the rough-scaled snake ( tropidechis carinatus ) is a highly venomous australian elapid .

the animal 's name comes from its scales that are raised above the surrounding scales and have rough texture .

the scales are known as " keels " .

tropidechis carinatus

venom of the australian rough - scaled snake , tropidechis carinatus : lethal potency and electrophysiological actions .
studies on hemoglobinuria produced by venom from the australian snake tropidechis carinatus ( rough - scaled snake ) .
venom of the australian rough - scaled snake , tropidechis carinatus : lethal potency and electrophysiological actions . - pubmed - ncbi
tropidechis : ' keeled echis ' - echis is a genus of snakes ( adders ) carinatus : ' keeled ' .
studies on hemoglobinuria produced by venom from the australian snake tropidechis carinatus ( rough - scaled snake ) . - pubmed - ncbi
to download a hi res . image of the newly named species tropidechis sadlieri , please click here .
2 . trinca jc , graydon jj , covacevich j , limpus c . the rough - scaled snake ( tropidechis carinatus ) : a dangerously venomous australian snake . med j aust 1971 ; 2 : 801 - 809 .
7 . joseph js , chung mc , jeyaseelan k , kini rm . amino acid sequence of trocarin , a prothrombin activator from tropidechis carinatus venom : its structural similarity to coagulation factor xa . blood 1999 ; 94 : 621 - 631 .
the rough scaled snake ( tropidechis carinatus ) , also known as the clarence river snake is found in isolated pockets of coastal queensland ( brisbane and townsville ) , and northern new south wales . a diurnal snake , it is often seen during the day feeding on frogs , small reptiles and mammals .
the rough - scaled snakes , genus tropidechis ( serpentes : elapidae ) , including the description of a new species from far north queensland , australia .
the rough - scaled snakes , genus : tropidechis ( serpentes : elapidae ) , including the description of a new species from far north queensland , australia .
6 . o’leary ma , brown sga , jacoby t , et al . a sensitive and specific enzyme immunoassay to distinguish between two closely related australian elapids : tropidechis carinatus and notechis scutatus . 8th international society on toxinology asia–pacific meeting on animal , plant and microbial toxins ; 2008 dec 2–6 ; hanoi and halong bay , vietnam . ist , 2008 .
hemoglobinuria occurs in rats , but not in mice , after i . p . application of tropidechis carinatus venom . by gel filtration on sephadex g - 75 and g - 50 and chromatography on sp - sephadex c - 25 and deae - cellulose , a coagulant factor and a phospholipase a were isolated from the venom which in combination only , produced hemoglobinuria .
the world ' s deadliest snake , based on documented deaths , is probably the saw - scaled viper ( echis carinatus ) especially in sri lanka . the deaths of nearly fifty people per million from snakebite occur there each year . today in australia we have 0 . 13 / million deaths each year . see figure 1 .
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snake catchers brisbane provides numbers for a reliable snake catcher in your area . only snake catchers who provide a 24 hr snake removal service are referred to within the brisbane and ipswich and gold coast areas . these catchers are fully licensed and comprehensively insured and have a minimum 10 years experience conducting snake removal activities . further snake catchers from other localities may be found in our extensive australia wide directory
snake catcher brisbane north suburbs , albany creek , carseldine , strathpine , everton park , ferny hills , samford , pinkenba and surrounding suburbs .
including yeronga , coopers plains , sunnybank hills , moorooka , mt gravatt , carindale , runcorn , tarragindi , brisbane city , carina and holland park and surrounding suburbs .
including beenleigh , springwood , shailer park , logan central , crestmead , waterford , browns plains , slacks creek , kingston and all surrounding suburbs .
including belmont , burbank , capalaba , manly , redland bay , sheldon , thornlands , victoria point , wynnum and surrounding bayside and redland shire suburbs .
including mudgeeraba , upper coomera , arundel , burleigh heads , helensvale , hope island , nerang , oxenford , pacific pines , robina , currumbin , tallebudgera and surrounding suburbs .
for our snake identification service simply click here to go to our photo id contact page to upload your photo . we provide our australian snake identification service free of charge and always welcome high quality images for potential inclusion on our website . this service is not just for queensland snake identification but for all snake id across australia .
winter has broken and spring is in full swing ! the majority of species are showing increased activity with our brisbane , logan , ipswich and gold coast catchers recording a hefty increase in calls . carpet pythons are the most obvious at this time with males actively seeking out females . this results in a higher probability of sightings and lucky residents may even witness male / male combat at this time of year . significant captures include a 3 . 5 metre , 11kg snake from a roof at sunnybank and a fighting pair of males from a backyard in carindale .
venomous snakes has consisted of mainly red bellied black snakes with a 1 . 5 metre specimen taken from a downstairs rumpus by our logan snake catcher in slacks creek . another notable capture was two black snakes under a sheet of timber in a backyard at salisbury . eastern brown snakes have been in good numbers to date with most captured around 1 . 2 metres . our snake catcher brisbane removed four brown snakes in a day from rochedale , wacol , indooroopilly and jindalee . expect to see more of these as males get more active into the month of october . ( visit our blog page for previous month wrap ups . )
the rspca snake catcher referral service is no longer provided through their general wildlife assistance service . call the above brisbane and gold coast snake catchers for assistance .
brisbane and gold coast snake removal operators listed here have been referred to by the queensland parks and wildlife service ( qpws ) and the department of environment and heritage protection ( dehp ) for over 20 years due to their reliability and expertise . permits for snake catchers specific to snake removal from homes and buisnesses are issued by this department .
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a skilled climber , the rough - scaled snake is at home as much in the trees as on the ground .
clarence river snake ( the species is most common in the clarence river area of northern nsw ) .
the rough - scaled snake has a slender to medium build , with a large head distinct from the body . its back , sides and tail range in colour from brown to olive to dark brown , with dark transverse blotches or stripes predominantly across the anterior body ( may be indistinct in older individuals ) . the body scales are quite long and thin , strongly keeled , and matt in appearance . the head is glossy , unpatterned , and slightly darker than the body . eyes are large and tan brown in colour , and the pupil is round with a coppery brown rim . tongue pink .
the ventral surface can be cream , yellow or olive , often with darker blotches .
midbody scales in 23 rows , ventrals 160 - 185 , anal and subcaudal scales single .
average of around 75cm , maximum total length of 1m . there is no significant difference in length between males and females .
the rough - scaled snake is superficially very similar to the non - venomous keel - back snake tropidonophis mairii , which overlaps in distribution and may share the same habitat . the keel - back has divided anal and sub - caudal scales , and a loreal scale between the nasal and preocular scale , whereas the rough - scale snake has single anal and sub - caudals , and no loreal scale ( the nasal and preocular are in contact ) .
the species occurs in two widely separated regions of the australian east coast : in the tropics between mossman and tully in northern queensland , and further south between the new south wales central coast and fraser island , queensland . altitudinally , they can range from sea level to about 1100m .
rough - scaled snakes prefer to live in moist habitats ranging from rainforest , wet sclerophyll forest , and open forest , to shrubland , heathland , and artificial grassland ( usually in close proximity to a swamp or watercourse ) . they may also be found in disturbed areas if these are adjacent to relatively undisturbed habitat . the snakes shelter in tree hollows , cavities and crevices , and in epiphytic ferns , e . g . staghorn ferns .
despite being mostly active at night , the rough - scaled snake does bask during the day and it will do so throughout the year .
in the wild , the snake eats a variety of vertebrate prey , including frogs , lizards , birds and mammals . examination of museum specimens revealed that frogs and mammals were most commonly consumed . rough - scaled snakes may also eat carrion in the form of dead frogs on the road .
prey is actively hunted or ambushed during the evening and at night ; either in vegetation or on the ground .
rough - scaled snakes are primarily crepuscular to nocturnal , and are often encountered crossing the road at night , especially on rainy nights in summer . in cooler weather they may become more diurnal in behaviour , and are sometimes seen on sunny days basking in low vegetation or on a log or bank .
although terrestrial , they will readily hunt and shelter in low vegetation and trees , climbing to heights of at least 5m . this climbing behavior is rare amongst australian elapid snakes .
observations of captive snakes suggest that mating may occur from mid - spring to late summer . gravid females can be found in the period late spring to late summer ( december - march ) . the species is live - bearing and females give birth to 5 - 18 ( average 10 ) large offspring in late summer . in museum collections the low frequency of gravid females and females with enlarged follicles collected during the reproductive season suggests that females may breed less than once every year .
dna sequence data suggests that the species is most closely related to the tiger snake , notechis scutatus .
the rough - scaled snake is a shy and extremely nervous snake , and will vigorously defend itself if cornered . a defensive snake will raise its forebody in an s - shape , with the head pointing directly at the offender and the mouth slightly agape . it hisses loudly and explosively and , if approached too closely , will strike out and bite repeatedly before trying to escape . the rough - scaled snake has relatively large fangs and highly toxic venom with coagulant , neurotoxic , haemolytic and cytotoxic properties . one human fatality has been attributed to this species , and anyone suspected of being bitten should seek urgent medical attention .
wilson , s . and swan , g . ( 2008 ) “a complete guide to reptiles of australia” , reed new holland
mirtshin , p . and davis , r . ( 1991 ) “dangerous snakes of australia” , revised edition , ure smith press
the rough - scaled snake has a dull brown to olive brown back with irregular bands or blotches across the body . the belly is cream , sometimes with a greenish tinge . the scales on the back and sides each have a pronounced , central ridge ( keel ) running along their length . the species grows to 1 metre . midbody scale rows 23 ; ventrals 160–185 ; anal single ; subcaudals single 50–60 .
occurs in two widely separated , near - coastal populations . a northern population occurs from windsor tableland to the bluewater range ( north - eastern queensland ) and a southern population from fraser island ( south - eastern queensland ) to barrington tops ( new south wales ) .
a dangerously venomous species with strongly neurotoxic venom . it is a ready biter and is responsible for at least one human death and several severe envemomations . if bitten , apply first aid and seek urgent medical attention . first aid procedure for any snakebite from the australian venom research unit .
mating occurs in spring and early summer . this snake gives birth to live young and may produce as many as 19 per litter . the newborn snakes are around 16 cm from the snout to the base of the tail ( snout - vent length ) .
this species is most similar to the keelback ( tropidonophis mairii ) , which has a similar pattern and keeled scales . the keelback ( also known as the freshwater snake ) is non - venomous . it has 15 rarely 17 midbody scales ( vs . 23 ) , divided ( vs . single ) subcaudals and usually has a pink flush on the sides of belly . the tiger snake ( notechis scutatus ) can also have a similar appearance to the rough - scaled snake .
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morrison jj , tesseraux i , pearn jh , harris j , masci pp .
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keelback ( tropidonophis mairii ) - has a loreal scale and has divided anal and subcaudal scales .
dangerously venomous . note : even a bite from a ' virtually harmless ' or non - venomous reptile can result in serious complications . play it safe and don ' t get bitten by anything .
note : these are general threats and may not apply to this particular species .
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general shape medium in length , moderately slender to medium bodied snake with a medium length tail . can grow to a maximum of about 1 . 07 metres . head is broad and distinct from neck . eyes are moderately large in size with round pupils . brow ridge is moderately prominent . dorsal scales longish and strongly keeled with a matt appearance .
habitat temperate to tropical coastal plains , slopes and ranges in rainfall areas exceeding 800 mm per annum in rainforest , wet sclerophyll forest or woodlands with a dense shrub understorey usually near swamps and watercourses where frogs abound .
habits mainly nocturnal and terrestrial tending to diurnal on cooler sunny days . shy and nervous disposition preferring to escape if disturbed . if cornered or provoked it raises the neck and forebody in an upright s position with the head focused on the intruder and may hiss in short bursts . it will make several short , rapid strikes before trying to escape . it is quite aggressive once disturbed , difficult to handle safely in captivity and will defend itself vigorously if threatened . shelters in dense shrub vegetation , tree hollows and rotting tree crevices .
prey feeds mainly on frogs , but will eat small lizards , mice and small birds .
description : first aid for bites by elapid snakes which do not cause significant injury at the bite site ( see comments for partial listing ) , but which may have the potential to cause significant general ( systemic ) effects , such as paralysis , muscle damage , or bleeding .
treatment summary rough scaled snake bites are similar to tiger snake bites , with a high potential for major envenoming . systemic envenoming ( paralysis , myolysis , coagulopathy ) requires urgent antivenom therapy .
general approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .
antivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .
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design , setting and participants : prospective cohort study of rss snakebite victims , recruited between january 2004 and december 2008 , as part of the australian snakebite project . rss envenoming cases were confirmed by snake identification and / or venom - specific enzyme immunoassay .
conclusion : rss envenoming occurs predominantly in coastal areas of northern nsw and southern queensland , and within this range , most envenoming is due to the rss rather than tiger snakes . clinically it is characterised by vicc , with mild neurotoxicity and myotoxicity in some cases . tiger snake antivenom appears to be effective against rss envenoming .
spp ) . the rss and tiger snake are both “elapid” snakes ( members of the family elapidae ) , characterised by venom - secreting fangs that are fixed at the front of the upper jaw . the rss inhabits temperate and tropical coastal regions and has previously been identified between northern new south wales and south - eastern queensland , with a few specimens found further north in queensland .
features of envenoming are thought to be similar to tiger snake envenoming , including venom - induced consumption coagulopathy ( vicc ) , myotoxicity and neurotoxicity . snake venom detection kit ( svdk ) testing for rss venom gives a positive result for both rss and tiger snake venom .
until recently , when an enzyme immunoassay ( eia ) technique became available , it was not possible to confirm rss envenoming unless a snake was provided for identification . previous reports have been from snake handlers and botanists
and may not be representative of the general patient population being bitten by snakes . furthermore , in northern nsw and south - eastern queensland , within the natural range of the rss , it remains unclear what proportion of “tiger snake group” envenomings are due to rsss . as well as tiger snakes , two
species ( stephens’ banded snake and the pale - headed snake ) occur in the same region and their venoms may also test positive for tiger snake venom with svdk .
the aims of our study were to determine the occurrence and features of rss envenoming using expert identification of the snake or eia confirmation of venom in patient sera .
we analysed a cohort of patients from northern nsw and queensland with potential rss bites or envenoming — defined by snake identification , a positive svdk result in the tiger snake well , or any clinical or laboratory features of elapid envenoming without a diagnostic svdk result . the cohort was drawn from participants recruited into the australian snakebite project ( asp ) . 4 the asp is an ongoing multicentre prospective observational study that recruits suspected snakebite and snake envenoming cases from over 100 major tertiary and regional hospitals and associated major poisons information centres . ethics approval has been obtained from 16 human research ethics committees relevant to all institutions involved .
demographic details , clinical effects and laboratory information and treatments relating to all patients recruited to the asp are recorded on datasheets made available to the treating doctors . all data are entered into a purpose - designed relational database . patients recruited to the asp have serial serum samples collected for venom and antivenom quantification . samples are spun , aliquoted , frozen and stored at –80
from all patients recruited to the asp between january 2004 and december 2008 , a cohort was identified by searching the database for “rough - scaled snake” , “tiger snake group” and “tiger snake” . suspected tiger snake bites from areas clearly outside the range of
) . finally , cases could only be included if there was a blood sample available from the patient before antivenom was administered or if the snake had been brought in for identification . definite rss envenoming was then confirmed by eia and / or identification of the snake by a qualified expert .
eia was performed on stored pre - antivenom serum samples ( or plasma samples , if no serum was available ) , using a technique described in detail elsewhere .
) were raised in rabbits , conjugated to biotin and used to develop a sandwich eia using streptavidin - horseradish peroxidase as the detecting agent . the limits of detection were 0 . 3 ng / ml for the anti - rss assay and 0 . 7 ng / ml for the anti - tiger snake assay . there was minimal cross - reactivity between antibodies to
venom and antibodies to both rss and tiger snake venoms . there was moderate cross - reactivity between rss and tiger snake venoms and antibodies , but standard curves for each of these venoms did not overlap within the variability of the assay above 2 ng / ml . for concentrations over 2 ng / ml , rss and tiger snake venoms could be accurately distinguished . each sample was tested for all three venoms .
data on people with confirmed rss envenoming were extracted from the asp database . information extracted included age , sex , geographical location , snake identification , svdk results , clinical effects , laboratory investigations and antivenom treatment . symptoms and signs were classified as follows :
non - specific systemic effects : nausea , vomiting , headache , abdominal pain , diarrhoea or diaphoresis .
a raised d - dimer level ( at least 10 times above the assay cut - off point or > 2 . 5 mg / l ) associated with an international normalised ratio ( inr ) > 3 . 0 . mild vicc was defined as incomplete consumption coagulopathy , characterised by a low but detectable fibrinogen level
a raised d - dimer level ( above the assay cut - off point ) associated with a maximum inr between 1 . 5 and 2 . 5 .
neurotoxicity . this was defined by ptosis , external ophthalmoplegia , bulbar palsy , respiratory muscle paralysis or limb paralysis .
myotoxicity . this was defined by local or generalised myalgia and / or muscle weakness in association with a creatine kinase level > 1000 iu / l ( reference range [ rr ] , 0–195 iu / l ) .
leukocytosis and lymphopenia . leukocytosis was defined as a white cell count > 11 . 0 × 10
/ l ) , and lymphopenia as a lymphocyte count < 1 . 0 × 10
for descriptive statistics , median and interquartile range ( iqr ) were calculated for data that were not normally distributed .
of 697 people with snakebite recruited to the asp , 42 were identified as potential rss bite victims based on geographical location , svdk results and clinical effects . of these 42 people , 24 were confirmed to have experienced rss envenoming , based on eia or definite snake identification ( box 2 ) . eia results were available for 23 patients ( median venom concentration , 17 ng / ml [ iqr , 15–32 ng / ml ] ) . the snake was identified and venom detected in serum in three cases . in one case , confirmation was based on snake identification alone , as no pre - antivenom serum sample was available .
all rss bites investigated in our study occurred between newcastle ( mid - eastern nsw ) and the sunshine coast ( south - eastern queensland ) , except for one isolated case in cairns ( northern queensland ) ( box 3 ) . the median age of the 24 patients was 35 years ( iqr , 21–49 years ; range , 9–60 years ) and 21 of the 24 patients were male . based on bite - site swabs tested with svdk , 20 cases were positive for tiger snake venom , two were negative and one was equivocal ( in one case , the bite - site svdk test was not done ) . of four urine samples tested by svdk , all were positive for tiger snake .
twenty - three patients complained of local bite effects , and 17 reported three or more non - specific systemic effects ( box 4 ) . in the 19 patients who had vicc , recovery of inr to 2 . 0 or less took a median time of 11 . 5 hours ( iqr , 10 . 0–13 . 4 hours ) . the remaining five patients had mild vicc . six patients complained of either bleeding from the bite site or from an intravenous cannula site , and 10 had blood detected on urinalysis . one patient had an intra - abdominal haemorrhage requiring blood transfusion but not surgical intervention . factor studies demonstrated specific deficiencies in fibrinogen , factor v and factor viii , and partial reduction in factor ii .
neurotoxicity occurred in only two patients and was mild , with only ptosis developing . one of these patients also developed significant myotoxicity with generalised myalgia and myoglobinuria . his creatine kinase level peaked at 59 700 iu / l , but he did not develop renal impairment . another two patients had a small rise in creatine kinase level , peaking at 1790 iu / l in both cases . local myalgia was reported in a further three patients and generalised myalgia in another two . the only other significant laboratory results were leukocytosis in 22 patients , of whom 12 had lymphopenia . one patient had lymphopenia in the absence of leukocytosis . there were no deaths , and all patients were discharged from hospital without sequelae .
twenty - three patients were treated with antivenom ( 21 with tiger snake antivenom , two with polyvalent antivenom ; total median dose , 3 vials [ iqr , 2–4 vials ] ) , and two patients received fresh frozen plasma . post - antivenom blood samples were available for 20 of the 23 patients receiving antivenom . in 19 of these patients , no free venom was detected after a median first dose of 2 vials ( iqr , 1 . 5–4 vials ) , and in five patients , free venom was undetectable after administration of only 1 vial . in one patient who was given only a small amount of 1 vial ( due to an allergic reaction ) , venom was still detectable after antivenom had been given .
the clinical effects of rss envenoming included vicc , which was severe in most cases and associated with non - specific systemic symptoms — most commonly headache , nausea and abdominal pain . major bleeding occurred in one case , and significant myotoxicity along with mild neurotoxicity occurred in only one case .
rss venom contains presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins , myotoxins and a prothrombin activator that causes vicc .
most previous reports of rss envenoming have been anecdotal cases involving identified snakes or cases occurring within the range of the rss and shown to be svdk - positive for tiger snake venom , and thus assumed to be the result of rss bites . trinca and colleagues 2 reported 12 confirmed rss bites in humans , but provided limited details on the clinical effects . of the 12 patients , one died within 5 minutes of the bite and nine had non - specific systemic symptoms , including headache , nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain and diaphoresis . there was no information on whether coagulopathy occurred , and insufficient clinical detail to determine whether significant myotoxicity or neurotoxicity occurred . almost no laboratory testing was done .
other reports include possible rss bites that occurred within the known range of the snake and were positive for tiger snake venom with svdk .
but these cannot be distinguished from other cases involving snakes testing positive for tiger snake venom with svdk .
myotoxicity and neurotoxicity have been reported in all these cases , but without confirmation by snake identification they provide limited useful information on rss envenoming .
the clinical and laboratory effects of rss envenoming appear to be similar to those of tiger snake envenoming .
although our series was too small to determine whether rss envenoming is similar in the severity and frequency of its effects , all major effects reported in tiger snake envenoming occurred in our series of rss bites , including vicc , myotoxicity and neurotoxicity .
in our study , svdk testing of bite - site swabs was positive for tiger snake venom in nearly all rss cases , confirming that rss venom gives a positive result for tiger snake with svdk . conversely , of the cases of snake envenoming occurring within the geographical range of rss and testing positive for tiger snake venom with svdk , the majority ( 24 of 31 cases ) were in fact rss envenoming cases ( box 2 ) .
