leptopsammia is a genus of stony cup corals in the family dendrophylliidae .

members of this genus are found at depths down to about 900 metres ( 3,000 ft ) .

they are azooxanthellate , meaning that they do not contain symbiotic photosynthetic algae as do many species of coral .

leptopsammia

sunset cup coral leptopsammia pruvoti group on vertical rock below overhang at the knoll pins , lundy .
sunset cup coral leptopsammia pruvoti on vertical rock on submerged cliff - line offshore of plymouth sound .
group of sunset cup corals leptopsammia pruvoti on vertical rock at depth 30 m , plymouth sound old cliff - line .
leptopsammia pruvoti has no known obligate relationships so removal of other species is unlikely to have any effect on the population .
it is extremely unlikely that leptopsammia pruvoti would be extracted . the species is the subject of a uk biodiversity action plan .
similar species : could be confused with yellow or orange specimens of balanophyllia regia but leptopsammia pruvoti is a much larger species .
this facies with the madreporian ( yellow coral ) leptopsammia pruvoti occurs on hard substrata at the entrance to caves and under overhangs .
the synonym leptopsammia microcardia was last used by abel ( 1959 ) and rutzler , 1966 despite the general recognition of their synonymy since 1954 .
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picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . leptopsammia pruvoti lacaze - duthiers , 1897 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
anonymous , 1999f . sunset cup coral ( leptopsammia pruvoti ) . species action plan . in uk biodiversity group . tranche 2 action plans . english nature for the uk biodiversity group , peterborough . , english nature for the uk biodiversity group , peterborough .
citation : caroselli e , zaccanti f , mattioli g , falini g , levy o , dubinsky z , et al . ( 2012 ) growth and demography of the solitary scleractinian coral leptopsammia pruvoti along a sea surface temperature gradient in the mediterranean sea . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e37848 . urltoken
jackson , a . 2008 . leptopsammia pruvoti sunset cup coral . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken
( of leptopsammia microcardia döderlein , 1913 ) cairns , s . d . ( 2009 ) . on line appendix : phylogenetic list of the 711 valid recent azooxanthellate scleractinian species with their junior synonyms and depth ranges , 28 pp . in : cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge university press , cambridge . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
leptopsammia pruvoti tends to inhabit low light environments such as caves , crevices and overhangs . in the mediterranean the species is found in very dark conditions ( riedl , 1966 ) . if the presence of some light is of critical importance , increased light transmission may mean that ( if recruitment occurs ) the species can extend its depth range ( in the clear waters of the western mediterranean the lower depth limit is 40m as opposed to 30m elsewhere .
decreases in flow rate are unlikely to have any effect as leptopsammia pruvoti can be found in areas with negligible water flow . increases in water flow rate may interfere with the ability to feed or to hold the tentacles out in the current . however , a thriving population has been found on the wave exposed west coast of lundy . reproduction may be restricted and body condition may be lost as a result of increases in water flow rate . on resumption of ' normal ' water flow rates recovery will probably occur within a few months .
observations from aquaria suggest that the species is very tolerant to temperature increases , tolerating up to about 30 ° c for several days . similarly , observations from aquaria suggest that , once established it survives in temperatures below its normal range . leptopsammia pruvoti distribution extends south into the mediterranean where water temperatures are considerably warmer than in the british isles . however , the species is at the northern limit of its range and long term chronic decreases in temperature would probably cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
hoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .
milne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 135113 on 2018 - 07 - 09
cairns , s . d . , hoeksema , b . w . , and j . van der land , 2001 . scleractinia , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 109 - 110 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
veron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson publishers , london . [ details ]
cairns , s . d . , baron - szabo , r . , a . f . budd , b . lathuiliere , e . roniewicz , j . stolarski , and k . g . johnson , 2010 . corallosphere , available online at urltoken [ details ]
cairns , s . d . , 2001 . a generic revision and phylogenetic analysis of the dendrophylliidae ( cnidaria : scleractinia ) . smith . cont . zool . 615 : 75 pp . , 14 pls . , 3 figs . [ details ]
cairns , s . d . ( 2000 ) . a revision of the shallow - water azooxanthellate scleractinia of the western atlantic . studies on the fauna of curacao and other caribbean islands . 125 : 1 - 235 . [ details ]
cairns , s . d . ( 2009 ) . on line appendix : phylogenetic list of the 711 valid recent azooxanthellate scleractinian species with their junior synonyms and depth ranges , 28 pp . in : cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge university press , cambridge . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
zibrowius , h . ( 1980 ) . les scléractiniaires de la méditerranée et de l ' atlantique nord - oriental . mémoires de l ' institut océanographique , monaco , 11 . musée océanographique de monaco : monaco . 3 volumes , including bibliography and taxonomic index pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 191 [ details ]
the slow - growing and long - lived sunset cup coral has a porous skeleton ( 1 ) about the size of a thimble ( 2 ) . the polyps are similar in appearance to sea anemones and are bright yellow in colour , reaching up to three centimetres in diameter ( 2 ) .
little is known of the biology of this coral . limited monitoring of populations at lundy and the isles of scilly suggests that settlement of new corals does not occur every year . this is possibly determined by long - term cycles in factors such as water temperature ; settlement only occurring in warmer years ( 4 ) .
recorded in the north - east atlantic in the channel isles , brittany and portugal , it is also found in the mediterranean . it was first recorded in britain in 1969 from the island of lundy , and is now known to occur in a few isolated sites in the south - west of england ( 1 ) .
you can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .
this species preferentially inhabits shaded areas of bedrock , for example in caves and gullies or under overhangs ( 1 ) , and usually occurs below the depth of kelp forests ( 2 ) .
the sunset cup coral is not listed under any directives or conventions and is not protected by uk legislation . it is a uk bap priority species ( 1 ) .
in u . k . waters the sunset cup coral reaches the northern limit of its range . this means it probably exists here at the limit of the environmental extremes it can tolerate . consequently , it may be particularly susceptible to relatively small changes in its environment . for example , slight drops in water temperature may prevent successful reproduction . populations at lundy may fail to successfully recruit new corals as lundy is a small island swept by strong currents . thus larvae may be carried away before they are able to settle on suitable rock .
the sunset cup coral has been targeted as a priority species by uk biodiversity action plan . the species action plan that results from this process aims to improve current understanding of the life history , range and numbers of the species and to maintain the extent and numbers of all populations discovered by 2004 ( 1 ) .
there may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .
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larvae stage in an animalâ€™s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . plankton / planktonic aquatic organisms that drift with water movements ; may be either phytoplankton ( plants ) , or zooplankton ( animals ) .
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the sunset cup coral is a bright yellow or orange stony coral . it has a tentacular polyp that emerges from a porous , calcareous skeleton . the skeleton may be short and cylindrical or tall and inversely conical . it is typically solitary but is rarely found in small groups forming ' pseudocolonies ' . the tentacles are quite long and number around 96 . when fully retracted the tentacles are barely visible inside the skeleton .
portland bill , lyme bay , off plymouth sound , the isles of scilly and lundy only . believed to no longer occur in north devon near ilfracombe where it was present in 1969 ( k . hiscock , pers . comm . )
found throughout the mediterranean west of cyprus and in the adriatic . also on the atlantic coasts of sw england , the channel isles , brittany and portugal . it has not been recorded despite targeted survey in madeira , the azores , or the canary isles .
prefers shaded bedrock or stable boulders and is typically found in caves and gullies or under overhangs . found at open coast locations mainly facing away from prevailing winds . it is commonest between 10 and 30 m with a maximum depth of 40 m recorded in the western mediterranean .
almost always solitary but sometimes found as small groups of corallia arising from one base ( pseudocolonies ) .
the corallum may be from short and cylindrical to tall and inversely conical , height to 60 mm , diameter of the calyx to 17 mm .
moderately strong 1 to 3 knots ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 m / sec . ) , very weak ( negligible ) , weak < 1 knot ( < 0 . 5 m / sec . )
this species is at the northern limit of its range possibly forming a relict from a larger previous distribution . it is now restricted to ' ideal ' locations .
this marlin sensitivity assessment has been superseded by the maresa approach to sensitivity assessment . marlin assessments used an approach that has now been modified to reflect the most recent conservation imperatives and terminology and are due to be updated by 2016 / 17 .
this species is permanently attached to the substratum so substratum loss would cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
this species is permanently attached to the substratum and would be unable to avoid or ' dig - out ' from smothering . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
this species is permanently attached to the substratum and would be unable to avoid changes in siltation . however , the species tends to inhabit caves or overhangs which are less likely to be exposed to suspended material settling out . the polyp will most likely ' inflate ' with water to expand above the silt if briefly covered . increased siltation may clog feeding apparatus and there would be an energetic cost to clearing this sediment . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
the species is only found subtidally ( typically 10 - 30 m ) and the polyp is soft bodied . exposure to desiccating influences would cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
the species is only found subtidally ( typically 10 - 30m ) and the polyp is soft bodied . emersion from the water would cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring . recruitment from distant water bodies may occur every 25 - 30 years . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
the species inhabits a range of wave exposures from exposed to sheltered . decreases in wave exposure may not have any effect on the species but increases in wave exposure may affect the ability to feed and extend tentacles . however , a thriving population has been found on the wave exposed west coast of lundy . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
this species probably has very limited facility for vibration detection and as such is unlikely to be sensitive to noise .
this species has very limited ability to detect changes in light levels and no visual perception and as such is unlikely to be sensitive to visual disturbance .
the calcified skeleton of this species is brittle . physical disturbance or abrasion would cause detachment and death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production , or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment was not recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is likely but may also occur from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s ( keith hiscock pers obs . ) . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
this species is permanently fixed to boulders or bedrock - displacement would certainly cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
changes in nutrient concentration are unlikely to affect this species greatly unless there is a smothering effect through enhanced growth of ephemeral algae . high calcium levels may benefit skeleton construction . on removal of the factor , death of the algae etc and resumption of normal feeding , water flow etc , return to original condition should take only a short time .
the species is only found in fully saline environments and at depths unlikely to be affected by freshwater surface runoff ( 10 - 30m ) . observations from aquaria suggest that these animals are quite tolerant to slight changes in salinity but reductions of one or two salinity bands are likely to cause death . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
cole et al . ( 1999 ) suggest possible adverse effects on marine species below 4 mg / l and probable adverse effects below 2mg / l . a reduction in oxygen concentration may cause some individuals of a population to die although observations from aquaria suggest that these animals are quite hardy . gamete production , synchronous gamete production or successful recruitment are very unpredictable and sporadic primarily due to unfavourable environmental conditions . local recruitment has not been recorded at lundy during more than 12 years of monitoring but occurred to a small extent in 1998 . local recruitment is most likely but may also be from distant water bodies perhaps every 25 - 30 years . there has been no observation of colonization of wrecks or new natural surfaces near to existing colonies such as the breakwater at plymouth sound constructed in the early 1800 ' s . recovery will take a very long time or may not occur at all .
hayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .
herndl , g . j . & velimirov , b . , 1985 . bacteria in the coelenteron of anthozoa : control of coelomic bacterial density by the coelenteric fluid . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , 93 , 115 - 130 .
howson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]
lacaze - duthiers , h . de , 1897 . faune du golfe du lion .
manuel , r . l . , 1988 . british anthozoa . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 18 . ]
riedl , r . , 1966 . biologie der meereshöhlen . topographie , faunistik und okologie eines unterseeischen lebensraumes . eine monographie . 636 pp . berlin : verlag paul parey .
sanderson , w . g . , 1996 . rare benthic marine flora and fauna in great britain : the development of criteria for assessment . joint nature conservation committee , peterborough . jncc report , no . 240 .
zibrowius , h . , 1980 . les scleractiniaires de la mediterranee et de l ' atlantique nord oriental . memoires de l ' institut oceanograhique , monaco . 11 , 391 pp .
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little is known of the biology of this coral . limited monitoring of populations at lundy and the isles of scilly suggests that settlement of new corals does not occur every year . this is possibly determined by long - term cycles in factors such as water temperature ; settlement only occurring in warmer years ( 4 ) .
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description : solitary stony coral . corallum often tall and inversely conical , its texture is slightly spongy but less so and tougher than balanophyllia , up to 60mm tall and nearly 20mm in diameter . the polyp is yellow or orange in colour and has up to 96 tentacles .
habitat : attached to rocks in crevices sheltered from strong water movement ; from about 10 - 40m . several corals may grow together , forming a pseudocolony .
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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editor : sebastian c . a . ferse , leibniz center for tropical marine ecology , germany
copyright : © 2012 caroselli et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : the research leading to these results has received funding from the european research council under the european union ' s seventh framework programme ( fp7 / 2007 - 2013 ) / erc grant agreement n° [ 249930 – coralwarm : corals and global warming : the mediterranean versus the red sea ] . this research was financed by the associazione dei tour operator italiani ( astoi ) , the marine and freshwater science group association , and the ministry of education , university and research ( miur ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
climate change is the defining environmental , economic , and social issue of our time , and it is now certain that the rapid increase in co 2 concentration in the atmosphere since the 19 th century industrial revolution is driving significant changes in the physical and chemical environment of earth [ 1 ] . the rate of global climatic changes is accelerating , and the average surface temperature of the earth is likely to increase by 1 . 1–6 . 4°c by the end of the 21 st century [ 2 ] . growing evidence suggests that climate change is having more substantial and rapid effects on marine communities than on terrestrial ones [ 3 ] . synergy among increased seawater temperature , enhanced ultraviolet - b ( uvb ) radiation , surface ocean acidification , and human anthropogenic stress is affecting all levels of ecological hierarchies in a broad array of marine ecosystems [ 4 ] . the magnitude of temperature warming is expected to be greater in temperate areas than in tropical ones [ 2 ] . the mediterranean basin is likely to be one of the regions most affected by the ongoing warming trend and by an increase in extreme events [ 5 ] , thus representing a natural focus of interest for research . the mediterranean is already one of the most impacted seas in the world , due to its central position as the cradle of civilization in antiquity , and as a contemporary hub of oil and commodities shipping [ 6 ] . the enhancement of interactions between climate change and many other disturbances such as eutrophication caused by fertilizer runoff and the damming of rivers [ 7 ] all increase the stresses to which mediterranean biota are exposed .
since the first investigations , the characteristics of scleractinian population structure and dynamics have been related to environmental conditions and their effects on these corals ' symbiosis with unicellular algae [ 8 ] – [ 12 ] . it is now commonly accepted that the demographic traits of coral populations may reveal relationships between the organisms and their environment , and can be used to assess habitat stability and suitability [ 8 ] , [ 13 ] – [ 16 ] . moreover , information such as population turnover can be used to design strategies for reef restoration and bioremediation of degraded or damaged coastal areas [ 17 ] – [ 20 ] .
notwithstanding their importance , few studies have quantified life - history parameters of scleractinian corals , partly because of the processes of fragmentation , fusion and partial colony mortality , which cause corals of similar size to be of widely different ages , thus distorting the age - size relationships [ 12 ] , [ 21 ] . the scarce studies on population dynamics of scleractinian corals were reviewed in the ‘70 s , describing their growth and survivorship [ 17 ] . since then , demography has been studied for some species in the southwestern atlantic [ 22 ] , pacific [ 23 ] , red sea , caribbean , great barrier reef , and the mediterranean [ 16 ] . replication , growth and death of the modules can be used to model the growth of modular individuals [ 24 ] , and studies of modular growth have often focused on plasticity of form and the complexity of both individual colony growth and population dynamics of these organisms [ 12 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 25 ] .
coral age can be reliably determined in species whose individuals rarely fragment or fuse , and where partial mortality can be recognized by anomalies in the regular growth pattern [ 19 ] , [ 21 ] . the growth and dynamics of modular organisms that fulfill these prerequisites can be analyzed using age - based models applied to colony morphology [ 8 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] . in some solitary corals , age estimates can be obtained from externally visible growth bands [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] . growth band analysis has been used to determine the age of colonial scleractinian and gorgonian corals [ 27 ] – [ 29 ] , and in solitary forms [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 30 ] . hence , for some species growth and population dynamic models based on age can be applied to describe demographic characteristics [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] . recently , an age - based beverton - holt model provided an adaptive management approach for regulating an octocoral fishery for bioactive compounds in the bahamas , avoiding long - term characterization of population dynamics which is rarely feasible [ 32 ] .
the aim of this study was to determine the growth and population dynamics traits of l . pruvoti in sites along a latitudinal gradient spanning 850 km along the italian west coast and a 2°c range of average sst . considering the detrimental population conditions reported in sites with higher ssts for the mediterranean solitary dendrophylliid coral balanophyllia europaea studied in the same sites , during the same time interval , and using the same methods as the present study [ 16 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 40 ] , we tested the hypothesis of a negative correlation with sst for the growth and population dynamics traits of l . pruvoti . ours is the first investigation of the growth and demography characteristics of an azooxanthellate scleractinian along a natural sst gradient . the counterintuitive results we obtained are considered in relation to the possible different sensitivity to global warming between corals hosting algal symbionts and those devoid of such mutualistic symbioses .
abbreviations and coordinates of the sites in decreasing order of latitude : gn genova , 44°20′n , 9°08′e ; cl calafuria , 43°27′n , 10°21′e ; lb elba isle , 42°45′n , 10°24′e ; pl palinuro , 40°02′n , 15°16′e ; sc scilla , 38°01′n , 15°38′e ; pn pantelleria isle , 36°45′n , 11°57′e .
( coefficient of determination of the semi - log regression of eq . 2 , which is an estimator of population structure stability ) and demographic parameter values of each sampled populations .
all collected corals were dried at 50°c for four days and observed under a stereoscope to remove fragments of substratum and calcareous deposits produced by other organisms . corallite length was selected as the main biometric parameter , since it is a good indicator of skeletal mass and has been used as the primary measure of size in other biometric , reproductive biology and population dynamics studies of this species and other solitary corals [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 30 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 37 ] , [ 43 ] – [ 45 ] . corallite length ( l : maximum axis of the oral disc ) of all corals ( see table 1 for number of corals in each site ) was measured using a caliper , and corallite mass was weighed with an analytical balance [ 20 ] , [ 44 ] , [ 46 ] .
by means of computerized tomography ( ct ) , the number of annual growth bands was counted on about 30 skeletons randomly selected from the collected samples aimed at obtaining an objective relationship between corallite size and age . this technique is commonly applied to scleractinian corals [ 47 ] , [ 48 ] and has been successfully used for l . pruvoti [ 30 ] . the age of each skeleton was determined from the growth - band counts , based on one high - density band in winter and a low density band in summer [ 30 ] , [ 49 ] .
data were fitted with exponential curves to verify the exponential decrease of growth rate with age assumed by the von bertalanffy growth model . n = number of individuals dated by computerized tomography scans ( ct ) .
the population size structures were obtained from the survey transects , and age structure was determined using equation 1 . in a theoretical steady state population , 100 % of the variance of the frequency of age classes is explained by age . to estimate population structure stability , the age frequency distribution was analyzed using a regression analysis of the natural logarithm of the numbers of individuals ( frequency ) in each age class (
the mean age of the individuals at each site was computed from that of samples dated with the growth curve ( equation 1 ) . the observed percentage of individuals below sexual maturity was obtained by summing the frequencies of the age classes below sexual maturity , which is 2–3 years ( 3 mm length ) [ 30 ] , [ 37 ] . the theoretical mean age was estimated as that of the theoretical number of individuals at each site . the theoretical percentage of individuals below sexual maturity was estimated by summing the frequencies of the theoretical number of individuals of the age classes below sexual maturity at each site .
the observed biomass distribution per age class was obtained by adding the mass of each corallite in each age class . a theoretical age - mass growth curve was obtained for each site using the age - length growth curve ( equation 1 ) and the length - mass relationship from [ 34 ] . the theoretical biomass distribution per age class was then obtained by multiplying the theoretical number of individuals in each age class ( according to the survivorship curve , equation 3 ) for the expected mass at that age . the theoretical age at maximum percentage biomass was estimated as the age class representing the highest percentage biomass . the observed age at maximum percentage biomass was determined in the same way , using the observed biomass distribution . the observed mean age of biomass in the population was calculated as the sum of the products of the observed biomass in each age class multiplied by its age , then divided by the total observed biomass . this parameter estimates how old the biomass is at each site ; populations with most of the biomass accumulated in younger corals will have a lower mean age of biomass than populations in which most of the biomass is represented by older individuals [ 16 ] . the theoretical mean age of biomass in each site was calculated in the same way , but using the theoretical biomass in each age class and the total theoretical biomass .
sst data for the years 2003–2005 were obtained for each location from the national mareographic network of the agency for the protection of the environment and technical services ( apat , now renamed to superior institute for environmental research and protection , ispra , data available at urltoken ) . the data were from stations close to the sampling sites ( < 1 km ) at a depth of 1 m below minimum low tide level . mean annual sst values were computed from hourly measurements from january 2001 through january 2005 ( table 1 ) . three digital thermometers ( i - button , ds1921g - f5 # , maxim integrated products , dallas semiconductors ) were placed close to the experimental sites of genova , calafuria , scilla and pantelleria at 16 m , to record seawater temperature every 2–3 hours during a time interval depending on the site ( figure s1 ) . thermometers were replaced every 3 months to avoid problems of encrustation and overgrowth by marine organisms . thermometer data were used to check if sst data are representative of the temperature at the depth of coral sampling .
because of the heteroskedastic data sets , non - parametric kruskal - wallis was used to compare mean sst among the sites . analysis of covariance ( ancova ) was used to compare the slopes and intercepts of the equation of the ford - walford plots from which k and l ∞ values were obtained . pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for estimating population structure stability at each site ( coefficient of determination of equation 2 ) , and for the relationships between sst and l ∞ , k , population structure stability , observed and theoretical % of individuals below sexual maturity , observed and theoretical mean age , observed and theoretical age at maximum % biomass , observed and theoretical mean age of biomass . because of the low n value ( n = 6 ) and the assumptions of the pearson method , correlation coefficients were also estimated with bootstrapping [ 58 ] , with 100 , 000 resamples . the non - parametric kolmogorov - smirnov test was used to compare the age frequency distributions among sites . all analyses were computed using pasw statistics 18 . 0 .
the correlation between average daily sst data from data banks and average daily temperature data collected by the digital thermometers at 16 m produced r 2 values ranging from 0 . 784 to 0 . 935 , indicating that 78–94 % of the variance of seawater temperature at 16 m is explained by sst variations ( fig . s1 ) . at calafuria , the mean difference between sst and temperature at 16 m on an annual basis was 2 . 18°c ( sd = 1 . 98°c ; se = 0 . 04°c ) . sampling sites were characterized by significantly different mean annual sst values ( kruskal - wallis , p < 0 . 001 ; table 1 ) .
all sites were characterized by a negative exponential relationship between mean growth rate and age , with age explaining 45–74 % of growth rate variance ( fig . 3 ) . growth rates decreased from 1–1 . 5 mm year −1 at age < 5 years to 0 . 4–0 . 8 mm year −1 at age > 10 years ( fig . 3 ) .
l ∞ and k values ( table 1 ) were not significantly different among sites ( ancova for the slope and intercept of the “ford - walford” plot used to estimate l ∞ and k , p > 0 . 05 ) . age - length data obtained by growth band counts in all the sites were thus merged together , obtaining a general “ford - walford” plot to estimate general l ∞ and k values ( table 1 ) . these parameters produced a general age / length von bertalanffy growth curve describing growth across all the sampling latitudinal range ( fig . 4 ) .
dotted line indicates the maximum expected length of corals in all populations ( l ∞ = 15 . 4 mm ) . points indicate the age / size of all samples in all populations dated by ct scans ( n = 175 ) from which the general growth curve was obtained .
all collected individuals in all sites were dated using the general age - length growth curve . the oldest individual came from the scilla population ( sc ) with an estimated age of 28 years ( 12 . 8 mm length ) . the age - frequency distributions ( fig . 5 ) were significantly different among sites ( kolmogorov - smirnov , p < 0 . 001 ) . for each site , a regression of the natural logarithm of the number of individuals ( frequency ) in each age class ( n t ) was computed ( eq . 2 ) . the r 2 values of these regressions varied between 0 . 410–0 . 838 and were not correlated with sst ( table 1 ) . no observed or theoretical demographic parameter obtained by the analysis of the age - frequency structures was significantly correlated with sst ( table 1 and 2 ; fig . 5 ) .
the lines indicate the theoretical distributions . the observed ( arrow ) and theoretical ( black square ) age class containing the mean age of the individuals of sampled population are indicated . the observed ( black column ) and theoretical ( black circle ) age at maximum percentage biomass are indicated . asterisks indicate the age at sexual maturity . data for the calafuria population ( cl ) are from [ 30 ] . n number of individuals dated by growth curves .
correlation analyses between sea surface temperature ( independent variable ) and demographic parameters ( dependent variables ) in the sampled populations .
the 78–94 % of the variance of seawater temperature at the depth of coral sampling ( 16 m ) was explained by variations in sst , indicating that sst generally follows the actual temperature trend present at the sampling depth , as shown by the temperature trends at both depths ( fig . s1 ) . at the calafuria site , were a full year ( november 2001–november 2002 ) of measurements were available , 84 % of sst variance was explained by variations of temperature at 16 m ( fig . s1 ) . this trend was maintained across the 4 analyzed populations , which include the northern ( genova ) , coldest ( calafuria ) and southern - warmest ( pantelleria ) sites were corals were collected , and is likely to be maintained also in elba and palinuro , which are in between the other sites . thus , sst has been used as variable to discriminate thermal differences among sites to allow meaningful comparisons between this study and previous investigations on other mediterranean scleractinian , all of which correlated biological parameters with sst [ 16 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 40 ] .
polyps of l . pruvoti in all of the studied populations were found to reduce their growth rate with increasing age ( determinate growth ) . within the mechanical constraints of organism design , the environment plays a key role in determining the maximum size an organism can attain [ 59 ] . growth can also be limited by energetic costs , and when an individual decreases its growth rate and has an upper size limit , the excess energy no longer allocated to growth as the individual gets older can be allocated to other processes such as sediment removal , locomotion , maintenance , and reproduction [ 60 ] – [ 62 ] . coral species known to have a determinate growth include colonial octocorals [ 27 ] , [ 32 ] , [ 63 ] , [ 64 ] and scleractinians such as the branching pocillopora spp . [ 65 ] , the massive goniastrea aspera [ 66 ] , and the free - living manicina areolata [ 67 ] . most species for which a determined growth has been observed are solitary forms , such as many free - living fungiids [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 68 ] , [ 69 ] , the free - living deep coral flabellum alabastrum [ 70 ] , and attached polyps such as b . elegans , paracyathus stearnsii [ 71 ] , b . europaea [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , and l . pruvoti [ 30 ] . in these species , the determinate growth could be due to ageing or to a preferential energetic allocation towards processes other than growth , such as reproduction .
comparison between sst and temperature at 16 m depth during the indicated time interval . the left column shows correlation analyses between average daily sst and temperature at 16 m ( left column ) in the sampling sites for the indicated time interval . the right column shows sst ( red line ) and temperature at 16 m depth ( black line ) trends . n number of samples ( days )
we wish to thank l . bortolazzi , a . comini , m . ghelia , l . tomesani , centro immersioni pantelleria , il pesciolino , polo sub , and submaldive , bologna scuba team , scientific diving school and marine science group for help and assistance . g . neto for the picture of l . pruvoti living specimens . the experiments complied with current italian law .
conceived and designed the experiments : sg . performed the experiments : ec gm . analyzed the data : ec . wrote the paper : ec fz gm gf ol zd sg .
hoegh - guldberg o ( 2011 ) the impact of climate change on coral reef ecosystems . in : dubinsky z , stambler n , editors . coral reefs : an ecosystem in transition . dordrecht : springer science + business media bv . pp . 391–403 .
solomon s , qin d , manning m , chen z , marquis m , et al . ( 2007 ) climate change 2007 : the physical science basis . cambridge : cambridge university press . 996 p .
richardson aj , poloczanska es ( 2008 ) under - resourced , under threat . science 320 : 1294–1295 .
walther gr , post e , convey p , menzel a , parmesan c , et al . ( 2002 ) ecological responses to recent climate change . nature 416 : 389–395 .
lejeusne c , chevaldonné p , pergent - martini c , boudouresque cf , pérez t ( 2010 ) climate change effects on a miniature ocean : the highly diverse , highly impacted mediterranean sea . trends ecol evol 25 : 250–260 .
queguiner j ( 1978 ) the mediterranean as a maritime trade route . ocean manage 3 : 179–189 .
tsimplis mn , zervakis v , josey s , peeneva e , struglia mv , et al . ( 2006 ) changes in the oceanography of the mediterranean sea and their link to climate variability . in : lionello p , malanotte - rizzoli p , boscolo r , editors . mediterranean climate variability . amsterdam : elsevier . pp . 227–282 .
grigg rw ( 1975 ) age structure of a longevous coral : a relative index of habitat suitability and stability . am nat 109 : 647–657 .
buddemeier rw , kinzie ra ( 1976 ) coral growth . oceanogr mar biol annu rev 14 : 183–225 .
bablet jp ( 1985 ) report on the growth of a scleractinian . proc 5
hughes tp , jackson jbc ( 1985 ) population dynamics and life histories of foliaceous corals . ecol monogr 55 : 141–166 .
bak rpm , meesters eh ( 1998 ) coral population structure : the hidden information of colony size - frequency distributions . mar ecol prog ser 162 : 301–306 .
meesters wh , hilterman m , kardinaal e , keetman m , de vries m , et al . ( 2001 ) colony size–frequency distributions of scleractinian coral populations : spatial and interspecific variation . mar ecol prog ser 209 : 43–54 .


dendrochirus is a genus of scorpionfishes that are mostly known as dwarf lionfishes .

they are native to the indian and pacific oceans .

the fu manchu , dwarf zebra , and fuzzy dwarf lionfish are members of this genus .

they are also popular aquarium fish .

dendrochirus

maggie whitson marked
zebra turkeyfish ( dendrochirus zebra )
as trusted on the
dendrochirus zebra
page .
dendrochirus barberi is taken for the aquarium trade ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
nistha sirapattarapongkul added the thai common name
ปลาสิงโตลายขวาง
to
dendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )
.
nistha sirapattarapongkul added the thai common name
ปลาสิงโตแคระ้้ม้าลาย
to
dendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )
.
holotype specimen of the tuamotu dwarf lionfish ( dendrochirus tuamotuensis ) . note the unusually bilobed pectoral fins . credit : matsunuma & motomura 2013
lionfish of this species , dendrochirus , are allowed to be shipped into the state of florida . only species of the genus pterois are banned .
maggie whitson marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
dendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )
.
justification : dendrochirus bracypterus is widespread throughout the indo - pacific and is not uncommon . there are no known major threats ; therefore , it is listed as least concern .
a dwarf lionfish , dendrochirus brachypterus , in port stephens , new south wales , july 2012 . source : ian shaw / inaturalist . org . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial
justification : dendrochirus zebra is widespread throughout the indo - pacific and can be locally abundant in parts of its range . there are no known major threats ; therefore , it is listed as least concern .
dendrochirus bellus inhabits rocky littoral and sublittoral zones and occurs over sandy mud or gravel bottoms . the maximum recorded length for this species is 15 cm ( masuda et al . 1984 , poss 1999 ) .
( of dendrochirus chloreus jenkins , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
justification : dendrochirus bellus has a relatively small range from northern vietnam to japan . it inhabits rocky reefs and is not uncommon . there are no known major threats ; therefore , it is listed as least concern .
( of dendrochirus hudsoni jordan & evermann , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
justification : dendrochirus barberi is known only from around the hawaiian islands and johnston atoll , but is very common . this species is also taken for the aquarium trade , though the level this is impacting populations is unknown . it is listed as least concern .
this species is not uncommon throughout its range , but is rarely observed ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) . little is known regarding its population status . there are 109 museum records of dendrochirus biocellatus ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , urltoken , 2015 - 04 ) .
dendrochirus bellus ranges from northern vietnam , to china , taiwan and japan . the depth range for this species is 4 - 100 m ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) . a record from new caledonia may be a mis - identification ( fricke et al . 2011 ) .
dendrochirus brachypterus has many common names : short - fin lionfish , fuzzy dwarf lionfish , and short - fin turkeyfish are some . they come in three basic colors : brown , a rare reddish color , and the very rare bright yellow . i have heard of the yellow version selling for hundreds of dollars .
dendrochirus zebra is widespread throughout the indo - west pacific , from the red sea and east africa west to tonga , north to southern japan , and south to australia ( poss 1999 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) . this species is generally found at depths of 2 - 75 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .
dendrochirus barberi is known only from around the hawaiian islands and johnston atoll ( eshmeyer and randall 1975 , randall et al . 1985 , mundy 2005 ) . this species is typically found in less than 10 m depth ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) , but has been collected to 134 m ( mundy 2005 ) .
dendrochirus barberi is a reef - associated fish . this fish does not migrate , and is found under ledges in lagoons and seaward reefs ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . this is a benthic species normally found in either crevices or caves during the day . however , this species may become benthopelagic during the nighttime ( mundy 2005 ) .
matsunuma , m . and motomura , h . , 2013 . a new lionfish of the genus dendrochirus ( scorpaenidae : pteroinae ) from the tuamotu archipelago , south pacific ocean . species diversity : an international journal for taxonomy , systematics , speciation , biogeography , and life history research of animals , 18 ( 1 ) , pp . 1 - 7 .
matsunuma , m . , motomura , h . & bogorodsky , s . v . , 2017 . review of indo - pacific dwarf lionfishes ( scorpaenidae : pteroinae ) in the dendrochirus brachypterus complex , with description of a new species from the western indian ocean . ichthyol . res . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10228 - 017 - 0583 - 6
dendrochirus hemprichi from the red sea . the species is named after 19th century german naturalist / explorer frederich hemprich , who studied the coral reef fauna of the red sea . also named in his honor : lobophyllia hemprichii , acropora hemprichii and the seagrass thalassia hemprichii . for some reason , the grammatically correct “double i” latinization of names has fallen out of favor in taxonomy . credit : silke baron
dendrochirus biocellatus is a reef associated species commonly found at depths of 1 to 40 m ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . it reaches a maximum standard length of 12 cm ( poss 1999 ) . this species is very secretive , and has been found in clear waters with a high concentration of corals . it spends its days hiding in caves and sponges , and only comes out at night to feed ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . eye - like spots in the soft dorsal fin and feeler - like tentacles in front of the mouth ( ref . 48635 ) . mid - dorsal spines shorter than body depth . the only species of dendrochirus with a pair of distinct ocelli on the soft - rayed dorsal fin ( ref . 37816 ) .
dendrochirus zebra is a marine , reef - associated species , normally found on coral or other rocky substrates of reef flats , in addition to being encountered in lagoons and caves in small groups ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . during the pelagic stage of its life cycle , d . zebra travel large distances and ends up in sub - tropical areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . this species has a maximum standard length of 20 centimeters ( poss 1999 ) .
justification : dendrochirus biocellatus is widespread in the indo - west pacific and not uncommon . little is known regarding its population status , and it is rarely observed in nature . although it is associated with coral reefs , which have been declining in geographic area and quality in parts of its range , it is unknown how this might be impacting the population globally . given this species ' wide distribution , it is listed as least concern ; however , additional research on its population trend is necessary .
dendrochirus biocellatus has a broad distribution in the indo - west pacific ( poss 1999 ) . this species ranges from the western mascaranes , maldives and sri lanka , east to the mariana and tuamotu islands , north to southern japan , south to the timor sea reefs off northwestern australia , new caledonia , and tonga ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . it is found in shallow waters less than 40 m deep ( allen and erdmann 2012 , h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
dendrochirus brachypterus is distributed throughout the indo - west pacific , from the red sea and east africa west to samoa , and australia to the philippines ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . records from the hawaiian islands ( e . g . , poss 1999 ) require verification . it is frequently found at depths of 2 to 80 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) , although it is more usually found in waters less than 60 m ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
this is a marine , reef - associated fish , most frequently found in reef flats , shallow lagoons , and in areas with sandy substrates ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . the adults of this species reach a maximum standard length of 15 cm , but can sometimes grow to be as big as 25 cm ( poss 1999 ) . the juveniles are sometimes found in small groups of about 10 individuals on small reef outcroppings , whereas the adults are found on sponges ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . dendrochirus brachypterus are nocturnal . this species feeds on small crustaceans ( myers 1999 ) .
html public
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urltoken
, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .
, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .
, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .
cfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013
greek , dendron = tree + greek , cheir = hands ; with tree like marks ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 2 - 80 m ( ref . 90102 ) . tropical ; 32°n - 32°s
indo - west pacific : india and sri lanka eastward to tonga ; south to australia ; north to japan .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 17 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9710 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 - 10 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 - 6 . body reddish with vague broad bars ; paired fins with bars ; median fins with small dark spots ( ref . 4313 ) . mid - dorsal spines shorter than body depth ( ref . 37816 ) .
common in reef flats and shallow lagoons , in areas with weed - covered rocks on sandy substrates . adults often found on sponges and juveniles are sometimes found in small aggregations on remote bommies with 10 or so individuals ( ref . 48635 ) . nocturnal . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 37816 ) .
distinct pairing ( ref . 205 ) . females possess specialized ovarian structures including stalk - like ovigerous lamellae and secretory epithelia ( ref . 32832 ) .
eschmeyer , w . n . , 1986 . scorpaenidae . p . 463 - 478 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 4313 )
) : 24 . 4 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 1188 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01148 ( 0 . 00449 - 0 . 02935 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 ±0 . 4 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 32 of 100 ) .
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after purchasing a fuzzy dwarf lionfish for his aquarium , the author learned quite a bit about this popular speciesâ€”including the fact that they make great pets .
the only danger it posed to my reef setup was that it would eat any crustacean or fish small enough to fit in its mouth . with this fish being half the size of my cinnamon clown and one - spot foxface rabbitfish , i decided my fish were surely out of danger . i had a peppermint shrimp that was nearly as big as the lionfish was , but not anymore—oops . this was an expensive first meal , but at least it was eating…right ?
the lionfish was approximately an inch long when i bought it ; it is now going on 3 inches and may grow to a maximum of 7 inches . it is reef safe except to the extent i mentioned earlier , and i am proud to say all others are living in harmony with this fish .
determining the sex of a fuzzy dwarf lionfish turns out to be quite simple , as males have larger heads than females and their pectoral fins are longer , extending back to the middle of their caudal peduncle , while the female’s pectoral fins may only reach as far as the base of the caudal peduncle . the easiest way by far to tell the difference is by the number of bands on the pectoral fins . males have usually 6 to 10 bands , while females have 4 to 6 . my female only has four bands , so it was pretty simple to figure out .
these lionfish are a top choice for any hobbyist looking for a reef - safe predator . they are hardy , disease resistant , and easily weaned onto prepared foods . i started feeding mine some freshwater ghost shrimp , then progressed to frozen krill . now it dines on a diverse diet that ranges from frozen sand eels and krill to fresh uncooked gulf shrimp with their shells on . most saltwater foods will satisfy this fish , but i try to simulate a natural environment the best i can with the widest range of different frozen and fresh seafoods that are available . rotating through a variety of marine - based foods like chopped lobster meat , slivers of fresh gulf shrimp , crab meat , chunks or strips of marine fish , and chunks of squid or octopus is best . remember though , these fish are mainly crustacean eaters , so let foods like crab meat , fresh gulf shrimp , and others be the staple in their diet , as this is essential for the proper health of the fish .
at all costs , stay away from a diet of freshwater goldfish , guppies , or minnows . this is just asking for trouble . freshwater foods like goldfish and minnows are excellent disease and parasite carriers and do not meet the dietary needs of marine predators .
if you must use freshwater food , try ghost shrimp until you can wean your lion onto a safer food . i recommend adding marine hufa ( highly unsaturated fatty acid ) supplements and vitamins to their food ; this helps maintain health , color , and facilitates biological and enzymatic reactions . i usually soak frozen seafood in a few drops overnight to ensure proper saturation .
d . brachypterus are no different than other lions in that they are gluttons and should be fed small portions only as often as three or four times a week . sometimes i think my lionfish would eat until it burst if i allowed it . so be careful not to overfeed lions , as this may cause them to develop a blockage in their gastric tract and to finally stop eating altogether .
another warning that should be heeded is in regard to the poisonous spines of the fuzzy dwarf . the dorsal spines are venomous , and should be avoided . always be aware of your lion’s position when managing your aquarium .
fortunately i have never been stung by my lionfish , but i discovered that the stings are similar to a bad wasp or bee sting . of course , in the same way that some people are allergic to wasp or bee stings , a person can have a severe reaction to lionfish stings . indicated treatment is the following : run hot water over the area stung ( as hot as you can stand without scalding ) ; although the hot water breaks down the poison , seek medical treatment to avoid secondary bacterial infection , or to remove any foreign objects left in the wound . to be safe , even if you do not have a severe reaction , you should seek medical treatment . as always , prevention is much better than any treatment , so just be careful when cleaning or putting your hands into the aquarium .
i haven’t named my lionfish yet , as i am somewhat finicky about naming pets . i think their names should reflect their personalities—and my lionfish is the most personable fish i have . it hangs from its ledge until i go near the tank ; as soon as it sees me it comes to the top front and spits water at me until i feed it . it’s just like a begging puppy , but with no middle - of - the - night walks . it surely beats out all other pets as my favorite .
these fish are pure joy to own and i would highly recommend the fuzzy dwarf lionfish to anyone with a saltwater tank with no ornamental shrimp or crabs . i will surely be keeping these fish in my collection in the future .
the first aid for lionfish envenomation discussed in the preceding article is in no way intended to be a substitute for professional medical care , and is given strictly for the sake of knowledge . always seek the immediate care of a professional physician in the event of a lionfish envenomation , and heed the advice of your medical care provider , who may suggest or take actions other than those discussed here .
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 40 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical ; 32°n - 18°s
indo - pacific : mauritius , reunion , maldives and sri lanka ( ref . 33390 ) to the society islands , north to southern japan , south to scott reef .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48635 )
an uncommon inhabitant of clear waters rich in corals to depths of 40 m or more . feeds on small fishes and crustaceans ( ref . 89972 ) . secretive and usually observed at night . during the day in caves and sponges , and usually well out of sight ( ref . 48635 ) . venomous spines .
myers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )
) : 26 . 6 - 28 . 9 , mean 28 ( based on 432 cells ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 ±0 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 29 of 100 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .
american samoa ; australia ; british indian ocean territory ; china ; christmas island ; comoros ; disputed territory ( paracel is . , spratly is . ) ; djibouti ; egypt ; eritrea ; fiji ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ; indonesia ; israel ; japan ; jordan ; kenya ; korea , republic of ; madagascar ; malaysia ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; new caledonia ; norfolk island ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; réunion ; samoa ; saudi arabia ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; sudan ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; tonga ; vanuatu ; viet nam ; wallis and futuna ; yemen
this species is not uncommon , and is locally abundant in some parts of its range ( japan ) ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
this species is taken for the aquarium trade , and is of minor use to commercial fisheries ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
description common in the philippines where it is exported for the aquarium trade ; rare in micronesia . inhabits shallow reef areas .
description common in the philippines where it is exported for the aquarium trade ; rare in micronesia . inhabits shallow reef areas . [ details ]
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of pterois zebra cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of pseudomonopterus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
hong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
remark d . zebrae in < 355 > . type species of genus . [ details ]
found on coral , rubble , or rock bottoms of reef flats ( ref . 9710 ) ; also in coastal to outer reef habitats in sheltered lagoons and in caves , sometimes in small aggregations . usually shallow , from 3 - 60m ( ref . 30874 ) but also reported to 80 m depth . pelagic stages travel great distances and expatriate to sub - tropical zones ( ref . 48635 ) . spawned in captivity ( ref . 37816 ) .
classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by maggie whitson - see more .
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a dusky mottled brown to reddish - brown with darker bars on the body , distinct bands on the pectoral fins , a short tentacle above the eye and variably - developed leafy appendages on the head and along the lateral line . the pectoral - fin rays lack filaments . the dwarf lionfish has 13 venomous dorsal - fin spines along the back that may cause a very painful wound . video of a yellow form of the dwarf lionfish in lembeh straits , indonesia .
houtman abrolhos , western australia , to sydney , new south wales ; also lord howe island , tasman sea . shelters in caves , crevices , under ledges or amongst sponges during the day .
pterois brachyptera cuvier , 1829 , histoire naturelle des poissons 4 : 368 . type locality unknown .
the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers .
perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .
cuvier , g . l . in cuvier , g . l . & valenciennes , a . 1829 .
. paris : levrault vol . 4 518 pp . pls 72 - 99 .
francis , m . 1993 . checklist of the coastal fishes of lord howe , norfolk , and kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean .
fricke , r . , kulbicki , m . & wantiez , l . 2011 . checklist of the fishes of new caledonia , and their distribution in the southwest pacific ocean ( pisces ) .
johnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .
. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .
larson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .
micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia .
poss , s . g . 1999 . families scorpaenidae , caracanthidae , aploactinidae . pp . 2291 - 2358 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , t . h . ( eds ) .
the living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes
) is a widespread indo - pacific fish and one of the most frequently seen species in the aquarium trade , and , yet , there is apparently much that we don’t understand about it . in a recently published taxonomic revision , it was revealed that we had been overlooking some significant morphological and genetic variation in this familiar species , and so a new lionfish was born…
is at first glance nearly identical to its fuzzy dwarf cousin , and it takes quite a bit of effort to tell the two apart just from looking at them . most of the diagnostic traits that serve to differentiate them are modal counts , which means that there is a fair bit of overlap that can create uncertainty when attempting to make an identification . for instance , the number of scale rows spaced between the lateral line and the dorsal fin is slightly lower in
( 6 ) … but both can range above and below that number . it’s only when comparing a large number of specimens that such minor differences become apparent .
. it’s also stated to have a spinier ornamentation on its head , but all of these features are incredibly subtle and likely impossible to use when it comes to identifying an aquarium specimen . however , despite their confusing morphological similarity , genetic study has indicated that these two species differ quite dramatically . for reference , many closely related species complexes (
) can appear almost identical in their dna ( or , at least the portions that have been studied thus far ) , but these two dwarf lionfishes have been found to differ by an impressive 9 - 10 % in their cytb gene .
is a widespread species found throughout the remainder of the indian ocean and the west pacific . the authors have suggested the common name “red sea dwarf lionfish” for their new species , but , in my estimation , this is a poor choice seeing as
is not a true red sea endemic . rather , it appears that this fish is more widespread in the western indian ocean , reaching as far as south africa and east into the mascarene islands , and so i’m going to suggest a more meaningful and accurate common name here—the african dwarf lionfish .
) . this little - known species was only scientifically described in 2013 , and , for some reason , its remarkable discovery was mostly ignored by aquarists . just a single specimen has ever been found , having been recovered from a trap set at 120 meters in the tuamotu islands of french polynesia . this apparent preference for deep mesophotic reefs in the south pacific helps explain the rarity of this fish , as it occupies a similar niche as the elusive
phylogeny of pteroinae from nuclear dna… showing that the dwarf lionfishes likely don’t form a single evolutionary group . where might the bizarre d . tuamotuensis fall within this clade ? modified from wilcox 2014
is that it appears to be the only true dwarf lionfish in polynesia . [ though note that the distantly related
is found in hawaii . ] of course , this raises the obvious question of why this group doesn’t have a shallow - water representatives in the region . what forces have transpired to allow the fuzzy dwarf lionfishes to spread across the indo - pacific , from the red sea to japan and tonga , but not any further east ? and this holds true for
as well , another small ( though somewhat unrelated ) species which has an identical distribution . as i reported on previously , there is so much that we have yet to learn when it comes to the true biodiversity and evolutionary history of lionfishes .
joe is classically trained in the zoological arts and sciences , with a particular focus on the esoterica of invertebrate taxonomy and evolution . he’s written for several aquarium publications and for many years lorded over the marinelife at chicago’s venerable old town aquarium . he currently studies prairie insect ecology at the field museum of natural history and fish phylogenetics at the university of chicago .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
though we do our best to work with our lionfish prior to shipping to accept a captive diet , many may revert back to live foods only due to the stress of shipping . sometimes our lionfish are not in our facility long enough for us to get very far in this process as well . if your lionfish is not eating , we recommend feeding live feeder shrimp mixed with frozen mysis shrimp . slowly increase the frozen mysis shrimp and decrease on the live feeder shrimp . eventually cut out the live food all together . this can take a few days or a few weeks depending on the stress level , health , age , and willingness on the individual animal . brine shrimp as a live food source is acceptable providing that you ‘gut load’ the live brine shrimp with phytoplankton , kent marine zoe , zoecon or any other liquid vitamin . once past the 24 hour period after hatching , brine shrimp lose their nutritional value as the juveniles ( called artemia ) have consumed their egg yolk sac which leaves the brine shrimp have little to no nutritional value . ‘gut loading’ consists of soaking the brine shrimp in a solution of some type of liquid vitamin for about 10 to 15 min . prior to feeding . this ensures that the animal , though hesitant to consume a captive diet , will be getting some sort of nutritional benefit . frozen brine shrimp are dead and unable to consume or soak up any liquid vitamins and are not suitable to use with this method .
dwarf lionfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5
, indo pacific
dwarf lionfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5
, indo pacific
dwarf lionfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5
, indo pacific
due to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .
indo - west pacific . from the red sea and eastern africa to samoa and tonga , north to southern japan , south to lord howe island , also the mariana islands , the arafura sea , and australia
usually hardy , but special care must be taken , especially with feeding . this fish is venomous , and its sting can be quite dangerous . most aquarist envenomations occur through carelessness when servicing the tank . first aid is immerse the affected area in
these are nocturnal predators and should have subdued lighting or at least deep caves into which they can retreat . they often can be found resting upside - down in a dark recess . they will probably ignore sessile inverts , but ornamental crabs and shrimp ar
this is a predator that can swallow fish close to its own size . it can easily be trained to take non - living foods , and should be . do not feed it goldfish . bits of fish or shellfish meat offered wiggled on a skewer work well , and most individuals can be
this species has been spawned ( see tfh january 1998 ) , but fry have not been reared yet . the egg mass is released and fertilized in a lionfish - typical loop - the - loop run to the surface .
other than size , lionfish of this genus differ from pterois spp . in having webbing almost to the tips of their fin rays . thus , they look less prickly , but the rays are still venomous . this species is quite variable in color , with the basic lionfish red often mixing with yellowish or greenish pigments .
( of nemapterois biocellata fowler , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of nemapterois biocellatus fowler , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of pterois barberi steindachner , 1900 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
description common in reef flats and shallow lagoons , in areas with weed - covered rocks on sandy substrates .
description common in reef flats and shallow lagoons , in areas with weed - covered rocks on sandy substrates . [ details ]
( of pterois brachyptera cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
american samoa ; australia ; china ; christmas island ; comoros ; cook islands ; disputed territory ( spratly is . ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kiribati ( gilbert is . , kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; réunion ; samoa ; solomon islands ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; thailand ; timor - leste ; tokelau ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( howland - baker is . , us line is . ) ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna
. 2008 ) . of 704 zooxanthellate reef - building coral species which were assessed by using the iucn red list criteria , 32 . 8 % are in categories with elevated risk of extinction ( carpenter
there are no species specific conservation efforts in place . the distribution of d . biocellatus may overlap with some marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .
this species is not uncommon ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
there are no species specific conservation efforts in place for d . bellus . its range overlaps with marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .
united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; united states minor outlying islands ( johnston i . , midway is . )
this species is very common throughout its restricted range ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
there are no known major threats . the level of exploitation for the aquarium trade is not understood well enough to understand its impact on populations of this species .
there are no species specific conservation efforts in place . the distribution of this species may overlap with some marine protected areas .
unpublished data shows that the indian ocean and pacific ocean populations are genetically distinct ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
american samoa ; australia ; comoros ; disputed territory ( spratly is . ) ; djibouti ; egypt ; eritrea ; fiji ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; guam ; india ; indonesia ; israel ; jordan ; kenya ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; new caledonia ; niue ; northern mariana islands ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; réunion ; samoa ; saudi arabia ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; south africa ; sudan ; tanzania , united republic of ; timor - leste ; tonga ; wallis and futuna ; yemen
this species is common throughout its range ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
this species is commonly used as food in subsistence fisheries , and caught at depths of 32 to 80 metres ( poss , 1999 ) . this species is also commonly found in commercial aquariums ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .
there have been no confirmed population declines in d . bracypterus . due to its affinity with coral reefs , we infer that d . brachypterus may be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range . however , this species also occupies sandy substrate , and therefore significant global population declines are not suspected .
as of 2008 , fifteen percent of the world’s coral reefs were considered under imminent threat of being “effectively lost” ( with 90 % of the corals lost and unlikely to recover soon ) , with regions in south and south - east asia among the most highly threatened ( wilkinson et al . 2008 ) of 704 zooxanthellate reef - building coral species which were assessed by using the international union for conservation of nature red list criteria , 32 . 8 % are in categories with elevated risk of extinction ( carpenter et al . 2008 ) .
in the micronesian islands , which include 12 , 700 km 2 of coral reef area , 8 % of the reefs have been effectively lost ( 90 % mortality ) , while 7 % are at a critical stage with 50 - 90 % loss of coral cover as of 2008 ( wilkinson et al . 2008 ) .
there are no species specific conservation efforts in place . the distribution of d . brachypterus may overlap with some marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .