carcinus aestuarii is a littoral crab , native to the mediterranean sea .

carcinus aestuarii bears some similarities to carcinus maenas and was sometimes considered to be a subspecies thereof , rather than a species in its own right , but a molecular biological study using the coi gene found the difference between the two taxa to be substantial , supporting their status as separate species .

the two taxa can be visually distinguished by the front of the carapace , between the eyes , which is short and toothed in c. maenas but longer and smoother in c. aestuarii .

also , the gonopods of c. aestuarii are straight and parallel , whereas those of c. maenas are curved .

whereas c. maenas has invaded many shorelines throughout the world , c. aestuarii has only been implicated in one invasion ; the coastline of japan has been invaded by either c. aestuarii or a hybrid of c. aestuarii and c. maenas .

carcinus aestuarii

structure of hemocyanin subunit caess2 of the crustacean mediterranean crab carcinus aestuarii . - pubmed - ncbi
ricciardi f , matozzo v , binelli a , marin mg ( 2010 ) biomarker responses and contamination levels in crabs ( carcinus aestuarii ) from the lagoon of venice : an integrated approach in biomonitoring estuarine environments . water research 4 : 1725 - 1736 .
mori m , mancon r , fanciulli g ( 1990 ) notes of the reproductive biology of carcinus aestuarii nardo ( crustacea , decapoda ) from the lagoon of san teodoro ( island of sardinia , italy ) . rivista di idrobiologia 29 : 763 - 774 .
the aim of the present paper is to describe , for the first time , the presence of sds in a wild population of carcinus aestuarii . c . aestuarii is a common crab , belonging to the portunidae family ; it has an extensive distribution in estuarine and lagoon waters of the mediterranean sea and plays an important ecological role in lagoon ecosystems as a component of the diet of fish stentiford [ 15 ] .
c . aestuarii is a more resistant to the pollution compared to the other species of decapoda . ricciardi et al . [ 34 ] demonstrated that c . aestuarii caught in the polluted lagoon of venice , can be used as biomarkers with respect to the organic pollutants . in conclusion , as supported by the work reported above , even in our 139 case the presence of sds in a wild population of c . aestuarii , could be suggested as biomarker of the environmental stress in the volturno river . to our knowledge this is the first description of the disease in the wild population of carcinus aestuarii , which could be used as a useful tool to unravel the relationship between environmental stressful conditions and the occurrence of the disease .
citation : mancuso m , zaccone r , carella f , maiolino p , vico gd ( 2013 ) first episode of shell disease syndrome in carcinus aestuarii ( crustacea : decapoda : portunidae ) in the volturno river . j aquac res development 4 : 191 doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9546 . 1000191
structure of hemocyanin subunit caess2 of the crustacean mediterranean crab carcinus aestuarii .
dolashka - angelova p . , dolashki a . , savvides s . n . , hristova r . , van beeumen j . , voelter w . , devreese b . , weser u . , di muro p . , salvato b . , stevanovic s . j . biochem . 138 : 303 - 312 ( 2005 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
in this study is reported the first episode of a shell disease syndrome ( sds ) in wild specimens of carcinus aestuarii from the polluted volturno river estuary . collected crabs showed erosive and ulcerative “black spot” lesions on the exoskeleton ; histologically the lesions ranged from a mild to extensive and severe damages and intense haemocyte infiltration . bacterial isolation confirmed the presence of some marine bacterial species with chitinolytic activity . the authors suggest that the detection of sds in wild crabs living in polluted waters could be used to monitor the health status of this environment .
figure 1 : carcinus eastuarii shell disease macroscopical lesions . a - b : dorsal lesions with deep ( a ) and moderate ulceration ( b ) . c . cheliped loss with melanin deposition d - e : limb lesions at tip and joint level ( bar = 1 cm ) .
the mediterranean green crab carcinus aestuarii nardo , 1847 ( crustacea , brachyura , portunidae ) is a common inhabitant of the shallow waters of homa lagoon in izmir bay , turkey , in the eastern mediterranean . monthly samples were collected in homa lagoon from june 2006 to may 2007 using trammel nets , fyke nets , beach seines and fence traps . in total , 608 males and 559 females of c . aestuarii were collected . the highest sex ratio ( 81–86 % females ) was recorded between october and december , and in august ( 58 % females ) . ovigerous females were obtained only from november to february with the highest ratio of ovigerous females ( 55 % ) observed in january 2007 . the maturation curve presenting the carapace width showed that 50 % of female crabs with the carapace width of 26 . 84 ±1 . 58 mm ( r = 0 . 72 ) were physiologically mature . regression analyses indicated that the number of eggs was positively correlated with carapace width and wet weight ( p < 0 . 05 , in both cases ) .
in the c . aestuarii specimens the evolution of the disease seemed to follow the same pattern described by martin et al . [ 20 ] . the males , greater in size than females , displayed a higher percentage 113 of deep lesions and limb loss , according to other authors [ 21 ] which reported a higher prevalence and infection intensity in males of cancer pagurus .
in the spring of 2007 , 50 adults c . aestuarii were collected from the volturno river estuary ( campania , italy ) with lobsterpots , in a single sampling , and submitted to our laboratory . all crabs showed “black spots” lesions typical of shell disease ; each specimen was measured ( carapace width ) and the sex was determined . lesions and disease signs ( i . e . : limbs losses , lesions size , shape , color , distribution and position ) 3 were 61 recorded and photographed .
figure 2 : carcinus eastuarii shell disease histological observation . a - b : mild shell lesions : epicuticle and exocuticle lesion with early ( a ) and advanced ( b ) endocuticle involment ( 25x ) ; c - d : dorsal ulcers : epicuticle and procuticle loss ( c ) showing hemocytes and nodule formation ( arrowhead ) ( d ) ( 30x ) . insert : gram staining shows gram negative bacteria within the lesion ( 40x ) . ec : epicuticle , ex : exocuticle ; en : endocuticle . ep : epithelia ( * ) haemocytes .
the specimens of c . aestuarii were all adults , the sex ratio was 0 . 20 ( 40 males and 10 females ) . the carapace width ranged from 18 . 84 to 37 . 70 mm . 18 % of the animals was in moulting state . all animals were diseased , 74 % showed eroded or ulcerated lesions variable in shape ( circular , oval , linear ) , in dimension ( ranging from 1 to 7 mm ) and colour ( pale , brown , black ) the so - called black spot lesions ( figure 1 ) . lesions were single or multiple and some coalesced leading to largest ones . the majority ( 56 % ) of the lesions occurred at the unsclerotized area of limbs , at the dactylus , at the 4propods , at the carpus , at leg tips and at the ventral 87 level , extending to the abdomen and sternum ( figure 2 ) . many animals showed necrotic areas at the point of the limb loss .
