macleay 's dorcopsis ( dorcopsulus macleayi ) , also known as the papuan dorcopsis or the papuan forest wallaby , is a species of marsupial in the family macropodidae .

it is endemic to papua new guinea , where its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests .

being little threatened by habitat destruction , the international union for conservation of nature has rated it as being of " least concern " .

macleay ' s dorcopsis

wallabies generally prefer more remote areas which are wooded or rugged rather than open arid plains that are more suited to larger , more flat footed kangaroos . some smaller wallabies are forest dwellers such as the pademelons ( any of seven species of small marsupials ) and dorcopsulus ( macleay’s dorcopsis ( dorcopsulus macleayi ) and small dorcopsis ( dorcopsulus vanheurni ) .
the gray dorcopsis ( dorcopsis luctuosa ) is a species of marsupial in the family macropodidae . it is found in west papua , indonesia and papua new guinea .
dorcopsis luctuosa ( d ' albertis , 1874 ) , southeast of new guinea .
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haaramo , m . 2007 . macropodidae . mikko ' s phylogeny archive . retrieved november 9 , 2008 .
) has elastic storage in the ankle extensor tendons , without which the animal’s metabolic rate might be 30–50 % greater .
a pademelon from tasmania . although obscured by fur , most of this macropod ' s lower body consists of legs .
the black dorcopsis is believed to be mainly nocturnal but may move around during the day in dense forest . it feeds on shoots , leaves , grasses , fruit and roots which it gathers with its mouth and manipulates with its fore paws . a young black dorcopsis develops in its mother ' s pouch . there are four nipples in the pouch despite the fact that there is normally only a single juvenile developing there at any one time .
wallabies and kangaroos ( macropodidae ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
ramono , w . s . , and s . v . nash .
conservation of marsupials and monotremes in indonesia .
in australasian marsupials and monotremes , an action plan for their conservation , edited by michael kennedy . gland , switzerland : iucn / ssc australasian marsupials and monotreme specialist group , 1992 .
wallabies and kangaroos ( macropodidae ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
, there is a wild group of around 30 bennett ' s wallabies . this population has been present since the seventies , when some individuals escaped from the zoological park of
five
legs
for moving slowly while browsing : the forelimbs and muscular tail take the animal ' s weight while the hind legs are brought forward : a red kangaroo .
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or more species , and some woodland and forested areas along australia ' s eastern dividing range are known to support as many as 12 different kangaroo and wallaby species . some degree of habitat specificity occurs within particular macropodid
head and body length 17–18 in ( 435–460 mm ) ; tail length 12–14 in ( 315–346 mm ) ; weight 6–7 lb ( 2 . 5–3 . 4 kg ) . smaller and more densely furred than species of dorcopsis . tail furred for two - thirds to three - quarters of its length .
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
the gray dorcopsis is endemic to the southern and south - eastern part of the island of new guinea where it occurs at altitudes of up to 400 metres ( 1 , 300 ft ) . its habitat is tropical primary and secondary forest , in particular gallery forests , and it can be found in disturbed areas such as abandoned gardens .
maxwell , s . , a . a . burbidge , and k . d . morris . the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . gland , switzerland : iucn / scc australasian marsupial and monotreme specialist group , wildlife australia , 1996 .
lundie - jenkins , g . 2004 . macropodidae . in b . grzimek , d . g . kleiman , v . geist , and m . c . mcdade , grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . detroit : thomson - gale , 2004 . isbn 0307394913 .
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english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the black dorcopsis has black upper parts and dark brown underparts . it has a long muzzle , a naked snout , small rounded ears and a tail which lacks hair on its hind half . its fore limbs are robust but its hind limbs and feet are relatively small . adults reach a length of between 29 and 39 inches ( 74 and 99 cm ) with a tail of 11 to 16 inches ( 28 to 41 cm ) and weigh around 2 kilograms ( 4 . 4 lb ) .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
young wallabies are known as
joeys
, like many other marsupials . adult male wallabies are referred to as
bucks
,
boomers
, or
jacks
. an adult female wallaby is known as a
doe
,
flyer
, or
jill
. a group of wallabies is called a
court
,
mob
, or
troupe
. forest - dwelling wallabies are known as
pademelons
( genus thylogale ) and
dorcopsises
( genera dorcopsis and dorcopsulus ) .
the major threats experienced by the gray dorcopsis are the loss of its forest habitat through timber extraction and conversion to small - scale agriculture and the fact that it is hunted for bushmeat . in the vicinity of port moresby it has been hunted intensively and few animals remain . it used to be found in the nearby varirata national park but it is unclear whether it is still present there . because of the hunting pressure on this animal , the iucn believes the population is in decline and lists it as being
vulnerable
. it advocates ongoing monitoring and assessment .
the gray dorcopsis has a long muzzle and small , rounded ears . the forelegs are relatively longer in comparison to the hind legs than they are in most other members of the macropodidae family . the tail is long and has a bare , cornified tip . the short , dense fur is smokey - grey above and paler grey beneath , with a yellowish patch around the single cloacal orifice . males are much larger than females , a male weighing up to 11 . 6 kg ( 26 lb ) while a female reaches 3 . 6 kg ( 8 lb ) . the head and body length is 97 cm ( 38 in ) in males and 39 cm ( 15 in ) in females , with tails reaching 97 cm ( 38 in ) and 31 cm ( 12 in ) respectively .
the unusual development of the hind legs is optimized for economical long distance travel at fairly high speed . the greatly elongated feet provide enormous leverage for the strong legs . but there is more to the famous kangaroo hop : kangaroos and wallabies have a unique ability to store elastic strain energy in their tendons . in consequence , most of the energy required for each hop is provided
free
by the spring action of the tendons ( rather than by muscular effort ) . the main limitation on a macropod ' s ability to leap is not the strength of the muscles in the hindquarters . it is the ability of the joints and tendons to withstand the strain of hopping .
macropods are promiscuous in mating system . gestation in macropods lasts about a month , being slightly longer in the largest species . typically , only a single young is born , weighing less than a gram at birth . they soon attach themselves to one of four teats inside the mother ' s pouch . the young leave the pouch after 5 - 11 months , and are weaned after a further 2 - 6 months . macropods commonly reach sexual maturity at one to three years of age , but it depending on species ( poole 1984 ) . however , while the larger kangaroos species may breed at two to three years , in some of the smaller species the females cna conceive at or slightly before weaning at four to five months ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) . the young are born very small and the pouch opens forward .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
dorcopsulus macleayi has been considered by some authors to be conspecific with d . vanheurni , but we provisionally follow groves ( 2005 ) in treating it as a separate species .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution ( > 20 , 000 km 2 ) , presumed large population ( it is common in suitable habitat ) , and because much of its habitat remains intact and inaccessible . although it is affected by hunting , this is not thought to be a major threat to the species , and populations overall are considered to be stable .
this species occurs in the hill to lower montane areas of south - eastern new guinea ( papua new guinea only ) . the distribution range is uncertain . it is restricted to the southern slopes at an elevational range of 1 , 000 to 1 , 800 m asl .
this species is found in lower montane primary and disturbed tropical moist forest . females give birth to one or two young .
there are no major threats to this species . this species is locally threatened by subsistence hunting for food .
this species occurs in protected areas ( e . g . , crater mountain wildlife management area ) . it needs further study on its taxonomy and distribution .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
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this species occurs in the hill to lower montane areas of south - eastern new guinea ( papua new guinea only ) . the distribution range is uncertain . it is restricted to the southern slopes in an elevational range of 1 , 000 to 1 , 800 m asl .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
papuanmetsävallabi
to
dorcopsulus macleayi ( miklouho - maclay , 1885 )
.
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
papuanmetsäkenguru
to
dorcopsulus macleayi ( miklouho - maclay , 1885 )
.
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picture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy
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the acrobatidae are a small family of gliding marsupials containing two genera , each with a single species , the feathertail glider ( acrobates pygmaeus ) from australia and feather - tailed possum ( distoechurus pennatus ) from new guinea .
( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p .
p . brachyotis species - group : short - eared rock - wallaby ( p . brachyotis )
p . xanthopus species - group : proserpine rock - wallaby ( p . persephone )
p . lateralis / penicillata species - group : allied rock - wallaby ( p . assimilis )
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 12 / 21 / 2015 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .
macropods include kangaroos , wallabies , tree - kangaroos , pademelons , quokkas , and several others .
