the oriole blackbird ( gymnomystax mexicanus ) is a species of bird in the family icteridae .

its genus , gymnomystax , is monotypic .

it is a medium-sized yellow and black bird found in brazil , colombia , ecuador , french guiana , guyana , peru , suriname , and venezuela , where its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , and swamps .

oriole blackbird

baltimore oriole ( i . galbula ) and bullock oriole ( i . bullockii )
all tanager , blackbird and oriole species together photo gallery by r . schnase at urltoken
the oriole blackbird is a distinctive and spectacular resident of open habitat and gallery forest along the lowlands of the amazon and orinoco rivers of northern south america . the oriole blackbird is common in grassland , marshes and partly - wooded forest , and can be seen traveling in small , monospecific flocks . the oriole blackbird has a bright saffron - yellow head , underparts , and lesser secondary coverts ; with a black back , wings , tail , malar , and bare skin around the eye . contrary to the implications of its latin name , the oriole blackbird des not occur in mexico .
the brewer ' s blackbird is sexually dimorphic , though both sexes have a typical blackbird shape , and a thick , pointed bill .
visit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the brewer ' s blackbird .
other icterus species that are known to hybridize include yellow - backed oriole ( i . chrysater ) and yellow - tailed oriole ( i . mesomelas ) ( olson , 1983 ) , and epaulet oriole ( i . cayanensis ) and moriche oriole ( i . chrysocephalus ) ( d’horta , da silva & ribas , 2008 ) . the latter two have recently been classified as one species . two subspecies of orchard oriole ( i . spurius spurius and i . s . fuertesi ) are not reciprocally monophyletic , but there is no evidence for gene flow ( baker et al . , 2003 ) .
rising , j . ( 1983 ) . the progress of oriole hybridization in kansas . the auk , 885 - 897 .
sutton , g . ( 1968 ) . oriole hybridization in oklahoma . bull ok ornit soc 1 , 1 - 7 .
the genus and specific name of the yellow - headed blackbird , xanthocephalus , means ‘yellow - headed’ .
rusty blackbird rusty blackbirds have thinner bills , and all plumages other than the adult male’s show rusty tones .
insects , seeds , berries , and waste grain make up the brewer ' s blackbird ' s diet .
in central north america—including kansas , nebraska , saskatchewan , and alberta—the baltimore oriole’s range overlaps with its close relative the bullock’s oriole , and the two species breed with each other . their hybrid offspring—brighter orange than a typical bullock’s , but duller than a typical baltimore—can confuse bird watchers .
rising , j . d . ( 1996 ) . the stability of the oriole hybrid zone in western kansas . condor , 658 - 663 .
the male yellow - headed blackbird is only territorial during the breeding season and forms large flocks while migrating and overwintering .
the yellow - headed blackbird is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
they vary in color from the glossy black of blackbirds to the bright yellow and orange of the oriole . females are usually smaller and duller than males .
whitaker , l . m . 1957 . a résumé of anting , with particular reference to a captive orchard oriole . wilson bulletin 69 : 195 - 262 .
post , w . , and j . wiley . 1976 . the yellow - shouldered blackbird—present and futur e . american birds 30 : 13 - 20 .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - yellow - headed blackbird ( xanthocephalus xanthocephalus )
> < img src =
urltoken
alt =
arkive species - yellow - headed blackbird ( xanthocephalus xanthocephalus )
title =
arkive species - yellow - headed blackbird ( xanthocephalus xanthocephalus )
border =
0
/ > < / a >
post , w . , and j . wiley 1977b . reproductive interactions of the shiny cowbird and the yellow - shouldered blackbird . condor 79 : 176 - 184 .
lanyon , s . m . 1994 . polyphyly of the blackbird genus agelaius and the importance of assumptions of monophyly in comparative studies . evolution 48 : 679 - 693 .
post , w . , and k . w . post . 1987 . roosting behavior of the yellow - shouldered blackbird . florida field naturalist 15 : 93 - 105 .
note fairly long , sharply pointed bill—a useful feature to identify members of the blackbird family . males are brilliant orange and black , with orange shoulder patch and broad white wingbar .
post , w . 1981a . biology of the yellow - shouldered blackbird – agelaius on a tropical island . bulletin of florida state museum biological science 26 : 125 - 202 .
post , w . 1981b . the prevalence of some ectoparasites , diseases , and abnormalities in the yellow - shouldered blackbird . journal of field ornithology 52 : 16 - 22 .
fraga , r . ( 2018 ) . oriole blackbird ( gymnomystax mexicanus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the brewer ' s blackbird ' s nest is a cup of twigs , grass , and weeds and is lined with finer materials . it is placed in a tree or on the ground .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1976 . determination of the yellow - shouldered blackbird as an endangered species and designation of critical habitat . federal register 41 : 510119 - 510122 .
jacobsen , f . & omland , k . e . ( 2012 ) . extensive introgressive hybridization within the northern oriole group ( genus icterus ) revealed by three - species isolation with migration analysis . ecology and evolution 2 , 2413 - 2429 .
the apparent tendency of scott ' s oriole to wander outside of its usual breeding and / or wintering range makes it an interesting subject of study from a variety of perspectives . however , little is known about many aspects of its biology , particularly what it does on the wintering grounds . although general descriptions of the species are common ( e . g . , in books on the avifauna of specific states , parks , or regions ) , most of these accounts are anecdotal , and there has been little systematic study of this oriole . the author studied the phenology , nesting , and parental behavior of the scott ' s oriole for several years in texas ; many of those results are published here for the first time . kozma and mathews (
during the breeding season , the yellow - headed blackbird is found in prairies , meadows and parks ( 2 ) , especially in areas close to freshwater wetlands where there is abundant emergent vegetation ( 3 ) .
there are currently not known to be any conservation measures in place for the yellow - headed blackbird , although it is known to occur in several protected areas in canada and the united states ( 4 ) .
in honor of his superior in the mexican war , gen . winfield scott ( 1786–1866 ) . the existence of the earlier name , however , meant that the general had to settle for being remembered in the species ' common name , scott ' s oriole .
brewer ' s blackbirds to some extent fill the niche of the common grackle in the western u . s . like most blackbirds , brewer ' s blackbirds often associate with other blackbird species outside of the breeding season .
wiley , j . w . , w . post , and a . cruz . 1991 . conservation of the yellow - shouldered blackbird agelaius xanthomus , an endangered west indian species . biological conservation 55 : 119 - 138 .
hernanez - prieto , e . , and a . cruz . 1989 . the mona island yellow - shouldered blackbird project : 1987 - 1988 season report . unpublished report . department of natural resources of the commonwealth of puerto rico .
rising , james d . and nancy j . flood . 1998 . baltimore oriole ( icterus galbula ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
the baltimore oriole breeds across southern canada and the united states east of the rocky mountains and winters mostly from central mexico to northwestern south america . it hybridizes with bullock’s oriole in a narrow zone where their ranges meet in the great plains , and as a result , the two were once lumped together as a single species ( “northern oriole” ) . however , the american ornithologists’ union split them again in 1995 on the basis of genetic studies that showed them not even to be one another’s nearest relatives . the adult male baltimore oriole is bright orange with a black hood and back and a large white wingbar . the adult female has a grayish crown and back and two white wingbars . the underparts range in coloration from almost as bright orange as the male in some individuals to a light orange - yellow in others . immatures generally resemble adult females ; consult field guides for separating these plumages from bullock’s and other orioles . baltimore oriole breeds in northeastern british columbia , east of the rockies , but occurs only casually elsewhere in the province . three of idaho’s four records are from may–june ; the other is from mid - august . washington also has four records , three of them between 31 may and 20 june and the other in early november ; two are from east of the cascades and two are from the westside . half of oregon’s ten records are from fall and winter and the other half are from spring . revised november 2007
dufort , m . j . & barker , f . k . ( 2013 ) . range dynamics , rather than convergent selection , explain the mosaic distribution of red - winged blackbird phenotypes . ecology and evolution 3 , 4910 - 4924 .
post , w . 1976 . population ecology of the yellow - shouldered blackbird . final report to department of interior , office of endangered species . submitted by north carolina foundation for mental health research . contract number 14 - 16 - 0008 - 96 .
smaller and more slender than an american robin , baltimore orioles are medium - sized , sturdy - bodied songbirds with thick necks and long legs . look for their long , thick - based , pointed bills , a hallmark of the blackbird family they belong to .
in winter , the yellow - headed blackbird is generally found around open agricultural fields ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) and pastures ( 4 ) at low elevations , although some individuals have been found at elevations of up to 2 , 500 metres ( 4 ) .
twedt , d . j . and crawford , r . d . ( 1995 ) yellow - headed blackbird ( xanthocephalus xanthocephalus ) . in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
the juvenile yellow - headed blackbird is mostly cinnamon or brown , and the head is slightly lighter than the body ( 4 ) . the sex of a juvenile can be distinguished by the small patches of white on the wing , which are only present in the male ( 3 ) .
barker , f . k . , a . j . vandergon , and s . m . lanyon . 2008 . species status of the red - shouldered blackbird ( agelaius assimilis ) : implications for ecological , morphological , and behavioral evolution in agelaius . auk 125 : 87 - 94 .
baker , j . m . , lopez - medrano , e . , navarro - siguenza , a . g . , rojas - soto , o . r . & omland , k . e . ( 2003 ) . recent speciation in the orchard oriole group : divergence of icterus spurius spurius and icterus spurius fuertesi . auk 120 , 848 - 859 .
the flora of the great lakes region includes white pine , hemlock , sugar and red maples , yellow birch , and beech trees . the fauna of the great lakes region includes deer , black bear , opossum , gray and red squirrels , otter , beaver , fox , coyote and skunk ; birds include eastern bluebird , red - winged blackbird , robin , wood thrush , woodpecker , oriole , bobolink , crow , hawk , bittern , heron , black duck , and loon . further north in the boreal forest area there are moose , caribou , black bear , lynx , timber wolf , marten , beaver , porcupine , snowshoe rabbit , red squirrel , and chipmunk .
during the breeding season , the diet of the yellow - headed blackbird consists mainly of aquatic insects ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , and in winter it mostly takes seeds and grains such as wheat , oats and maize ( 4 ) from agricultural areas ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
fraga , r . ( 2018 ) . scott ' s oriole ( icterus parisorum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
baltimore oriole ( i . galbula ) and bullock oriole ( i . bullockii ) hybridize across the great plains in north america ( corbin & sibley , 1977 ; sibley & short , 1964 ) . several parts of the hybrid zone have been studied ( anderson , 1971 ; corbin , sibley & ferguson , 1979 ; rising , 1983 ; rising , 1996 ; sutton , 1968 ; sutton , 1938 ) . the hybrid zone was characterized genetically by analysing the samples collected by sibley and short ( 1964 ) . this study suggested selection against hybrids ( carling , serene & lovette , 2011 ) , possibly due to different moult and migration schedules ( rohwer & johnson , 1992 ) . estimates of gene flow revealed that nuclear loci introgress beyond the hybrid zone , in contrast to mtdna ( jacobsen & omland , 2012 ) .
starling : a chunky blackbird ( 20cm ) that has a shorter tail and longer bill than other blackbirds of the same size . feathers become speckled during the fall and winter ( one difference between starlings and great - tailed grackles : starlings have much shorter tails ) . food : primarily insects found in lawns , some fruits and seeds .
in late august or september , the yellow - headed blackbird leaves its breeding grounds ( 2 ) ( 4 ) in single - sex flocks to begin its southward migration . the female migrates further south than the male , although both sexes generally arrive in their overwintering grounds between august and september . northward migration to the breeding grounds usually occurs in february or march ( 4 ) .
sometimes referred to as the mountain or desert oriole , scott ' s oriole is actually a little of both , being found most commonly in relatively elevated , arid habitats , particularly the desert - facing slopes of mountains , or semiarid plains between mountain ranges . it seems well adapted to hot , dry environments and typically nests in tree species associated with desert habitats : arboreal yuccas ( yucca spp . ) , desert palms ( washingtonia spp . ) , junipers ( juniperus spp . ) , and piñon pines ( pinus cembroides ) . as might be predicted , therefore , it is more or less restricted to the southwestern united states and western mexico ( figure 1 ) . although considered a neotropical migrant , since individuals breeding in the united states move southward to winter in mexico , some mexican populations may be resident ; a large portion of the breeding and wintering ranges overlap , and a relative lack of information on the species south of the u . s . border makes this uncertain .
