
educate all patients about methods to avoid scorpions ( see prevention ) . delays in seeking medical treatment are associated with higher likelihood of mortality in children and adolescents . [ 18 ]
khatony a , abdi a , fatahpour t , towhidi f . the epidemiology of scorpion stings in tropical areas of kermanshah province , iran , during 2008 and 2009 . j venom anim toxins incl trop dis . 2015 . 21 : 45 . [ medline ] .
queiroz am , sampaio vs , mendonça i , fé nf , sachett j , ferreira lc , et al . severity of scorpion stings in the western brazilian amazon : a case - control study . plos one . 2015 . 10 ( 6 ) : e0128819 . [ medline ] .
chippaux jp , goyffon m . epidemiology of scorpionism : a global appraisal . acta trop . 2008 aug . 107 ( 2 ) : 71 - 9 . [ medline ] .
van der meijden a , coelho p , rasko m . variability in venom volume , flow rate and duration in defensive stings of five scorpion species . toxicon . 2015 jun 15 . 100 : 60 - 6 . [ medline ] .
safford mm . arizona bark scorpion . us national park service . available at urltoken . february 1 , 2017 ; accessed : november 28 , 2017 .
mowry jb , spyker da , brooks de , zimmerman a , schauben jl . 2015 annual report of the american association of poison control centers ' national poison data system ( npds ) : 33rd annual report . clin toxicol ( phila ) . 2016 dec . 54 ( 10 ) : 924 - 1109 . [ medline ] .
jahan s , mohammed al saigul a , abdul rahim hamed s . scorpion stings in qassim , saudi arabia - - a 5 - year surveillance report . toxicon . 2007 aug . 50 ( 2 ) : 302 - 5 . [ medline ] .
shahbazzadeh d , amirkhani a , djadid nd , bigdeli s , akbari a , ahari h . epidemiological and clinical survey of scorpionism in khuzestan province , iran . toxicon . 2009 mar 15 . 53 ( 4 ) : 454 - 9 . [ medline ] .
dehghankhalili m , mobaraki h , akbarzadeh a , yazdani r , nazemi a , ghaffarpasand f , et al . clinical and laboratory characteristics of pediatric scorpion stings : a report from southern iran . pediatr emerg care . 2015 nov 2 . [ medline ] .
bosnak m , ece a , yolbas i , bosnak v , kaplan m , gurkan f . scorpion sting envenomation in children in southeast turkey . wilderness environ med . 2009 summer . 20 ( 2 ) : 118 - 24 . [ medline ] .
ulug m , yaman y , yapici f , can - ulug n . scorpion envenomation in children : an analysis of 99 cases . turk j pediatr . 2012 mar - apr . 54 ( 2 ) : 119 - 27 . [ medline ] .
langley rl , morrow we . deaths resulting from animal attacks in the united states . wilderness environ med . 1997 feb . 8 ( 1 ) : 8 - 16 . [ medline ] .
bawaskar hs , bawaskar ph . scorpion sting : update . j assoc physicians india . 2012 jan . 60 : 46 - 55 . [ medline ] .
skolnik ab , ewald mb . pediatric scorpion envenomation in the united states : morbidity , mortality , and therapeutic innovations . pediatr emerg care . 2013 jan . 29 ( 1 ) : 98 - 103 ; quiz 104 - 5 . [ medline ] .
bouaziz m , bahloul m , kallel h , samet m , ksibi h , dammak h , et al . epidemiological , clinical characteristics and outcome of severe scorpion envenomation in south tunisia : multivariate analysis of 951 cases . toxicon . 2008 dec 15 . 52 ( 8 ) : 918 - 26 . [ medline ] .
prasad r , mishra op , pandey n , singh tb . scorpion sting envenomation in children : factors affecting the outcome . indian j pediatr . 2011 may . 78 ( 5 ) : 544 - 8 . [ medline ] .
guerra cm , carvalho lf , colosimo ea , freire hb . analysis of variables related to fatal outcomes of scorpion envenomation in children and adolescents in the state of minas gerais , brazil , from 2001 to 2005 . j pediatr ( rio j ) . 2008 nov - dec . 84 ( 6 ) : 509 - 15 . [ medline ] .
parma ja , palladino cm . [ scorpion envenomation in argentina ] . arch argent pediatr . 2010 apr . 108 ( 2 ) : 161 - 7 . [ medline ] .
freire - maia l , pinto gi , franco i . mechanism of the cardiovascular effects produced by purified scorpion toxin in the rat . j pharmacol exp ther . 1974 jan . 188 ( 1 ) : 207 - 13 . [ medline ] .


chotecops is a genus of trilobites from the order phacopida , suborder phacopina , family phacopidae .

it was initially erected as a subgenus of phacops but some later authors thought it distinctive enough to raise its status .

species assigned to this genus occur between the emsian and the famennian .

chotecops is the most abundant trilobite in the hunsrück slate and due to the excellent preservation , often soft tissue such as antennae and legs have been preserved as a thin sheet of pyrite .

chotecops

bundenbach trilobite fossil - chotecops - hunsruck , ger . . . bundenbach trilobite fossil - chotecops - hunsruck , ger . . .
bundenbach trilobite fossil - chotecops sp - hunsruck , . . . bundenbach trilobite fossil - chotecops sp - hunsruck , . . .
visual unit , slightly , obliquely squeezed , of chotecops ferdinandi struve , 1985 , age and location : siegenian / emsian stage ( ~ 407 million years ) lower devonian , bundenbach , hunsrück , germany . ( a ) obliquely ‘opened’ compound eye of b . cf . granulops . ( b ) schematic drawing of a . 1 lens , 2 ? lens - building cells 3 shielding pigment cells , 4 sensory cells , 5 efferent nerves of the sensory cells . insert : chotecops ferdinandi struve , 1985 .
f4 : visual unit , slightly , obliquely squeezed , of chotecops ferdinandi struve , 1985 , age and location : siegenian / emsian stage ( ~ 407 million years ) lower devonian , bundenbach , hunsrück , germany . ( a ) obliquely ‘opened’ compound eye of b . cf . granulops . ( b ) schematic drawing of a . 1 lens , 2 ? lens - building cells 3 shielding pigment cells , 4 sensory cells , 5 efferent nerves of the sensory cells . insert : chotecops ferdinandi struve , 1985 .
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( the most abundant ) , because of numerous specimens preserved with limbs and internal organ features . unfortunately , aside from some of the phacopida , the other orders are only rarely encountered and typically incomplete specimens , so the four taxa depicted below are the most complete representative images available for hunsrück .
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parent taxon : phacopidae according to p . a . jell and j . m . adrain 2003
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[ inclusion inside baltic amber ] pseudoscorpion + enhydros (
running water
) . rare but not extremely rare .
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discovery of some 400 million year - old sensory structures in the compound eyes of trilobites .
bottom line : all these compound eyes , though often excellently preserved , however , represent just the outer shells , because soft tissues , or even individual cells , usually do not fossilise . they are interpreted as forming part of an apposition - like ommatidium , which is a basic functional type of compound eye present in arthropods of today . considered in greater detail , it is similar to the compound eye of the horseshoe crab limulus , generally regarded as a ' living fossil ' , which probably retained this ancient basal system successfully until today .
affiliation : steinmann insitute ( palaeontology ) university of bonn , bonn , germany . b . schoenemann @ urltoken
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fossil trilobite kainops invius ( ea3167 ) devonian . bois d ' arc fmn oklahoma , usa
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micrulia medioplaga is a moth in the family geometridae .

it is found on borneo , bali , sulawesi and sri lanka .

the habitat mostly consists of lowland forests ( including secondary and coastal forests ) , but it has also been recorded in lower montane forests .

micrulia medioplaga

this is the place for medioplaga definition . you find here medioplaga meaning , synonyms of medioplaga and images for medioplaga copyright 2017 © urltoken
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mariaba medioplaga swinhoe , 1902 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1902 ( 3 ) : 641 ; tl : borneo
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the male is similar in its contrasting fasciated indigo forewings and yellow hindwings to hybridoneura picta warren , but the hindwings are diagnostically modified : triangular , weakly banded , with the distal margin scrolled over dorsally . the underside is more strongly banded , the forewing basally yellow too . the female has forewings and hindwings similar , fasciated indigo - brown , much as in the next species , but the underside is fasciated more weakly with brown rather than strongly in dark , dull blue .
most of the few records are from lowland forest , including secondary and coastal forest , but a female was taken in lower montane forest at 900m on the limestone g . api .
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
swinhoe , 1902 new and little known species of drepanulidae , epiplemidae , microniidae and geometridae in the national collection trans . ent . soc . lond . 1902 ( 3 ) : 585 - 677
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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