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a wallaby is a marsupial or pouched animal that is a member of the kangaroo family . there are around 30 different species of wallaby ( macropod ) from the scientific family macropodidae ( macropodidae means ‘big feet’ ) . wallabies are smaller than kangaroos and distributed widely across australia and neighbouring islands .
wallabies are also widespread in new zealand ( introduced ) , where they are often hunted as they are considered a pest . there are even a few populations of wallabies in the united kingdom with around 100 individuals residing on the isle of man ( due to zoo escapees ) . the name wallaby comes from the eora aboriginal tribe who were the original inhabitants of the sydney area .
depending on species , wallabies are small to medium sized animals whereby the largest can measure 6 feet ( 1 . 8 metres ) in height from head to tail . wallabies can weigh anywhere between 2 – 24 kilograms ( 4 – 53 pounds ) .
wallabies have very powerful tails and hind legs . wallaby tails are not prehensile ( used for gripping ) but are used for balance and for support when in a sitting position . their hind legs are used for hopping along at high speeds and for jumping great distances . when fighting , males use their hind legs to deliver powerful kicks .
there are many wallaby species , grouped roughly by habitat : shrub wallabies , brush wallabies , and rock wallabies . hare wallabies are named for their size and their hare - like behaviour .
wallabies are herbivores and feed mainly up on plants and grasses . they have elongated faces and large flat teeth that are necessary to chew through vegetation . some species of wallaby such as the tammar wallaby live in areas where there is no fresh water supplies and have to reply on plant juices to satisfy their thirst , they can even drink salty sea water .
wallabies portray a very diverse set of behaviours . larger species tend to be diurnal , or mostly active during the day . smaller species tend to be nocturnal , or mostly active at night . smaller species are often solitary , while larger species often live or feed in groups of up to 50 animals called mobs . a few species are thought to be territorial . they live alone and defend their home area .
breeding season for most wallabies is between january and february . after a gestation period of 28 days , a single joey is born . like most marsupials , young wallabies ( joeys ) are born very small , undeveloped and vulnerable . as soon as they are born , they crawl into their mothers pouch where they remain for at least 2 months and continue to develop over the next 7 months .
even after leaving their mothers pouch , joeys will return if they are posed with danger . if the female wallaby becomes pregnant again while the joey is still in her pouch , the embryos development will pause until the joey leaves the pouch , a phenomenon called embryonic diapause . the life span of a wallaby is around 9 years in the wild .
four species in this family have already gone extinct . many others are endangered , which means that they face a very high risk of extinction in the wild . others are considered vulnerable , which means that they face a high risk of extinction in the wild . some actions are being taken to help particular species , including protecting their habitats and breeding them in captivity , so they may be later reintroduced into the wild .
, but kangaroos are specifically categorised into the six largest species of the family . the term wallaby is an informal designation generally used for any macropod that is smaller than a kangaroo or
) live among rocks , usually near water ; two species are endangered . the two species of hare - wallabies ( g .
) are small animals that have the movements and some of the habits of hares . often called
) of new guinea , the bismarck archipelago , and tasmania are small and stocky , with short hind limbs and pointed noses . they are hunted for meat and fur . a similar species is the short - tailed scrub wallaby , or quokka (
) ; this species is now restricted to two offshore islands of western australia . the three named species of forest wallabies ( g .
) are native to the island of new guinea . the dwarf wallaby is the smallest member of the genus and the smallest known member of the kangaroo family . its length is about 46
the name
wallaby
comes from dharug ' walabi ' or ' waliba ' .
although members of most wallaby species are small , some can grow up to approximately two metres in length ( from head to end of tail ) . their powerful hind legs are not only used for bounding at high speeds and jumping great heights , but also to administer vigorous kicks to fend off potential predators . the tammar wallaby (
wallabies also have a powerful tail that is used mostly for balance and support .
wallabies are herbivores whose diet consists of a wide range of grasses , vegetables , leaves and other foliage . due to recent urbanization , many wallabies now feed in rural and urban areas . wallabies cover vast distances for food and water , which is often scarce in their environment . mobs of wallabies often congregate around the same water hole during the dry season .
wallabies face several threats . wild dogs , foxes , and feral cats are among their predators . humans also pose a significant threat to wallabies due to increased interaction ( wallabies can defend themselves with hard kicks , and biting ) . many wallabies have been involved in vehicular accidents as they often feed near roads and urban areas .
wallabies are not a distinct genetic group . nevertheless , they fall into several broad categories . typical wallabies of the genus macropus , like the agile wallaby ( macropus agilis ) , and the red - necked wallaby ( macropus rufogriseus ) are most closely related to the kangaroos and wallaroos and , size aside , look very similar . these are the ones most frequently seen , particularly in the southern states .
rock - wallabies ( genus petrogale ) , rather like the goats of the northern hemisphere , specialise in rugged terrain and have modified feet adapted to grip rock with skin friction rather than dig into soil with large claws . there are at least fifteen species and the relationship between several of them is poorly understood . several are endangered . captive rock wallaby breeding programs like the one at healesville sanctuary have had some success and a small number have recently been released into the wild .
the banded hare - wallaby ( lagostrophus fasciatus ) is thought to be the last remaining member of the once - numerous subfamily sthenurinae , and although once common across southern australia , is now restricted to two islands off the western australian coast which are free of introduced predators . it is not as closely related to the other hare wallabies ( genus lagorchestes ) as the hare wallabies are to the other wallabies .
, particularly in more remote , heavily timbered , or rugged areas , less so on the great semi - arid plains that are better suited to the larger , leaner , and more fleet - footed kangaroos . they also can be found on the island of
from introductions made around 1870 . they are considered a pest on the island ,
by five escapees from a local zoo , and as of late march 2009 sightings were still being made in the area .
this group was introduced by dublin zoo after a sudden population explosion in the mid 1980s .
populations in the united kingdom that , for some periods , bred successfully included one near teignmouth , devon , another in the ashdown forest , east sussex and one on the island of bute and lundy . it has recently been reported by walkers in the lickey hills country park area of birmingham that a pair of wallabies have been released or are loose there ( east tunnock rambling club meeting , december 2010 ) .
the swamp wallaby is the only living representative of the genus wallabia . this individual exhibits the species ' unusual preference for browsing ; note the use of the forelimbs to grasp the plant .
the term
wallaby
is not well defined and can mean any macropod of moderate or small size . therefore , the listing below is arbitrary and taken from the complete list of macropods .
napp , bernie ( 4 september 2006 ) . auckland conservacy wins joey award . department of conservation , new zealand
yalden , d . w . ; hosey , g . r . ( 2009 ) .
feral wallabies in the peak district
.
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 22 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .
macropod is the common name for any of the terrestrial and arboreal marsupials comprising the mammalian family macropodidae , characterized by strongly developed hind legs , long tails , thin necks , relatively small heads , generally prominent ears , and a predominantly herbivorous feeding behavior . there are more than 60 extant species of macropods placed in 11 genera , including the kangaroos , wallabies , tree - kangaroos , pademelons , and several others . macropods are largely found in australia , new guinea , and several indonesian islands .
macropods belong to the marsupial order diprotodontia , a large and diverse group that includes , in addition to the macropods , the koalas , wombats , and possums . the family macropodidae belongs to the suborder phalangerida , with the possums and gliders , while the wombats and koala belong to the suborder vombatiformes .
macropods are further divided into two subfamilies , the sthenurinae and the macropodinae . while the sthenurinae was a successful group in the pleistocene , it now has only one extant species , the banded hare - wallaby ( lagostrophus fasciatus ) . all other extant macropods belong to the subfamily macropodinae ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) .
macropods have very large hind legs that make the upper body and forelimbs look small , relatively thin necks , and a long , powerfully muscled tail . all have relatively small heads and most have large ears , except for tree - kangaroos , which must move quickly between tight branches .
the term macropod comes from the greek for
long foot
or
big foot
and it refers to the fact that most macropods have a very long , narrow hind foot . this enables the kangaroos , wallabies , and tree kangaroos to have a characteristic hopping gait , with the kangaroos the largest mammals to hop on both feet ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) . the hind feet have a distinctive arrangement of toes : the fourth toe is very large and strong , the fifth toe moderately so , the second and third are fused , and the first toe is usually missing . the short front legs have five separate digits . some macropods have 7 carpal bones instead of the usual 8 in mammals .
macropods vary in size considerably . the adult hare - wallabies weigh only about 1 . 4 kilograms ( 3 pounds ) and have a head - body length of 290 millimeters ( 11 inches ) , while the large gray kangaroos weight up to 85 kilograms ( 187 pounds ) and have a head - body length of up to 2300 millimeters ( 91 inches ) ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) . there also is a large range of colors , from sandy red through black , as well as intermediate colors and mixes , and some with distinct markings , such as stripes , patches , and so forth ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) .
in addition , there is a linkage between the hopping action and breathing . as the feet leave the ground , air is expelled from the lungs by what amounts to an internal piston . bringing the feet forward ready for landing fills the lungs again , providing further energy efficiency . studies of kangaroos and wallabies have demonstrated that , beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all , increased speed requires very little extra effort ( much less than the same speed increase in , say , a horse , a dog , or a human ) , and also that little extra energy is required to carry extra weight—something that is of obvious importance to females carrying large young in their pouches .
in general , macropods have a broad , straight row of cutting teeth at the front of the mouth , no canine teeth , and a gap before the molars . the molars are large and , unusually , do not appear all at once but a pair at a time at the back of the mouth as the animal ages , eventually becoming worn down by the tough , abrasive grasses and falling out . most species have four molars and , when the last pair is too worn to be of use , they starve . the dental formula for macropods is :
like the eutherian ruminants of the northern hemisphere ( sheep , cattle , and so on ) , macropods have specialized digestive systems that use a high concentration of bacteria , protozoans , and fungi in the first chamber of a complex stomach to digest plant material . the details of organization are quite different , but the end result is somewhat similar .
tree - kangaroos have smaller ears for easier maneuvering between tree branches , and much longer tail .
while kangaroos and wallabies are terrestrial , the tree - kangaroos are arboreal , being adapted for life in trees , but slow and clumsy on the ground . on the ground , they move at about walking pace and hop awkwardly , leaning their body far forward to balance the heavy tail . but in trees they are bold and agile . they climb by wrapping the forelimbs around the trunk of a tree and hopping with the powerful hind legs , allowing the forelimbs to slide .
macropods are predominately herbivorous , but some species will eat invertebrates and fungi ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) . while some macropods are browsers , most are grazers and are equipped with appropriately specialized teeth for cropping and grinding up fibrous plants , in particular grasses and sedges . smaller species tend to seek out seeds , fruits , actively growing plants and other high - quality food items , while larger kangaroos can process lower = quality food items and consume a large variety of plants ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) .
small , selective feeders tend to be dispersed and solitary , while larger grazers tend to be gregarious , including some larger species that form groups (
mobs
) of 50 or more animals ( lundie - jenkins 2004 ) .
the ability of larger macropods to survive on poor - quality , low - energy feed , and to travel long distances at high speed without great energy expenditure ( to reach fresh food supplies or waterholes , and to escape predators ) has been crucial to their evolutionary success on a continent that , because of soil fertility and low , unpredictable average rainfall , offers only very limited primary plant productivity .
. although normally grazing straight from the ground , a macropod would eat a treat in small bites while holding it in its hands .
there are two subfamilies in the macropodidae family : the sthenurinae was highly successful in the pleistocene but is now represented by just a single species , and a vulnerable one at that , the [ bbanded hare - wallaby ] ] ; the remainder , about 60 species , makes up the subfamily macropodinae .
a number of extinct species have been discovered . the earliest known fossil macropod dates back about 11 . 61 million years ago ( mya ) to 28 . 4 mya , either in the miocene or late oligocene , and was uncovered in south australia . unfortunately , the fossil could not be identified any further than the family . a queensland fossil of a species similar to hadronomas has been dated at around 5 . 33 mya to 11 . 61 mya , falling in the late miocene or early pliocene . the earliest completely identifiable fossils are from around 5 . 33 mya .
the following taxonomy was drawn from haaramo ( 2004 ) , with
†
symbolizing extinct taxa .
groves , c . 2005 . macropodidae . pages 58 - 70 in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder ( eds . ) , mammal species of the world , 3rd edition . johns hopkins university press . isbn 0801882214 .
poole , w . e . 1984 . macropodidae . pages 862 - 871 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .
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size head and body length ranges from 11 to 91 in ( 290–2 , 300 mm ) ; tail length ranges from 6 to 43 in ( 150–1 , 090 mm ) ; weight from 3 to 187 lb ( 1 . 4–85 kg )
distribution australia , new guinea , parts of irian jaya , and several indonesian islands . introduced into britain , germany , hawaii , and new zealand
while there is dramatic diversity within the family , the general body shape , incorporating strongly developed hind limbs that make the forelimbs and upper body look small , a long tail , and prominent ears , is shared by all members . the family name macropodidae is actually derived from the word macropus , which means
big foot
in reference to the characteristic long hind feet that enables the kangaroos , wallabies , and tree kangaroos to adopt their characteristic hopping gait . kangaroos are , in fact , the largest mammals to hop on both feet . hopping is not , however , the only way that the members of this diverse family get about . in contrast to their
kangaroos , wallabies , and tree kangaroos are represented in almost all habitat types in australia and new guinea , including alpine grasslands , high - altitude rainforests , spinifex deserts , and coastal savannahs . many habitat types support four
with like - sized bovids and cervids , whereby the small , selective feeders tend to be dispersed and solitary and the large nonselective grazers tend to be aggregated and gregarious . this pattern is most obvious in the tendency of some of the larger species within the genus macropus to form groups ( often called
mobs
) that may contain 50 of more animals . while there is some social organization within these groups , it is extremely flexible with age / sex classes intermingling , feeding ranges not defended , and mating being promiscuous . the patterns
the mating system is promiscuous . the age at which kangaroos , wallabies , and tree kangaroos reach sexual maturity
is strongly correlated with adult body size . females of the larger kangaroo species can breed at two to three years , whereas in some of the smaller species , females can conceive at or slightly before the time of weaning at four to five months . in most cases , males reach sexual maturity some
lagostrophus fasciatus ( perón and lesueur , 1807 ) , bernier island , australia . two subspecies .
english : munning ; french : wallaby - lièvre rayé , wallaby - lièvre à bandes ; spanish : canguro - liebre rayado .
head and body length 16–18 in ( 400–450 mm ) ; tail length 14–16 in ( 350–400 mm ) ; weight 3–5 lb ( 1 . 3–2 . 1 kg ) . small wallaby with dark grizzled gray coat on back and sides featuring distinctive transverse bands from the mid - back to the base of the tail .
dicotyledonous plants , including malvaceous and leguminous shrubs , represent main food items . grasses account for less than half the dietary intake .
females reach sexual maturity at 12 months ; pouch life 180 days . probably polygynous or promiscuous .
macropus agilis ( gould , 1842 ) , port essington , northern territory , australia .
head and body length 23–33 in ( 593–850 mm ) ; tail length 23–33 in ( 593–850 mm ) ; weight 20–60 lb ( 9–27 kg ) . sandy - brown color on back and sides , with whitish underside . distinctive dark head stripe and light thigh stripe .
gregarious , forms groups of up to 10 individuals or more where food is abundant .
feeds on native grasses and known to excavate roots of some species . also known to feed on fruits of leichhardt tree and native figs .
females reach sexual maturity at 12 months ; gestation period 29 days ; pouch life 219 days . probably promiscuous .
important food source to australian aborigines and new guinea natives . agricultural pest to crops and pastures in some areas .
head and body length 38–91 in ( 958–2 , 302 mm ) ; tail length 18–43 in ( 446–1 , 090 mm ) ; weight 8–146 lb ( 3 . 5–66 kg ) . males and females are uniformly gray - brown with paler underside . distinguished from other species by hairy muzzle .
eastern australia , including majority of queensland , new south wales , and victoria .
common throughout distribution in a range of habitats , including grassy woodlands , forest , and open grasslands .
females reach sexual maturity at 18 months ; gestation period 36 days ; pouch life 320 days . probably promiscuous .
subject to commercial harvesting for meal and skins . presumably was an important food species for aborigines .
head and body length 18–21 in ( 447–528 mm ) ; tail length 16–21 in ( 405–544 mm ) : weight 7–13 lb ( 3 . 2–5 . 9 kg ) . grayish brown back and shoulders with characteristic white throat and chest . white stripe on upper cheek and dark dorsal stripe ending mid - back .
eastern australia on great dividing range between the gibraltar range and the watagan mountains . introduced to kawau island ( new zealand ) .
females reach sexual maturity at 16 months ; gestation period 34 days ; pouch life 212 days . may be promiscuous or polygynous .
lower risk / near threatened . considered at one time to have been driven to extinction , but rediscovered in 1967 and subsequently detected at a number of sites across range .
macropus rufus ( desmarest , 1822 ) , blue mountains , new south wales , australia .
head and body length 29–55 in ( 745–1 , 400 mm ) ; tail length 25–39 in ( 645–1 , 000 mm ) ; weight 37–187 lb ( 17–85 kg ) . red - brown to blue - gray above and distinctly white underneath .
near continental distribution across arid and semi - arid australia . absent from coastal and subcoastal regions of eastern , southern , and northern australia .
semi - arid plains , shrublands , grasslands , woodlands , and open forest area .
crepuscular . gregarious in small groups , but will form larger groups in response to resource availability .
females reach sexual maturity at 14–20 months ; gestation period 33 days ; pouch life 235 days . estrous cycles in females and sperm production is males show responses to environmental conditions . may be promiscuous or polygynous .
not threatened ; they have expanded their distribution and population numbers in some areas in response to development of pastures and establishment of artificial water points .
as one of the largest land mammals in australia , it is an important cultural symbol for both european and aborigine australians . the animal features extensively in aborigine dreamtime stories . the species is commercially harvested for meat and skins in four states of australia .
head and body length 26–33 in ( 665–847 mm ) ; tail length 25–34 in ( 640–862 mm ) ; weight 23–45 lb ( 10 . 3–20 . 3 kg ) . dark chocolate brown to black above , grading to a strong red - orange color below .
eastern australia from cape york to southeast south australia , extending inland up to 250 mi ( 400 km ) from the coast .
specialized browser , feeding on foliage of shrubs , ferns , sedges , and some grasses .
females reach sexual maturity at 15 months ; gestation period 35 days ; pouch life 256 days . probably promiscuous .
unattractive to commercial shooters due to small size and coarse fur . considered a pest to forestry operations in some areas .
setonix brachyurus ( quoy and gaimard , 1830 ) , king george sound ( albany ) , western australia , australia .
head and body length 16–21 in ( 400–540 mm ) ; tail length 10–12 in ( 245–310 mm ) ; weight 6–9 lb ( 2 . 7–4 . 2 kg ) . generally grizzled gray - brown with reddish tinge . fur long and thick , which gives coat a shaggy appearance .
nocturnal . males known to aggressively defend resting sites . populations living in areas distant from free water may form groups of 25–150 individuals .
browses and grazes , feeding on grasses , sedges , succulents , and foliage of shrubs .
females reach sexual maturity at eight to nine months ; gestation period 27 days ; pouch life 190 days . mainland populations breed year - round , but rottnest island population has only a brief breeding season . probably promiscuous .
vulnerable . declined significantly on mainland during the twentieth century , but has recently recovered in the moister parts of southwest .
petrogale concinna gould , 1842 , wyndham , western australia , australia . two subspecies .
head and body length 11–14 in ( 290–350 mm ) ; tail length 9–12 in ( 220–310 mm ) ; weight 2–3 lb ( 1–1 . 5 kg ) . back and shoulders colored a dull reddish brown , marbled with light gray and black . tail has a definite black brush tip .
northern australia in mary and victoria rivers district , eastern arnhem land , and northwest kimberley .
females reach sexual maturity at 12–24 months ; gestation period 30–32 days ; pouch life 180 days . breeding probably occurs throughout the year . may be promiscuous .
petrogale penicillata ( gray , 1827 ) , sydney , new south wales , australia .
head and body length 20–23 in ( 510–586 mm ) ; tail length 20–28 in ( 500–700 mm ) ; weight 11–24 lb ( 4 . 9–10 . 9 kg ) . black - ish brown above , grading to a reddish chocolate brown on hindquarters ; much paler on chest and underside . black dorsal head stripe and white to buff cheek stripe . prominent and distinctive dark brushy end .
eastern australia on great dividing range from grampians in victoria to nanago region in queensland . successfully introduced onto oahu island ( hawaii ) and kawau , rangitoto , and motutapu islands ( new zealand ) , where in all cases it continues to persist .
suitable rocky areas in a range of habitats , including rainforest , wet and dry sclerophyll forests , and open woodland .
gregarious , and shelter by day in caves and deep fissures . mostly nocturnal , but known to bask in sun on rocky platforms in winter .
the preferred food is grass but , depending on available habitat and seasonal conditions , significant portions of herbs , browse , and selected fruits are also eaten .
females reach sexual maturity at 18 months ; gestation period 31 days ; pouch life 204 days . in the north of its range , there is a narrow hybrid zone in which there is interbreeding between petrogale penicillata and the neighboring species , petrogale herbertii . probably promiscuous .
vulnerable . the species has declined significantly in victoria and southern new south wales , and is considered regionally endangered in both areas . it remains reasonably common in northern new south wales and queensland .
many thousands shot annually for skin trade between 1884 and 1914 . in 1908 , a single dealer traded a total of 92 , 590 skins in sydney . no information available on their significance to aborigines .
petrogale xanthopus gray , 1855 , flinders range , south australia , australia . two subspecies .
head and body length 19–26 in ( 480–650 mm ) ; tail length 22–28 in ( 565–700 mm ) ; weight 13–26 lb ( 6–12 kg ) . one of the most strikingly colored and patterned members of the family . generally a fawn - gray coloration above and white below ; ears , forearms , and hind legs distinctly orange ' white cheek stripe and white hip stripe . tail is orange with distinct regular dark bands . petrogale xanthopus celeris generally paler in general color , and tail markings less distinct than petrogale xanthopus xanthopus .
both subspecies occupy spatially distinct distributions : petrogale xanthopus xanthopus occurs in western new south wales and central - eastern ranges of south australia ; petrogale xanthopus celeris occurs in the ranges of southwestern queensland .
gregarious in isolated colonies . due to extreme temperatures in parts of distribution , they are strictly nocturnal in hotter months . known to bask in sun on rock platforms during winter .
no specific details known , but presumed to have been significant to inland aborigines both as a food source and as a component of their dreamtime mythology .
thylogale stigmatica ( gould , 1860 ) , point cooper , queensland , australia . four subspecies .
head and body length 15–21 in ( 386–536 mm ) ; tail length 12–19 in ( 301–473 mm ) ; weight 6–15 lb ( 2 . 5–6 . 8 kg ) . grizzled gray - brown , with cheeks , shoulders , forearms , and inside of hind legs reddish brown . underside cream to pale - gray . some variation in color between subspecies with rainforest forms generally darker .
distributed from northeastern new south wales to far north queensland and in southern new guinea .
rainforest is preferred habitat , but also recorded in wet sclerophyll forests and deciduous vine - thickets .
generally a solitary species , but may form feeding aggregations in areas where food resources are abundant . they are diurnally active within dense rainforest cover . nocturnal activity concentrated on feeding areas that may be in more open habitat .
browsers , feeding on leaves and fruits of a range of rainforest plants . known also to graze on grasses and commercial crops at forest edges . there is considerable latitudinal variation in the diet , most likely associated with habitat differences due to climate .
females reach sexual maturity at 12 months ; gestation period 28–30 days ; pouch life 180 days . may be promiscuous or polygynous .
english : flashjack , merrin ; french : onychogale bridé ; spanish : canguro rabipelado oriental .
head and body length 18–28 in ( 450–700 mm ) ; tail length 15–21 in ( 380–540 mm ) ; weight 9–18 lb ( 4–8 kg ) . general body coloration is grizzled ashy gray above and pale gray below . characteristic white bridled stripe occurs from center of neck to behind the forearms on both sides . there is a horny spur on the end of the tail .
formerly widespread through central queensland , central - western new south wales , and western victoria . range extended from charters towers in the north to lake hindmarsh in the south . following a dramatic decline , it is now known only from a single extant population near dingo in central queensland , from an reintroduced population on idalia national park and avocet nature refuge , and from sanctuary populations at scotia sanctuary , genaren hill sanctuary , and western plains zoo .
nocturnally active , resting during the day under dense shelter . typically solitary animals , but feeding aggregations of up to six to eight animals are not uncommon .
generally feed on mixed forbs , grasses , and browse on the edge of dense vegetation used for shelter . chenopod forbs ( plant family chenopodiaceae ) are particularly favored as well as soft - leaved grasses and some malvaceous species .
breeding occurs throughout the year . females reach sexual maturity at nine months ; gestation period 23–26 days ; pouch life 119–126 days . promiscuous species .
endangered . subject to major recovery program involving captive breeding and reintroduction to parts of former range . reintroductions to idalia national park and avocet nature refuge have significantly improved the species ' conservation status .
mentioned in the diaries of numerous early explorers in western new south wales as one of the most abundant kangaroo species they encountered . no specific details of its use by humans , but presumed to have been significant food source and also utilized for its distinctive skin . recent conservation actions to recovery for this endangered species have served to raise its public profile .


the valley and ridge salamander ( plethodon hoffmani ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae endemic to the appalachian mountains in the eastern united states .

valley and ridge salamander

the ridge and valley salamander is found in eastern west virginia in the ridge and valley province . this area is characterized by steep crested ridges and wide valleys .
valley and ridge salamander ( plethodon hoffmani ) = recent records - taxon date county state 1 . more
the valley and ridge salamander , plethodon hoffmani , is similar in appearance to the ravine salamander . the small valley and ridge salamander lives beneath flat stones and other objects on forested hillside slopes . it can be found up to 1402 meters in elevation . more
1989 ) ; also probably the blue ridge mountains and valley and ridge provinces in northeastern tennessee ( redmond and scott 1996 ) .
- valley and ridge salamanders are carnivorous . they will eat insects such as arthropods and worms .
the valley and ridge salamander is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .
the valley and ridge salamander is common throughout its range . description - plethodon hoffmani is a slender , medium - sized ( 9–13 . 7 cm ) salamander with short legs , a long tail , and usually 21 costal grooves . more
deciduous or mixed hardwood - conifer forest on hillsides and ridges or valley floors , near valley streams .
valley and ridge salamander ( plethodon hoffmani ) shenandoah mountain salamander ( plethodon virginia ) these sibling species resemble ravine salamanders but are found east of the allegheny mountains . both have whiter throats than ravine salamanders and white mottling on the belly . more
- valley and ridge salamanders prefer mature deciduous forests that are well drained . they like flat rocks with sloping hills .
- valley and ridge salamanders are oviparous . they will reproduce about three to four eggs in one clutch per year .
valley and ridge physiography , generally in mature hardwood forests with well - drained soils . lays eggs in moist cavity .
( e . aquatica ) . comparison of allopatric vs . sympatric populations of the southern zigzag salamander ( plethodon ventralis ) and webster’s salamander ( p . websteri ) .
h . aestivation / avoiding dessication . few valley and ridge salamanders have been collected during the summer ( highton , 1962a ; angle , 1969 ) .
the valley and ridge salamander has white or brassy flecks against a brown to black background body coloration . the dark belly is mottled with white , and the throat is mostly white . body length ranges from 9 . 1 to 11 . 2 cm . more
j . torpor ( hibernation ) . valley and ridge salamanders avoid cold conditions by moving to warmer underground sites ( highton , 1962a ; angle , 1969 ) .
853 - angle , j . p . , 1969 , the reproductive cycle of the northern ravine salamander , plethodon richmondi richmondi , in the valley and ridge province of pennsylvania and maryland , j . washington acad . sci . , vol . 59 , pg . 192 - 202
valley and ridge salamanders are found from summers and monroe counties north through the eastern panhandle . shenandoah mountain salamanders occur on shenandoah mountain in pendleton , hardy , hampshire , and grant counties .
4 . conservation . valley and ridge salamanders are not protected by any state . within their range there are many federal and state properties that contain suitable habitat for these salamanders .
- valley and ridge salamanders occupy areas as far north as central pennsylvania and as far south as the new river in virginia and west virginia . they may also reach as far west as the appalachian plateau .
valley and ridge salamanders have been found in two different caves in greenbrier county , west virginia . in both caves they were within the twilight zone beneath cover ( cooper , 1961 ) .
mainly found in the susquehanna river valley in west - central pennsylvania south to virginia and west virginia .
valley and ridge salamanders contact shenandoah mountain salamanders ( p . virginia ) at the northern and southern extremities of shenandoah mountain salamanders range . in these areas there are some hybrid populations ( highton , 1999a ) .
fraser ( 1976a ) performed a study of behavioral interactions between captive shenandoah mountain salamanders and cow knob salamanders ( p . punctatus ) . salamanders were introduced into large containers with surface cover objects . there was no tendency for either a positive or negative association when adult ridge and valley salamanders were added to an enclosure containing juvenile cow knob salamanders and vice versa . however , there was a significant negative association between valley and ridge salamanders when they were added to an enclosure containing adult cow knob salamanders . there was not a significant association when adult cow knob salamanders were added to an enclosure containing adult valley and ridge salamanders .
shenandoah mountain salamanders contact valley and ridge salamanders ( p . hoffmani ) at the northern and southern extremities of shenandoah mountain salamanders ' range . in these areas there are some hybrid populations ( highton , 1999a ) .
populations of valley and ridge salamanders have been found proximate to other members of the p . cinereus group . they are found only 1 . 9 km away from a site that contains peaks of otter salamanders ( p . hubrichti ) . in the vicinity of bell knob in tucker and grant counties , west virginia , valley and ridge salamanders are found within 3 . 7 km of cheat mountain salamanders ( p . nettingi ) . southern ravine salamanders ( p . richmondi ) are known from a locality 0 . 6 km away from valley and ridge salamanders on the other side of the new river in summers and raleigh counties , west virginia ( highton , 1999a ) .
this salamander breeds in the spring and eggs have been found in april and may . eggs , like most plethodons , are desposited under rocks or logs or underground .
e . adult habitat . in west virginia , valley and ridge salamanders inhabit hillside slopes of mixed deciduous forest with flat stones ( green and pauley , 1987 ) . most of the range is dry and well drained ( highton , 1999a ) .
valley and ridge salamanders have been found in two different caves in greenbrier county , west virginia . in both caves they were within the twilight zone beneath cover ( cooper , 1961 ) . f . home range size . more
it lives under logs and rocks in the ridge and valley physiographic province north of the new river . adults inhabit subterranean cracks and holes , leaf litter , debris , humus and under rocks . individuals sometimes are found in the area just inside the entrance to a cave .
e . adult habitat . the primary habitat of dark - sided salamanders appear to be springs and streams in wooded areas ( rose and bush , 1963 ) . in the ridge and valley province of alabama and georgia , populations are associated with limestone and dolomitic springs ( jones , 1980 ) .
valley and ridge salamanders also occur in areas with northern slimy salamanders ( p . glutinosus ) , white - spotted slimy salamanders ( p . cylindraceus ) , and wehrle ' s salamanders ( p . wehrlei ; highton , 1962a , 1972 , 1989 ) .
on grandfather mountain and in the whitetop mountain - mount rogers area , the following salamander species are reported in association with northern gray - cheeked salamanders : weller’s salamanders ( p . welleri ) , red - backed salamanders , blue ridge two - lined salamanders , blue ridge dusky salamanders , and pygmy salamanders ( d . wrighti ; walker , 1931 ; hoffman and kleinpeter , 1948 ; bogert , 1952 ; thurow , 1963 ) .
susquehanna river valley , pennsylvania , to new river , northwestern virginia , including eastern west virginia and western maryland ( highton 1999 ) .
berry cave salamanders are known only from sites in the ridge and valley province in knox , mcminn , and roane counties , tennessee ( brandon , 1965a , 1966c , 1967a ; petranka , 1998 ) . the data necessary to compare current versus historical distributions have not been collected .
a . breeding . reproduction is terrestrial . the vasa deferentia are filled with sperm from late september to may . valley and ridge salamanders in maryland and pennsylvania primarily mate in the spring , although occasionally females are found with spermatozoa in their spermathecae during the fall ( angle , 1969 ) .
as with all species of plethodon , valley and ridge salamanders do not migrate to breeding grounds , and they do not have large home ranges . thus , they can exist in habitats of smaller size than many other amphibian species . conservation activities that promote mature closed - canopy forests should benefit this species .
2 . historical versus current abundance . berry cave salamander populations are declining ( caldwell and copeland , 1992 ) , likely due to above ground habitat destruction and subsequent effects on water quality , and caldwell and copeland ( 1992 ) suggested that berry cave salamanders should be given endangered status .
ii . clutch size . unknown . however , a large clutch size ( compared to other species of gyrinophilus ) is predicted , based on well - established relationships between salamander body size and clutch size ( kaplan and salthe , 1979 ) .
the six isolates of northern gray - cheeked salamanders in the valley and ridge province are widely sympatric with northern slimy salamanders ( p . glutinosus ) . the two species also are sympatric in a small section of the roan isolate of northern gray - cheeked salamanders . there is evidence of occasional hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .
intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area ; population recovery occurs slowly ( herbeck and larsen 1999 ) . however , logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population .
the following species were associated with valley and ridge salamanders in caves in greenbrier county , west virginia : cave salamanders ( eurycea lucifuga ) , long - tailed salamanders , red - backed salamanders ( p . cinereus ) , northern slimy salamanders , newt efts ( notophthalmus viridescens ) , and jefferson’s salamanders ( ambystoma jeffersonianum ; cooper , 1961 ) .
this salamander is long , with smallish legs and a long tail . the background color is usually dark brown to black with small gold or silver flecks . the throat of this species is whitish and the belly shows more light mottling than its close relative
northern gray - cheeked salamanders are widely sympatric with yonahlossee salamanders at the eastern edge of the blue ridge isolate . there is no evidence of hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .
northern gray - cheeked salamanders are widely sympatric with white - spotted slimy salamanders in the blue ridge province in the black and bald isolates , and most of the roan isolate . there is no evidence of hybridization between these species ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .
this species can be found in the eastern usa in the susquehanna river valley , pennsylvania , to new river , northwestern virginia , including eastern west virginia and western maryland ( highton 1999 ) , up to 1400 m asl .
2 . historical versus current abundance . highton ( 2003 ) surveyed 12 northern gray - cheeked salamander populations prior to 1988 and again after 1994 , and found decreased numbers of animals ( under similar sampling conditions and with similar effort ) in 10 populations . highton ( 2003 ) stresses that animals remain abundant , but these populations should continue to be monitored .
this species inhabits the wooded slopes of valleys and ridges . they tend to be found on slightly drier slopes than their close relative the redback salamdander . they can be found under logs , rocks , or during moist times , within the leaf litter . the best time to observe this and many salamander is during early spring .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . juveniles grow 10–12 mm svl during their first year and become sexually mature in the autumn , at 2 yr old . at this time , males range in size from 38–44 mm ; females are 39–47 mm . most females will oviposit the year after becoming sexually mature , but a small percentage may require an additional year and first breed when they are nearly 4 yr old . female valley and ridge salamanders have a biennial reproductive cycle ( angle , 1969 ) .
( 20 , 000 - 200 , 000 square km ( about 8000 - 80 , 000 square miles ) ) susquehanna river valley , pennsylvania , to new river , northwestern virginia , including eastern west virginia and western maryland ( highton 1999 ) .
this is a small , short - legged salamander that grows to lengths of 8 - 13 . 5 cm . the tail comprises at least 50 % of the total length . the back is dark brown to blackish with scattered whitish and brassy flecks and the belly is dark with brown and white mottling , especially on the chin . oviposition occurs in june and hatching occurs in august and september . in wet weather , they forage in leaf litter and as the surface dries , retreat to damp areas under rocks and logs .
4 . conservation . berry cave salamanders are known only from sites in the ridge and valley province in knox , mcminn , and roane counties , tennessee . these populations are declining due to above ground habitat destruction and subsequent effects on water quality . the tennessee wildlife resources agency ( 1994 ) has listed g . palleucus as threatened ; because g . gulolineatus was recognized as a subspecies of tennessee cave salamanders at the time of listing and only occurs in tennessee , the arguments for listing g . gulolineatus are equally valid . caldwell and copeland ( 1992 ) have suggested that berry cave salamanders should be given endangered status .
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . in avery county , north carolina , northern gray - cheeked salamanders were found with eastern newts ( notophthalmus viridescens ) , blue ridge dusky salamanders ( desmognathus orestes ) , seal salamanders ( d . monticola ) , red - backed salamanders ( plethodon cinereus ) , yonahlossee salamanders ( p . yonahlossee ) , white - spotted slimy salamanders ( p . cylindraceus ) , and blue ridge two - lined salamanders ( eurycea wilderae ; gordon et al . , 1962 ) .
hulse , c . and mccoy c . j . and ellen censky , 1998 . amphibians and reptiles of pennsylvania and the northeast . 108 - 112pp .
e . adult habitat . habitat includes steep to sloping hillsides and ravines , and mesic forests with flat rocks , rock outcrops , logs , and abundant leaf litter ( wallace , 1969 ; barbour , 1971 ; martof et al . , 1980 ; green and pauley , 1987 ; redmond and scott , 1996 ) . southern ravine salamanders are less common in floodplains or on dry ridge tops ( netting , 1939 ) . they are found occasionally in pastures adjacent to wooded areas ( hoffman and hubricht , 1954 ) .
r . parasites . rankin ( 1937 ) lists parasites from at least two species of the p . jordani complex . it is not possible to determine which parasites were found in which salamander species , but some of these salamanders were northern gray - cheeked salamanders . the following parasites are noted : crytobia borrelis , eutrichomastix batrachorum , hexamitus intestinalis , karotomorpha swezi , prowasekella longifilis , tritrichomonas augusta , brachycoelium hospitale and crepidobothrium cryptobranchi .
b . cover . as with larvae of southern two - lined salamanders and northern two - lined salamanders , dark - sided salamander larvae generally are nocturnal , and likely prefer the bottoms of shallow , quiet pools that form below riffle areas in rocky streams . they may also be found by searching among the rocks and logs in riffles ( see pauley , this volume ; sever , this volume ) . at the type locality , larval dark - sided salamanders were found hidden on the bottom of the spring among aquatic vegetation ( rose and bush , 1963 ) .
reproduction : oviposition occurs in june and hatching occurs in august and september * 853 * .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
the distribution of southern ravine salamanders has updated for tennessee ( redmond and scott , 1996 ) and for virginia ( mitchell and reay , 1999 ) .
iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .
please contribute your observation of this and other herps to the pennsylvania amphibian and reptile survey . your help is needed .
acknowledgments . thanks to richard highton , who reviewed this account and gave us the benefit of his insight and experience .
they probably mate in the spring and deposit eggs in april and may . young emerge from eggs in about 3 months .
ii . breeding habitat . breeding occurs in crevices or rock ledges of emergent rocks , rock outcrops , and rock cliffs in mesophytic forests . cupp ( 1971 ) observed the courtship ritual and subsequent mating of a pair of green salamanders in a crevice of a sandstone rock outcrop in kentucky . brooks ( 1948a ) reported watching a courting pair on a cliff face in west virginia . gordon ( 1952 ) reported that he found single pairs of salamanders in a crevice prior to egg deposition , but he did not observe courtship . snyder ( 1971 ) observed courtship in late may , presumably in a rock crevice because green salamander nests have only been found in rock crevices in the southern appalachians .
ii . breeding habitat . springs and small woodland streams are the most likely nesting sites ( rose and bush , 1963 ) .
behavior : they live under logs and rocks and tolerate cool weather well . they appear early in march and disappear in the late summer . they are active during the early half of the fall . the females attend the eggs until hatching and the young mature at 2 years * 1014 * . in wet weather , they forage in leaf litter and as the surface dries , retreat to damp areas under rocks and logs * 853 * . this species aestivates in july and august and hibernates through february * 898 , 853 * .
data developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .
hairston ( 1949 ) reports the following salamanders along with northern gray - cheeked salamanders from the black mountains area , yancey county , north carolina : spring salamanders ( gyrinophilus porphyriticus ) , red salamanders ( pseudotriton ruber ) , blue ridge two - lined salamanders , black - bellied salamanders ( d . quadramaculatus ) , seal salamanders , carolina mountain dusky salamanders ( d . carolinensis ) , pygmy salamanders , shovel - nosed salamanders ( d . marmoratus ) , yonahlossee salamanders , and white - spotted slimy salamanders .
laboratory studies have shown that interspecific associations exist between green salamanders and cumberland plateau salamanders , allegheny mountain dusky salamanders , and wehrle ' s salamanders ( p . wehrlei ; cupp , 1980 ; canterbury and pauley , 1991 ) . canterbury and pauley ( 1991 ) observed aggressive behaviors between male green salamanders , cumberland plateau salamanders , and northern slimy salamanders .
a . food . larvae are carnivorous and likely eat a variety of insect and other invertebrate prey . major prey items include isopods , amphipods , midges , dipteran pupae , stonefly nymphs , and chironomid larvae , as well as copepods , cladocerans , and other zooplankton ( caldwell and houtcooper , 1973 ; burton , 1976 ; petranka , 1984b ) .
mahoney , m . j . 2001 . molecular systematics of plethodon and aneides ( caudata : plethodontini ) : phylogenetic analysis of an old and rapid radiation . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 18 : 174 - 188 .
likely stable in extent of occurrence and probably stable to slightly declining in population size , area of occupancy , and number / condition of occurrences .
hulse , a . c . , c . j . mccoy , and e . censky . 2001 . amphibians and reptiles of pennsylvania and the northeast . comstock publishing associates , cornell university press , ithaca . 419 pp .
p . anti - predator mechanisms . closely related species in the e . bislineata complex assume a defensive posture when attacked by small mammals and birds , and they may be unpalatable ( dowdy and brodie , 1977 ) . tail autotomy is also known in this group ( whiteman and wissinger , 1991 ) .
adults forage at night for terrestrial insects , arthropods , worms , and invertebrates .
listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population .
juveniles and hatchlings are similar to adults with a lighter mottling on a lighter ventral .
r . parasites . parasites that have been identified include batracholandros salamandrae ( baker , 1987 ) , thelandros salamadrae , and cylindrotaenia americana ( dunbar and moore , 1979 ) .
and the physiological consequences of invasiveness on an exotic amphibian ( the cane toad ) . we will employ these same techniques to test hypotheses about trans pecos turtles and lizards .
my previous research has involved a wide range of topics , from ectoparasite - vertebrate interaction networks , hormone - immune interactions in toads , lizards , and snakes , reproductive ecology of salamanders and snakes , pollination biology of moth - adapted flowers , phylogenetic divergence in salamanders , conservation status of imperiled amphibians , and biodiversity and distribution of amphibians and reptiles of the southeastern united states . i continue to maintain active research programs in several areas :
d . juvenile habitat . juveniles remain in the same habitat as adults . walker and goodpaster ( 1941 ) observed two groups of hatchlings , each with an attending female , on 30 september 1939 in ohio . post - hatching juveniles remain with the female for about 1 mo and then move upward on rock faces toward moss covered ledges and crevices . juveniles move about more on rock outcrops than do adults ( canterbury , 1991 ) . gordon ( 1952 ) found that after a brooding period of a few months , juveniles leave the nests and move to cracks and crevices . cupp ( 1991 ) observed that dispersing hatchlings and juveniles were found occasionally in places ( interfaces between rock cliffs and tree limbs and on more moist rock faces and crevices ) where adults usually do not occur .
the ranges of northern gray - cheeked salamanders and cumberland plateau salamanders ( p . kentucki ) overlap in russell , smyth , and / or washington counties in virginia , but they have not yet been collected at the same sites ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .
small to medium - sized , slender species . the background color is brownish - black to black with small scattered white and silvery to brassy spots and flecks . flecking is more common on the dorsal with white spots being more numerous on the sides . the underside is black and finely mottled with brown and white . the throat is lighter that the belly .
this species forages at night for terrestrial insects , arthropods , worms , and other invertebrates .
by collaborating with labs with diverse investigative tools , i have tested evolutionary and comparative biological hypotheses using diverse techniques , including genetic analyses and fine - scale , geomorphic morphometric measurements of head shape . for many of these projects i play two key roles : i am the field collector of salamanders and their tissue , and also generated ideas for the projects . we focused on several topics : phylogeography and comparative biology of the closely - related , but habitat segregated
883 - conant , r . , 1975 , a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america , 429 pgs . , houghton mifflin co . , boston , ma
f . home range size . unknown . movements probably are similar to eastern red - backed salamanders ( kleeberger and werner , 1982 ) and northern ravine salamanders ( jewell , 1991 ) .
future : i will begin focusing on trans pecos species . i foresee massive drift fence inventory projects in and around big bend national park , and i’ve begun studying predator prey interactions locally .
n . feeding behavior . as with most salamanders , green salamanders are opportunistic feeders . gordon ( 1952 ) found that prey items included snails , slugs , spiders , and small insects . more specific food items include coleopterans , dipterans , and hymenopterans ( lee and norden , 1973 ; canterbury and pauley , 1990 ) . all age classes of green salamanders prey on the same items , but hatchlings consume more mites than other invertebrates ( canterbury and pauley , 1990 ) .
ii . clutch size . number of eggs / clutch ranges from 10–30 in north carolina ( gordon , 1952 ) ; 14–20 in kentucky ( cupp , 1991 ) ; 12–27 ( canterbury and pauley , 1994 ) ; and 20–32 ( lee and norden , 1973 ) in west virginia .
physical description : this species is 80 to 137 mm , and slender with short legs , a long tail and 21 costal grooves . the dorsum is dark brown to blackish with scattered whitish or brassy flecks and the venter is dark with mottling , especially on the chin * 1014 * .
o . predators . unknown , but likely include forest birds , small mammals , and snakes .
o . predators . undocumented , but undoubtedly include woodland snakes , birds , and small mammals .
martof , b . s . , w . m . palmer , j . r . bailey , and j . r . harrison , iii . 1980 . amphibians and reptiles of the carolinas and virginia . university of north carolina press , chapel hill , north carolina . 264 pp .
green salamanders are listed as endangered in indiana , ohio , maryland , and mississippi , threatened in pennsylvania , protected in georgia ( http : / / georgiawildlife . dnr . state . ga . us ) , rare in north carolina , and of special concern in south carolina and west virginia .
i . egg deposition sites . eggs are likely deposited on the undersides of rocks and logs in flowing water , and females brood ( see pauley , this volume ; sever , this volume ) .
green , n . b . , and t . k . pauley . 1987 . amphibians and reptiles in west virginia . university of pittsburg press , pittsburg , pennsylvania . xi + 241 pp .
n . feeding behavior . dark - sided salamanders likely feed on a wide range of invertebrates . potential prey include annelids , snails , arachnids , and isopods , and insects such as beetles , bugs , roaches , springtails , dipterans , and hymenopterans ( hamilton , 1932 ; burton , 1976 ) .
occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs ) in or near appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and breeding .
ii . breeding habitat . berry cave salamanders most likely breed in the caverns and passages they occupy .
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g . territories . males , but not females and subadults , are territorial and aggressively defend their crevices against other males ( cupp , 1980 ; canterbury and pauley , 1991 ) . gravid females probably mate with males in optimal crevices , and females either use these crevices as nesting sites or move to other favorable crevices ( cupp , 1991 ) . cupp ( 1980 ) observed that resident males won 95 . 6 % of all encounters , and he concluded that size was not a significant factor in territorial defense .
the dorsal background color is brownish - black to black with small scattered white and silvery to brassy spots and flecks . flecking is more common on the dorsal with white spots being more numours on the sides .
behler , j . l . , and f . w . king . 1979 . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . alfred a . knopf , new york . 719 pp .
my master’s and dissertation research focused on reproductive endocrinology of the cottonmouth ( agkistrodon piscivorus ) , with an emphasis on interactions between the environment , hormones , and immunity . i have amassed a repertoire of laboratory techniques to measure the hormonal and immune profiles of non - traditional model organisms , and as a post doctoral researcher at penn state i used them to test novel hypotheses about the non - lethal , but pervasive physiological
petranka , james w . , 1998 . salamanders of the united states and canada . 361 - 363pp .
o . predators . undocumented , but probably include forest - dwelling snakes , birds , and small mammals .
m . longevity . unknown . probably similar to other small plethodon ( snider and bowler , 1992 ) .
b . eggs . in maryland and pennsylvania , eggs probably are deposited in april–may ( angle , 1969 ) .
frost , d . r . 1985 . amphibian species of the world . a taxonomic and geographical reference . allen press , inc . , and the association of systematics collections , lawrence , kansas . v + 732 pp .
southern appalachian salamanders ( p . teyahalee ) are widely sympatric with the max patch and sandymush isolates of northern gray - cheeked salamanders . there is no known morphological or genetic evidence of hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .
n . feeding behavior . the main food items in the stomachs of 94 shenandoah mountain salamanders included hymenoptera , collembola , chilopoda , diplopoda , araneida , and larval diptera , oligochaeta , coleoptera , and pulmonata ( fraser , 1976a ) .
highton , r . 1986 . plethodon hoffmani . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles . 392 : 1 - 2 .
favorite collaborators : these are folks who share similar research interests and who i’ve published many papers with . they have always made the collaborative process exciting , easy , and productive . i look forward to working with them more in the future .
e . adult habitat . northern gray - cheeked salamanders have been recorded from both virgin and second - growth forest ( dunn , 1917a ; gordon et al . , 1962 ) . northern gray - cheeked salamanders in avery county , north carolina , are found in mixed mesophytic forest with a canopy consisting of read and white oak , maples , buckeyes , ironwood , gum , tulip trees , and a few scattered hemlocks . the understory at this site is sparse and composed of jewelweed , nettle shield fern , pipsissewa , goldenrod , twayblade , bellflowers , and pinesap ( gordon et al . , 1962 ) .
d . juvenile habitat . juveniles have been found in the same habitat as adults ( netting and mittleman , 1938 ) .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . attained during or shortly after metamorphosis ( rose and bush , 1963 ) .
h . aestivation / avoiding dessication . southern ravine salamanders are most active above ground during the fall , winter , and spring . during the hot summer months of june–september , they move to underground refugia ( nagel , 1979 ; green and pauley , 1987 ) .
c . direct development . females brood . incubation period of eggs is 84–91 d in north carolina ( gordon , 1952 ) , 73 d in kentucky ( cupp , 1991 ) , 82 d in mississippi ( woods , 1969 ) , and 82–90 d in west virginia ( canterbury and pauley , 1994 ) . norden and groves ( 1974 ) found a female attending newly hatched young on 4 september 1972 in northern west virginia . females produce eggs on a biennial cycle ( snyder , 1991 ; canterbury and pauley , 1994 ) .
d . juvenile habitat . juveniles live in the same cave systems occupied by adults and are therefore likely to have similar habitat characteristics .
c . direct development . eggs probably are incubated for about 2 mo and hatch in late august to september ( angle , 1969 ) .
i . egg deposition sites . females attend clusters of unpigmented eggs that are held together and attached to the roof of a crevice by strands of mucus . green and pauley ( 1987 ) reported that several clusters of eggs were observed in central west virginia on 4 july 1976 .
petranka , j . w . 1998 . salamanders of the united states and canada . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c .
my interests extend beyond my favorite vertebrates to others , such as birds , fish , mammals , invertebrates , and plants , which i am keen to maintain an interest in for more effective teaching , to encourage the growth of a particular student’s interest , and to develop collaborations .
clearcuts negatively affect populations of northern gray - cheeked salamanders . petranka et al . ( 1993 , 1994 ) found that these salamanders occur in much higher numbers in mature forests than in clearcuts . petranka ( 1998 ) states that deforestation and the conversion of mixed hardwood forests to pine monocultures has eliminated or reduced a large number of eastern plethodon populations . however , ash ( 1988 , 1997 ) and ash and bruce ( 1994 ) have strongly disagreed with petranka ' s estimates and do not consider forestry practices to be having as strong an impact on native salamanders .
1014 - martof , b . s . , palmer , w . m . , bailey , j . r . , harrison , iii j . r . , 1980 , amphibians and reptiles of the carolinas and virginia , 264 pgs . , unc press , chapel hill , nc
northern gray - cheeked salamanders are relatively resilient to disturbances , such as those associated with timbering operations , and frequently are found in second - growth forests and relatively small , fragmented woodlots ( gordon et al . , 1962 ; d . a . b . , personal observation ) .
ii . breeding habitat . as with most plethodon , breeding probably takes place at night on the forest floor . southern ravine salamanders mate from fall to early spring . in the northeastern tennessee populations , southern ravine salamanders mate from november–march , and egg deposition occurs in may ( nagel , 1979 ) . spermatophore deposition in west virginia populations occurs in april–may , and egg deposition occurs in april ( jewell and pauley , 1995 ) .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . the male holotype and the female allotype were the same size , with a 57 mm svl .
i . seasonal migrations . unknown , other than vertical movements from the forest floor to underground sites to avoid dry summer and cold winter conditions .
i . length of larval stage . unknown . berry cave salamanders are neotenic and the transition from larvae to reproductive adults has not been documented .
h . aestivation / avoiding dessication . shenandoah mountain salamanders were not found between august and september in rockingham county , virginia ( fraser , 1976a ) .
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . southern ravine salamanders are sympatric with eastern red - backed salamanders , wehrle ' s salamanders ( p . wehrlei ) , and cumberland plateau salamanders ( p . kentucki ) in west virginia ( waldron et al . , 2000 ) . in kentucky and eastern tennessee , their distribution overlaps with northern zigzag salamanders ( p . dorsalis ; conant and collins , 1998 ) and with northern ravine salamanders in northern kentucky ( highton , 1999b ) . in the southern part of their range , southern ravine salamanders have been taken with weller ' s salamanders ( p . welleri ) , yonahlossee salamanders ( p . yonahlossee ) , and northern gray - cheeked salamanders ( p . montanus ; r . highton , personal communication ) .
tobey , f . j . 1985 . virginia ' s amphibians and reptiles : a distributional survey . virginia herpetological survey . vi + 114 pp .
reproduction occurs usually from late april to early may where they will engage in numerous courtship behaviors . courtship begins when one individual contacts another . usually the male will slap his mental gland on the the female ' s snout and release pheromones . the female will then continue by crawling under the male ' s chin and placing her chin at the base of his tail . they will then continue by engaging in a tail straddling walk ( tsw ) where the female will follow the male with her chin at the base of his tail . the mail will then undulate his tail and deposit a spermatophore . from here the tsw will continue until the female gets over the spermatophore where she will then stop and lower her cloaca and retrieve the spermatophore and lodge it in her cloaca until it fertilizes her eggs . she will then lay her eggs underground with a clutch of 3 - 8 eggs at a time .
n . feeding behavior . little is known about prey items of southern ravine salamanders . several food studies have been conducted on northern ravine salamanders , a sibling species . major prey items of northern ravine salamanders include ants , sow bugs , dipteran larvae , springtails , mites , snails , beetle larvae and adults , earthworms , termites , spiders , and larval ticks ( seibert and brandon , 1960 ; minton , 1972 , 2001 ; kramer , 1996 ) .
high elevation populations range from 762 m on clinch mountain , virginia ( fowler , 1947 ) , to 915 m on droop and backbone mountains in west virginia ( pauley , 1993b ) , 1 , 250 m at highlands , north carolina ( gordon and smith , 1949 ) , 1 , 265 m on black mountain , kentucky ( barbour , 1953 ) , and to 1 , 341 m on cold mountain , north carolina ( gordon , 1967 ) .
plethore is greek meaning
fullness or full of
, odon is greek for
teeth
. referring to the number of paravomerine and vomerine teeth .
these sibling species resemble ravine salamanders but are found east of the allegheny mountains . both have whiter throats than ravine salamanders and white mottling on the belly .
they are a woodland species that usually lives in woodland habitats found in micro - habitats consisting of rocks and logs with leaf litter on the forest floor .
i . breeding migrations . this species does not migrate . females exhibit a biennial reproductive cycle ( nagel , 1979 ; jewell and pauley , 1995 ) .
likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence , probably less than 25 % decline in population size , area of occurrence , and number / condition of occurrences .
r . parasites . brandon ( 1967b ) noted intestinal parasites ( e . g . , nematodes , cestodes , and acanthocephalans ) in closely related tennessee cave salamanders .
o . predators . predators include ring - necked snakes ( diadophis punctatus ) and common garter snakes ( thamnophis sirtalis ; t . k . p . , personal observations ) and probably other species of snakes . juveniles could be prey items of adult allegheny mountain dusky salamanders in areas where allegheny mountain dusky salamanders inhabit crevices in rock faces .
2 . historical versus current abundance . unknown . rose ( 1971 ) states :
the springs in the area of the type locality of eurycea aquatica are very small , and transformed animals in this area are nonexistent . wholesale destruction of the springs was hastened by the discovery of endemic fish in the area and undisciplined herpetological collecting .
vi . neoteny . in the vicinity of the type locality seven larvae longer than 28 mm with large black testes and coiled vasa deferentia were collected . likewise , 20 larvae > 28 mm with enlarged yolked ova have been collected from this same region . all these larvae also had adult pigmentation patterns ( rose and bush , 1963 ) .
i . egg deposition sites . unknown , but as with other members of the p . cinereus group , likely include underground sites and perhaps sites under surface cover objects .
i . brood sites . in deep underground cavities ( petranka , 1979 , 1998 ) or beneath rocks buried deep in the soil ( wallace and barbour , 1957 ) .
i . egg deposition sites . nests are located in deep underground cavities ( petranka , 1979 , 1998 ) or beneath rocks buried deeply in the soil ( wallace and barbour , 1957 ) . egg deposition in kentucky populations occurs from may to early june ( wallace , 1969 ) . eggs hatch in early fall , but most neonates do not migrate to the surface until the following spring ( nagel , 1979 ) . a juvenile ( 23 mm tl ) was reported in west virginia in mid october ( netting and mittleman , 1938 ) . two adult southern ravine salamanders with two eggs and two newly hatched juveniles were found in late august in kentucky ( wallace and barbour , 1957 ) .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . male southern ravine salamanders in tennessee populations become sexually mature in the fall of their third year of life and most females in their fourth year , but some may reach reproductive maturity in their third year ( nagle , 1979 ) . mature males in tennessee had a mean svl of 48 . 1 mm and gravid females 50 . 6 mm ( nagle , 1979 ) . in kentucky , barbour ( 1953 ) reported body lengths of males from 34–50 mm and females from 34–50 mm . in another study in kentucky , wallace ( 1969 ) reported that the mean svl of gravid females ranged from 47 . 6–53 . 1 mm . the smallest mature gravid female was 35 mm ( svl ) . wallace and barbour ( 1957 ) found a female ( 46 mm svl ) in kentucky under a rock with two eggs and two hatchlings .
i . egg deposition sites . unknown , but as with other members of the p . cinereus group , likely to include underground sites and perhaps sites under surface cover objects .
highton , r . 1999a . geographic protein variation and speciation in the salamanders of the plethodon cinereus group with the description of two new species . herpetologica 55 : 43 - 90 .
n . feeding behavior . northern gray - cheeked salamanders sometimes forage above ground . many have been observed on trunks and low branches of shrubs ≤ 1 m from the ground . groups were observed feeding on fungal gnats around decaying fungi , or on fruit flies and other insects at the base of trees from which sap flowed ( gordon et al . , 1962 ) .
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . dark - sided salamanders occur syntopically with southern dusky salamanders , long - tailed salamanders ( e . longicauda ) , spring salamanders ( gyrinophilus porphyriticus ) , red salamanders ( pseudotriton ruber ) , and northern dusky salamanders ( desmognathus fuscus ) . detailed studies on the ecological interactions between dark - sided salamanders and sympatric species have not been determined .
n . feeding behavior . berry cave salamanders likely feed on isopods , annelids , and aquatic invertebrates , similar to other troglobitic gyrinophilus ( see brandon , 1967b ; simmons , 1975 , 1976 ) . individuals have larger heads than tennessee cave salamanders . brandon ( 1965a ) suggests that this is a feeding specialization , noting that among salamanders the most highly modified snouts are found on the most highly specialized cave salamanders , and speculates that because cave - dwelling salamanders tend to feed on bottom - dwelling invertebrates , a broad , spatulate snout may be effective in detecting and capturing food under dark conditions .
note : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on
i . seasonal migrations . seasonal migrations of green salamanders involve pre - hibernation and post - hibernation dispersals . gordon ( 1952 ) reported that salamanders not observed during the summer on his study sites in north carolina appeared in october just prior to hibernation . he considered this to be a pre - hibernation aggregation . he also noted a post - hibernation dispersal in late april to early may . by late may to early june , salamanders had moved into crevices . in southeastern kentucky , cupp ( 1991 ) recorded the major dispersal and aggregation period to be from early november to mid december ( pre - hibernation period ) . cupp found the post - hibernation dispersal period extended from mid march to late april . in central west virginia males , females , and juveniles disperse from august–september and into october ( canterbury , 1991 ) .
p . anti - predator mechanisms . green salamanders avoid most predators through their nocturnal activity , but there is some diurnal activity ( gordon , 1952 ) . green salamanders are cryptically hidden from diurnal predators by their color pattern that resembles the lichen - covered rocks of their habitat ( brandon and huheey , 1975 ) . hatchlings become immobile when touched ( netting and richmond , 1932 ; gordon , 1952 ; brodie et al . , 1974a ) . when adult green salamanders are touched with a twig , they turn their tail toward the opening of the crevice and undulate it from side to side ( brodie , 1977 ) .
2 . historical versus current abundance . largely unknown , but data collected by highton ( 2003 ) indicate that populations in snyder county , pennsylvania , and augusta county , virginia , may have crashed . additional data from these sites will be needed to determine whether these are true declines or natural population fluctuations . populations at other sites sampled by highton ( 2003 ) in virginia and west virginia appear to be more stable .
northern gray - cheeked salamanders are reported from high elevations in spruce - fir forest ( walker , 1931 ) . here they are found under logs but not in stumps ( hoffman and kleinpeter , 1948 ) .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
ii . clutch sizes . the average clutch size in the vicinity of the type locality is 80 ( range 60–96 ; rose and bush , 1963 ) . clutch sizes for northern two - lined salamanders and southern two - lined salamanders average from 20–50 ( see pauley , this volume ; sever , this volume ) , suggesting the reproductive potential of dark - sided salamanders is high relative to other species in the e . bislineata complex .
aquatic / terrestrial associations : they are associated with plethodon linereus , hymenoptera , coleoptera , polmonata , araneida , oligochaeta , quercus sp , carya sp , pinus strobus , acer rubrum , and hamamelis virginiana * 898 * .
ii . clutch size . the number of mature ovarian eggs ( maximum 4 . 0 mm diameter ) in females from maryland and pennsylvania range from 3–8 with an average of 4 . 6 ( angle , 1969 ) .
i . length of larval stage . there is typically a bimodal distribution of larval svls , suggesting that the larval stage lasts 2 yr . the largest larvae are 30 mm svl ( rose and bush , 1963 ) .
i have funding to determine the distribution and systematic affinity of chamberlain’s dwarf salamanders in georgia , which takes me on expeditions back to the swamps of georgia . i am also surveying for one - toed amphiumas in georgia .
blackburn , l . , p . nanjappa , and m . j . lannoo . 2001 . an atlas of the distribution of u . s . amphibians . copyright , ball state university , muncie , indiana , usa .
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courtship and mating probably occur in spring . clutch of 3 - 8 eggs is laid in spring . larval stage passed in egg ; clutch attended by female . hatching occurs in august - september . sexually mature in 2 - 3 years .
a . breeding . reproduction is terrestrial . courtship was observed on 3 august at whitetop mountain , smyth county , virginia ( organ , 1958 ) , and on 31 july near linville , avery county , north carolina ( macmahon , 1964 ) .
4 . conservation . there appear to be at least three threats to dark - sided salamanders : ( 1 ) host springs are small , ( 2 ) endemic fish have drawn much attention , and ( 3 ) herpetological collections have been undisciplined .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
4 . conservation . northern gray - cheeked salamanders are not protected by any state . among members of the p . jordani complex , northern gray - cheeked salamanders have one of the widest distributions . while relatively wide ranging , northern gray - cheeked salamanders are restricted to higher elevations . suitable habitat at these elevations may be separated by stretches of lower uninhabited areas , and populations often are not continuous . within this range there are many federal and state properties that contain suitable habitat for these salamanders .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
as with all species of plethodon , northern gray - cheeked salamanders do not migrate and have small home ranges . thus , they can exist in habitats of smaller size than many other amphibian species . conservation activities that promote mature closed - canopy forests should benefit this species .
pennsylvania herp identification is an educational tool for the public on the reptiles and amphibians found though out pennsylvania . the project also aims to create knowledge to pennsylvania residents not only through the internet , but also through interaction with the public , with the help of volunteers in the field to communicate with individuals on a personal level . the site is also here to assist with other herp related questions and personal help with identification with the simple use of our contact form . we encourage you to contact us with any questions or let us know how the site has helped you .
e . adult habitat . berry cave salamanders either inhabit , or are associated with , caves . caldwell and copeland ( 1992 ) suggest that inflow ( sinkhole ) caves versus outflow caves may provide the best habitat . inflow caves provide a detritus base that appears to be necessary for berry cave salamanders .
barbour ( 1971 ) stated that green salamanders reached tremendous population numbers in the 1930s under bark of the millions of dead chestnut trees in eastern kentucky . most records of green salamanders beneath bark of downed trees are from the 1920s– ' 50s , before the original forests were cut ( c . h . pope , 1928 ; welter and barbour , 1940 ; fowler , 1947 ; gordon , 1952 ; barbour , 1953 ) . petranka ( 1998 ) concluded that large , thick slabs of bark on large old - growth logs probably provided more favorable microhabitats for foraging and nesting than the smaller logs found in secondary forests today .