the sri lanka spurfowl ( galloperdix bicalcarata ) is a member of the pheasant family which is endemic to the dense rainforests of sri lanka .

in sri lanka , this bird is known as haban kukula - හබන කුකුලා in sinhala language .

it is a very secretive bird , and despite its size is difficult to see as it slips through dense undergrowth .

often the only indication of its presence is its distinctive ringing call , consisting of series of three-syllabled whistles .

kitulgala and sinharaja are sites where there is a chance of seeing this bird .

this spurfowl is one of three species of bird in the genus galloperdix .

it is a ground nesting bird , which lays 2-5 eggs in a scrape .

sri lanka spurfowl is ~ 37 cm long bird .

both sexes have brown upperparts , wings and tail .

the males exhibit vivid crimson red legs and bare facial skin and striking black and white dorsal plumage that extends to its head .

there is also extensive white ocellation on the sepia wings and upperback .

the legs of both sexes have multiple metatarsal spurs , which give rise to the specific name .

the female has chestnut underparts and a plain brown back and wings .

she is more prominently crested than the male .

sri lanka spurfowl is a seasonally terrestrial species , like most of its near relatives .

it scratches vigorously amongst the leaf litter of the forest floor for invertebrates , especially mollusks and insects .

it will also take various seeds , fallen fruit and spiders .

sri lanka spurfowl

information on the sri lanka spurfowl is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the sri lanka spurfowl is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
sri lanka is one of the best places in the world watch birds . sri lanka is truly a paradise for bird watching in sri lanka , especially around the bird sanctuaries and wetland reserves in the south east of the island .
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figure 1 - painting of the grandeur of elephants in a procession of sri lanka .
sri lanka , principally in s ( n to environs of trincomalee on e coast ) .
small party of spurfowl calling by the roadside ( 6 . 436777 , 80 . 420551 )
the sri lanka n leopard ( panthera pardus kotiya ) has been classified as endangered by the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) and is a leopard subspecies that is native to sri lanka .
a major spot for dolphin watching , sri lanka is located with a protected zone in the indian ocean . spotting pods of dolphins along the north western and southern coast of sri lanka is always a memorable experience .
figure 2 – a historic and religiously significant procession of sri lanka involves grandly clad elephants carrying important religious artefacts .
throughout history , elephants have played a central and vital role in all the proceedings of sri lanka . the various ancient kingdoms of sri lanka , including those that blossomed twenty centuries ago , have used elephants as a symbol of majesty and authority . many legendary and famous rulers of ancient sri lanka , including the popular king dutugemunu , used elephants in many significant event such as historic battles . some of these elephants , such as “kandula” , have become extremely popular and they are included in the ancient chronicles and legends of sri lanka .
sri lanka is home to a variety of species which include elephants , leopards and majestic peacocks . camp on safaris and let the adventure begin .
aquatic life in sri lanka . surrounded by sea on all sides and blessed with thundering water falls and more than 100 rivers meandering between the bosky banks , sri lanka is home to a rich variety of aquatic life . of these , the amphibians and the reptiles account for the highest number of endemic species .
every single tourist that has enjoyed the bewitching and unique charm of sri lanka is aware of the gigantic impact that the island ' s culture has on every aspect of the society . just as the culture and heritage of sri lanka has reached sky - high levels of significance and depth , the link between the society of the ancient kingdoms of sri lanka and the majestic elephants of the island has achieved considerably soaring levels of importance . the historically rich and culturally substantial ceremonies and traditions of many regions of sri lanka , especially those of the hill country , have extreme close ties with the regal elephants of the vicinity .
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under the bright sun of eastern sri lanka , the untouched wild of lahugala kitulana national park glows . it is a forest steeped in history and animal action .
the impact and influence that elephants yielded to the culture of sri lanka is not only limited to the period of the ancient times of sri lanka . it is true that during the anuradhapura period as well as the polonnaruwa period , several kings were associated with royal elephants . this trend continued on to later eras , such as the yahapahuwa era and the kandyan period of sri lanka . the kandyan kingdom of sri lanka has a history that extends to at least three centuries and it finally succumbed to the british in the early 19 th century . however , despite the rapid changes of culture and rulers , the prominence that the elephants enjoy is still witnessed today .
the spurfowl is commoner in the deep forests of the wet zone but is also found in hill forests as well as some riverine forests of the dry zone near foot hills .
as mentioned above , the rich and illustrious ancient culture of sri lanka is closely tied with the majestic sri lankan elephant . even though it cannot be completely verified , sri lanka could be one of the oldest nations in the entire world where elephants were constantly used and given a prominent position among the fauna of a country . it is a well - known fact that ancient kings of sri lanka , from over 2 , 000 years ago to a couple of hundred years back , were ardent in harnessing the majestic authority of the elephant . when it comes to royalty and sri lankan elephants , it is the tusker , or the elephants with tusks , that hold the crown among all the animals of the island .
three subspecies of the brown - capped babbler are recognized in sri lanka , based on its colour . the dry zone ones are lighter coloured while the wet zone ones are darker .
the main information counters in colombo and kandy are staffed with experts on sri lanka who are happy to answer any queries . 80 , galle road , colombo 3 , 011 243 7759 . kandy city centre
such is the strength of the bond between elephants and the culture of the central highlands of sri lanka that any ceremony , be it nation - wide or a minor festival , is incomplete without several elegantly clad elephants . the
esala perahara
, known more commonly among foreign tourists as the
kandy procession
, is one of the predominant cultural festivals and events of sri lanka and thousands of sri lankan citizens flock to kandy and the surrounding area to witness one of the greatest spectacles of south asia .
mcgowan , p . j . k . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . sri lanka spurfowl ( galloperdix bicalcarata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the hindu god that is known as “ganesh” is believed to be of the form of an elephant and the prominence provided by the culture of sri lanka and the strong reverence held by sri lankan hindu devotees for god ganesh poses an interesting link . in addition to this , the ancient establishments of sri lanka , including the ancient palaces , moonstones , and image houses of the anuradhapura period , polonnaruwa period , and even the kandyan period , include sculptures of elephants . these sculptures take various forms and one even finds elephants in a bowing - down posture on the walls of certain ancient structures .
in the local sinhalese language , the tuskers portray a dominant ambience and are able to capture the most rigid hearts . tourists , especially those from foreign nations that do not natively harbour elephants , are bewildered at the sight of the massive sri lankan tuskers . several famous kings of sri lanka , including king dutugamunu and king elara , were renowned during their time for their skill with their elephants , especially in battle . even though these battles involving tuskers occurred centuries ago , sri lankans are still eager to confer on the ancient elephants whose names are still remembered . this unique and rather mystifying relationship between the elephants of sri lanka and the royalty of the country instils a sense of dazzling charm in the historical accounts of the country .
a visit to sri lanka is never complete without experiencing some of the most beautiful beaches the island has to offer . whether it is sunbathing , swimming , surfing ; relaxing or having fun ; there will always be a shoreline that meets your requirements .
the sri lanka mynah differs from the hill mynah by being slightly larger and having only a single pair of wattles on its head . commonly recognized calls include hyu , piau and peeoo both of which are shrilly whistled in a carrying high - pitched voice .
situated surrounding a buddhist monastery , this tropical rain forest is rich in fauna and flora and is a good birding venue in the western province , close to colombo . there are close to 150 species of birds recorded including several endemics such as legge’s flowerpecker , sri lanka spurfowl , spot - winged thrush and the endangered green - billed coucal . some of the other birds recorded here include sri lanka frogmouth , oriental dwarf kingfisher , large cuckooshrike and indian blue robin . some of the reptiles recorded here are earless lizard and humped - nosed lizard . you can also see a wide diversity of butterflies which includes yamfly , malayan , tawny rajah and cingalese bushbrown . you could also see many fish species such as giant danio , smooth - breasted snakehead , horadandiya and the rare jonklaas’s loach .
the bird usually associates in pairs , keeping in touch with their distinctive loud calls . the male spurfowl is indeed a handsome bird with its deep maroon plumage and black bordered white spangled markings . the female is plain reddish brown . both sexes have red beaks and legs .
several processions , festivals , and ceremonies that are products of the vivid and rich culture of the ancient kingdoms of sri lanka as well as products of the historically and culturally significant kingdom of kandy , all use elephants that are caparisoned in an embellishing and beauteous fashion . the famed esala procession that commences from the tooth relic of sri lanka includes , as mentioned previously , a large number of elegantly clad tuskers and elephants . all of these elephants have their own officers and personnel who ensure that both the elephant as well as the bystanders are not harmed in any manner .
considered sri lanka’s largest botanical garden , with 147 acres and over 4000 species of plants , peradeniya botanical garden is a well - known attraction in sri lanka . the lush garden estate , also referred to as the royal botanical garden is famed for its collection of 300 species of orchids . within the delightfully landscaped greenery , visitors will come across numerous birds including endemic species like the yellow fronted barbet , layards parakeet , sri lankan hanging parrot , brown capped babbler and a number endemic reptiles as well as 18 species of mammals . among the 10 , 000 or more trees found in the park , are the giant bamboo of burma , the century old giant javan fig tree , the cannonball tree and a range of exotic palms .
lakpura travels ( pvt ) ltd , no : 78a , c . p . de silva mawatha , moratuwa , 10400 , sri lanka . + 94 - 778 - 100 - 800 + 1 - 415 - 549 - 9158 + 372 - 634 - 7247 + 44 - 20 - 3960 - 5318
about lkm ( 0 . 6 miles ) east of trinity college , off wewelpitiya road , this is one of sri lanka’s more accessible bird sanctuaries . it is a stretch of wilderness only a stone’s throw from the city center with towering forest giants and creepers giving shelter to bird species including layard’s parakeet , sri lanka hanging parrot , yellow - fronted barbet , black capped bulbul , emerald dove , three species of kingfisher , chestnut - headed bee eater and tickells’s blue fly catcher . it is also the home of scores of macaque monkeys , and huge , vividly painted butterflies float across the paths .
the diversity in habitat and the tank provides the visitors the opportunity to observe more than 145 species , which is almost one third of total number of bird life in sri lanka . this population consists of the arboreal , terrestrial and aquatic birds . one can also observe many waders and raptors too .
turtle is the most commonly found turtle in sri lanka . they are also found in the indian . pacific and atlantic oceans . their english name refers to the color of the fat found under their upper shell , which is unfortunately used to make turtle soup . luckily this practice is less common today .
yala is sri lanka’s most emblematic national park , set in the ancient ruhunu kingdom in the southern province . remnants of past civilizations , covered with the jungle tide , form the stamping grounds of wild animals of a great variety . established as a national park in 1938 , yala comprises five blocks sprawling over 979 square kilometres . the attraction of the park lies in the arid , wild , open land which is punctuated by grasslands , shrubs , tanks , lagoons , water holes and sand dunes . water gathers in the forms of streams , tanks , waterholes , rock pools , and lagoons . each terrain , different in character , provides glimpses into wildlife in their most intimate , beautiful and dramatic moments . the most charismatic and sought after animals in yala are the leopard , the elephant and the sloth bear . but there are 41 other mammal species , among them the jackal , the sambhur , the spotted deer , the loris , the crocodile , wild cats , wild boar and buffalo . of birds there are 215 varieties , seven of them endemic to sri lanka : sri lanka grey hornbill , sri lanka jungle fowl , sri lanka wood pigeon , crimson - fronted barbet , black - capped bulbul , blue - tailed bee - eater and brown - capped babbler . during the migrating season , birds flock in plenty and jostle for space in waterways , a display of rare , beautiful and unusual plumage . raptors like the crested serpent eagle can be seen wheeling in high skies , perpetually looking for prey . there is also a teeming reptile population , the most charism
located within the borders of the international whaling commission’s protected zone in the waters of the indian ocean , sri lanka is gradually turning out to be a favoured island destination for whale watching with sightings of varieties of baleen whales and toothed whales . our little island stands proud as a destination for all year round recreational activities .
rare broad - billed roller . as you go on a safari through the park , catch a peek of sri lankan leopards and their cubs hiding amidst rocks .
shy and secretive , sri lanka spurfowis are more often heard than seen . their cackling early morning choruses are striking and unmistakable . they are expert ventriloquists ; what is more , the birds move while calling , making it even more difficult to track them down . they are essentially ground birds and the males tend to be territorial .
the sri lanka wood pigeon is recognized from other pigeons in the island from its dark grey wings and maroon brown underside , and the distinctive chequer board - like patch on the back of the neck . the neck patch is not well - developed in young birds . adult birds could measure up to 35 . 5cm in length .
the chestnut - backed owlet is among the more rarely seen of sri lanka’s endemic birds . it inhabits dense , low to mid country wet zone forests keeping largely to the upper storey of the canopy . it is largely restricted to a few undisturbed forest patches and has been recorded at altitudes up to around 2 , 000 meters .
known as the pearl of the indian ocean , sri lanka is a wondrous island endowed with a plethora of resources such as an abundant biodiversity , rich culture , great history , varied landscapes and many more . however , when we talk about the wildlife of the island , it is the jumbos that come to mind at once .
in the world are over 300 species of agamid lizards belonging to the family of agamidae among which about 18 species of agamid lizards have been recorded from sri lanka and 15 of them are endemic to the island , which is a global biodiversity hotspot being host to many a species of herpetofauna that shows a high degree of endemism .
the spurfowl builds a scrape of a nest consisting of a few twigs placed on the ground under the trunk of a large forest tree between roots . the female alone incubates . the breeding season is in the early part of the year and usually two cream coloured eggs quite similar to a domestic chicken’s but smaller , are laid .
generally well - behaved , these elephants display a high level of discipline and this is the result of vigorous and lengthy training provided for them since their infancy . specially trained officers , who usually hail from families that have engaged in these responsibilities for generations , are entrusted with the duty of ensuring that the elephants achieve high levels of discipline . most of the traditions involving elephants of sri lanka have stood the test of time and even after dozens of centuries and several ancient eras , the strong , vivid , and rich culture of sri lanka has successfully integrated its precious elephants in to a role that both conserves wildlife and also provides loads of enjoyment for the general public .
the sri lanka white - eye is seen in the hill country forests and gardens with sufficient tree cover . they move about in pairs or sometimes in flocks of up to about fifteen birds , calling to each other with soft chirps . white - eyes prefer the canopy top , where they search the flowers and tender shoots for insects and similar prey .
the green - billed coucal is special amongst sri lanka’s endemic birds . its range today , continues to decline . the continuous destruction of lowland wet zone forest , together with the coucals’ avoidance of disturbed habitats , has brought this species close to the brink . it is now confined to a very few localities in the wet zone , below 800 meters altitude .
the kalametiya bird sanctuary is one of sri lanka’s oldest bird sanctuaries . the sanctuary is a wetland with two salty lagoons , mangrove swamps and open areas with pockets of scrub jungles . a mature mangrove swamp , home to a variety of water birds . the best time to see birds is from november to march . you can also see herds of elephants .
lying 25km east of the city of kandy , the knuckles mountain range exists as a unique ecosystem separate from the rest of the central hills . covering a distance of about 12 miles knuckles extends roughly from the northwest to the southwest of sri lanka . over 120 bird species recorded here include many endemic ones including the yellow - fronted barbet , dusky - blue flycatcher , ceylon lorikeet , ceylon grackle , yellow - eared bulbul and layard’s parakeet .
sri lanka hanging parrots ( lorikeet ) are completely arboreal , constantly on the wing in the highest levels of the forest canopy . the birds move about in pairs , and although a solitary individual might be seen , its mate is never far away . the sexes are alike except that females are duller - coloured with a lighter trace of blue on the throat . the forehead and face of fledged young birds are naked , but adult plumage is attained by the age of about one year .
the ceylon spurfowl is about the size of a partridge but more rotund . it is possibly the most elusive of the island’s endemics . though not uncommon in its habitat of deep forest and heard very often , sighting it is indeed difficult . early mornings the bird may venture in to the open , feeding along a jungle path , but disappears with the slightest disturbance running into cover with great agility . sometimes however it visits backyards of houses within the forest to feed on food matter thrown out by the inmates affording an opportunity to observe it .
despite the numerous illuminating and captivating bravados and entertaining acts performed by hundreds of well - trained performers , it is the elephants that ultimately succeed to capture the hearts of the on - lookers in the most exquisite fashion . the immense creatures are so beautifully clad in expensive and alluring garments that it seems like magic for the observers . other ceremonies and cultural events that occur in every region of sri lanka , including in the capital city of the country , have their own share of elephants and the presence of these gigantic and grandeur creatures enhance the overall ambience of the event .
a rarely - seen bird , the sri lanka whistling thrush ( also known as the arrenga ) is exclusively resident in the mountains of the wet zone , at altitudes between about 1 , 200 and 2 , 100 meters . it occurs only in natural , undisturbed forest . it is a rare and rather shy bird , most often seen on the margins of a densely shaded stream . the male’s hissing srhee . . srhee . . call , as it flutters between bushes in the evening , is usually heard before the bird itself is seen . females are even shyer than males , and rarely seen . the birds are crepuscular .
the sri lanka bush warbler is an elusive bird that confines itself mostly to dense undergrowth in forested areas . it is essentially a mountain species , rarely occurring below 1 , 500 metres altitude in the central hills . they move about in pairs or small groups of three or four individuals . their food consists of insects and seeds , picked both from shrubs and the ground . they can easily be separated from the other species by its overall dark - brown colour , its dark grayish breast and the faint light stripe that runs across its eye . young males have a pale , reddish - yellow iris , which is white in young females . a small bird is 16 – 16 . 5 cm in length .
peak wilderness was declared as a sanctuary in 1940 and is 22 , 379 hectares in extent . in 2010 it was declared as a world heritage wilderness area considering the biological and ecological importance of this largely intact forest which ranges from 700m 1500m . this is a very important area in sri lanka for the conservation of the endemics ; flora and fauna . the peak wilderness also supports the last remaining remnant wet zone elephant population in the country . this forest was cut off from the lowland forests by land clearing during the turn of the last century and therefore these elephants have been isolated in this mountainous terrain . it is estimated that 30 - 50 animals , sufficient in number to maintain a viable population still occur in these forests .
one of the most important natural habitats in sri lanka , the sinharaja rainforest offers a huge diversity of species both flora and fauna with a large proportion of those being indigenous to the country and some more specifically endemic to sinharaja itself . however , a permit is required to enter the reserve . a forest guide will be provided by the forest department . the ticket office at kudawa can be reached by a car but a four - wheel - drive vehicle with a high ground clearance is needed to reach the forest entrance from which point bird watching has to be done on foot . the paths are well defined but one has to be mindful of the leeches , especially during the rainy season . sinharaja is famous for its mixed feeding bird flocks and a number of endemic birds can be observed during the walks across the forest .
the sanctuaries at kumana 312 km from colombo , wirawila 261 km , bundala 259 km and kalametiya 224 km are all lagoon locations in sri lanka’s extreme south eastern coast . the giant’s tank in the north western corner of the island is a huge ancient irrigation reservoir of 3 , 800 hectares . the coastal sanctuaries are exotically picturesque with combinations of lagoon , swamp , river , jungle , lake and plain . large flocks can be found here of both resident and migrant aquatic birds . the highland sanctuaries at udawattakele 118 km . from colombo and the peak wilderness 141 km . are quieter but equally picturesque with wooded hills and secluded streams and have the added bonus of rare flora such as our unique wesak orchid as well as numerous species of rare butterflies . the udawatta kele sanctuary is in the suburbs of kandy , our picturesque and fascinating hill capital .
getting around in sri lanka shouldn ' t be too hard for anyone , regardless of age and gender . sri lanka has domestic flights to various parts of the island as well as international flights going and coming from all over the world . you can also make your way through the busy streets and rural terrains via buses , trains , cabs and tuk - tuks . taxi : taxis and chauffeur driven minivans can be hired directly or through hotels . taxis can also be hailed directly or through hotels . taxis can also be hailed directly from the roads . auto - rickshaws ( called tuk tuks ) charge ( before 9pm ) rs50 for the first kilometre and rs40 for additional kilometres . negotiate before boarding if there is no working metre . aviation : iws aviation operates helicopters taking you around the island . iws centre , 451 , kandy road , kelaniya ; 011 594 9999 tip : for surfers and beach lovers heading to the east and south coasts as well as those travelling to the central hills , the mattala international airport is quite convenient . bus : air conditioned long distance luxury buses and city point - to - point non - ac buses operate throughout . central bus stand , pettah , bodhiraja mawatha and olcott mawatha , colombo 11 ; 011 232 8081 , 011 232 9606 rail : trains with 1st , 2nd and economy class carriages serve 164 stations and 155 substations . private luxury carriages operating on some lines have seats bookable in advance online . fort railway station ; 011 243 4215 ; www . railway . gov . lk . vehicles for rent : luxury to comfortable budget cars , vans , suvs and buses are available for hire on self - drive and with - driver basis with guaranteed safety . ameri rent - a - car ; school lane , colombo 3 ; 077 731 2848 mal - key rent - a - car ; 58 , pamankada road , colombo 6 ; 011 236 5365
set in the deep south of the country , in ridiyagama hambantota is sri lanka’s first man - made safari park , where animals from around the world roam freely while visitors travel around the landscape in guided tours . the hambantota ridiyagama safari park is 500 acres in extent and divided into several sections for different animals . the first segment of the park now opened to the public , has a 16 - acre service station , a 35 - acre lion enclosure , a 54 - acre sri lankan elephant enclosure and 80 acres for herbivorous animal species of the world . around 22 species of animals including african lions , zebras , giraffes , bactrian camels , arabian orix , lechwe , indian blue bulls , african cape buffaloes and large birds such as ostriches roam freely in the park . watching the king of the jungle cautiously treading the new found habitation while zebras and ostriches seemed to be quite at home . reminiscent of the african savannah , the ever - vigilant lion roams while the zebra watches its back for the king of carnivores to pounce at any moment . the hambantota ridiyagama safari park has been carefully arranged to allow maximum view for visitors without the exhilarating game of the hunter and the hunted . it will be a leisurely trip of observing the animals behaving uninhibited in a natural surrounding created in the new park . four of the park’s six zones have been reserved for carnivorous animals while the remaining two zones host the herbivores . two zones of the carnivore section will be exclusive
reaching just 17 cm in length , this is the smallest of the sri lankan barbets , being only slightly larger than a sparrow . it occurs almost everywhere in the wet zone , up to altitudes of about 1 , 300 meters , and in scattered parts of the dry zone . except during the breeding season , these birds move in flocks upwards of ten individuals gathering on fruiting trees . these barbets are not restricted to forests , and can often be seen in cultivated land and gardens .
it is one that has been etched in sri lanka’s colourful history . in the past , the location was the country’s foremost naval hub with the sri lankan navy naval base being located in the area . today , it is a family beach with large groups seen basking in the sunny sands and cool waters . kks is considered to be one of the best beaches in the northern province ; the other being casuarina beach . untouched and non - crowded this strip of shore provides unique experiences that one can only find in this northernmost coast . it is one where visitors step into pristine waters and enjoy a swim in the hopes of cooling off after a long day of exploring the town in the sun . long strolls in the windy surroundings , boat rides and picnicking on the beach are the most popular activities here . the area , is fast becoming a hub for beach lovers . aside from enjoying kankesanthurai’s magnificent waters , there is also a number of things to see and explore while relaxing on the beach . the beach provides you with a clear view of the impressive naval port and kks lighthouse . it also gives you great access to the areas fishery harbour . head on out there to get a first hand look at how these villagers make their livelihood . or walk along the streets of kankesanthurai just a few miles away where one can marvel at the remnants of colonial architecture . getting to kankesanthurai is quite easy ; it is the final stop of the yal devi service , which runs from the fort railway station . so get on board and travel
the recluse of the jungle , the nocturnal sloth bear is scruffy in appearance . with much ado , grunting and snorting it goes about its daily chores of breaking down branches of fruit and searching for termites and beetles . the sloth bear can only be enticed to come out of hiding during the palu berry season . springing forth in abundance , palu season starts in may and goes on till end july , coinciding with the sloth bear watching season as this bear has a large appetite for the small fruits . palu is a yellow fruit with a thick pulp that has an extremely sweet flavour the bears simply cannot resist . they will climb the tall trees in search of these berries and gobble as many . dizzy from over - indulging , especially young greedy bears can be found slouched below these trees . yala is one of the best places to watch sloth bears in action as they are usually seen picking fallen berries . sri lanka’s national parks have long attracted hordes of tourists for leopard and elephant sightings . the sloth bear is yet to receive such fame as it is difficult to spot these furry bears , a sighting during the day is rare unless during the palu season . unlike the leopard that has acute senses that help it to track a human from a distance , the sloth bear relies mostly on its eyesight and realises human presence , only when it is very close . the animal panics if it does not see a clear route of escape , and attacks as a defence mechanism . it has been listed as an endangered species by the internati
sri lankans are known for their hospitality towards visitors . however , to make your holiday more enjoyable , here are a few things to remember . religious placeswhen visiting religious places remove hats and shoes . dress with decorum . shoulders should be covered and long pants or skirts should be worn rather than shorts . religious statuesreligious statues at temples or any other place of worship are greatly revered . for this reason , make sure that you do not climb , sit or pose with the statues . drive safedrive within the speed limits : in the cities it’s 50kmh , out of the cities it’s 70kmph and on the expressways it’s 80 kmh to 100 kmh . mobile phone usage while driving is banned . don’t drink and drive . smokingsmoking is prohibited in public places . however most hotels , bars and eateries have designated smoking areas . wildlifebe cautious when you are up close with wildlife . don’t approach them and don’t feed them . when you see wildlife while driving try not to disturb them . speak to your guide or locals for advice . swimmingbefore swimming in the sea and rivers check if the area is not a danger zone or if it’s too deep . beware of crocodiles along the rivers ; check with guides and locals before you dip in . exploringbefore exploring speak to locals about the area and check with information centres . it is better to have a local accompany you . historical sites and national parks these are protected sites therefore treat them with respect and do not litter . avoid touching artefacts . don’t disturb the wildlife . rest stopsneed to make a pit stop on the road from colombo to other hotspots ? here are some tried and tested spots along popular routes , which will surely satisy your taste buds or relax you with its welcoming ambience . boost your energy before getting on the road ! heading to the eastern and southern coasts through pelmadulla , ratnapura – silver ray restaurant , dippitigala elpitiya , waddagala southwards bound through hambantota – hela bojun hala , ambalantota cruising south via the awissawella highway ( a4 ) - fresh way bakers , main street , puwakpitiya , avissawella travelling along the colombo – kandy road – ambepussa rest house , main street , warakapola hela bojun hala , peradeniya heading further central – hela bojun hala , kundasale on route to anuradhapura , polonnaruwa along the trincomalee highway – hela bojun hala , pelwehera .
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sam , stijn de win , fran trabalon , markus lilje , romuald mikusek .
30–35·5 cm ; male 312–368 g , female 200–312 g . male unmistakable , with chestnut rear body and wings , black - and - white streaks on mantle , scapulars and . . .
male territorial call , given periodically throughout the morning , is a very gradually rising , . . .
undisturbed tall - forest areas in moist situations up to 2100 m ; only occasionally found in drier . . .
season during ne monsoon in nov–mar , but breeding also reported in jul–sept . monogamous . nest a scrape lined with leaves and . . .
sedentary . when alarmed , dodges between pieces of cover ; runs very fast , flying only when hard . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . mace lande : vulnerable . no recent detailed information on status , but must be declining because forests are disappearing . difficult . . .
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includes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .
genus considered incertae sedis # r . included here tentatively , as a possible link between rollulinae and phasianinae , pending the required genetic study .
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although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : galloperdix bicalcarata . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
natural vocalization ; duet song from a pair of birds coming in to corn spread on the ground behind a small house adjacent to tall secondary forest .
previously published on avocet as av5131 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not seen ; distinctive . gps : estimate from google earth . recorded may 2 - 5 , 1997
previously published on avocet as av5130 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not seen ; distinctive . gps : estimate from google earth . recorded may 2 - 5 , 1997
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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the birds are plump about the size of a half - grown domestic chicken and the males are darker - coloured ( almost black ) and glossier than females , which are paler more brown than black . les generally have a pair of spurs on each leg , while the females have a single , smaller spur on each leg .
spurfos are” known to breed from around november until march - april and also during july - august . they build a small , well - concealed nest in a shallow excavation dug under a stone or bush , often lining it with a few dead leaves . two uniformly whitish eggs ( around 42×3 1 mm in size ) are laid . nestlings resemble adult females , but are somewhat paler , and have a brownish red iris and a dusky red bill .
the junglefowl is one of the more commonly - seen endemics with an island - wide range . the junglefowl’s comb is not sharply serrated , and is distinctive for its red and yellow colours . the female is very differently coloured from the male , and lacks a comb or wattles on the head ; females also lack spurs . the young resemble females but lack white under parts ; the upper plumage of male juveniles is rather more reddish than that of females . males achieve adult plumage by the second year , the tail attaining its full length in the third year .
junglefowls occur in most large patches of forest in all zones , but are more often heard than seen and the male’s distinctive cry carries a considerable distance through the forest . although less common at higher elevations , the junglefowl is known to breed up to elevations of around 1 , 650 meters . wilpattu national park is perhaps one of the best places to get good sightings of these birds .
junglefowls feed in much the same manner as the domestic fowls , sc atching among the dry leaves on the forest floor in search of their flight is strong ; they rarely take wings unless surprised and generally escape danger by runnin hese birds roost on trees . males are believed to defend territories during the breeding season , advertising their presence with the familiar chuck - joy - joycee . males also declare their territories by flapping their wings .
available information suggests that junglefow / s breed year - round . it seems that the cocks are polygynous and leave all family care to the hen . the nest is usually scratched out on the ground beside a log , rock or tree , under a bush or beside a rock , and lined with a few leaves . two to four creamy white eggs ( sometimes with brown or purple - brown markings ) 3×4 - 3 . 5x5cm , resembling domestic chicken eggs , are laid . the chicks begin moving out of the nest and feed independently when still quite young . during the non - breeding season , males often move about in small ‘bachelor groups’ .
the wood pigeon is essentially a mountain bird , above 1 , 650 meters altitude ( they wander to lower elevations occasionally ) . the species has recently been recorded from the sinharaja forest at an elevation of just 300 meters . these birds prefer forested areas , and are abundant in the few remaining patches of forest around nuwara eliya , and in the peak wilderness . they frequent the forest canopy , feeding on berries and fruits , especially wild cinnamon . a very shy bird , the wood e n are generally found in pairs except when roosting and feeding . they call a deep hoo .
the nest made from sticks is usually placed 7 meters or higher above the ground . like most r pigeon nests , it is flimsy and untidy . a single glossy - white egg , around 3×2 . 5 cm in size , is laid during the northeast monsoon .
these exceedingly shy birds move about only among topmost branches of the forest , coming lower down very rarely indeed . when moving between trees they flit rapidly from the mid canopy , from one branch to another , and then scuffle almost immediately into the cover of the foliage to begin feeding . three or four birds generally move around together , and the species is known to be part of the multi - species feeding flocks observed in the sinharaja forest . the birds feed on fruits and insects in the forest canopy . when about to move between trees , the birds move up into the higher branches before gliding away to the next tree .
the red face , white belly , long tail and white tail tip are the best marks for a rapid identification of this bird , a large specimen that could reach 46 cm in length . their call , which is a soft krrrr , times emitted together with clicks of the bill and hisses , when excited , is very rarely heard .
male malkohas are smaller than the females . the male’s iris is brown , whereas that of the female is white . as y , they are entirely confined to undisturbed tall forest patches in the wet zone , scattered tall forests and riverine vegetation of the dry zone , and also some parts of the central hills up to about 1 , 300 meters altitude .
a very few red - faced malkoha nests have been recorded . the nest is a shallow cup made of twigs , grass , roots , and leaves , put together on a tree fork . the breeding season is believed to be around may , a clutch of two or three eggs being laid . the eggs are broad ellipses , 35 . 8×27 mm in size , white , with a chalky surface often stained with nesting material .
the green - billed coucal could be mistaken for the ( very ) common coucal , but is most easily differentiated from that species by its dark , reddish - brown wings , pale - green bill ( ivory during breeding ) and the purple sheen on its head and neck ( the sexes are alike ) . adults measure up to about 45cm in length . fledged young have a slate grey iris .
of all the forest birds , the green - billed is possibly the most difficult to see , invariably confining itself to the undergrowth . like the common coucal , after heavy rain and in the morning , green - bills come out into open areas to dry out their plumage . the species is most easily identified and located from its loud , booming call , made during the mornings and evenings . the call has been described as ‘similar in character to that of the common coucal , but is usually only two or three - syllabled and deeper , with a sonorous , mournful quality . both sexes call , but the males call more often . the frequency of calls increases during the breeding seas° these birds feed on small animals such as lizards , beetles , butterflies , spiders , snails and grasshoppers .


panogena lingens is a moth of the family sphingidae .

it is known from madagascar and the comoro islands .

it is similar , but much darker than panogena jasmini .

the abdomen has yellow lateral patches .

the hindwing upperside is black at the extreme base .

the long-spurred neobathiea grandidierana from madagascar is pollinated by the long-tongued hawkmoth with the pollinaria deposited on the basal part of the proboscis of the moth .

panogena lingens

dear bostjan , we are sorry for the lengthy delay in responding . thanks so much for providing us with your wonderful drawing documenting the stages of life for panogena lingens of madagascar .
dvořák b . 2014 . fund einer raupe von panogena lingens ( butler , 1877 ) durch ilijq klejmjonov auf madagaskar ( lepidoptera : sphingidae ) . - entomologische zeitschrift 124 ( 3 ) : 162—164 .
attachment distributions of pollinaria of angraecoid orchids on the proboscis of panogena lingens . aa , angraecum arachnites ; ac , angraecum compactum ; af , aerangis fuscata ; jt , jumellea teretifolia ; ng , neobathiea grandidierana ( modified from nilsson et al . , 1987 ) .
transferred to panogena by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 33 ( key ) , 34 .
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butler a . g . 1877e . descriptions of new species of heterocerous lepidoptera in the collection of the british museum . - proceedings of the zoological society of london 1877 : 168—170 .
turlin b . 1996a . faune lépidoptérologique de l ' archipel des comores ( océan indien ) , ( rhopalocères , sphingidae , attacidae ) ( 8 ) . - lambillionea 96 ( 1 ) : 159—173 .
griveaud p . 1960 . sur quelques sphingides nouveaux ou peu connus de la région malgache ( lep . ) . - bulletin de la société entomologique de france 65 ( 1—2 ) : 40—47 .
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claire micheneau , steven d . johnson , michael f . fay ; orchid pollination : from darwin to the present day , botanical journal of the linnean society , volume 161 , issue 1 , 1 september 2009 , pages 1–19 , urltoken
in this year celebrating the bicentenary of the birth of darwin and the sesquicentennial of the publication of darwin ' s on the origin of species , the present paper aims to assess the impact of darwin ' s legacy on the history of orchid pollination biology . to illustrate the major contribution of darwin to this fascinating biological field , we focus on the large angraecoid orchid group and propose an overview of the complex relationships that these orchids have developed with specific pollinators . we further discuss how darwin ' s seminal work on the angraecoid orchid angraecum sesquipedale triggered the beginning of a long debate about the evolution of long floral spurs and why his idea of reciprocal evolution or ‘coevolution’ was one of the great contributions to evolutionary biology .
for the celebration of the bicentenary of charles darwin ' s birth and the sesquicentennial of the publication of his on the origin of species ( darwin , 1859 ) , the world is re - exploring the impact of darwin and his theory of evolution on science and society . however , it is not possible to commemorate darwin ' s legacy without consideration of orchids , which took a central place in his main achievements , and to which he devoted many years of study : ‘i never was more interested in my life in any subject than this of orchids’ ( darwin , 1861 in a letter addressed to hooker ) .
the subject of the present paper is to revisit the history of orchid pollination biology from the time of darwin to the present day , with an emphasis on the pollination mechanisms involved in the angraecoid orchids , including the famous long - spurred madagascan species , which , through darwin ' s meticulous observations and innovative reasoning , served to bring the orchid family into the heart of evolutionary research on plant–pollinator interactions .
the next major contribution to orchid pollination had to wait for the end of this descriptive period and the discovery of pseudocopulation in the genus ophrys l . in algeria ( correvon & pouyanne , 1916 ; pouyanne , 1917 ) and , soon after , in the genus cryptostylis r . br . in south - eastern australia ( coleman , 1927 ) . sexual deception in flowers which mimic the signals of female insects , in some cases so accurately that they elicit copulatory behaviour in male insects ( pseudocopulation ) , is almost exclusive to orchids and constitutes one of the most fascinating pollination mechanisms found in the family , if not in all flowering plants . male insects are sexually attracted to the flower by a floral scent that imitates the olfactory cue or sex pheromone ( s ) of the female , often enhanced with a resemblance to the female in shape , colour and texture , and usually pick up and deposit pollen while they attempt copulation with flowers . since its discovery in the 1920s , sexual deception has been found in a number of other orchids and remains an active topic of interest in orchid pollination and evolution ( e . g . schiestl et al . , 1999 , 2003 ; ayasse et al . , 2002 ; singer , 2002 ; singer et al . , 2004 ) .
during the next three decades , interest in orchid floral biology and pollinator observations declined , as the attention of biologists shifted to new disciplines such as cytology and genetics . it was only in 1966 that the second classic book of orchid pollination , orchid flowers , their pollination and evolution , was published to commemorate the centenary of the publication of darwin ' s book ( van der pijl & dodson , 1966 ) . in addition to being a review of one century of orchid–pollinator observations , this book constituted a major update , taking advantage of recent observations by the authors themselves and contributions provided by other famous orchidologists including r . l . dressler and b . kullenberg . van der pijl and dodson presented a modern appreciation of orchid pollination syndromes with an emphasis of the major role played by pollinators in the evolutionary history of the orchid family . in this , their views were deeply rooted in darwinian thought .
in addition , the combined development of molecular biology ( dna sequencing ) and phylogenetic methods during the last two decades opened a vast new field of investigation , allowing the scientific community to revisit hypotheses about relationships among organisms . the mapping of pollination syndromes ( or pollinator - linked floral traits ) onto phylogenetic trees has provided new insights into the ecological determination of evolutionary transitions , their polarity , the extent to which changes were evolutionarily labile or constrained and the extent to which radiations can be explained by key trait innovations ( e . g . larsen et al . , 2008 ) . a comprehensive phylogeny of the orchid family based on molecular data was lacking until the contribution of chase et al . ( 2003 ) and such phylogenies have been crucial in determining evolutionary transitions , especially for orchids in which extensive floral convergence as a result of pollinator - mediated selection has occurred .
recently , ramírez et al . ( 2007 ) estimated ages for the origin of the orchid family and each subfamily based on pollinia found fossilized in amber . we can now explore how orchid–pollinator interactions developed over time , which may allow us to distinguish between coevolution ( plants and pollinators evolve together reciprocally ) vs . sequential evolution ( when the evolution of one group follows another ) .
the angraecoid orchids ( epidendroideae lindl . , vandeae lindl . , angraecinae summerh . sensu lato ; see below ) are a large group of monopodial epiphytic orchids , including more than 760 species . two genera have diversified in central and south america and the caribbean ( campylocentrum benth . and dendrophylax rchb . f . ) , but most of these orchids are the product of an extensive radiation in the western indian ocean , including africa , madagascar and nearby islands . although angraecoid orchids were historically referred to two subtribes , angraecinae ( c . 17 genera , 410 species , mostly from madagascar ) and aerangidinae summerh . ( c . 32 genera , 350 species , mostly from africa ) ( e . g . schlechter , 1926 ; dressler , 1981 , 1993 ; chase et al . , 2003 ) , recent insights from molecular data provided evidence to support recognition of a single subtribe , angraecinae , which includes all angraecoid orchids ( i . e . angraecinae sensu lato ; carlsward et al . , 2006 ) .
distribution of self - pollinated angraecoid orchids on reunion according to ( a ) altitude and ( b ) spur length ( data from jacquemyn et al . , 2005 ; micheneau , 2005 ) .
illustrations of different pollinator groups . a , hippotion celerio visiting flowers of mystacidium capense ( l . f . ) schltr . ( south africa , picture from s . d . johnson ) . b , c , angraecum striatum and its bird - pollinator zosterops borbonicus ( grey white - eyes ) with pollinaria attached on its beak ( pictures taken from videocaptures , reunion , c . micheneau and j . fournel ) . d , angraecum cadetii and its raspy cricket - pollinator glomeremus sp . with pollinaria attached on its head ( pictures taken from videocaptures with night - shot option , reunion , c . micheneau and j . fournel ) . e , illustration of a whole plant of a . cadetii with a visit of the grey white - eyes ( note that the bird is a simple flower visitor and does not pollinate this orchid species ; pictures taken from videocaptures , reunion , c . micheneau and j . fournel ) .
more surprisingly , the third short - spurred species of the mascarene endemic a . section hadrangis is regularly pollinated at night by a medium - size orthopteran species from the subtribe gryllacridinae . this recent discovery further constitutes the first recorded case of regular pollination by orthopterans in extant angiosperms ( micheneau et al . , in press ) and orthoptera are mostly known as a herbivorous insect order ( see micheneau et al . , in press , for further references on flower–orthopteran interactions ) .
despite the fact that the flowers of angraecum cadetii were frequently visited during both night and day by a range of flower visitors ( mostly birds and nocturnal arthropods ; see micheneau et al . , in press , for further details ) , only raspy crickets were observed carrying pollinaria and pollinating orchid flowers ( micheneau et al . , in press ) . this suggested that this unexpected interaction involved a highly specialized pollination system between the orchid and the orthopteran .
raspy crickets were observed foraging on flowers of a . cadetii only during the darkest hours of night , between 19 : 50 and 04 : 40 h . in contrast to the furtive behaviour of both sphingids and birds , visits by these insular orthopterans could take a long time , up to 41 s for a single flower ! ‘typically , raspy crickets reached orchid flowers by climbing up the leaves or jumping across from neighbouring plants . in all successful pollination events , the raspy cricket positioned itself on the fleshy lip of the flower with its dorsal side orientated towards the orchid column and probed deep within the spur . pollinaria of the orchid became stuck to the head of the crickets as they retreated from flowers’ ( micheneau et al . , in press ) .
comparison of pollination and reproductive success between hawkmoth - and bird - pollinated angraecoid orchids . mean ( ± sd ) of pollinaria removal , pollinaria deposition and fruit set is presented . data were compiled from nilsson et al . , 1985 ; nilsson & rabakonandrianina , 1988 ; wasserthal , 1997 ; luyt & johnson , 2001 ; martins & johnson , 2007 for moth - pollinated species and from micheneau et al . , 2006 , 2008c for bird - pollinated species .
reproductive success of bird - pollinated angraecum spp . ( c . 13 % , table 2 ) is also lower than the general median reported in the literature for bird - pollinated orchids ( 54 % ; tremblay et al . , 2005 ) . however , this level of fruit set is close to the hummingbird - pollinated comparettia falcata ( c . 18 % ) , which shares both an epiphytic habit and a tropical distribution ( rodríguez - robles et al . , 1992 ) with these angraecum spp .
mean ± sd ( n ) are presented for nectar properties . n corresponds to the number of species compiled from the literature , except for orthopterans and self - pollination , for which n corresponds to the number of individuals sampled in the species angraecum cadetii and jumellea stenophylla , respectively . if variation were observed in nectar sugar concentration for a species , the highest value was chosen .
compiled data from nilsson et al . ( 1985 , 1987 ) ; nilsson & rabakonandrianina ( 1988 ) ; wasserthal ( 1997 ) ; luyt & johnson ( 2001 ) ; martins & johnson ( 2007 ) ( study species are angraecum arachnites , a . compactum schltr . , a . sororium , a . sesquipedale , aerangis articulata ( rchb . f . ) schltr . , a . brachycarpa ( a . rich . ) durand & schinz , a . confusa , a . ellisii , a . fuscata , a . kotchyana , a . thomsonii , jumellea teretifolia schltr . , mystacidium venosum , neobathiea grandidierana ( rchb . f . ) garay and rangaeris amaniensis ( kraenzl . ) summerh ) .
compiled data from micheneau et al . ( 2006 ; 2008c ) ( study species are angraecum bracteosum and a . striatum ) .
data from micheneau et al . ( in press ) ( study species is angraecum cadetii ) .
data from micheneau et al . ( 2008b ) ( study species is jumellea stenophylla ) .
angraecum bracteosum display a callus on the lip , which restricted flower ' s entrance .
surprisingly , flower visits by orthopterans involved a high rate of fruiting success , averaging 22 % at the study site of the plaine des palmistes in reunion ( average for 3 years ) . this rate is much higher than the 10 % fruit set recorded for the bird pollinated sister species at the same study site and in the same years ( micheneau , 2005 ; micheneau et al . , 2008c ) .
reproductive success seems to be generally pollinator - limited in the angraecoid orchids ( e . g . wasserthal , 1997 ; luyt & johnson , 2001 ; micheneau , 2005 ; micheneau et al . , 2006 , 2008c ) . however , the spectacular rate of flower abortion found in angraecum striatum ( micheneau et al . , 2006 ) and the low rate of fruit set in aerangis ellisii ( rchb . f . ) schltr . in spite of a high frequency of both pollen removal and deposition ( nilsson & rabakonandrianina , 1988 ) suggest that in some species resource allocation may also affect reproductive success .
although they are phylogenetically close to malagasy species that perfectly match the sphingophilous pollination syndrome ( micheneau et al . , 2008a ) , the mascarene bird - pollinated angraecum spp . show the usual convergent adaptations observed in other bird - pollinated orchids . except for the colour of the flower , which is pure white rather than vividly coloured as in typical bird - pollinated flowers , a . striatum and a . bracteosum display multi - flowered inflorescences of unscented and short - spurred flowers , which are rather fleshy in texture . in addition , a . bracteosum flowers have a strong fold ( callus ) on the lip , restricting the opening of the flower . this callus is a convergent feature often found in bird - pollinated orchids and may force the birds to push their beaks against the orchid column to reach the nectar in the spur ( e . g . van der pijl & dodson , 1966 ; van der cingel , 2001 ) .
comparison of the shape and the size of pollinia between bird - and orthopteran - pollinated species within angraecum section hadrangis . a , orthopteran - pollinated a . cadetii . b , bird - pollinated a . bracteosum .
nectar volume and sugar concentration in angraecoid orchids show clear patterns in relation to pollinator group . in hawkmoth - pollinated species , nectar sugar concentration averages 15 . 2 % , whereas it is only 9 . 7 % in bird - pollinated flowers ( table 2 ) . the values for hawkmoth - pollinated angraecoid orchids are similar to those found in hawkmoth - pollinated plants more generally ( pyke & waser 1981 ) and the dilute nectar found in angraecoid orchids conforms almost exactly to the pattern observed for other plants pollinated by short - billed opportunistic birds ( johnson & nicolson , 2008 ) . plants pollinated by specialist flower feeding birds ( hummingbirds and sunbirds ) tend to produce nectar with a sugar concentration around 20 % , whereas those pollinated by short - billed opportunistic birds tend to produce nectar with much lower concentrations around 10 % ( johnson & nicolson , 2008 ) .
gradients in nectar sugar concentrations along the length of the nectar column were recently reported to occur within spurs in african aerangis and rangaeris spp . ( martins & johnson , 2007 ) . in all study species , nectar was significantly more diluted towards the mouth of the spur than at the tip ( concentrations ranged from c . 1 % at the proximal end of the spur to c . 20 % at the distal end ) . nectar sugar gradients may have the same function as spirally twisted spurs and the presence of the nectar only in the lower part of the lip , i . e . they encourage the moth to go as deep as possible into the spur while probing nectar , enhancing at the same time the chance to ensure efficient pollination ( martins & johnson , 2007 ) . post - pollination reabsorption of sugars from spurs has also been reported for two aerangoid orchid species ( koopowitz & marchant , 1998 ; luyt & johnson , 2002 ) and this may mobilize resources for fruit development ( koopowitz & marchant , 1998 ; luyt & johnson , 2002 ) .
the sugar composition of nectar of only one angraecoid species has been investigated so far ( mystacidium venosum , luyt & johnson , 2001 ) . the nectar of this hawkmoth - pollinated orchid proved to be especially sucrose - rich ( 87 % sucrose , 10 % fructose and 3 % glucose ) . it would be worthwhile in future research to develop further these comparative studies of nectar sugar composition , with the aim of investigating evolutionary patterns of this floral trait between bird - and moth - pollinated species within the angraecoid orchid group ( johnson & nicolson , 2008 ) . in particular , one could then test the prediction that there should be an association between opportunistic bird pollinators and hexose - dominated nectar , based on the inability of these birds to digest simple sugars ( e . g . martínez del rio , baker & baker , 1992 ) .
orchids should be studied more because they epitomize evolution in its most dynamic aspect , the rapid production of an incredibly diverse array of species ( chase et al . , 2003 ) .
orchids have been a model system for studying floral adaptation and diversification ever since darwin ' s influential book on the subject was published in 1862 . they provide some of the most exceptional examples of highly specialized interactions between animals and plants . not surprisingly , orchid pollination has been intensively studied relative to that in other extant angiosperms , with entire books dedicated to the subject ( e . g . darwin , 1862 , 1877 ; van der pijl & dodson , 1966 , van der cingel , 1995 , 2001 ) , book chapters ( e . g . proctor et al . 1996 , roberts , 2003 ; see also dressler , 1981 , 1993 ) and numerous high - impact publications ( e . g . nilsson , 1983b , 1992 ; romero & nelson , 1986 ; nilsson et al . , 1992 ; johnson & nilsson , 1999 ; schiestl et al . , 1999 , 2003 ; cozzolino & widmer , 2005 ; liu et al . , 2006 ; ramírez et al . , 2007 ) .
the unique , unexpected and diverse orchid pollination systems provide excellent opportunities for determining how pollinator - mediated selection has shaped the evolution of floral traits ( e . g . flower scent , colour and spur length ) and how shifts between pollinators may be responsible for patterns of macroevolution at the species level and above . however , in spite of the large size of this model family and the long history of orchid pollination biology , the identity and specificity of most orchid pollinators are unknown and remain inadequately studied , especially in the tropics where the family has undergone extensive diversification .
finally , highly specialized pollination interactions , such as those exemplified by orchids , are highly vulnerable to changes in populations and habitats . as darwin pointed out while the pollinating sphingid of a . sesquipedale was still undiscovered : ‘if such great moths were to become extinct in madagascar , assuredly the angræcum would become extinct’ ( darwin , 1862 ) . once again , darwin led the way in drawing this important connection between evolutionary studies and the ‘real - world’ problem of conservation . this is especially relevant today because of the present context of pollinator decline ( buchmann & nabham , 1996 ; kearns , inouye & waser , 1998 ; biesmeijer et al . , 2006 ; ghazoul , 2006 ) as a result of habitat loss ( harris & johnson , 2004 ; aguilar et al . , 2006 ) and climate change ( deutsch et al . , 2008 ) .
we warmly thank t . pailler and j . fournel ( university of la réunion ) for their contributions to research involved in pollination biology of mascarene angraecoid orchids .
floral trimorphism and monomorphism in continental and island populations of eichhornia paniculata ( speng . ) solms . ( pontederiaceae )
pollination of the wild lady ' s slipper orchids cypripedium yunnanense and c . flavum ( orchidaceae ) in south - west china : why are there no hybrids ?
negative frequency - dependent selection maintains a dramatic flower color polymophism in the rewardless orchid dactylorhiza sambucina ( l . ) soó
polymorphic populations of dactylorhiza incarnata s . l . ( orchidaceae ) on the baltic island of gotland : morphology , habitat preference and genetic differentiation
processes of isolation and introgressive interplay between platanthera bifolia ( l . ) rich . and p . chlorantha ( custer ) reichb . ( orchidaceae )
monophily and pollination mechanisms in angraecum arachnites schltr . ( orchidaceae ) in a guild of long - tongued hawk - moths ( sphingidae ) in madagascar
hawk - moth scale analysis and pollination specialization in the epilithic malagasy endemic aerangis ellisii ( reichenb . fil . ) schltr . ( orchidaceae )
female and male pollination success of oncidium ascendens lindey ( orchidaceae ) in two contrasting habitat patches : forest vs . agricultural field
genetic patterns and pollination in ophrys iricolor and o . mesaritica ( orchidaceae ) : sympatric evolution by pollinator shift
the pollination mechanism in trigonidium obtusum lindl . ( orchidaceae : maxillariinae ) : sexual mimicry and trap - flowers
sexual mimicry in mormolyca ringens ( lindl . ) schltr . ( orchidaceae : maxillariinae )
the pollination of stenorrhynchos lanceolatus ( aublet ) l . c . rich . ( orchidaceae : spiranthinae ) by hummingbirds in southern brazil
the pollinators of the malagasy star orchids angraecum sesquipedale , a . sororium and a . compactum and the evolution of extremely long spurs by pollinator shift
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species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
uganda , [ locality not certain , see eitschberger & melichar 2016 : 68 ] .
eitschberger u . & melichar t . 2016 . revision und neugliederung aller arten , die momentan in der gattung macropoliana auct . ( nec carcasson , 1968 ) vereint , zusammengefaßt sind . - neue entomologische nachrichten 71 : 1–639 .
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