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dolashka - angelova p 1 , dolashki a , savvides sn , hristova r , van beeumen j , voelter w , devreese b , weser u , di muro p , salvato b , stevanovic s .
institute of organic chemistry , bulgarian academy of sciences , g . bonchev 9 , sofia 1113 , bulgaria . pda54 @ urltoken
castiglioni , d . , negreiros - fransozo , m . l . , 2006 ,
özbek , m . , koçak , c . & acarlı , d . ocean and hydro ( 2012 ) 41 : 77 . urltoken
biological and ecological features of the species : the body of the crab is flattened in the dorsal - ventral area and is slightly hexagonal . it generally lives in shallow water . it’s an omnivorous species , able to withstand significant variations in salinity and temperature as well as long periods out of the water . in the italian veneto region it is called “moeca” or “moleca” and here it is considered a delicacy when it sheds its shell and is soft .
nutritional qualities : “soft - shell crabs” and “crabs” are crustaceans with low protein and fat contents and a moderate content of omega - 3 fatty acids . crabs are a good source of minerals and vitamin e . in crabs , due to the thick carapace , the edible portion is low .
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1 institute of coastal marine environment , uos of messina ( iamc ) - cnr spianata s . raineri , 86 , 98122 , messina , italy
copyright : © 2013 mancuso m , et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
shell disease syndrome ( sds ) is a term that describes a broad range of lesions in the exoskeleton of crustaceans supported by different species of chitinolytic opportunistic bacteria , belonging to different genera : vibrio , listonella , aeromonas , pseudomonas , alteromonas , flavobacterium , spirillum , moraxella , pasteurella and photobacterium [ 1 - 3 ] .
in stressed and / or wounded specimens these bacteria can cause erosions on the exoskeleton and septicemia ; moreover systemic tissues damages can occur if the bacteria complex penetrates internally [ 2 ] . sds affects various species of crustaceans all over the world 35 i . e . : callinectes sapidus , cancer magister , cancer pagurus , cancer irroratus , cancer borealis [ 4 - 8 ] .
the disease is common in aquaculture facilities or in polluted waters [ 9 - 13 ] . in the past years the prevalence of the disease in natural populations has increased and the lack of baseline data on its distribution in the mediterranean area represents a limit toward a better understanding of this syndrome sindermann [ 14 ] .
the examined specimens were collected from the volturno river estuary . this area is a heavily polluted area of the campania region ( southern italy ) . the inorganic and organic compounds are the major contaminants [ 16 , 17 ] . the presence of high levels of nitrate indicating a severe contamination related to human activities ( application of nitrogen fertilizers and wastewater disposal ) was also reported amodio [ 18 ] in a pollution risk map of the volturno river . degraded environmental conditions are generally considered to be associated with shell disease in crabs [ 1 ] . low water quality might suppress immune - defence of residing animals leading to a weakened physiological state [ 4 ] .
histological and microbiological assays were performed . for histological examination the diseased specimens were sacrificed and fixed with neutral buffered 10 % formalin . the exoskeleton ( decalcified in 5 % formic acid ) , and the internal organs were processed for routine histopathology : dehydrated in graded alcohols , embedded in paraffinwax , sectioned at 4 - 5 μm and stained with haematoxylin - eosin ( h & e ) . special staining as periodic acid shiff ( pas ) and gram were also carried out .
carapace lesions prevalence and severity was categorized following the stages disease index [ 19 ] : in the 1 st 69 stages the mild lesions consisted in small erosion of the epicuticle and calcified endocuticle ; more extensive and profound erosion were characterized by endocuticle lesions with haemocytes infiltration and melanin deposition ( 2 nd and 3 rd stages ) . for microbiological assays , exoskeleton surface was sterilized with 70 % ethanol and successively the hemolymph was withdrawn at joint of carapace and 5 th pereiopod into a sterile 1 ml syringe . moreover , the lesions were scraped with a 0 . 1 ml disposable plastic loop . hemolymph and scraped material were then spread on marine agar ( microbial diagnostics ) and tcbs agar ( thiosulfate citrate bile sucrose - oxoid ) . cultures were incubated at 24 ± 1°c for 24 - 48 hours . suspected colonies were isolated in pure culture and the strains were identified by morphological and biochemical tests [ 10 ] .
the crabs with more severe disease displayed histopathological alterations of several organ and tissue systems , including systemic melanised haemocyte nodules , with a chitinolytic activity in the hemolymph as previously reported [ 22 ] .
moreover many of the specimens were in moult state and therefore more susceptible to bacterial attack [ 23 ] . the presence of gram negative chitinolytic bacteria in the lesions and hemolymph of diseased animals showed that these bacteria are involved in the pathogenesis of the shell disease as opportunistic microorganisms [ 24 , 25 ] . the diseased animals were all adults ; this observation is supported by previous studies [ 26 ] that noted the prevalence of the disease in populations of older crabs .
involvement of internal organs has been reported during shell disease ; gill necrosis and hepatopancreas degeneration are the most frequently recorded lesions [ 22 - 27 ] . the increased nephrocytes number and dimension in crustaceans , along with necrotic and degenerative changes in the gills and hepatopancreas , respectively , have been frequently observed as a consequence of polluted environment exposure [ 28 ] . in this context , it is well known that the volturno river has been identified as a critical point for the pollution of adjacent marine waters , carrying pollutants from domestic , industrial and agricultural sources [ 16 - 17 ] . furthermore , many anthropogenic factors are known to exacerbate the sds : heavy metals could suppress the immune system [ 29 - 30 ] , enhance chitinase activity [ 31 ] while some insecticides ( methoprene ) have also been found to inhibit chitin synthesis [ 32 - 33 ] .
wang w ( 2011 ) bacterial diseases of crabs : a review . j invertebr pathol 106 : 18 - 26 .
vogan cl , costa - ramos c , rowley af ( 2002 ) shell disease syndrome in the edible crab , cancer pagurus - isolation , characterization and pathogenicity of chitinolytic bacteria . microbiology 148 : 743 - 754 .
costa - ramos c , rowley af ( 2004 ) effects of extracellular products of pseudoalteromonas atlantica on the edible crab , cancer pagurus . appl environ microbiol 70 : 729 - 735 .
noga ej , engel dp , arroll tw , mckenna s , davidian m ( 1994 ) low serum antibacterial activity with increased prevalence of shell disease in blue crabs , callinectes sapidus . dis aquat org 19 : 121 - 128 .
morado jf , sparks ak , o’clair ce ( 1988 ) a preliminary study of idiopathic lesions in the dungeness crab , cancer magister , from rowan bay , alaska . mar environ res 26 : 311 - 318 .