the male yellow - headed blackbird is extremely territorial during the breeding season ( 2 ) , which runs between may and june ( 4 ) . the male arrives on the breeding grounds before the female ( 2 ) ( 4 ) to establish its territory , which is usually between 100 and 600 square metres ( 4 ) . territories are not created during winter , when large flocks are formed ( 2 ) .
the male and female yellow - headed blackbird produce dissimilar vocalisations . the male has two songs , including an ‘accenting song’ which is relatively musical and is used to communicate with conspecifics from a distance . the other song is a ‘buzzing song’ which is used to communicate over short distances . the female produces a chatter - like call and both sexes also make a ‘ chek ’ or ‘ chuk ’ call ( 4 ) .
a “midsized” oriole ( compared to others in the genus ) , scott ' s is sexually dimorphic both in size and appearance ; females are slightly smaller than males and have a much less conspicuous dull - yellow to olive - green plumage , with a variable , but limited amount of black feathering on the head . males display delayed plumage maturation : individuals in their first potential breeding season ( yearlings ) are intermediate between females and adult males in appearance . although some of these young , female - like males breed , many do not .
baltimore orioles seek out ripe fruit . cut oranges in half and hang them from trees to invite orioles into your yard . special oriole feeders filled with sugar water supplement the flower nectar that baltimore orioles gather . you can even put out small amounts of jelly to attract these nectar - eaters ( just don ' t put out so much that it risks soiling their feathers ) . planting bright fruits and nectar - bearing flowers , such as raspberries , crab apples , and trumpet vines , can attract baltimore orioles year after year . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .
the genus and specific name of the yellow - headed blackbird ( xanthocephalus xanthocephalus ) means ‘yellow - headed’ , and was given to this species because of the vivid yellow colouration on the head of the male ( 2 ) . the neck and breast of the male are also yellow , while the rest of the body is black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , as is a small area around the eyes ( 4 ) . there are small patches of white on the wings that are particularly visible when the male is in flight ( 2 ) .
seasonally monogamous , scott ' s oriole begins to arrive on its u . s . breeding grounds in late march and stays through july or august , many pairs raising 2 broods , and at least some pairs attempting a third . scott ' s nests are built lower to the ground and are more cup - shaped than the less accessible , baglike nests of the familiar baltimore ( i . galbula ) and bullock ' s ( i . bullockii ) orioles . like these species , however , it seems to defend nesting - only territories , regularly flying great distances to forage , mainly for arthropods . it also feeds on various types of fruit and takes nectar from a variety of sources .
the female yellow - headed blackbird is significantly smaller than the male ( 2 ) ( 4 ) and its plumage is much less distinctive ( 2 ) . the body is mostly dull black - brown , with a pale yellow wash to the upper breast . there are also areas of pale yellow above the bill and eyes , and the throat is white ( 4 ) . both sexes have black legs and a long , conical bill ( 3 ) that is also black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the eyes of this species are dark brown ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the yellow - headed blackbird is not thought to be globally threatened , although there are certain populations that are declining , especially in illinois ( 4 ) . population declines of this species may be due to habitat degradation from wetland drainage and agricultural chemical usage ( 2 ) . this species’ tendency to feed on seeds from agricultural fields has also led to conflict with humans , and farmers have been known to trap and shoot individuals found on their land ( 3 ) . additionally , the herbicides and pesticides used in agriculture may be ingested while feeding which can be extremely harmful to the birds ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
the breeding range of the yellow - headed blackbird stretches through the western and central united states , and the most easterly point of its distribution is thought to be the great lakes . the breeding range of this species also crosses over into canada , from british columbia in the west to southwest ontario in the east . during winter , this species is found in the southern united states in arizona , new mexico and texas , as well as in mexico ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . there are also vagrant populations in the bahamas , saint pierre and miquelon , costa rica , barbados , panama , iceland , greenland and cuba ( 5 ) .
baltimore oriole populations have been declining throughout their range with canada experiencing over a 3 percent loss per year ( resulting in a cumulative loss of 24 percent ) between 1966 and 2010 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates the global breeding population at 12 million , with 82 percent spending part of the year in the u . s . , 18 percent breeding in canada , and 24 percent wintering in or migrating through mexico . they rate a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score and are not on the 2012 watch list . because they breed in north america and winter in central and south america , baltimore orioles are vulnerable to deforestation and habitat loss in many nations ; their conservation requires international cooperation . spraying insecticides onto trees not only kills off baltimore orioles’ insect food , but may poison the birds directly . orioles and many other songbirds migrate at night , when they can become disoriented by lights or rainstorms and crash into tall structures such as skyscrapers and radio towers . back to top
this new world family of medium and large songbirds is very familiar , as most species are common inhabitants in human - altered settings . many are partly to entirely black , often with iridescence or bright markings of some sort . most blackbird species form flocks at certain times of the year , and many form multispecies flocks . blackbirds live in open habitats and eat seeds , grain , and insects . they often forage in agricultural areas , where they can be considered pests . these birds generally forage on the ground where they are well adapted for a behavior called gaping . they insert their long , slender bills into the ground , and then open their bills to get at underground insects . blackbirds also use this technique to get into fruits and some insects , and to reach insects that are cocooned inside wrapped leaves . most build open - cup nests in trees , shrubs , or on the ground . many members of this family are polygynous . females generally build the nests and incubate the eggs , and males help feed the young .
the polygamous male yellow - headed blackbird can have up to 16 females in its harem . some males may not have any females enter their territory during the breeding season , and will go into the territory of another male to mate ( 2 ) . the female selects the nesting site and builds the nest ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , which is a cup - shaped structure built directly over water from long strips of plant material that are woven between the leaves of aquatic vegetation ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the nest usually takes between four and five days to complete ( 4 ) . the average clutch of this species contains two to five eggs ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , which are green - white or grey - white with brown markings across the surface ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the eggs are incubated by the female for 12 or 13 days ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , and once they have hatched , the female is mostly responsible for feeding the young . generally , the more females that a male has in his harem , the less it feeds the young ( 2 ) ( 4 ) and the male may only feed those in the first nest that was built in its territory ( 3 ) . the young remain in the nest for up to 14 days ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , but continue being fed by the female after leaving the nest ( 2 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
n , ne & wc venezuela s through e colombia ( e of andes ) and an isolated spot in cauca valley ; also ne guyana and extreme n brazil ( roraima ) ; and amazonia from e ecuador , ne peru ( s to ucayali ) and extreme se colombia ( leticia , in extreme se amazonas ) e along r amazon ( s to lower r tapajós and lower r tocantins ) to amapá , marajó i and mexiana i ( brazil ) , and french guiana .
male average 30·5 cm , 93·5 g ; female average 27 cm , 92 g . distinctive , large , bright icterid . head and underparts are bright chrome - yellow , upperparts and tail . . .
most vocalizations are screechy , rasping and unmusical . song , by both sexes , variable , usually . . .
almost omnivorous . diet arthropods , including spiders ( araneae ) , crickets ( gryllidae ) and caterpillars ( lepidoptera ) , also small . . .
season may–jun in venezuela , feb in se colombia and mar in peru . probably monogamous . solitary breeder . nest built by both sexes , mostly by . . .
not globally threatened . common in most of range . rare in guyana , from where few recent records ; discovered only recently ( 1980s ) in n brazil ( roraima ) . reported also in w . . .
only subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !
only members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !
closely related to parulidae , and the two may be sisters # r # r . here considered to include icteria ( formerly treated in parulidae ) , within its own subfamily ; all remaining taxa are spread over seven major lineages , here treated as tribes of a second subfamily , whereas others have ranked them as seven subfamilies # r . recent multi - locus molecular phylogeny of present family , on which present treatment is largely based , has further clarified genus and species limits # r .
molecular data contradictory in details , one study indicating closer relationship to hypopyrrhus and lampropsar # r , despite very different plumage , while another , more comprehensive initiative suggests macroagelaius is a nearer relative , albeit all of these genera representing deep - branching lineages # r .
get access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .
also available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 € ( instead of 59 . 90 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 € ( instead of 89 . 85 € )
supporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .
view more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .
also available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 € ( instead of 89 . 9 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 € ( instead of 134 . 85 € )
there is a registration fee of 20€ . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won’t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .
if you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .
this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
no flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .
david ascanio , daniêl jimenez , thore noernberg , josep del hoyo , yoël jimenez , david caro , juan sanabria .
luis r figueroa , miguel emmanuelli , captain peter , philgunson , oswaldocortes , mauricio rueda , digitalbcon , holger teichmann , eduardo freitez gassan , josef widmer , stanislav harvančík , margareta wieser , gustavo a . rodríguez , ken havard , juanjaimemg , allen levine , nelsonlage , lutz duerselen , carlos ruiz . - guerra , marilene rodrigues omena , bruno salaroli , lindolfo souto , camiloorjuela , mikko pyhälä , manakin nature tours .
there are many ways to contribute—we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !
) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
a single bird perched low on a shrub near an irrigation ditch . while calling the breast feathers were puffed . near a carib grackle flock .
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 51 side b track 15 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 46 side b track 35 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 46 side b track 31 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 160 side a track 21 seq . c )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 160 side a track 21 seq . b )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 160 side a track 21 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 160 side a track 20 seq . a )
natural vocalizations from one or two unseen birds in flooded blackwater short - stature vegetation with no canopy . much competing sound from kiskadees and other species on cut .
natural song from a bird on young river island with grass , gynerium , cecropias , and small tessaria .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .
gymnomystax mexicanus : e colombia to venezuela , the guianas , amaz . brazil and ne peru
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
you must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .
avibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 952 times since 24 june 2003 . © denis lepage | privacy policy
turpial encapuchado aseando su plumaje , llamando y cantos de aves , by trucha 1 . 618
medium - sized , sturdy - bodied songbird with a thick neck , long legs , and pointed bill . adult males have an entirely black head and back with an orange rump and orange outer tail feathers .
thick - necked songbird with a long , pointed bill . adult female plumage is highly variable ranging from a brownish to yellowish head and back . note yellow tail and yellow undertail coverts .
immature females have a grayish back with faint streaking and a pale yellow wash on the head and breast . note yellow tail .
female plumage is highly variable . some have brownish heads and backs . note yellow tail and undertail coverts .
found in open woodland , forest edge , orchards , and stands of trees along rivers , in parks , and in backyards .
usually forages in treetops among fine twigs and leaves , where it can be hard to see despite its bright colors .
adult males are flame - orange and black , with a solid - black head and one white bar on their black wings . females and immature males are yellow - orange on the breast , grayish on the head and back , with two bold white wing bars .
baltimore orioles are more often heard than seen as they feed high in trees , searching leaves and small branches for insects , flowers , and fruit . you may also spot them lower down , plucking fruit from vines and bushes or sipping from hummingbird feeders . watch for the male’s slow , fluttering flights between tree tops and listen for their characteristic wink or chatter calls .
look for baltimore orioles high in leafy deciduous trees , but not in deep forests : they’re found in open woodland , forest edge , orchards , and stands of trees along rivers , in parks , and in backyards .
on their breeding grounds in eastern and east - central north america , you’ll most often find baltimore orioles high in leafy deciduous trees , but not in deep forests ; they prefer open woodland , forest edge , river banks , and small groves of trees . they also forage for insects and fruits in brush and shrubbery . baltimore orioles have adapted well to human settlement and often feed and nest in parks , orchards , and backyards . on their winter range in central america , baltimore orioles occupy open woodlands , gardens , and shade - grown coffee and cacao plantations . they frequently visit flowering trees and vines in search of fruit and nectar . back to top
baltimore orioles eat insects , fruit , and nectar . the proportion of each food varies by season : in summer , while breeding and feeding their young , much of the diet consists of insects , which are rich in the proteins needed for growth . in spring and fall , nectar and ripe fruits compose more of the diet ; these sugary foods are readily converted into fat , which supplies energy for migration . baltimore orioles eat a wide variety of insects , including beetles , crickets , grasshoppers , moths , and flies , as well as spiders , snails , and other small invertebrates . they eat many pest species , including tent caterpillars , gypsy moth caterpillars , fall webworms , spiny elm caterpillars , and the larvae within plant galls . however , orioles can also damage fruit crops , including raspberries , mulberries , cherries , oranges and bananas , and some fruit growers consider these birds a pest . back to top
the female chooses a nest site within the territory defended by her mate . she anchors the nest firmly to a fork in the slender upper branches of a tree . baltimore orioles often nest in american elms , but will build in other trees , especially maples and cottonwoods . the distinctive nest usually hangs below a branch , but is sometimes anchored along a vertical tree trunk .
baltimore orioles build remarkable , sock - like hanging nests , woven together from slender fibers . the female weaves the nest , usually 3 to 4 inches deep , with a small opening , 2 to 3 inches wide , on top and a bulging bottom chamber , 3 to 4 inches across , where her eggs will rest . she anchors her nest high in a tree , first hanging long fibers over a small branch , then poking and darting her bill in and out to tangle the hank . while no knots are deliberately tied , soon the random poking has made knots and tangles , and the female brings more fibers to extend , close , and finally line the nest . construction materials can include grass , strips of grapevine bark , wool , and horsehair , as well as artificial fibers such as cellophane , twine , or fishing line . females often recycle fibers from an old nest to build a new one . males occasionally bring nesting material , but don’t help with the weaving . building the nest takes about a week , but windy or rainy weather may push this as long as 15 days . the nest is built in three stages : first , the female weaves an outer bowl of flexible fibers to provide support . next , springy fibers are woven into an inner bowl , which maintains the bag - like shape of the nest . finally , she adds a soft lining of downy fibers and feathers to cushion the eggs and young .
baltimore orioles are agile feeders that comb the high branches of trees in search of insects , flowers and fruit . they are acrobatic foragers , clambering across twigs , hanging upside down , and fluttering to extend their reach . they also fly out from perches to snatch insects out of the air . because they forage in the treetops , they are more often seen than heard , but males often sing from conspicuous posts at the tops of trees , where their blazing orange breast attracts the eye . both males and females may be glimpsed fluttering among the leaves , and come readily to bird feeders supplied with fruit or nectar . many other birds defend large feeding territories , but orioles defend only the space near their nests , and so you may see several neighboring orioles feeding close to each other . when courting , the male displays by hopping around the female , bowing forward and spreading his wings to reveal his orange back . a receptive female responds by fanning her tail , lowering and fluttering her wings , and making a chattering call . back to top
ehrlich , p . r . , d . s . dobkin and d . wheye ( 1988 ) . the birder ' s handbook . a field guide to the natural history of north american birds , including all species that regularly breed north of mexico . simon and schuster inc . , new york , usa .
lee , c . and a . birch . 1998 . field identification of female and immature bullock ' s and baltimore orioles . birding no . 30 : 282 - 295 .
lutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .
north american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .
sauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken
sibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .
males are all black with a purplish sheen to the head and greenish sheen to the wings and upperparts . they have pale eyes .
fall adult males lack the glossy sheen and resemble females , but are darker and more heavily marked .
brewer ' s blackbirds are resident throughout a large portion of the western u . s . , and breed over large areas to the north of their permanent resident range . these migrant birds winter both east and south of their permanent range . the population has declined in recent years .
the shape of a bird ' s wing is often an indication of its habits and behavior . fast flying birds have long , pointed wings . soaring birds have long , broad wings . different songbirds will have a slightly different wing shape . some species look so much alike ( empidonax flycatchers ) that scientists sometimes use the length of specific feathers to confirm a species ' identification .
the song consists of a high , raspy , or buzzy sound . a
chek
call is given as well .
number : usually 4 - 6 . color : grayish in color with darker markings . incubation and fledging : the young hatch at about 12 - 14 days , and fledge at about 13 - 14 days , though remaining dependent on the adults for some time .
if you find the information on birdweb useful , please consider supporting seattle audubon . donate
members of this diverse group make up more than half of the bird species worldwide . most are small . however their brains are relatively large and their learning abilities are greater than those of most other birds . passerine birds are divided into two suborders , the suboscines and the oscines . oscines are capable of more complex song , and are considered the true songbirds . in washington , the tyrant flycatchers are the only suboscines ; the remaining 27 families are oscines .
adult male brewer ' s blackbirds are black with iridescent , purple - green plumage during the breeding season . non - breeding and first - year males are brownish - black , with less iridescence than mature males in breeding season . males in all plumages have yellow eyes . females are dull gray - brown and have brown eyes . they are fairly slender birds , with long wings and tails .
brewer ' s blackbirds are most often associated with agricultural fields that have brushy edges . they can be found in other open areas as well , including parks , campgrounds , parking lots , wetlands , and suburban and urban settings . in washington , they are also seen in shrub - steppe habitats , especially around grazing areas .
brewer ' s blackbirds form flocks outside of the breeding season , and may winter in mixed flocks with other blackbirds . they typically forage on the ground and often follow farm machinery , taking advantage of food turned up by plows .
brewer ' s blackbirds are monogamous and sometimes nest in small , loose colonies . they usually nest in trees , but may nest on the ground , in shrubs , or in tall grass . the female builds a bulky , open cup - nest of twigs , grass , weeds , and needles , lined with grass , rootlets , and hair . mud or manure often holds the base together . the female incubates 4 to 6 eggs for 12 to 14 days , and both male and female feed the young . the young leave the nest 13 to 14 days after hatching . each pair raises one or two broods a year .
some brewer ' s blackbirds are year - round residents , and some ( generally those that breed at higher altitudes or in more northern areas ) migrate into milder areas . the birds that migrate move to the more moderate lowlands of the state including western interior valleys , puget sound , and the columbia lowlands , or they travel farther south to areas across the southern united states and mexico .
brewer ' s blackbirds have benefited from the conversion of eastern washington shrub - steppe habitat into farmland . other human development has also been beneficial for this widespread and abundant species , as it does well in human - altered habitats . christmas bird count data suggest that the wintering population of brewer ' s blackbirds in washington may be in decline . however , this may be a reflection of christmas bird counts that have been added within the past thirty years in areas where brewer ' s blackbirds are not common . the breeding bird survey shows a small , not statistically significant increase in population between 1980 and 2002 .
brewer ' s blackbirds are permanent residents throughout much of washington . large groups gather in the fall at feedlots . they can be abundant in the puget trough and columbia basin ( to the tri - cities area ) in winter . as breeders , they are more common in eastern washington ( where they are common throughout ) than in western washington . in western washington , they commonly breed throughout lowlands in the puget trough , from the san juan islands , west to sequim ( clallam county ) , south to vancouver ( clark county ) , and west to grays harbor ( grays harbor county ) .
, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
emergent aquatic plants whose stems and leaves extend beyond the water’s surface . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ scientific species name ; the second part is the specific name . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . polygamous mating with more than one partner in the same season . prairie an extensive area of flat or rolling , predominantly treeless grassland , especially the large tract or plain of central north america . territorial describes an animal , a pair of animals or a group that occupies and defends an area . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group . vagrant an individual found outside the normal range of the species .
del hoyo , j . and fraga , r . ( 2011 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 16 : tanagers to new world blackbirds . lynx edicions , barcelona . available at : urltoken
nature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken
terms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .
myarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .
team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet’s species and habitats from destruction .
wildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa
among our most familiar birds , red - wings seem to sing their nasal songs in every marsh and wet field from coast to coast . they are notably bold , and several will often attack a larger bird , such as a hawk or crow , that flies over their nesting area . the red shoulder patches of the male , hidden under body feathers much of the time , are brilliantly displayed when he is singing . outside the nesting season , red - wings sometimes roost in huge concentrations .
breeds in marshes , brushy swamps , hayfields ; forages also in cultivated land and along edges of water . breeds most commonly in freshwater marsh , but also in wooded or brushy swamps , rank weedy fields , hayfields , upper edges of salt marsh . often forages in other open habitats , such as fields and mudflats ; outside the breeding season , flocks gather in farm fields , pastures , feedlots .
forages mostly while walking on ground ; also sometimes up in shrubs and trees . outside the breeding season , usually forages in flocks , often associated with other blackbirds and starlings .
3 - 4 , rarely 2 - 6 . pale blue - green , with markings of black , brown , purple concentrated at larger end . incubation is by female only , 10 - 12 days . young : both parents feed nestlings ( but female does more ) . young leave nest about 11 - 14 days after hatching .
both parents feed nestlings ( but female does more ) . young leave nest about 11 - 14 days after hatching .
mostly insects and seeds . feeds on many insects , especially in summer , including beetles , caterpillars , grasshoppers , and others ; also spiders , millipedes , snails . majority of adult ' s annual diet ( roughly three - fourths ) is seeds , including those of grasses , weeds , and waste grain . also eats some berries and small fruits .
to defend his territory and attract a mate , male perches on high stalk with feathers fluffed out and tail partly spread , lifts leading edge of wing so that red shoulder patches are prominent , and sings . also sings in slow , fluttering flight . one male often has more than one mate . adults are very aggressive in nesting territory , attacking larger birds that approach , and loudly protesting human intruders . nest : placed in marsh growth such as cattails or bulrushes , in bushes or saplings close to water , or in dense grass in fields . nest ( built by female ) is bulky open cup , lashed to standing vegetation , made of grass , reeds , leaves , rootlets , lined with fine grass .