the measurement of venom concentrations in patient serum samples allowed us to determine whether antivenom was effective in binding all venom that was present . we found that tiger snake antivenom binds rss venom and appears to be effective in patients , even at lower doses than currently recommended .
a limitation of our study was that we could only include envenomed patients in the cohort because the venom assay relies on the detection of venom in blood . the study is therefore likely to be biased towards more severe cases , and we were unable to establish the envenoming rate for rss ( ie , number of cases of envenoming divided by number of definite bites ) .
spp . tiger snake antivenom appears to bind all venom , even after administration of a single vial .
act = australian capital territory . sa = south australia . tas = tasmania . vic = victoria . wa = western australia . * sample positive for venom from either
( rss ) but below the limit of venom detection to distinguish between the two venoms .
inr = international normalised ratio . svdk = snake venom detection kit . vicc = venom - induced consumption coagulopathy .
2 department of clinical toxicology and pharmacology , calvary mater hospital , newcastle , nsw .
3 centre for clinical research in emergency medicine , western australian institute for medical research , perth , wa .
4 centre for medical research , university of western australia , perth , wa .
9 tropical toxinology unit , menzies school of health research , charles darwin university , darwin , nt .
we wish to acknowledge the many clinicians and laboratory staff involved in recruiting and collecting data for the asp and , in particular , for patients recruited to our cohort by robert bonnin , mark coghlan , david ward , andrew parkin , colin page and julian white . we also thank clinical toxicologists at poisons information centres around australia for referring additional cases , and acknowledge the help of many nurses , doctors and laboratory staff in recruiting patients and collecting samples . we thank the hunter haematology research group for doing the clotting factor assays . our study was supported in part by a national health and medical research council ( nhmrc ) project grant . geoffrey isbister is supported by an nhmrc clinical career development award and simon brown by an nhmrc career development award .
3 . jolles s , lawrence s , gallagher j , fulcher d . severe rhabdomyolysis after tiger snake bite . j r soc med 1998 ; 91 : 267 - 269 .
4 . isbister gk , brown sg , macdonald e , et al . current use of australian snake antivenoms and frequency of immediate - type hypersensitivity reactions and anaphylaxis . med j aust 2008 ; 188 : 473 - 476 . < mja full text >
5 . o’leary ma , isbister gk , schneider jj , et al . enzyme immunoassays in brown snake ( pseudonaja spp . ) envenoming : detecting venom , antivenom and venom–antivenom complexes . toxicon 2006 ; 48 : 4 - 11 .
8 . patten br , pearn jh , debuse p , et al . prolonged intensive therapy after snake bite : a probable case of envenomation by the rough - scaled snake . med j aust 1985 ; 142 : 467 - 469 .
9 . gavaghan cf , sparkes g . delayed myotoxicity in snake envenoming by the tiger snake group . emerg med ( fremantle ) 2003 ; 15 : 497 - 499 .
10 . barrett r , little m . five years of snake envenoming in far north queensland . emerg med ( fremantle ) 2003 ; 15 : 500 - 510 .
11 . munro jg , pearn jh . snake bite in children : a five year population study from south - east queensland . aust paediatr j 1978 ; 14 : 248 - 253 .
12 . jamieson r , pearn j . an epidemiological and clinical study of snake - bites in childhood . med j aust 1989 ; 150 : 698 - 702 .
13 . white j . clinical toxicology of snakebite in australia and new guinea . in : meier j , white j , editors . handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons . new york : crc press , 1995 : 595 - 618 .
14 . white j , duncan b , wilson c , et al . coagulopathy following australian elapid snakebite : a review of 20 cases . in : recent advances in toxinology research . singapore : venom and toxin research group , national university of singapore , 1992 : 337 - 344 .
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raymond hoser 488 park road , park orchards , victoria , 3114 , australia . phone : + 61 3 9812 - 3322 fax : + 61 3 9812 - 3355 mobile : + 61 412 - 777 - 211 e - mail : xxxx
originally published in crocodilian - journal of the victorian association of amateur herpetologists 4 ( 2 ) : 11 - 14 . ( august 2003 )
a specimen at the australian museum in sydney , specimen number : r17031 . it is a subadult female . it was collected by w . c . wilhoph on 12 february 1960 and had a tag on it labeling it in error as
. the origin of the specimen was 5 miles north of innisfail , queensland ( lat . 17°31 ' s , long . 146°1 ' e ) .
the snout - vent length is approximately 461 mm , and the tail length is 20 mm , giving a total of about 545 mm . the head length ( straight line from snout tip to back of skull , down the median line of the snake ) , was 20 mm .
the snake was missing the very end of it ' s tail , giving a relatively shorter tail to snout - vent ratio , as is typical for the species .
due to the specimen ' s state of preservation some outer surfaces of scales were found to be flaking off ( as of 2002 ) .
the colouration of the preserved snake is relatively dark and the cross - bands on the back of the snake as typical for the species are in this specimen fairly indistinct . the ground colour is darkish grey - olive - brown .
the frontal shield is 4 . 5 mm wide at the point where it joins the supra - oculars and they in turn join the parietals . the frontal shield is 3 . 5 mm at the point where it joins the supraoculars and they in turn join the prefrontals . these comparative statistics are relevant to the species diagnosis ( below ) .
other scalation for the snake is as follows : 7 supralabials , 6 infralabials ( right ) ( last 2 ( from front ) fused ) , on left side there are six infralabials ( numbers 3 - 4 ( from front ) are fused ) , 2 prefrontals , 2 internasals , 2 postoculars , 1 supraocular ( each side ) , single anal , 23 mid body rows , 39 ( all single ) subcaudals ( missing end of tail ) , 181 ventrals .
a specimen at the australian museum in sydney , specimen number : r15213 . it consisted of a head and neck only and was poorly preserved . it was from cairns , queensland ( lat . 16°55 ' s , long . 145°46 ' e ) .
measurements of the head were taken and the specimen was photographed , ( see some data for this specimen later in this paper ) .
by distribution . there is a gap in excess of 700 km in straight line measurement between the two known populations . this gap runs more - or - less from about fraser island and the nearby coast in south - east queensland to about mount spec , near townsville in far north queensland .
sp . nov . runs from about mount spec , north through the wetter regions to about thornton peak on cape york and including the atherton tableland area and nearby coastal region .
sp . nov . ) is by a cursory look at the frontal scale . in
this scale is always widest at the front point where it joins the supraoculars ( on each side ) at the point where the front border of the supraocular runs towards the sides of the head and borders the prefrontals . for
sp . nov . the frontal shield is widest where it joins the supraoculars at the point where the supraoculars join the parietal shields . rarely , in
the best way to see this ( in the first instance ) is by comparative observation of the relevant head shields of specimens of both species , or by looking at photos of the same .
once again , the best way to see this ( in the first instance ) is by comparative observation of the relevant head shields of specimens of both species , or by looking at photos of the same .
are separated from other australian elapids by their strongly keeled scales . the only genus likely to be confused with them is
( some of which may also have keeled scales ) , which can be readily separated by the possession of a tail which terminates in a distinct upward pointing spine .
sp . nov . is generally regarded as an easy species to maintain in reptile collections .
while generally feeding on frogs in the wild state , captives appear to readily switch to rodents when keepers seek to do this .
to feed on fish , which is something he tested with success for many australian species of snake .
numerous captive set - ups have been employed with success for this species including bare cages with minimal or paper substrate and also naturalistic vivaria . most important for the success in keeping this species is a heat source and heat gradient within the cage .
named in honor of sydney - based herpetologist , ross sadlier for his immense contribution to herpetology in australia , the south - west pacific region and elsewhere spanning some decades .
( these are where the frontal joins the supraoculars and the supraoculars in turn join the prefrontals at the anterior and the parietals at the posterior ) .
eye : 2 . 95 mm wide , post ocular ( lower ) 1 . 95 mm
eye : 2 . 6 mm , post ocular ( lower ) 1 . 8 mm
eye3 . 2 mm , post ocular ( lower ) 2 mm , post ocular ( upper ) 2 . 2 mm
are predominantly frog feeders in the wild . this spells potential conservation problems for both species of
d / generally survive in areas that have been overrun by toads where all or most other frogs have been wiped out .
in north - east and south - east queensland in the more pristine habitats that are generally avoided by the toads .
in the wild state has been the global decline in frogs , including that resulting from the chytrid fungus . this has been identified as the cause of decline of frogs in relevant parts of queensland and new south wales and again must impact on populations of
can and will exploit alternative food sources ( including rodents in captivity ) , it is also obvious that numbers of this species must decline if and when frogs decline .
be maintained ( in pure - breeding groups ) in large self - sustaining captive populations .
the snakes are not terribly large or colourful and therefore not pleasing as exhibits . they are dangerously venomous and often pugnacious and hence not a commonly sought after captive .
can be found on the website urltoken and / or links from that site within a week of the publication of the hard - copy of this paper in this journal .
d4815 large adult ; d4804 adult ; d8578 lowood , q , adult ; d8634 north coast , nsw , adult ; d8916 adult ; d12318 large adult ; d15318 upper allyn mill , nsw , adult female ; d15322 upper allyn mill , nsw , juvenile ; d15323 upper allyn mill , nsw , juvenile ; d15328 brisbane , q , small adult male ; d51872 coffs harbour , nsw , adult .
r14691 clarence river , nsw , adult male ; r15213 cairns , q . head and neck only from smallish adult ; r15326 nsw north coast , adult male ; r16125 ben lomond , nsw , adult female ; r17031 near innisfail , q .
the people who have assisted this author over the years have been too numerous to name here . however included among this group ( with specific relevance to
) include queensland - based private keepers mike cermac and neil charles who allowed this author unfettered access to live specimens .
as always the relevant museum curators also allowed this author similar access to snakes in their custody , the relevant curators being patrick couper and jeanette covacevich at the queensland museum , diane bray at the national museum of victoria , and ross sadlier and allen greer at the australian museum in new south wales .
( sixth edition ) , reed / new holland publishers , sydney , australia . 808 pp .
cogger , h . g . , cameron , e . e . and cogger , h . m . 1983 .
( revised edition ) , angus and robertson , sydney . 118 pp and 48 plates .
, pierson and co . , sydney , nsw , australia . 238 pp .
ingram , g . j . and raven , r . j . 1991 .
morrison , j . , 1987 . experimental studies of mammalian envenomation . laboratory and clinical investigation of envenomation by the australian rough - scaled snake (
trinca , j . c . , craydon , j . j . , covacevich , j . and limpus , c . 1971 . ' the rough - scaled snake (
wilson , s . k . and knowles , d . g . 1988 .
to download the original of this paper exactly as it appeared in the printed journal crocodilian - click below on the icon to get the 1 . 5 mb pdf ( adobe acrobat ) file ( it will take up to fifteen minutes to download ) .
snakebusters® are australia ' s best reptiles® . they ' re australia ' s leaders for the following :
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inhibits various c1 cysteine proteases including cathepsin l , papain and cathepsin b . this protein has no toxic activity and its function in the venom is unknown . it may play a role as a housekeeping or regulatory protein ( by similarity ) .
the recombinant protein does not inhibit calpain - 1 ( capn1 ) , a c2 family cysteine protease and legumain ( lgmn ) , a c13 family cysteine protease . does not provoke cell death ( pc3 prostate cancer cells ) ( by similarity ) .
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expressed by the venom gland at an extremely low level ( at protein level ) .
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cloning and characterisation of novel cystatins from elapid snake venom glands .
richards r . , st pierre l . , trabi m . , johnson l . a . , de jersey j . , masci p . p . , lavin m . f . biochimie 93 : 659 - 668 ( 2011 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
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gallotia galloti ( gallot 's lizard , tenerife lizard , or western canaries lizard ) is a species of lacertid ( wall lizard ) in the genus gallotia .

the species is found on the canary islands of tenerife and la palma .

both the generic name , gallotia , and the specific name , galloti , are in honor of d. gallot , an amateur naturalist , who collected the type specimen .

four subspecies are recognized : gallotia galloti eisentrauti - northern tenerife lizard ( northern tenerife ) gallotia galloti galloti - southern tenerife lizard ( central and southern tenerife , including teide ) gallotia galloti insulanagae - anaga lizard ( roque de fuera de anaga , offshore the macizo de anaga mountains , northeastern tenerife ) gallotia galloti palmae - la palma lizard ( la palma ) the large differences in colour pattern in adult males seems to have been the basis for the recognition of the northern and southern " subspecies " .

the northern form is found at low-mid altitudes on the north-facing slopes , while the southern form is found above the pine forest on the north facing slopes and the southern slopes of tenerife .

a recent genomics study has identified nuclear dna differences between these regions , although they only seem to be found in small number of loci [ 1 ] .

its closest relative is the smaller boettger 's lizard , which occurs on el hierro and la gomera ( maca-meyer et al. 2003 ) .

g. galloti is a sizeable lizard , though with strong males reaching up to 15.7 inches ( including tail ) it still belongs to the smaller gallotia as the giant species can reach up to double that length .

unlike most larger species of its genus , the western canaries lizard as a whole is a common animal .

as it likes to eat ripe fruit , it can even become a nuisance in vineyards and orchards and is thus occasionally trapped or poisoned .

local populations thus may decline , but no subspecies currently are endangered .

due to its small area of occurrence , g. g. insulanagae is considered a vulnerable taxon , but it seems safe at present as its habitat is fairly inaccessible and included in the parque rural de anaga ( blanco & gonzález 1992 ) .

the striking color of adult males and their curious nature endear them to many tourists .

at popular sights , notably mount teide , the lizards have become rather tame and an attraction of sorts themselves .

it is quite popular to bring some ripe bananas along for the lizards , which are a most favorite food of this species and will provide travellers with good photo opportunities as the animals scurry over the rocks and even onto visitor 's hands to catch a bite .

gallotia galloti

nonlinear , fractal , and spectral analysis of the eeg of lizard , gallotia galloti .
geological history and within - island diversity : a debris avalanche and the tenerife lizard gallotia galloti .
neuronal and glial differentiation during lizard ( gallotia galloti ) visual system ontogeny . - pubmed - ncbi
nonlinear , fractal , and spectral analysis of the eeg of lizard , gallotia galloti . - pubmed - ncbi
geological history and within - island diversity : a debris avalanche and the tenerife lizard gallotia galloti . - pubmed - ncbi
ty - jour ti - spatial and temporal behaviour of gallotia galloti in a natural population of tenerife t2 - bonner zoologische beiträge : herausgeber : zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig , bonn . vl - 36 ur - urltoken pb - das forschungsinstitut cy - bonn : py - 1985 sp - 541 ep - 552 sn - 0006 - 7172 au - borja , m molina er -
@ article { bhlpart120008 , title = { spatial and temporal behaviour of gallotia galloti in a natural population of tenerife } , journal = { bonner zoologische beiträge : herausgeber : zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig , bonn . } , volume = { 36 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { bonn : das forschungsinstitut } , author = { borja , m molina } , year = { 1985 } , pages = { 541 - - 552 } , }
several processes have been described that could explain geographical variation and speciation within small islands , including fragmentation of populations through volcanic eruptions . massive landslides , or debris avalanches , could cause similar effects . here we analyse the potential impact of the 0 . 8 million - year - ago ( ma ) güimar valley debris avalanche on the phylogeography of the lizard gallotia galloti on the canary island of tenerife . distributions of mitochondrial dna lineages ( based on cytochrome b sequences ) were analysed on a 60 - km southeastern coast transect centred on this area . three main clades were detected , which can be divided into northern ( one clade ) and southern ( two clades ) groups that introgress across the valley . maximum - likelihood estimates of migration rates ( scaled for mutation rate ) revealed highly asymmetric patterns , indicating that long - term gene flow into this region from both the northern and the southern populations greatly exceeded that in the opposite directions , consistent with recolonization of the area . the ancestral tenerife node on the g . galloti tree is estimated at 0 . 80 ma , matching closely with the geological estimate for the debris avalanche . morphological variation ( body dimensions and scalation ) was also analysed and indicated a stepped cline in female scalation across the valley , although the patterns for male scalation and male and female body dimensions were not as clear . together these findings provide support for the hypothesis that the debris avalanche has shaped the phylogeography of g . galloti and may even have been a primary cause of the within - island cladogenesis through population fragmentation and isolation . current estimates of timing of island unification mean that the original hypothesis that within - island diversity is explained by the secondary contact of populations from the two ancient precursor islands of teno and anaga is less plausible for this and some other tenerife species . large - scale landslides have occurred on many volcanic islands , and so may have been instrumental in shaping within - island diversities .
electroencephalogram ( eeg ) from dorsal cortex of lizard gallotia galloti was analyzed at different temperatures to test the presence of fractal or nonlinear structure during open ( oe ) and closed eyes ( ce ) , with the aim of comparing these results with those reported for human slow - wave sleep ( sws ) . two nonlinear parameters characterizing eeg complexity [ correlation dimension ( d2 ) ] and predictability [ largest lyapunov exponent ( lambda ( 1 ) ) ] were calculated , and eeg spectrum and fractal exponent beta were determined via coarse graining spectral analysis . at 25 degrees c , evidence of nonlinear structure was obtained by the surrogate data test , with eeg phase space structure suggesting the presence of deterministic chaos ( d2 approximately 6 , lambda ( 1 ) approximately 1 . 5 ) . both nonlinear parameters were greater in oe than in ce and for the right hemisphere in both situations . at 35 degrees c the evidence of nonlinearity was not conclusive and differences between states disappeared , whereas interhemispheric differences remained for lambda ( 1 ) . harmonic power always increased with temperature within the band 8 - 30 hz , but only with oe within the band 0 . 3 - 7 . 5 hz . qualitative similarities found between lizard and human sws eeg support the hypothesis that reptilian waking could evolve into mammalian sws .
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cox , n . and temple , h . j . ( global reptile assessment )
justification : listed as least concern because , although its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , it is common , occurs in habitats that are not significantly threatened , and does not appear to be in decline .
this species is endemic to the canary islands ( spain ) . it is native to tenerife , la palma , and the smaller islands of roque de anaga de dentro , roque de anaga de fuera , roque de fasnia and roque de garachico . the species has recently been introduced to the island of el hierro ( only one individual known ) and also at morro jable ( large population ) on fuerteventura in the canary islands . reports of this species from the island of madeira , portugal , are believed to be erroneous . it occurs from sea level up to 3 , 000m asl ( tenerife ) .
this species is common in various open , rocky and shrubland habitats . it is commonly associated with stone walls in cultivated areas . the species is rarer in forested areas , where it may be confined to pathways and other open areas . females annually lay one or two clutches of two to nine eggs .
there appear to be no major threats to this species . it is sometimes controlled as a pest in agricultural areas .
it is protected by international legislation and is present in a number of protected areas . the subspecies insulanagae is considered near threatened on the spanish red list .
jose antonio mateo miras , valentin pérez - mellado , iñigo martínez - solano . 2009 .
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school of biological & earth sciences , liverpool john moores university , liverpool l3 3af , uk . r . p . brown @ urltoken
romero - alemán mm 1 , monzón - mayor m , santos e , lang dm , yanes c .
departamento de morfología ( biología celular ) , universidad de las palmas de gran canaria , 35016 las palmas , canary islands , spain . mromero @ urltoken
we studied the histogenesis of the lizard visual system ( e30 to adulthood ) by using a selection of immunohistochemical markers that had proved relevant for other vertebrates . by e30 , the pax6 ( + ) pseudostratified retinal epithelium shows few newborn retinal ganglion cells ( rgcs ) in the centrodorsal region expressing neuron - and synaptic - specific markers such as betaiii - tubulin ( tuj1 ) , synaptic vesicle protein - 2 ( sv2 ) , and vesicular glutamate transporter - 1 ( vglut1 ) . concurrently , pioneer rgc axons run among the pax2 ( + ) astroglia in the optic nerve and reach the superficial optic tectum . between e30 and e35 , the optic chiasm and optic tract remain acellular , but the latter contains radial processes with subpial endfeet expressing vimentin ( vim ) . from e35 , neuron - and synaptic - specific stainings spread in the retina and optic tectum , whereas retinal pax6 , and tuj1 / sv2 in rgc axons decrease . müller glia and abundant optic nerve glia express a variety of glia - specific markers until adulthood . subpopulations of optic nerve glia are also vglut1 ( + ) and cluster differentiation - 44 ( cd44 ) - positive but cytokeratin - negative , unlike the case in other regeneration - competent species . specifically , coexpression of cd44 / vim and glutamine synthetase ( gs ) / vglut1 reflects glial specialization , insofar as most cd44 ( + ) glia are gs ( - ) . in the adult optic tract and tectum , radial glia and free astroglia coexist . the latter show different immunocharacterization ( pax2 ( - ) / cd44 ( - ) / vim ( - ) ) compared with that in the optic nerve . we conclude that upregulation of tuj1 and sv2 is required for axonal outgrowth and search for appropriate targets , whereas pax2 ( + ) optic nerve astroglia and vim ( + ) radial glia may aid in early axonal guidance . spontaneous axonal regrowth seems to succeed despite the heterogeneous mammalian - like glial environment in the lizard optic nerve .
gonzález j 1 , gamundi a , rial r , nicolau mc , de vera l , pereda e .
laboratorio de biofísica , departamento de fisiología , facultad de medicina , universidad de la laguna , 38320 tenerife , spain . jugonzal @ urltoken
bonner zoologische beiträge : herausgeber : zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig , bonn .
biodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p… urltoken