powell a , rowley af ( 2005 ) unchanged prevalence of shell disease in the edible crab , cancer pagurus , four years after decommissioning a sewage outfall at langland bay , u . k . dis aquat organ 68 : 83 - 87 .
sawyer tk ( 1991 ) shell disease in the atlantic rock crab , cancer irroratus say , 1817 , from the north eastern united states . j shellfish res 10 : 495 - 497 .
bower sm , mcgladdery se , price im ( 1994 ) synopsis of infectious diseases and parasites of commercially exploited shellfish . ann rev fish dis 4 : 1 - 199 .
carella f , marino f , maiolino p , grassi p , danzè a , et al . ( 2010 ) aspetti microbiologici e anatomo patologici della shell disease syndrome in cinque differenti specie di crostacei decapodi . ittiopatologia 7 : 33 - 41 .
mancuso m , costanzo mt , maricchiolo g , gristina m , zaccone r , et al . ( 2010 ) characterization of chitinolityc bacteria and histological aspects of shell disease syndrome in european spiny lobsters ( palinurus elephas ) ( fabricius 1787 ) . j invertebr pathol 104 : 242 - 244 .
mancuso m , zaccone r , genovese l , maricchiolo g , calabrò a , et al . ( 2006 a ) brown spot disease : un fattore limitante la riproduzione controllata di mazzancolla ( melicerthus kerathurus ) . ittiopatologia 3 : 15 - 20 .
mancuso m , maricchiolo g , zaccone r ( 2006 b ) determinazione rapida di vibrio sp . durante lo sviluppo larvale di penaeus kerathurus ( forskall 1775 ) in microcosmo . biologia marina mediterranea 13 : 514 - 517 .
sindermann cj ( 1989 ) the shell disease syndrome in marine crustaceans . noaa technical memorandum mfs - f : nec - 64 .
stentiford gd ( 2008 ) diseases of the european edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) : a review . ices journal of marine sciences 65 : 1578 - 1592 .
melluso g , esposito a , guida m , maurano f , trieff nm , et al . ( 1994 ) distribution of inorganic and organic pollutants in river sediments in campania , italy bull environ contam toxicol 52 : 13 - 18 .
amodio - cocchiari r , arnese a ( 1988 ) organochlorine pesticide residues in fish from southern italian rivers . bull environ contam toxicol 40 : 233 - 239
corniello a , ducci d , ruggieri g ( 2006 ) the pollution risk map of the southern part of the volturno river plain ( southern italy ) . geophysical research abstracts 8 : 03703 .
estrella b ( 1991 ) shell disease in american lobster ( homarus americanus , h . milne edwards , 1937 ) from massachusetts coastal waters with considerations for standardizing sampling . j shellfish res 10 : 483 - 488 .
martin gg , quintero m , quigley m , khosrovian h ( 2000 ) elimination of sequestered material from the gills of decapod crustacean . j crustacean biol 20 : 209 - 217 .
vogan cl , llewellyn pj , rowley af ( 1999 ) epidemiology and dynamics of shell disease in the edible crab cancer pagurus : a preliminary study of langland bay , swansea , uk . dis aquat organ 35 : 81 - 87 .
vogan cl , costa - ramos c , rowley af ( 2001 ) a histological study of shell disease syndrome in the edible crab cancer pagurus . dis aquat org 47 : 209 - 217 .
smolowitz rm , bullis ra , abt da ( 1992 ) pathological cuticular changes of winter impoundment shell disease preceding and during intermolt in the american lobster , homarus americanus . biol bull woods hole 183 : 99 - 112 .
musgrove r , geddes m , thomas c ( 2005 ) causes of tail fan necrosis in southern rock lobster , jasus edwardsii . new zealand . journal mar freshw res 39 : 293 - 304 .
porter l ( 2004 ) the microbiology and pathology of shell disease in the florida spiny lobster , palinurus argus with a comparison to shell disease in the american lobster , homarus americanus . phd thesis .
ayres pa , edwards e ( 1982 ) notes on the distribution o f black spot ' shell disease in crustacean fisheries . - chemistry and ecology 1 : 125 - 130 .
ryazanova tv ( 2005 ) histopathological changes associated with shell disease in the red king crab paralithodes camtschaticus ( tilesius , 1815 ) . russian journal of marine biology 31 : 359 - 366 .
stentiford gd , longshawa mp , lyons b , jonesa g , greena m , et al . ( 2003 ) histopathological biomarkers in estuarine fish species for the assessment of biological effects of contaminants . mar environ res 55 : 137 - 159 .
hernroth b , baden sp , holm k , andre t , söderhäll i ( 2004 ) manganese induced immune suppression of the lobster , nephrops norvegicus . aquat toxicol 70 : 223 - 231 .
le moullac g , haffner p ( 2000 ) environmental factors affecting immune responses in crustacea . aquaculture 191 : 121 - 131 .
vogan cl , powell a , rowley af ( 2008 ) shell disease in crustaceans - just chitin recycling gone wrong ? environ microbiol 10 : 826 - 835 .
walker an , bush p , puritz j , wilson t , chang es , et al . ( 2005 a ) metabolic effects of acute exposure to methoprene in the american lobster , homarus americanus . j shellfish res 24 : 787 - 794 .
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netrostoma is a genus of true jellyfish in the family cepheidae .

they are found in the indo-pacific .

they are sometimes called crown jellyfish , but this can cause confusion with the closely related genus cephea or the distantly related species in the order coronatae .

netrostoma

nick hope added the english common name
crown jellyfish
to
netrostoma setouchianum ( kishinouye , 1902 )
.
frédéric ducarme marked the classification from
world register of marine species ( worms )
as preferred for
netrostoma setouchianum ( kishinouye , 1902 )
.
( of netrostoma typhlodendrium schultze , 1898 ) van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
collins , a . g . ; jarms , g . ; morandini , a . c . ( 2018 ) . world list of scyphozoa .
van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
f . s . cornelius and j . van der land ( eds ) , updates 2000 - 2007 , as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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in : nishimura , s . ( ed . ) , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys , vol . i . hoikusha , osaka , 60 - 69 ( in japanese ) .
in : chihara , m . & m . murano ( eds . ) , an illustrated guide to marine plankton in japan . tokai university press , tokyo , 541 - 553 ( in japanese ) .
occurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9ec27bba - 9907 - 4bbb - bb6c - 659a7edcfc29
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 67a7540b - d233 - 4736 - 8c0d - 1c4ba4f1e63b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 600307
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pao leiurus is a species of pufferfish found in southeast asia from thailand to indonesia and in particular the mekong basin .

it is occasionally imported into the aquarium trade but is reported to be aggressive and snappish .

pao leiurus

origin of pao is from the local name of pufferfishes in thai and lao languages , pla pao and pa pao , respectively , with pla and pa meaning fish , and pao meaning purse .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
justification : this locally common fish has no significant threats , its populations are still healthy in suitable habitats , and it is assessed as least concern .
the species is known from the malay peninsula to indonesia ( sumatra and kalimantan ) , and perhaps sarawak and sabah on borneo as well .
occasionally seen in the aquarium trade . low fisheries interest , due to its poisonous body .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; dh range : 12 - ? . tropical ; 24°c - 28°c ( ref . 2060 )
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 0 cm male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12693 )
chin without marks or , rarely , with indistinct faint marks ; upper part of body dirty brown , brownish gray or gray , poorly separated from lower part of body which tends to be dirty off - white , yellowish or pale gray , often with dusky mottling or spots ; flank with one or more ocellated spots , which may be red - , green - , or blue centered .
inhabits streams and rivers in upland and lowland areas ( ref . 56749 ) . occurs in flowing and standing water habitats ( ref . 12693 ) . also found in swamps and reservoirs , where it may be extremely abundant ( ref . 27661 ) . encountered in medium to large - sized rivers ( ref . 12975 ) . feeds on mollusks , crustaceans and other invertebrates as well as some plant matter and detritus ( ref . 12693 ) . possibly poisonous and not a commercial fish ( ref . 12693 ) . sometimes imported in the aquarium trade but known to be very aggressive and snappish ( ref . 12693 ) .
roberts , t . r . , 1998 . freshwater fugu or pufferfishes of the genus tetraodon from the mekong basin , with descriptions of two new species . ichthyol . res . 45 ( 3 ) : 225 - 234 . ( ref . 27661 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5001 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02754 ( 0 . 01256 - 0 . 06040 ) , b = 2 . 88 ( 2 . 70 - 3 . 06 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 ±0 . 35 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .
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urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c44a9 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c46ef - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 37af3fad - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
froese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 7b84a8bc - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .
we ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .
this is a very cool puffer , a good choice for people who want a medium sized freshwater puffer .
i find its either tinyfreshwater puffers , brackish species , or huge giants like the fahaka and mbu .
i have heard there are some inbetween , but i thought they were mostly inactive ambush predators . is the leiarus active ?
la ŝanco vi havas , venas neniam dufoje , faru vian plej ϗ faru ĝin bone . la tempo venos sed vi ne kaŝu . . . vi estas sur via vojo
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doydee p , hemathulin r , saengsuwan y , luekaisri s ( 2012 ) a study of the diversity of freshwater fish in the nong han reservoir , sakon nakhon province , thailand . the thailand natural history museum journal 6 : 1 - 10
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eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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31 . nien 32 . shang 33 . sheng 34 . shih 35 . shu 36 . ssu 37 . sugar loaf mountain 38 . t ' ai 39 . t ' ien 40 . t ' oung more reverse dictionary results > >
( a question mark next to a word above means that we couldn ' t find it , but clicking the word might provide spelling suggestions . )
not helpful ? you might try using the wildcards * and ? to find the word you ' re looking for . for example , use
greek , tetra = four + greek , odous = tooth , teeth ( ref . 45335 ) .
the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .
rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .
but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .
unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .
this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .
in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .
when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .
type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .
type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .
this article was published as an online first article on the online publication date shown on this page . the article should be cited by using the doi number .
tetraodontiform fishes are distributed in tropical to temperate seas and freshwaters of the world . they show a remarkable diversity in shape , size , and way of life ( fig .
) . because of their peculiar morphological characters , tetraodontiforms have long attracted the attention of ichthyologists and biologists .
representatives of the 10 extant families of tetraodontiformes . a triacanthodidae , triacanthodes anomalus ; b triacanthidae , triacanthus biaculeatus ; c balistidae , abalistes filamentosus ; d monacanthidae , thamnaconus hypargyreus ; e aracanidae , kentrocapros aculeatus ; f ostraciidae , ostracion immaculatus ; g triodontidae triodon macropterus ; h tetraodonitidae , arothron mappa ; i diodontidae , diodon liturosus ; j molidae , masturus lanceolatus . photographs of a and e provided by bsku ; b , d , f , h , and i by kaum ; c and g by nsmt ; j by hideki sugiyama
, for a history of the classification of the order ) , information about tetraodontiform taxonomy was scattered in many articles , making it difficult to understand the taxonomic relationships of tetraodontiforms overall . alec fraser - brunner published an important series of articles on various groups of tetraodontiforms as reviews of genera and families during the mid - 1930s to early 1950s : however , many parts of his publications were based on cursory examinations of relatively few specimens . there were no comprehensive phylogenetic studies until winterbottom (
) provided their interpretations of the phylogenetic relationships of tetraodontiforms based on myology and osteology , respectively .
) published an excellent monograph on the superfamily triacanthoidea including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae . he recognized 19 triacanthodid species in 11 genera ( table
) , their taxonomic features are not repeated here , except for new information that provides a better understanding of taxa .
many species of the triacanthodidae are known from the tropical and warm regions of the indo - pacific . however , five species are distributed in the western atlantic :
with a color photograph based on specimens collected from off surinam . mceachran and fechhelm (
from the gulf of mexico and off greater new england , respectively . tyler et al . (
to the northeast coast of the usa off massachusetts , whereas this species had previously only been known from the florida keys , bahamas , bermuda , gulf of mexico , caribbean , and south to brazil , with the new northern occurence perhaps associated with warming currents along the east coast of north america .
in contrast to the atlantic spikefishes , many papers on indo - pacific spikefishes were published after 1980 . matsuura (
based on 13 specimens collected from the western indian ocean . this species is characterized by relatively large nasal organs compared to other species of
based on 25 specimens collected from the marquesas islands . in addition to these contributions , papers and books on taxonomic and zoogeographical studies of spikefishes were published by authors from various countries including australia , china , japan , korea , russia , taiwan , ukraine , and the usa .
with detailed descriptions and color photographs of fresh specimens collected from the kyushu - palau ridge . matsuura (
, these are the first records for the species from new caledonia . chen et al . (
) were based on specimens deposited at museums and institutions in taiwan and the usa . larson et al . (
has a narrower pelvis , a shorter postorbital length , a less distinctly supraterminal mouth , and a more concave snout profile . because the holotype of
) concluded that the most reliable character separating the two species is the degree of concavity of the snout . the depth of the snout in the middle of its length is 10 . 8−13 . 4 % sl ( average 12 . 0 ) in
) confirmed this difference in three specimens ( 86 . 2−93 . 0 mm sl ) of
) provided keys to the genera and species of spikefishes known from south and east africa . he recognized 11 species in this region :
) studied coastal fishes of the arabian sea based on specimens collected by research vessels of russia and ukraine from 1967 to 1991 . they also examined specimens collected by the german
, which are deposited at the zoological museum of hamburg university . the two authors recorded
( previously known only from the holotype , 52 . 2 mm sl from the andaman sea and a non - type specimen , 66 . 0 mm sl from off somalia in the western indian ocean ) , but did not provide descriptions of the two species . the specimens they studied are deposited at the national museum of natural history , national academy of sciences , ukraine , the zoological museum of the russian academy of sciences , and the zoological museum of moscow state university . in addition to these , venkataramanujam et al . (
this brief historical review clearly shows that there are many collection lacunae with respect to the distribution and diversity of spikefishes in the world oceans . new caledonia is one example of how collection efforts could provide us with better understanding of spikefish diversity . when matsuura and fourmanoir (
from new caledonia , only two type specimens were available for their study . long - term deep - water surveys by orstom around new caledonia added six species of spikefishes including 16 specimens of
) . many regions of the world oceans need to be surveyed , but the most promising areas would be waters in french polynesia and the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java in indonesia . japanese and indonesian fisheries agencies have recently implemented a joint survey along the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java . their surveys have resulted in many interesting spikefishes , including two undescribed species and several rarely collected species , which will be published elsewhere ( matsuura and kawai in preparation ) .
) reported that four specimens from the gulf of thailand near paknam have differences in eye size and the width of the interorbital space . two of these specimens ( 111 . 5 mm sl and 113 . 9 mm sl ) have exceptionally large eyes ( 10 . 4 % sl ) and the other two ( 105 . 6 mm sl and 107 . 9 mm sl ) have a normal eye size ( 7 . 8 and 8 . 5 % sl ) . the two large - eye specimens have eyes that are also larger than those of any other specimens of equivalent size . the large - eye specimens have a wider interorbital space ( 10 . 2−10 . 5 % sl vs . 6 . 3−10 . 0 % sl in many other specimens ) . tyler (
based on color notes or color photographs of fresh specimens , but neither was available for the other species . matsuura (
collected from phuket in the andaman sea : body silvery white with light brown tinge on dorsal half of body ; first dorsal spine silvery white with a black membrane between the first and third dorsal spines ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dark yellow . matsuura (
collected from the northern gulf of thailand : body silvery white with several irregular golden brownish markings on head and body ; basal half of first dorsal spine silvery white and proximal half black with yellowish orange first dorsal fin membrane ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dusky yellow .
) . after his monograph appeared , many publications on fish faunas , field guides and checklists have provided additional information on triplespine distributions ( e . g . , matsuura
) reported a 60 - mm sl specimen of this species from freshwater in indonesia .
) diagnosed and illustrated the 20 species of 10 genera found in japanese waters . his latter paper covered many of the 25 species that were known from the indo - pacific before 1980 . prior to this publication two papers reviewed triggerfishes in the eastern pacific ( berry and baldwin
. these were important contributions about the taxonomy of triggerfishes up to and including 1980 . a brief historical review of triggerfish taxonomy follows .
) published a review of the balistidae , one of his series of taxonomic studies of tetraodontiform fishes . he recognized 13 genera in the balistidae and provided a platform for triggerfish taxonomy . although de beaufort and briggs (
) reviewed triggerfishes of the eastern pacific with comments on fraser - brunner’s classification . they pointed out that fraser - brunner (
on trivial differences of squamation and the anterior few soft rays of the dorsal fin . berry and baldwin (
( i . e . , triggerfishes of other genera not occurring in the western atlantic ) . just after his review of the western atlantic triggerfishes , moore (
) also accepted these 11 genera in his phylogenetic study on tetraodontiform fishes . the osteologically based phylogenies of balistoids given by matsuura (
was partially damaged by digestion , it differs clearly from other triggerfishes by its possession of a number of unique characters , such as there is a large lateral expansion protruding laterally just below the pectoral fin , the supraorbital ridge is well developed and convex dorsolaterally , and the mid - lateral portion of the coracoid is greatly expanded to form a disk - like bone . two years later , heemstra and smith (
as a new species , based on a small juvenile washed up on a beach at the mouth of the van stadens river , south africa .
on the basis of two specimens collected off the northeast coast of kume - jima in the ryukyu islands , at depths of 120−150 m , which is quite deep for triggerfishes . matsuura and yoshino (
, which recognizes 37 species of triggerfishes in 11 genera . in addition to the above contributions , many checklists and illustrated books on shallow - water fishes also provided taxonomic and zoogeographical information of the balistidae and other tetraodontiforms ( böhlke and chaplin
has 28−30 dorsal rays and 24−26 anal rays . however , berry and baldwin (
from japan that dorsal rays range from 27 to 30 and anal rays from 24 to 27 . randall (
) comprised only 50 words with fin ray counts “d . 1 ? , a . 26 , p . 13 . ” because the poor original description fits several species of the balistidae , it is impossible to verify that
in a phylogenetic tree of the balistidae based on molecular analysis . their molecular analysis suggests that
) represent a single clade . these species should be revisited with detailed morphological examinations .
east africa , mozambique channel , comores and mascarenes , north to southern japan , ogasawara islands and hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia , lord howe island , rapa and ducie ( pitcairn group ) . east to central america
there are no comprehensive reviews of the monacanthidae , although in 1988 barry hutchins provided taxonomic , morphological , and phylogenetic data for all monacanthid species in the world in his doctoral dissertation . some parts of his dissertation were published , however , the taxonomic accounts of many species and genera and the phylogenetic analysis of the genera remain unpublished . hutchins published a series of articles on the monacanthidae between 1977 and 2002 . his first article on australian filefishes recognized 28 genera in australia ( hutchins
) published a review paper on the monacanthidae ( his aluteridae ) , recognizing 22 genera . although de beaufort and briggs (
lack long spines or long setae on the mid - side of the body . randall (
) provided brief accounts and color photographs of 26 monacanthids found in japanese waters . hutchins and matsuura (
and recognized four species with comments on their ability to inflate the abdomen . hutchins (
) provided a key and brief taxonomic accounts for 16 species of filefishes found along south africa . hutchins (
, a detailed study of diagnostic characters , including encasing scales of the posterior end of the pelvis , is needed . hutchins suggested in his dissertation that
. however , an examination of specimens from various localities in the indo - west pacific is necessary to properly access the relationships of the two nominal species . although barry hutchins made great contributions to the better understanding of taxonomy and diversity of filefishes , in particular australian filefishes , taxonomic problems in several genera such as
remain . as in the case of triggerfishes , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided much useful information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of filefishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) .
trunkfishes of the family aracanidae occur in shallow to relatively deep waters in depths from 5 m to 300 m . the species of
the aracanidae and ostraciidae have been placed in separate families by some authors ( e . g . , winterbottom
) , but they have also been treated as two subfamilies of the family ostraciidae by others ( e . g . , winterbottom and tyler
) . all the above authors recognized the two groups as closely related phylogenetic clades ( sister groups ) , but placed them at different taxonomic ranks . santini and tyler (
) studied fossils and extant members of the tetraodontiformes extensively and recognized familial groupings for the aracanidae and ostraciidae . recently , santini et al . (
) investigated the phylogenetic relationships of the aracanidae and ostraciidae based on molecular analysis of many taxa ( nine species of five genera of aracanidae and 17 species of six genera of ostraciidae ) . they demonstrated that the species examined in their studies ( santini and tyler
) published his article on indian zoology , he used two different spellings for a species of trunkfish . at the beginning of the article , a section titled “directions for arranging the plates” provided the name of animals in the plates where he presented the name of the trunkfish as “many spined coffin fish .
. ” plate 98 provided a good illustration of the species showing appropriate characters to identify the species . it is the type species of the subgenus by monotypy . however , in 1838 john e . gray published another paper in which he described three species ,
” indicating his intention to establish the group at the subgeneric level . although the name
thus creating a nomenclatural problem . if one follows the priority rule of the code ( iczn
should be preserved under article 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , making the spelling of the family group name aracanidae preserved under article 35 . 4 . 1 .
) provided brief reviews of the family , his accounts of genera and species were cursory as they were based on few specimens and did not provide adequate characteristics for the species treated . kuiter (
is unique in having a fusiform body and the caudal peduncle nearly completely covered by discrete bony plates . in addition to australian genera of aracanidae , detailed descriptions and illustrations of all four known species of
kentrocapros eco ( nmnz p . 903 , 102 mm tl , from pahia , bay of islands , new zealand ; a lateral view ; b dorsal view ) and an undescribed species of kentrocapros ( c nsmt - p 43344 , 104 mm sl ) collected from new zealand
as discussed above , no major taxonomic problems remain in the aracanidae . however , there still remains a need to clarify the nomenclature of some species of anoplocapros as well as the intraspecific variation of morphological characters related to ontogenetic development of kentrocapros .
eastern atlantic from st . helena , ascension and azores islands , ghana and angola
, he differentiated it from other ostraciid genera by the degree of the development of the dorsal ridge , the convexity of the dorsal surface of the carapace , and the projection of the snout anterior to the mouth . however , the two characters involving the carapace do not clearly differentiate
, protrudes anteriorly beyond the mouth in adults but not juveniles . in addition , large adults of
have a snout protruding to some extent beyond the mouth . these factors led matsuura (
in their own genus in his key and brief accounts of ostraciids found in the western central pacific . klassen (
because the latter has priority over the former . however , it seems premature to accept his proposal because there are species - level taxonomic problems in several species of
) provided keys and accounts accompanied by illustrations to boxfishes found in the western atlantic . they recognized five species ,
are nested in a single clade on the basis of his extensive osteological analysis ; i agree with this .
on the basis of a specimen from queensland , australia . however , there seems little doubt that it is actually
from australia may suggest that the specimen was transferred by ballast water from a ship or released from an aquarium . as with the balistidae , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided a great deal of information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of boxfishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) . on the basis of the above overview , i recognize 22 species in the ostraciidae ( table
holotype of acanthostracion bucephalus ( ams ib . 6355 ) collected from queensland , australia . photograph provided by mark mcgrouther
two forms of tetrosomus reipublicae collected from the ryukyu islands ( a , b ) and kochi , japan ( c ) . a deep body with no blue lines ( bsku 29663 ) ; b , c slender body with wavy blue lines ( b bsku 29697 ; c bsku 59588 )
is rare in museum collections and poorly known . it is a deep - water species collected at depths of 50−377 m ( kyushin et al .
in detail , only 20 specimens were available for his study : five from the indian ocean ( mauritius , reunion and india ) and 15 from the west pacific ( indonesia , philippines and japan ) . due to the poor condition of two specimens , tyler (
) used 18 specimens to determine whether the first dorsal fin , composed of one or two spines , is present or absent . his examination revealed 12 specimens from the west pacific to have a first dorsal fin , and five indian ocean specimens and a specimen from the west pacific to lack a first dorsal fin ( table
) . however , he did not find other differences between the indian ocean specimens and those from the west pacific . this led him to recognize the two groups as being conspecific . i have recently had the opportunity of examining 28 specimens of
) also provided frequency distributions of fin - ray counts . my examination of 28 specimens produced almost the same frequency distributions of fin - ray counts as those of tyler (
) showed that a specimen ( 448 . 3 mm sl ) collected from the volcano islands , south of the ogasawara islands , had a single spine
frequency distributions of fin - ray counts in triodon macropterus . counts of fin rays of damaged or abnormal fins are excluded . counts of pectoral - fin rays were obtained from fins on both sides
was reported ( with color photographs ) from several areas in the indo - west pacific : the chagos archipelago ( kyushin et al .
to have the following coloration : body yellowish brown dorsally , becoming white ventrally ; ventral flap yellow in the ventral four - fifths and white in the proximal one - fifth ; a large black ocellus with a narrow white edge in the proximal part of the ventral flap ; second dorsal , anal , pectoral , and caudal fins yellow or yellowish brown ; when present , membrane of first dorsal fin black ( fig .
( 20 mm sl ) , collected at wallis and futuna at a depth of 245−440 m . they provided detailed characters and the visceral anatomy of the early juvenile that differs from adults in having a huge head ( 45 % sl vs 28 . 5−32 . 7 % sl in adults ) , no ventral flap , and different scale structure . juveniles also differ from adults in having a very large distended stomach .
) . they differ externally from other families of the order tetraodontiformes by the following combination of characters : head large and blunt ; jaws modified to form a beak of four heavy , powerful teeth , two above and two below ; eyes high on head ; gill opening , a simple slit in front of pectoral fins ; dorsal and anal fins located far posteriorly , containing seven to 15 soft rays ; caudal fin truncate , rounded , or emarginate to somewhat lunate ; pelvic fins absent ; lateral line ( when present ) often indistinct , forming an interconnected pattern on sides of the head and body , but quite distinct in some genera ( e . g . ,
) . because pufferfishes possess very few external characters useful for taxonomy and specimens are easily distorted when they are fixed in formalin and preserved in ethanol , it is often not easy for ichthyologists to recognize species limits and classify them into natural groups . consequently , they have been poorly studied and taxonomic confusion remains . although the tetraodontidae has never been comprehensively reviewed , the taxonomy of pufferfishes has progressed since fraser - brunner’s (
, based on osteological characters of the skull , the lateral - line system on the head and body , a skin fold on the ventrolateral side of the body , and spinule distributions on the body . although fraser - brunner (
) provided keys and accounts of pufferfishes in the seas around japan . subsequently , abe (
is the appropriate generic name for warmwater pufferfishes found mainly around japan , korea , and china . as with other tetraodontiform families , de beaufort and briggs (
marine pufferfishes occurring in warm and tropical regions of the world were studied by many authors from the 1970s to present . allen and randall (
and described seven new species , bringing the total number of species to 22 . since allen and randall’s (
from the gambier archipelago in french polynesia . in addition , randall et al . (
from the west coast of africa . the above studies bring the total number of species of
in the atlantic and provided a key to the species , along with detailed accounts of all atlantic species . walker and bussing (
) . the former is endemic to the atlantic and the latter is distributed in tropical and other warm seas of the world . abe and tabeta (
) based on an examination of the holotype and many specimens from the red sea . although the genus
has not been comprehensively reviewed , an ongoing study by the author has revealed 11 valid species in the genus . this study will be published elsewhere .
, many species found along the coast of china were not included in his articles . cheng et al . (
from brackish waters of modaomen zhuhai , guangdong . these chinese and japanese authors increased the number of
species making it the second largest genus in the tetraodontidae , with 25 species . however , taxonomic problems still remain in
as a new genus and species based on a single specimen collected at norfolk island .
is externally distinguished from other pufferfishes by its nasal apparatus in the form of an open , flat , and relatively unornamented disk . heemstra and smith (
in the period from 1980 to 1989 , graham s . hardy published a series of papers on the taxonomy of pufferfishes that are distributed mainly in the southern hemisphere . hardy (
from south africa revealed them to be conspecific , making the former a junior synonym of the latter . matsuura (
is unique in building large spawning nests , called “mystery circles” by local scuba divers . thus , the above studies of
) discussed nomenclatural issues of the tetraodontidae found in southeast asia in detail . he established the new genus
, but differentiated from other pufferfishes by their unique color pattern and a very elongate premaxillary pedicel that creates a greatly enlarged open space between their dorsomedial edges . thus , the generic name
as a new species from the mekong basin of thailand . because of its publication date , july 2013 , the authors were unaware of kottelat’s (
have a sufficient number of character differences to warrant being placed in separate genera . the type species of
. however , this is likely to cause confusion not only in pufferfish taxonomy , but also in the fisheries of east asia where pufferfishes are treated as important and expensive fishes ( e . g . , several species of
cost about us $ 100 per kilogram at fish markets ) . in addition , because pufferfishes have fatal poison in their viscera , scientific names are very important for food security management in east asia . as suggested by kottelat (
) , on the basis of the holotype from penang and two additional specimens from the west pacific . matsuura (
as a new species from the tropical region of the indo - west pacific . matsuura (
with a key to species and accounts of all members of the genus including two undescribed species .
as indicated above , there has been a great deal of progress in taxonomy of the tetraodontidae during the past several decades , especially in the period from the mid - 1970s to the present . however , there remain taxonomic problems in genera such as
where many species await description and detailed morphological and molecular comparisons to classify them into appropriate groups . the taxonomy of pufferfishes in southeast asia is important not only for the understanding of fish diversity of the region , but also for the welfare and food management for humans . dao et al . (
) reported that the number of victims of food poisoning by eating pufferfishes reached 737 , with 127 mortalities from 1999 to 2003 . due to the lack of knowledge about pufferfishes and their toxicity , pufferfishes are still found in southeast asian fish markets ( fig .
) , although local and state governments in countries around the south china sea have prohibited the sale of pufferfishes for food .
pufferfishes found in a fish landing place 60 km north of nha trang in southern vietnam ( a ) and a fish market in sabah , malaysia ( b ) : a many small pufferfishes of lagocephalus and a large specimen of l . inermis in the center ; b large specimens of arothron hispidus , a . reticularis , and a . stellatus
) provided a list of synonyms and keys for all species of the diodontidae . keys to regional species were also provided by leis (
, western indian ocean ; 2001 , eastern indian ocean and western central pacific ; 2003 , western atlantic ) . accounts and color photographs for species of the eastern pacific were provided by allen and robertson (
reach more than 3 m in length and two tons in weight , it is difficult to preserve specimens of adults in museums . it is also difficult for ichthyologists to obtain measurements and counts on large adult ocean sunfishes in the field , and specimens of
have also been rarely collected . since ichthyologists have few opportunities to study an adequate number of adult specimens of ocean sunfishes , authors have been unable to agree how many species in the family , some believing a single species exists in each genus , and others recognizing two species each in
) published a list of nominal species in the molidae . bass et al (
is found in all oceans . however , they were unable to differentiate among specimens of
from the west pacific ( taiwan ) and the western atlantic ( florida ) . yoshita et al . (
around japan . they took measurements and counted 99 specimens of young and adults ( maximum size 332 cm tl , fig .
) . they showed convincingly that there are two species with clear morphological differences : a well - developed head bump ( head bump height 12 . 1 % tl ) in group a vs . with no distinct head bump ( head bump height 7 . 8 % tl ) in group b , number of clavus fin rays 14−17 in group a vs 10−13 in group b , number of clavus ossicles 8−15 in group a vs . 8−9 in group b , and edge of clavus not wavy in group a vs . wavy in group b . yoshita et al . (
must await the availability of more specimens from other regions of the world’s oceans for study by both morphological and molecular methods .
) pioneered the classification of tetraodontiform fishes by placing them in the order plectognathi based on his detailed anatomical studies . since cuvier’s (
) , yseult le danois tried to destroy the order tetraodontiformes . she stated that the triacanthoids and balisoitds are of acanthurid origin and that the other plectognaths ( her orbiculati ) are not even of percoid derivation , being related to the isospondylous fishes , and that
is related to the ostracioids rather than the tetraodontids . however , her statements were based on erroneous observations and interpretations of the osteological and myological characters of tetraodontiforms ( tyler
) supported the monophyly of tetraodontiformes by adding to the already substantial list of synapomorphies . in addition , wiley and johnson (
) analyzed relationships of tetraodontiformes using cladistic methods . he recognized three major clades : ( 1 ) triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , ( 2 ) ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) , and ( 3 ) triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] ( fig .
) . the first clade , including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae , was considered to be the sister group of all other tetraodontiforms . tyler (
) studied tetraodontiforms extensively and provided a huge number of osteological descriptions , comparative diagnoses , and illustrations for all extant families , major representatives of extant genera , and most of the known fossil taxa of the tetraodontiformes . tyler (
) , except for placing the superfamily triacanthoidea ( triacanthodidae + triacanthidae ) as the basal sister group to the two superfamilies , the balistoidea ( balistidae and monacanthidae ) and the ostracioidea ( aracanidae and ostraciidae ) .
phylogenetic relationships of the extant families of tetraodontiformes inferred from cladistic analyses of morphological characters .
) proposed on the basis of his osteological analysis that zeoids have a sister - group relationship with tetraodontiforms and the two groups are sister to the caproids . leis (
) used characters of eggs and larvae to investigate tetraodontiform relationships . although no aracanid and triodontid larvae were available for his study , leis (
) placed the ostraciidae in an unresolved trichotomy , ostraciidae + diodontidae + molidae , and placed the three families as a sister clade to the tetraodontidae ( fig .
b ) . this was the first time that the ostraciidae was placed in the gymnodonts ( triodontidae , tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae ) . winterbottom and tyler (
) also provided many synapomorphies involving osteological and myological characters that supported a sister - group relationship of balistoids and ostracioids . klassen (
james c . tyler and other authors published many papers on fossil tetraodontiforms ( e . g . , tyler and patterson
) used osteological data on fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes accumulated by previous contributions to generate a new classification of all known families represented by fossil and extant forms . for extant families , santini and tyler (
) placed the triacanthodidae as a sister group to all other families of the tetraodontiformes ( fig .
) . they arranged the other families into two suborders , the balistoidei and tetraodontoidei . the former is composed of the triacanthidae + [ ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) ] . the latter suborder is composed of the triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] . this classification is similar to those of winterbottom (
) analyzed molecular data for 100 species of higher teleosteans . their study was the first to hypothesize close relationships among lophiiforms , tetraodontiforms , and caproids . they retrieved phylogenetic topologies placing caproids as a sister group with tetraodontiforms and the two groups as sister to lophiiforms . however , they used few taxa : one species of caproidae , two species of tetraodontiformes , and six species of lophiiformes . yamanoue et al . (
) analyzed more species of the three groups and provided a robust phylogenetic topology that placed the caproidei as sister to the lophiiformes , and the two groups as a clade that is sister to the tetraodontiformes .
) studied the lateral - line system and its innervations of nine species of tetraodontiforms ( representing all families examined except for the molidae ) and a single species each from the lophiidae , zeidae , caproidae , and siganidae . their analysis supported a close relationship of the tetraodontiformes with the lophiidae , but not with the zeidae , caproidae , or siganidae . recently , chanet et al . (
) presented synapomorphies of tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms involving soft anatomical characters : rounded and anteriorly disposed kidneys , a compact thyroid included in a blood sinus , an abbreviated spinal cord , an asymmetric liver , and clusters of supramedullary neurons in the rostral part of the spinal cord . baldwin (
) also provided a putative synapomorphy of some tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms : they are strikingly similar in having the trunk enclosed in an inflated sac covered with xanthophores . although nakae and sasaki (
) did not study many species of tetraodontiform and outgroup fishes , and the relationship between the tetraodontiformes and lophiiformes is now supported both by molecular and morphological characters .
) , although conflicts exist between the constructed topologies of familial relationships by morphological and molecular analyses ( figs .
) placed the molidae with aracanidae + ostraciidae , treating them as subfamilies . alfaro et al . (
) placed the molidae as the basal sister group to triodontidae + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) . britz and johnson (
) found the fusion of anterior vertebral centra in the occipital region and a thick band of cartilage on the side of the pterygiophores of the vertical fins in an ostraciid and molids suggestive of a close relationship between the ostraciidae and molidae . however , because they studied only one species of ostraciidae and two species of molidae , it seems premature to hypothesize a close relationship of the two families until further support for it may be forthcoming . in contrast , the molidae was recovered as the sister group to a clade comprising the tetraodontidae and diodontidae by santini et al . (
) as previously indicated by morphological studies . the triodontidae was considered to be close to the tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae by morphological studies ( winterbottom
) , whereas molecular studies recovered close relationship of the triodontidae with the aracanidae and ostraciidae ( alfaro et al .
) as follows : triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , balistidae + monacanthidae , aracanidae + ostraciidae , and tetraodontidae + diodontidae , as previously seen in morphological studies . on the basis of whole mitochondrial genome sequences , yamanoue et al . (
) documented different phylogenetic relationships from those of other authors . whereas the triacanthidae was usually placed close to the triacanthodidae , balistidae , and monacanthidae in other studies ( winterbottom
phylogenetic relationships of genera and species were studied by various authors in the triacanthidae , balistidae , monacanthidae , aracanidae , ostraciidae , tetraodontidae , and molidae , but the numbers of taxa studied differed greatly and resulted in different resolutions of phylogenetic analyses . santini and tyler (
) analyzed phylogenetic relationships of species and genera of the triacanthidae using morphological characters . they found two clades , one composed of two species of
) analyzed cladistic relationships of all extant genera of the balistidae and 22 genera of the monacanthidae using osteological characters . although many balistid genera showed no significant differences in osteological characters , matsuura (
as sister to all other balistid genera based on a scale bone in the posterior part of the skull . however , tyler and matsuura (
) “scale bone” to be the posterior part of the sphenotic that appears separated from the major portion of the sphenotic . matsuura (
) to be the first lineage to diverge in the balistidae . although holcroft (
) studied the phylogenetic relationships of 12 species of balistidae and 21 genera of monacanthidae , involving one species each from 33 genera of the two families . the molecular analysis placed
) provided the largest molecular dataset for the balistidae and monacanthidae based on two mitochondrial and three nuclear loci of 33 species of balistidae and 53 species of monacanthidae . the molecular analysis supported monophylies of the following genera :
. the latter two species share at least two morphological characters , a small naked area on the cheek just behind the mouth , and a large maximum size , reaching over 60 cm tl . in the balistid tree
) studied the osteological characters of 19 species of the ostraciidae extensively . his phylogenetic analysis found two clades in the ostraciidae , the first composed of
) studied the phylogenetic relationships of 17 species of ostraciidae by molecular analysis . the resultant phylogenetic tree closely resembled that of klassen (
) studied the phylogenetic relationships of 50 species of tetraodontidae by molecular analysis . the study found four major clades , the first composed of species of
fell into distantly related clades . a relaxed molecular - clock bayesian divergence time estimation calculated three invasions to freshwater by pufferfishes during their evolution : the first 48−78 million years ago in southeast asia , the second 17−38 million years ago in africa , and the third 0−10 million years ago in south america .
by molecular analysis . the study clearly showed that they did not form a monophyletic group . except for