the huhu beetle ( prionoplus reticularis ) is the largest endemic beetle found in new zealand , a member of the longhorn beetle family ( cerambycidae ) .

huhu is now often used as the name for all stages of life of the beetle , but traditionally huhu was the māori name for the larval stage , which was also known as tunga rakau or tunga haere .

the whitish larvae are up to 70 millimetres ( 2.8 in ) long and normally feed on dead wood of gymnosperms ( mainly native and introduced conifers ) .

the native host plants are all associated with lowland podocarp forest .

they are edible , and are said by some to taste like buttery chicken .

as the huhu reaches maturity it ceases to bore and casts its skin .

this still edible stage is known in maori as tataka .

it then develops wings and legs , and while it is still white , it is known as pepe .

finally it emerges and flies off to reproduce and is known as a huhu beetle or to maori as tunga rere .

in this full adult stage it no longer eats food and only lives for approximately 2 weeks .

the beetles are most active at night and are attracted by the lights of dwelling .

though not usually aggressive , huhu beetles are known to bite when mis-handled .

huhu beetle

prionoplus reticularis , the huhu beetle forest and timber insects in new zealand no . 35 : huhu beetle . revised 2009 based on g . p . hosking ( 1978 ) insect : prionoplus reticularis white ( coleoptera : cerambycidae ) fig . 1 - huhu beetle ( male ) . …
edwards , john s . ( 1961 ) . observations on the ecology and behaviour of the huhu beetle prionoplus reticularis white .
hosking , g p . ( 1978 ) . prionoplus reticularis white ( coleoptera : cerambycidae ) huhu beetle . new zealand forest research institute 35 .
huhu with ovipositor extended . closeup of the ovipositor . this organ can extend .
to my surprise , the first insect that i found was a large longhorn beetle ( family cerambycidae ) . with a length of 50mm , hairy body , large mandibles and beautiful elytra reticulated in yellow , one could not miss it resting on the asphalt . i later learned that this was the huhu beetle , prionoplus reticularis , new zealand’s largest endemic beetle .
the whitish larvae are up to 70 mm long . huhu beetle larvae are commonly known as huhu grubs . they hatch from eggs deposited under bark or in crevices in rotten wood . for two to three years they live in cavities they have eaten into the wood , then begin a pupal stage that lasts 25 days . they emerge as flying adult huhu beetles .
prionoplus reticularis , is the largest endemic beetle found in new zealand , a member of the longhorn beetle family cerambycidae . a common name for the beetle is haircutter because of the long legs and antenna covered with sharp hooks . if a huhu beetle lands on the hair of a person they become so entangled that scissors must be used for extraction . the beetles are most active at night and are attracted by the lights of the dwelling and only live for about two weeks . they do not feed
hi josh , this is a longhorned borer beetle in the subfamily prioninae , known as the prionid beetles . while trying to identify it , we found this nice link to information on the giant fiji longhorn borer , xixuthrus heros , with awesome vintage images of the indigenous people of fiji eating the grubs . continued searching led us to a wikipedia page on the huhu beetle , prionoplus reticularis , and we verified that identification with other websites . like many other prionids , the grubs of the huhu beetle are edible , and were considered to be a delicacy among the maori , according to the treknature website . the huhu beetle is the largest beetle in new zealand . to the best of our knowledge , the longhorned borer beetles are not predators , and we are surprised at your claim that it fed upon a moth .
kingdom : animalia phylum : arthropoda class : insecta order : coleoptera family : cerambycidae subfamily : prioninae genus : prionoplus species : p . reticularis binomial name : prionoplus reticularis common names : huhu beetle , pepe tunga , haircutter .
if you disturb a huhu beetle in the daytime , it ' s very reluctant to take flight . in the evening , it takes up to thirty minutes to get properly airborne , with a lot of stumbling walks and bumbling flights and crash - landings as it warms up .
to the best of our knowledge , the huhu beetle is not found in new york , however , there are over 1000 longhorned borer beetles from the same family cerambycidae , according to bugguide , that are found in north america . our guess is a different species in the same family .
so what do you do to get rid of unwanted huhu beetles inside your house ? turn the outside lights on , turn the inside lights off , open the door . . . and wait .
huhu beetle season is around november to march , with the greatest numbers appearing during midsummer december and january . they get active around dusk , with peak activity around late evening to the middle of the night . females tend to be more active earlier in the evening they spend considerable periods of the night staying in one place , sending out attractive smells to males , who are of course buzzing around seeking out the attractions .
huhu beetle season is from november to march , with the greatest numbers appearing during midsummer december and january . they get active around dusk , with peak activity around late evening to the middle of the night . females tend to be more active earlier in the evening they spend considerable periods of the night staying in one place , sending out attractive smells to males , who are of course buzzing around seeking out the attractions .
protecting our eucalyptus trees wednesday , june 20 , 2018 scion are undertaking community pre - consultation on a proposed biological control of the eucalyptus tortoise beetle . eucalyptus plantations are a recognisable part of new zealand’s diversified forestry industry . they provide pulp and…
are the huhu beetles spread out in us , ny state ? i was taking apart an old hemlock stump in my garden , dug up about a dozen of huge white larvae and fed them to my chickens . they loved it !
most of us are familiar with the loud whirr that signals the flight of new zealand ' s largest beetle the huhu . these longhorn beetles ( their long wavy antennae give the family its name ) are common and noisy visitors to well - lit rooms on summer evenings , often crash - landing with a rustling clatter . they seem alarming , but they ' re harmless , though their powerful jaws , which they don ' t use for eating , can inflict a painful nip if they ' re mishandled .
huhu with wing case open ready to fly photo of prionoplus reticularis 2mm eggs which are deposited under bark or in crevices in rotten wood . the photos below are of wood - boring larvae of prionoplus reticularis larva of huhu beetle ( underside ) . note the two white patches close to the head by which the larva can be identified . the grubs underside the mouthparts . the pupa . found in an excavated cavity in pine wood , this stage lasts for about 25 days . the underside of a pupa . photo of pupa showing the long antennae . photos below were taken 14 days later after this pupa has shed its skin . this is a photo of the above pupa 14 days later when it shed its skin . the old skin is visible in the photos .
huhu see the outside world for only about two weeks , as adult beetles . most of the rest of their lives are . . . well . . . boring . they ' re wood - bound larvae , the famous huhu grubs , chewing up , digesting , and excreting vast amounts of wood fibre - part of nature ' s vast waste disposal army . the waste , in this case , is timber , particularly fallen branches and trunks , dead branches on living trees , and tree stumps .
the wood - boring grub found in logs or dead trees of matai , rimu , and kahikatea , and known as huhu , is eaten , either raw or roasted , in its first two stages of growth . the following are its names in the four stages : —
the traditional predators of adult huhu beetles are other night fliers such as moreporks . these days , introduced animals such as mice , pigs , and hedgehogs are fond of them and are known to consume them in large numbers . magpies , being very early morning risers , snap up straggling home goes .
the beetles can be dangerous . a huhu bug invaded a hamilton family ' s living room one summer evening , startled their saluki dogs , and was pounced upon and consumed whole by their cat . the following morning , the cat was sick , it would not eat or move . by the afternoon , it was dead .
huhu beetles have proved to be resilient insects in a rapidly changing environment . they are found throughout new zealand , from the coast to the tree line about 1400 metres above sea level , from native and exotic forests to woody suburbs . they are strongly attracted by artificial light , the most common cause of their interaction with the human world .
huhu beetles are common in native and exotic forests , where their larvae feed on rotting wood . they are one of new zealand’s larger beetles , with a body length of 5 centimetres . adults cannot eat , and live for only two weeks . in this time they mate , and females seek out fallen logs or dead branches where they can deposit their eggs .
the adult huhu beetles do not feed and live for about two weeks only . these insects spend most of their lives in the larval stage , boring into and feeding on dead wood . they can become pests in sawn timber and logs , eventually destroying the wood and leaving just the outer shell . the larvae are considered delectable wild food and were traditionally harvested by the māori people to be eaten raw or cooked ( note to self : i need to try this ) . at the end of their growth the larvae reach an impressive body length of 70mm and create a chamber for pupation . the adult beetle emerges from the pupa after 25 days and uses its strong mandibles to break free from the pupation chamber in the wood . the whole life cycle can take up to several years .
about the only traditional predators of adult huhu beetles were other night fliers such as moreporks . these days , introduced animals such as mice , pigs , and hedgehogs are fond of them and are known to consume them in large numbers . you can imagine the beetles being particularly at risk during their somewhat sluggish early evening routines . magpies , being very early morning risers , snap up straggling homegoers .
the grub ' s final job is to prepare a place to pupate . it excavates an oval chamber in the wood , lines it with woody strands and frass , and lays itself up to change into a pupa . after about twenty - five days , the adult beetle emerges . it cuts its way to the outside with its powerful jaws , and exits , leaving a twenty - millimetre hole about twenty times larger than the one it entered by .
the small green beetle which is found on the manuka bushes when in flower in summer - time was an article of food . it is called kekerewai or tutaeruru . * it is also known as the manu a rehua , presumably a sort of emblematical term . they were collected in quantities and pounded up , then mixed with the tahuna of the raupo plant , already mentioned , cooked in a steam - oven by the process termed tapora—i . e . , packed in a small basket—and eaten .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
food products of tuhoeland : being notes on the food - supplies of a non - agricultural tribe of the natives of new zealand ; together with some account of various customs , superstitions , & c . , pertaininy to foods
will probably surprise many to learn that a non - agricultural tribe of maoris obtained in the north island of new zealand to within comparatively late times . it was in this wise : before their conquest of the ruatoki and waimana districts the tuhoe or urewera tribe possessed no lands on which the
might be cultivated , their country consisting of remarkably rugged and high - lying ranges , with narrow gullies between them , and with nothing in the way of flat land or alluvial soil . the three cultivated food plants enumerated above , possessed by the maori in pre - european days , will not thrive in this region , and hence the denizens of tuhoeland , the children of the mist , were compelled to subsist upon the products of forest and stream . of course , when the potato was acquired from the early european voyagers to these shores , then it was found that the new
tuber flourished exceeding well in tuhoeland , and this new food product must have been an immense boon to these bush - men .
until the introduction of the potato there were practically no clearings in the great forest which covers this rugged district . as the people had nothing to cultivate , and , moreover , as all their food - supplies were obtained from the forest , it behoved them to interfere with that forest as little as possible . the natives lived in small , scattered settlements , each consisting of a few huts situated in a small clearing . also in those days but little fern - root was obtainable within the boundaries of the tuhoe tribe , and it was not until they occupied the ruatoki , waimana , te whaiti , and waikare - moana districts that they came into the possession of lands producing the aruhe , or edible fern - root .
according to maori belief , the earth mother it is who provides her descendants with food , which she does out of affection for her offspring , who were scattered afar across the world in the days of the gods . one division of the tuhoe people—viz . , ngai - tama , of te waimana—carried their respect for the earth mother so far as never to bury their dead in the ground , but always placed the bodies up in trees . it was not right , according to their ideas , to put the bodies underground , as it is the earth which produces food for man .
food ever occupies a very important position in the native mind . their thoughts , conversation , proverbial sayings , and stories deal frequently with this subject . this probably springs from the fact that food was difficult to procure in the old days , and called for almost continuous effort in one way or another , hence such work occupied their minds almost as much as their time . each month , as it came round , in all seasons , had its task for the bushmen , birds or rats to be caught or certain berries to be gathered and preserved .
it is not my intention in this paper to describe the innumerable methods of taking birds and rats ( kiore ) , with the rites , superstitions , & c . , pertaining thereto , which obtained here in former times . the task is too lengthy for the time at my disposal now ; and , moreover , i hope to include such in a paper on “forest lore and woodcraft , ” to be prepared and forwarded in the future .
as observed , the procuring of food occupied much of the time ; skill , and thoughts of the maori . the man who was diligent in procuring food was thought much of , while other accomplishments would often appear to have taken second place . i chanced to remark one day that piki , of tuhoe , must have been a great composer , so many songs being attributed to him . an old native observed , “yes ; he composed
a great many songs , but i think that means that he was a very lazy man . ”
times of scarcity of food were by no means rare . these would usually occur before the bird - taking season in the interior of the island , and often on the coast when the sea was too rough to permit of fishing - canoes going forth . at such a time natives would exert themselves as little as possible , and would spend most of their time in lying down . they would rise late , take an enormous drink of water , and then lie down again . some time after they would partake of the one scanty meal of the day , after which they would again lie down . they drank great quantities of water at such times .
usually the old - time maori would have two meals a day . they would rise early and proceed to the work of the day , in the cultivations or elsewhere . having worked several hours , they would partake of the first meal , prepared by the women , at nine or ten o ' clock . they would then recommence work and proceed until quitting - time , which was usually early . after this the second meal was eaten . in returning to the protecting fort for the night the women would bear on their backs great bundles of firewood or of food .
when the rev . mr . colenso visited waikare - moana in december , 1841 , he found the natives of that place had scarcely any food at the time , and were living upon roots and herbs and a few potatoes which they had left from the previous year .
the maori is ever closely in touch with nature , owing not only to their ever searching for the products of forest , plain , and waters , but also to the fact of their genius for personification and the belief that the human race , animals , fish , birds , trees , & c . , are all sprung from a common source , are all descendants of the sky father and the earth mother . we shall note some singular results of this belief in the present and also in future papers .
the maori larder was sadly deficient in flesh foods , and this may possibly have had something to do with their cannibalism , for they were undoubtedly fond of human flesh as a food , with the exception of those who were koto—i . e . , who had a feeling of repugnance towards that unnatural diet .
the domestic dog ( kuri ) was not numerous enough to form an important item in the native bill - of - fare , but its flesh was highly esteemed . this dish , however , only appeared on important occasions , as at a feast , or when prepared for a distinguished visitor . the hindquarters of the kuri are said to have been the best eating . its flesh was sometimes used as an o matenga , or food for the death journey , on account of its delicacy from a maori point of
view . when a person was near unto death a special food would be prepared as a last meal for the dying person . earthworms ( toke ) were a favourite article for this purpose , and it is said that the sweet flavour ( tawara ) of that prized food would be detected on the palate of the eater for two days after the meal .
apparently the kuri , or at least one breed thereof , that known as ruarangi , was possessed by the first maori inhabitants of this land . judging from the way in which this animal is spoken of in the local traditions , it appears probable that there were two breeds or varieties of the domesticated dog here in former times .
the flesh of the kiore , or native rat , was highly prized by the maori , and formed one of the principal food - supplies of tuhoeland . this little creature was very numerous in this district formerly , more especially on the high - lying ranges , where it fed on the beech mast , and was trapped in great numbers . it disappeared about the early “fifties . ” the expression “tau niho roa” was applied to a season when the kiore were particularly numerous , and hence bold in stealing from the food - stores of the natives . the flesh of the rat was preserved for future use in the same manner that birds were—viz . , by taking out the bones and placing the flesh in a vessel , which was then filled up with melted fat , which preserved the contents . rats and birds preserved in this manner are termed huahua . old natives say that the bones of the rat were pulled out quite easily , that the flesh did not appear to adhere to them . when cooked for immediate consumption the rat was wrapped in leaves of the fern termed petipeti and placed in the hapi , or steam - oven . such a wrapper or envelope for birds or fish is termed kopaki or poutaka . the rat was cooked without being skinned . they were caught in traps and pits , which we will describe later on . it is said that two kinds of rats obtained here , the matapo , a black variety , and the tokoroa , a grey one .
an old myth of the bay of plenty tribes tells us that pani was the ( mythical ) mother of the kumara , and that one hinemataiti , a younger sister of pani , was the origin of the rat .
regarding the cannibalism of the maori , human flesh was not only eaten after a battle , but also it was preserved for future use as huahua , in the manner described above . when rations fell short or some special food was required for a feast or to place before a guest a slave would be very likely knocked on the head , and his body consigned to the oven . again , special raids were often made for the purpose of procuring human flesh or to capture a person to be slain , cooked , and eaten , in order to give prestige to certain rites of old , such as the opening of a new house , the tattooing of a chief ' s
daughter , or the performance of the tua rite over a new - born child .
the diet of the tuhoe tribe was ever largely vegetable , and we will commence with those plants or trees of which the roots or subterranean parts were eaten .
this is the root of pteris aquilina var . esculenta , the plant being known as rarauhe , and the young shoots or fronds thereof as mokehu . it is the common fern seen almost everywhere in unimproved open country .
among various peoples , more especially those living in the more primitive culture stages , a feeling akin to reverence is evinced for staple foods . mahomet said to the arabs , “honour the date palm , for it is your mother . ” in like manner the maori should honour the fern - root , for it has ever been a most important article of food in these isles , more especially among those tribes who had no access to the coast , and with whom the kumara and taro did not flourish or thrive without much labour and care .
however , the maori has honoured the aruhe by assigning to it a celestial origin , thus placing it on a level with man : for the origin , personification , or parent of the aruhe is haumia , one of the offspring of rangi and papa , the sky parent and the earth mother , and brother to rongo , the origin of the kumara , or sweet potato . for maori mythology teems with such allegories or personifications , and with many singular metaphorical terms .
hence fern - root is often termed the peka o haumia , and was often spoken of as the salvation of man , it being a great and ever - obtainable stand - by when other food - supplies ran short . an old native once said to me , “let me explain to you . the ancestor who ever provides for his descendants is haumia . the food he provides for man is seen on hill and plain and in the valleys between . that is the good work of haumia , the supplying of his descendants with food . for haumia is the origin of the mokehu ( fern ) , and the children of the mokehu are the waeroa ( mosquitos ) , who , with their companions the namu ( sandfly ) , ever wage war against man . and haumia - roa ( a term for fern - root ) was the principal food of the ancient people of this land before the kumara and taro were brought hither from hawaiki . ”
this haumia must not be confused with his descendant haumia - nui , who was a female , and who married tiwaka - waka , the earliest human resident in aotearoa ( new zealand ) of whom tradition tells us . we give below the descent of haumia from rangi and papa : —
haumia is spoken of in an allegorical manner as being the bones and flesh of papa ( the earth ) . “papa , the earth mother , said to her offspring , ‘i will provide sustenance for you . ’ hence the maori people dig into the earth to procure fern - root from their ancient mother . just think of man . a child is born of the female parent , and is fed on the milk of the mother and attains manhood . even so is man fed by his ancient mother , the earth” .
the natives recognise different varieties of fern - root , each having its name . we give here a list of such names obtained in this district : —
[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]
the term tuakura is applied to inferior fern - root , which is brown or reddish in appearance when broken . the prized varieties are thick roots , containing very few of the black fibres ( kâkâ ) , and which are brittle when broken , exposing a fine white interior . a cake made of the pounded meal of the fern - root is termed komeke .
the principal implement used for digging fern - root was the kaheru , which was made from a hard wood , as maire or mapara , and was from 2 ft . to 3 ft . in length . one end thereof was sharp and flattened , about 4 in . in width ; the other end , being the hand - grip , was round ( topuku ) . another implement sometimes used for the purpose was the rapa maire , a sort of rude wooden spade . the ko , or planting - tool , was also sometimes used to dig fern - root .
when engaged in digging for fern - root a karakia , or charm , known as a tewha was recited in order that a plentiful supply might be obtained . we append specimens of these charms : —
the following is a taumaha , a form of charm used for much the same purpose as we say grace before meals . such invocations were much used in ceremonies pertaining to the first fruits of birds , fish , crops , & c .
prior to the repeating of the above the first root dug was roasted at a sacred fire by the priest officiating , who would probably eat the roasted meal of the aruhe himself , he being the medium of the gods .
a place where fern - root was dug was termed a tawaha aruhe or karinga aruhe . the fern was burned off these places about every third year , for two reasons—to render the roots white , and to prevent the fern being smothered or overgrown ( kaikairakau ) by scrub , such as manuka , mako , & c . this burning was done at the time when the hinau and whakou * were in bloom . if the burning was left until the blooming of the rata and the korukoru , † then the fern - root would become brownish ( mawera ) in appearance , and be unfit to eat . fern - root was dug when the mokehu , or young growth of fern , had attained its full height—that is to say , in the early summer . but in times of scarcity it would be dug at any time .
[ footnote ] * whakou : the flower of the tawari tree is so termed in tuhoeland .
[ footnote ] † korukoru : name of the pirinoa , a parasitical plant , when in flower . it usually grows on tawai trees .
into baskets ( kete ) in layers , this latter process being known as whakamātāa . these baskets are then stored in the cooking - huts or food - stores . when the cooked article is required the fern - root is roasted at a fire and the outside part scraped off , and the root is then beaten and pounded with a short club 10 in . or 11 in . in length . * when pounded the black stringy fibres are taken out and the root again pounded , after which the mealy portion is eaten . or the meal is cleaned and pressed into cakes termed komeke , which are round and about 8 in . in length . these were again roasted at a fire , which prevented them from crumbling and formed them into a compact mass . these cakes or rolls were sometimes steeped in the juice of the berries of the tutu shrub , of which more anon . this latter was quite a treat to the neolithic gourmands . komeke aruhe was the chief food carried by war parties when on the trail of tu . it is said to be a very sustaining food .
when fern - root was required to be kept for some time it was placed under water in some convenient pool , where it would be kept for possibly a year .
fern - root grounds were jealously guarded in former times , and woe betide the outsider who attempted to dig roots there . tapuha , of ngati - apa , was slain by te arawa at pekepeke , on the kaingaroa plains , for the above offence ; while ngati - hape slew te rakau , of ngati - apa , for taking fern - root and eels on the kuha - waea block , at galatea . serious inter - tribal wars were often caused by these acts of trespass .
“ te manawa nui o whete ” ( the sustaining - power of whete ) is a local saying applied to the fern - root . whete was a valorous ancestor who , prior to going into battle , would consume a large quantity of fern - root cakes , and then perform prodigies of valour .
“ kaua e patu i te aruhe i te po . he upoko tangata , he tohu aitua . ” do not pound fern - root at night - time . a human head , an evil omen . if you do so , then your head will soon be pounded by the weapon of an enemy .
“ ka ora karikari aruhe , ka mate takiri kaka . ” the fern - root digger will survive when the parrot - snarer is assailed by hunger . you can obtain fern - root at any season , but parrots are only taken during the winter .
rotari . } a term applied to young fern - root not yet fit for digging .
[ footnote ] * this club , termed by tuhoe a patu aruhe , but by some tribes a paoi , is here made of the hard wood of the maire tree , but among some tribes stone ones were used .
mata kai awatea . a term applied to fern - root . the first word is probably mātā ( see above ) , while the last two words refer to the prejudice against pounding fern - root at night .
te aka o tuwhenua is another expression used for fern - root . the creeper of the solid earth , in allusion to the far - reaching roots of the rarauhe .
“the perei is an orchid , scientifically known as gastrodia cunninghamii . it is not at all a common plant . ” *
when camped at ruatoki last summer our camp cook drew my attention to several plants of perei growing near the creek , where they were sheltered by a growth of scrub , and so protected from stock . the stalks were from 2 ft . to 3 ft . in height . at the foot of each was a mass of small tubers or roots from ½ in . to ¾ in . in thickness .
some singular notions prevail among the natives in regard to the perei . it did not , according to the maori , originate in or from the earth , but was formed by the gods . again , when engaged in digging for the roots the word perei must not be mentioned or no roots will be found . at such a time it is termed maukuuku . for a similar superstition in tahiti , see tregear ' s dictionary under kapara ; also a singular note concerning the mandrake - root in lang ' s “custom and myth . ” similar beliefs also exist among the maori in regard to birds .
the perei was dug in the winter season , and dried by exposure , as fern - root is . it was either roasted at a fire or cooked in the steam - oven . it was not found in any quantity , but would be dug up when seen .
the ti is known on the east coast as kouka , and in some other districts as whanake .
1 . ti kouka ( cordyline australis ) , the common “cabbage - tree . ”
the ti tawhiti does not appear to have been known here , unless it is identical with the ti para , above .
all of the above species provided food for the maori . the young leaves were sometimes eaten . the roots of the above varieties of cordyline , except that of the toi , were all eaten . the top or head of the tree was cut off in the fourth month of the maori year— i . e . , the month mahuru , which is the spring month ( august - september ) —in order that the sap might not rise , or , as the maori puts it , that the sap might return to the tap - root . then , when the planting season ( koanga ) arrived the root of the tree was dug up , usually in the fifth month of the maori year , and placed in a steam - oven , where it was cooked for two days . it was then taken out and allowed to become cold before being eaten , the fibrous matter being , of course , rejected . it is said to be remarkably sweet . hence , doubtless , the reason why it was prized by the natives , whose saying for the food , “he kouka ki te awatea , he ai ki te po , ” shows the estimation in which it was held .
the ti para was the most highly prized of the cordyline , as it furnished the best food material , and both trunk and tap - root ( more ) were cooked and eaten . the trunk was about 2 ft . to 3 ft . in height in this district . this variety was cultivated for food , and does not appear to have grown wild here . it is now extinct in the district . this variety is said to have been eaten by the chiefs only .
the head ( kouru ) of the toi was cooked in a steam - oven and eaten— i . e . , the top of the trunk , which is the soft part , the young unexpanded leaves of the tree . this section of the trunk was split into two or more pieces before being placed in the oven .
tradition states that one roau brought seeds or plants of the ti , taro , and karaka ( a tree , corynocarpus lœvigata ) to new zealand in the “nukutere” vessel . the two former are known in this district as te huri a roau ( the seed of roau ) . the ti brought by him is said to have been planted at pokere - kere , and its name was whakaruru - ma - tangi . the “nukutere” canoe made the land at waiaua , near opotiki .
the soft , mealy roots of this swamp plant were eaten , the larger ones being selected for food . these roots are termed karito . the outer part was peeled off , leaving the soft interior , the ıho , which was eaten both raw and cooked in a steam - oven ( hapi ) .
among the mātātua tribes , but termed tahune elsewhere ) of this plant . the tahuna is described in williams ' s dictionary as the “pappus of seed of raupo . ” the raupo is only found on the outskirts of tuhoeland , hence it did not form an important part of the tuhoean food - supply . a good description of the making of a sort of bread from the tahuna may be found in the rev . taylor ' s “te ika a maui . ” my own notes on the subject are meagre .
we will now see what berries or fruits were included in the food - supplies of the tuhoe people , this being an important source of food of these forest - dwelling people , for the three principal items in such supplies were the berries of the hinau and tawa trees and birds .
the berries of the hinau ( elœocarpus dentatus ) were largely used in former times , and even now to a small extent . the kernel of the berry is covered with a mealy substance , which is the edible part . this meal is made into a sort of cake and so cooked . the berries are collected from the ground under the trees into baskets and put into a house until dry , probably for a couple of days . they are then poured into a wooden trough ( kumete ) , and pounded with a short club or pestle of hard maire wood or stone . this process is termed tuki , and is to free the meal from the stones of the berries . the pounded berries are then put in a basket , which serves as a sifter , and is made of strips of ti leaf , with small openings left between the strips . this basket is called a tatari or kete puputu . the meal is sifted over a closely woven mat , and the meal escapes from the basket and falls upon the mat , the stones of the fruit being retained by the basket . this meal is then put into another basket with smaller spaces and again sifted , in order that any stones ( karıhı , or iwi , or iho ) that may have escaped the coarser sieve will be retained . the refuse— i . e . , the stones—still have a certain amount of meal ( termed renga ) adhering to them . they are therefore cast into a wooden trough or bowl , water is poured over them , and the mass is stirred about with the hands until the adhering meal is washed off . then the stones are scooped up with the hands and cast away . the meal - and - water mixture ( termed wai haro ) is then stone - boiled ( huahua ) by means of throwing hot stones into it , and is then drunk . it is a sort of gruel .
the meal which has been sifted is collected from the mat and placed in a bowl , where water is poured on it , and it is mixed ( poipoi and pokepoke ) into a mass and then placed in shallow baskets termed rourou . these baskets are made from the leaves of the mauri or of the kokaha ( probably both astelia ) , and are lined with leaves of the paraharaha
( a fern ) . the meal in the basket is also covered with the same kind of leaves , the covering process being known as raupi . by this time the steam - ovens are ready , and the baskets of meal are put into the ovens and covered up . they are cooked for two hours or more , and are then taken out and placed in the food - stores , where these cakes , or rather steamed puddings , will keep good for a long time . in late times the meal has been mixed with honey in place of water . in appearance this food when cooked is dark in colour , and looks both solid and heavy . it somewhat resembles a dried linseed poultice . i have eaten it , but may say that i prefer my bread and beefsteak . this , however , may be mere racial prejudice on my part .
the following saying is applied to the above food : “kia whakaara koe i taku moe , ko te whatu turei a rua” ( when you awaken me from my sleep let it be for the purpose of eating the whatu turei a rua—hinau meal ) .
the kernel of the fruit of the tawa tree ( nesodaphne tawa ) furnished a large proportion of the food of these bushmen in former times , and , moreover , it was an article that could be kept as a stand - by for years . hence during seasons when this fruit was plentiful large quantities of the kernels were dried and put away in the food storehouses .
the kernel only of this fruit is preserved . the pulpy outside matter is only eaten by children . this food is still in use here . the fruit is collected from beneath the trees where it has fallen and spread out to dry , after which it is placed upon a flax mat and beaten , in order to free the kernels from the skins and pulp . in cooking the tawa berries natives are most careful in preparing the steam - oven for same . after the fire is raked out and the oven arranged a layer of karamuramu leaves is used to line the oven with , then a layer of fronds of the heruheru fern is put in , then a layer of manono ( syn . , raurēkau ) leaves , then a layer of hanehane leaves , then one of leaves of the rau - tawhiri , and finally a layer of fronds of the paraharaha fern . the kernels of the tawa are then poured in loose and covered with the same covering ( rautao , generic term ) and the oven closed . the paraharaha leaves are said to have the effect of destroying the natural odour or flavour of the tawa kernels and of imparting to them its own . these particular leaves are used because they are said to impart a brown appearance to the tawa , which colouring is considered desirable . they are allowed to remain in the steam - oven for forty - eight hours before being taken out . this long process of cooking is termed tāwhâkâmoe , or taopaka . after the long steaming they are spread out on mats until thoroughly dry ,
when they are put away in the stores . when it was required that a meal of the tawa should be prepared , the kernels were placed in a wooden trough with water and stone - boiled until soft , when they were pounded or mashed and so eaten . the arawa people use their boiling springs instead of the steam - oven for the above purpose . latterly it has been the custom to mix honey with the mashed kernels , and , of course , stone - boiling is a thing of the past . the ovens used for such purposes as the above were long ones , and not the small round kind generally used .
a peculiar article of food was made from the berries of the tutu or puhou shrub ( coriaria ruscifolia ) , also known as tūpā - kihi . the berries of this shrub grow in clusters , and ripen in the seventh and eighth months of the maori year ( hakihea and kohitatea ) . the clusters are plucked from the branches and squeezed or crushed in a bowl ( kumete ) , and the stalks thrown away . a small bag or basket is made of split strips of ti leaves , and some plumes of the toetoe ( arundo conspicua ) placed inside it as a lining . this bag is termed a pu tutu . the liquid mass of crushed berries is poured into the pu , which is suspended over a bowl , which receives the liquid as it drips from the pu , but the huarua , or seeds , of the tutu berries are retained by the lining of the bag . * the juice is usually kept in gourds , where it soon becomes tetepe—i . e . , “set”—and resembles jelly , but is more liquid below than on top . prepared fern - root was sometimes mixed with this jelly . thus prepared the berries are quite harmless , but if eaten before being strained , and so freed from the poisonous huarua , then the result is disastrous . many natives died from eating these berries in former times , principally children . persons so affected were placed bodily into cold water , and , it is said , would sometimes recover when treated so . since the advent of europeans salt has been used as an antidote for tutu poison ; presumably it was used as an emetic . te rauna , of the harassed poho - kotia tribe , when so poisoned , took about half a bottle of painkiller as a cure . he survived both poison and cure .
fern - root was usually eaten with the tutu in this district . in an account of his sojourn in the ngati - porou country , on the east coast , the rev . mr . colenso says , “in the houses of the natives a quantity of thick succulent fucus was hung up to dry , which they used as an article of food , mixing it with the expressed juice of the tupakihi to give it consistency . this fucus they called rimurapa . ”
[ footnote ] * the bag is squeezed in order to force the juice out .
ful owners by means of the rahui , of which more anon . such a grove , called ure - takohekohe , grew at ohae , on the whai - tiripapa block , at ruatoki . any person coming to take fruit from that grove in defiance of the rahui would be slain .
“ me te whata raparapa , tuna e iri mai ana te tutu ” ( the tutu berries hang as thick and black as eels on a drying - stage ) is a saying applied to the tutu when covered with the ripe fruit .
many kinds of small berries or fruits were eaten by the natives ; for instance , those of the rımu , kahikatea , matai , and totara trees . in gathering these berries the person would climb far up into the head of the tree , and , gathering the same , would put them into a basket , which , when full , he would lower to the ground by means of a long cord attached to it . these baskets would be taken to a stream and the contents washed to free the same of leaves and rubbish , after which it would be eaten , without cooking .
the berries of the tapia , a parasite which grows on the puahou * tree ( syn . , houhou and tauparapara ) , are also eaten without cooking , as also are those of the kotukutuku † and poporo , ‡ the fruit of the former being termed hona and that of the latter kahoho . the karaka does not grow in this district .
the flower - bracts ( tāawhără ) and fruit of the kiekie ( frey - cinetia banksii ) were eaten , but this climbing plant does not obtain in these highlands , although it is found , together with the nikau and mamaku , in the lower part of the whakatane valley .
we now come to the plants , & c . , of which the leaves were used as food , including several of which the undeveloped leaves were eaten .
this is the black fern - tree of the settlers . the part eaten is that termed the koata—i . e . , the soft inner part of the upper
portion of the trunk . the main part of the trunk and the curled undeveloped fronds were not eaten . koata is a term applied to the upper part of acrogenous plants , and from which the leaves or fronds grow . this section is cut off and then the hard outer part is chipped off , a stone axe being formerly used for these purposes . the soft interior part is then cooked in a steam - oven for forty - eight hours , but the food is always eaten cold .


xerocrassa jimenensis is a species of air-breathing land snail , a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family hygromiidae , the hairy snails and their allies .

this species is endemic to the provinces of cádiz , málaga and seville in andalusia , southern spain .

xerocrassa jimenensis

xerocrassa jimenensis . offered by malacowiki , the site of the iberian molluscs ( urltoken ) for hires , choose 1080p ( full hd ) on the bottom right corner and play it full screen .
some species of xerocrassa are instead considered to belong to the subgenus xerocrassa , within the genus trochoidea ; in those cases the species are listed under the generic name trochoidea .
x . jimenensis is endemic to the south of spain , in the andalusian provinces of cádiz , málaga and southern seville ( puente and arrébola 1996 ) .
xerocrassa is a genus of small , air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs in the family hygromiidae , the hairy snails and their allies .
puente , a . i . & arrébola , j . r . 1996 . deux espèces nouvelles de trochoidea ( xerocrassa ) du sud de la péninsule ibérique ( pulmonata , helicoidea , hygromiidae ) . - bulletin du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( série 4 section a ) 18 ( 1 - 2 ) : 55 - 67 . paris .
shell of variable shape ( flat to almost globulous ) , solid or semitransparent , with variable colours or whitish , finely striated , with short hairs ( 0 . 24 - 0 . 27 mm ) , lower side convex , umbilicus large ( 0 . 9 - 1 . 7 mm ) and excentrical .
references : puente & arrébola 1996 , welter - schultes 2012 : 523 ( range map ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
although it is often possible to differentiate this species from x . zaharensis only using shell characteristics , a positive identification can only be determined by studying the reproductive system ( puente and arrébola 1996 ) .
is considered as near threatened ( nt ) on a precautionary basis , as it almost qualifies for criteria b1 and b2a . it is found in 12 locations and the number of individuals within the subpopulations is relatively low . fires are frequent in this region and one fire could wipe out a single subpopulation . however , if more subpopulations of this species were to be found , then it is likely that it would be reassessed as least concern ( lc ) .
this species is living in open places in karstic , disturbed and pasture environments , characterized by a low herbaceous cover ( puente and arrébola 1996 ) . it is mentioned in some of the extensive calcareous mountains of andalusia .
apart from the fires , no specific threats are known for this species , but further studies are needed ( including on the population , biology . . . ) to determine potential threats .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
bank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
species xerosecta introducta ( a . & j . b . villa , 1841 )
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken