buccinanops monilifer , common name the collared buccinum , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family nassariidae , the nassa mud snails or dog whelks .

buccinanops monilifer

2 . averbuj , a . & p . e . penchaszadeh . 2010a . on the reproductive biology and impact of imposex in a population of buccinanops monilifer from mar del plata , argentina . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 90 ( 4 ) : 729 - 734 . [ links ]
biología reproductiva , crecimiento y dieta del caracol ciego buccinanops cochlidium ( gastropoda : nassariidae ) en golfo san josé , argentina .
pastorino g . ( 1993 ) . the taxonomic status of buccinanops d ' orbigny , 1841 ( gastropoda : nassariidae ) . the veliger . 36 ( 2 ) : 160 - 165 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
24 . penchaszadeh , p . e . 1971 . aspectos de la embriogenesis de algunos gasterópodos del genero buccinanops d´orbigny , 1841 ( gastropoda , prosobranchiata , buccinidae ) . physis 30 ( 81 ) : 475 - 482 . [ links ]
20 . narvarte , m . a . 2006 . biology and fishery of the whelk buccinanops globulosum ( kiener , 1834 ) in northern coastal waters of the san matías gulf ( patagonia , argentina ) . fisheries research 77 : 131 - 137 . [ links ]
3 . averbuj , a . & p . e . penchaszadeh . 2010b . reproductive seasonality , oviposition and development of the nassariid whelk buccinanops cochlidium ( dillwyn , 1817 ) in patagonia , argentina . journal of molluscan studies 76 : 25 - 32 . [ links ]
4 . averbuj , a . , m . n . rocha & s . zabala . 2014 . embryonic development and reproductive seasonality of buccinanops globulosus ( nassariidae ) ( kiener , 1834 ) in patagonia , argentina . invertebrate reproduction and development 58 ( 2 ) : 138 - 147 . [ links ]
. . . the radula of b . globulosus has a morphological pattern similar to that of other species of buccinanops , b . cochlidium and b . moniliferus ( pastorino , 1993 ; simone , 1996 ; table 3 ) . this species has a rachiglossan radula with 6 - 12 rachidian cusps per row and lateral teeth with inner , middle and outer cusps . . . .
. . . as outgroups a set of caenogastropod species of different levels of relationship were taken , as e . g . . , cerithioidea , littorina flava , hydrobioidea ( simone & moracchioli , 1994 ; simone , 1995a ) , tonnids ( simone , 1995b ) several muricoideans as buccinanops spp . ( simone , 1996 ) , thala crassa ( simone , 1995c ) , austromitra sp . ( turner & simone , 1998 ) ; the turrid cochlespira spp . . . .
. . . los primeros estudios sobre aspectos de la reproducción y ecología en este género los realizó penchaszadeh a principio de los años 70 ( penchaszadeh , 1971a ; 1973 ) . en la actualidad la sistemática del grupo está aún en discusión ( cernohorsky , 1984 ; pastorino , 1993a ; rios , 1994 ; simone , 1996 ) . el género afín bullia de fondos arenosos poseen una serie de características comunes con los buccinanops que lo posicionan como el mejor grupo comparativo actual . . . .
. . . however , intraspecific variation has also been reported and linked to differences in diet , food availability or habitat , and between ontogenetic stages , sexes , or populations ( nybakken , 1990 ; padilla , 1998 ; maintenon , 2004 ; onitsuka et al . , 2004 ; andrade & solferini , 2006 ) . the radula has been described for only two out of the five to seven species currently recognized in the genus buccinanops ( pastorino , 1993 ; simone , 1996 ) , and little is known about its intraspecific variability . in this work , we describe the radula of b . globulosus and asses its variability among and within three populations in northern patagonia . . . .
. . . . a diferencia del resto de las especies de buccinanops , en las cápsulas de b . cochlidium se desarrollan varios embriones ( fig . 1 . 5 ) . el número de ovicápsulas , de huevos y de embriones en esta especie es el mayor dentro del género , y las ovicápsulas presentan ornamentaciones exclusivas de la especie ( penchaszadeh 1971apenchaszadeh , 1973 ) . gradatum ; simone , 1996 ) . el status taxonómico del género fue tratado teniendo en cuenta la morfología radular de las mismas especies y la comparación de los géneros afines dorsanum y bullia por pastorino ( 1993a ) ( fig . 1 . , 1939 ; allmon , 1990 ; gallardo y penchaszadeh , 2001 ) , incluyendo toda la provincia biogeográfica argentina ( fig . 1 . . .
el objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar parámetros reproductivos y desarrollo de imposex en el caenogasterópodo buccinanops globulosus que habita en una zona portuaria de alto tráfico marítimo y con presencia de contaminantes . los resultados mostraron una mayor incidencia de imposex en hembras sin ovicápsulas que en hembras con ovicápsulas . entre las hembras con imposex , el desarrollo del pene fue significativamente mayor en aquellas sin ovicápsulas ( 3 . 4 mm ) que en las hembras con ovicápsulas ( 1 , 5 mm ) . en b . globulosus comúnmente un solo juvenil eclosiona por cada cápsula , sin embargo , en este estudio se registraron capsulas con múltiples embriones . todos estos resultados sugieren una relación entre el desarrollo de imposex y alteraciones en los parámetros reproductivos de las hembras de b . globulosus que habitan en sitios con condiciones ambientales adversas ( área contaminada ) .
a total of 67 individuals of buccinanops globulosus were studied . the minimum tsl of gravid females was 37 . 78 mm and the total shell length ( tsl ) was not significantly different ( u = 243 . 5 ; p = 0 . 713 ; n = 43 ) between gravid ( 41 . 88±2 . 40 mm ) and non - gravid ( 41 . 58±2 . 56 mm ) females . imposex parameters ( i % , fpl and rpli ) were higher in females without egg capsules than in gravid females ( table 1 ) . furthermore , all females without imposex incidence were gravid . penis length was significantly larger in non - gravid than gravid females ( u = 44 . 0 , p < 0 . 0001 , n = 41 ) ( table 1 ) . none of the studied females were sterilized or exhibited an occluded gonopore .
cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
( of buccinum moniliferum kiener , 1834 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
( of bullia armata gray , 1839 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]
click on one of the taxon names listed below to check the details . [
galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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dorsanum moniliferum kiener , l . c . , 1834 : c brazil - argentina
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. . . females are typically the larger sex ( e . g . simone 1996 ; kenchington and glass 1998 ; kurata and kikuchi 2000 ; son and hughes 2000 ; minton and wang 2011 ) , although exceptions occur ( e . g . kurata and kikuchi 2000 ) , and sexual differences in shell shape have been identified in some taxa ( e . g . . . .
. . . anatomical data for the buccinoideans , particularly the stomach ( e . g . kosyan and kantor 2013 , kantor 1996 , strong 2003 ) , the anterior digestive system including the radula ( e . g . , simone 1996 ) and the reproductive system ( fraussen et al . 2007 ) , suggest that they are highly advanced neogastropoda that lack accessory salivary glands and anal glands . the accessory salivary glands and anal glands are synapomorphic to neogastropods ( ponder and lindberg 1997 , harasewych 1998 , strong 2003 , simone 2011 ) , although these organs are lacking in buccinoideans . . . .
. . . los individuos adultos son grandes en tamaño , al compararlos con otras especies de la familia . su concha es de aspecto fusiforme alcanzando más de 10 cm de largo total de concha , típicamente habitan fondos blandos , de aguas someras ( penchaszadeh , 1971a ; cernohorsky , 1984 ; pastorino , 1993a ; rios , 1994 ; simone , 1996 ) . los primeros estudios sobre aspectos de la reproducción y ecología en este género los realizó penchaszadeh a principio de los años 70 ( penchaszadeh , 1971a ; 1973 ) . . . .
accounts on the phylogeny of the rissooidea ( = hydrobioidea ) and littorinoidea , based on some american representatives , as base for a future taxonomic revaluation ( mollusca , caenogastropoda ) .
the mollusks species in the order sacoglossa represents a monophyletic group well supported by morphological and molecular studies . however , the clades inside it from family to species level are no…
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1 ) test the monophyly of the akeroidea and aplysioidea superfamilies . 2 ) to re - evaluate the classification of families and genera of anaspidea ; 3 ) taxonomic revision of brazilian anaspidea species .
anatomical description of solen cf . exiguus dunker from thailand ( bivalvia : solenidae )
an anatomical description of the solenid solen cf . exiguus dunker 1862 , collected in the gulf of thailand , is provided . the anatomical features include high antero - posterior elongation ; mantle lobes widely fused with each other ; powerful pallial muscles ; fused siphons with capacity of autotomy ; wide and partially hollow foot ; complete separation between gastric style sac and adjacent portion . . . [ show full abstract ]
a new amphithalamus carpenter , 1854 species ( gastropoda , rissoidea , barleeidae ) from the brazilian c . . .
the second species in the genus chlamydoconcha is described . chlamydoconcha avalvis new species , occurs off the coast of rio de janeiro coast , in southeastern brazil . the new species has very reduced valves and a mantle surrounding the entire body , two features of the genus . the outer surface of the mantle lacks papillae except for a single one located close to the excurrent siphon . these are . . . [ show full abstract ]
anatomical description of anctus angiostomus ( wagner , 1827 ) from northeastern bahia , brazil ( gastrop . . .
anctus angiostomus ( wagner , 1827 ) is herein described anatomically , based on material collected at queimadas , ba , caatinga habitat . this species is characterized by closed primary and secondary ureters ; salivary glands distant from the buccal bulb ; a poorly developed stomac h ; a characteristic mode of emergence of the gonad duct from the annexe glandular sac ; very long spermoviduct ; a short . . . [ show full abstract ]
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rev . mus . argent . cienc . nat . vol . 17 no . 2 ciudad autónoma de buenos aires dic . 2015
1 larbim ( ibiomar - cct cenpat - conicet ) , bvd . brown 2915 , u9120acv puerto madryn , chubut , argentina . 2 facultad de ciencias naturales , universidad nacional de la patagonia san juan bosco ( unpsjb ) , bvd . brown 3051 , u9120acv puerto madryn , chubut , argentina . e - mail : averbuj @ urltoken
fig . 1 . gravid females of b . globulosus with conspicuous egg capsules in late stages of development . ( a ) general aspect of the capsule mass , regular capsules with 1 embryo ; ( b ) . capsules with multiple embryos . abbreviations : mec , multiple embryos capsule , rc , regular capsule . scale bars = 10mm .
table 1 : imposex and reproductive output parameters ( mean ± sd , where corresponds ) in b . globulosus . abbreviations : fpl = female penis length , mpl = male penis length , rpli = relative penis length index .
on average 47 . 89±2 . 7 egg capsules occurred per female , with 56 . 73±4 . 3 total embryos per females and 1 . 19±0 . 07 embryos per egg capsule . a high proportion ( 74 % ) of gravid females carrying egg capsules with multiple embryos ( me : > 1 embryo / capsule ) was recorded . on average , 17 . 3 % of the egg capsules contained multiple embryos . the mean embryo shell length ( esl ) was 5 . 04±0 . 06 mm . no malformed embryos were observed during this study .
authors would like to thank soledad zabala and juan pablo livore for helpful comments that greatly improved the final version of the manuscript . this work was partially supported by pict 1232 , pict 2929 , sa1101 , pip 067 and pict 1491 . padi foundation supported mp .
1 . appm . 2013 . administración portuaria de puerto madryn . urltoken . [ links ]
5 . axiak , v . , d . micallef , j . muscat , a . vella & b . mintoff . 2003 . imposex as a biomonitoring tool for marine pollution by tributyltin : some further observations . environment international 28 ( 8 ) : 743 - 749 . [ links ]
6 . bettin , c . , j . oehlmann & e . stroben . 1996 . tbt - induced imposex in marine neogastropods is mediated by an increasing androgen level . helgoland marine research 50 : 299 - 317 . [ links ]
7 . bigatti , g . , m . a . primost , m . cledón , a . averbuj , n . theobald , w . gerwinski , w . arntz , e . morriconi & p . e . penchaszadeh . 2009 . biomonitoring of tbt contamination and imposex incidence along 4700 km of argentinean shoreline ( sw atlantic : from 38s to 54s ) . marine pollution bulletin 58 : 695 - 701 . [ links ]
8 . collin , r . & a . spangler . 2012 . impacts of adelphophagic development on variation in offspring size , duration of development , and temperature - mediated plasticity . biological bulletin 223 ( 3 ) : 268 - 277 . [ links ]
9 . chatzinikolaou , e . & c . a . richardson . 2010 . parental size and environmental conditions affect egg capsule production by nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus 1758 ) ( gastropoda : nassariidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 390 : 14 - 21 . [ links ]
10 . de mora , s . j . , c . stewart & d . phillips . 1995 . sources and rates of degradation of tri ( n - butyl ) tin in marine sediments near auckland , new zealand . marine pollution bulletin 30 : 50 - 57 . [ links ]
11 . del brío , f . 2011 . determinacion de tbt , factores de acumulación e imposex , en el volutido odontocymbiola magellanica en la bahia nueva , chubut . degree thesis , universidad nacional de la patagonia san juan bosco , argentina . [ links ]
12 . fent , k . 2003 . ecotoxicological problems associated with contaminated sites . toxicology letters 140 / 141 : 353 - 365 . [ links ]
13 . gibbs , p . e . & g . w . bryan . 1994 . biomonitoring of tributyltin ( tbt ) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropod molluscs . in : j . m . kramer kees ( ed ) , biomonitoring of coastal waters and estauries , pp . 205 - 226 . boca raton . [ links ]
14 . gibbs , p . e . & g . w . bryan . 1996 . reproductive failure in the gastropod nucella lapillus associated with imposex caused by tributyltin pollution : a review . in : m . a . champ & seligman p . f . ( eds ) , organotin , pp . 259 - 280 . netherlands : springer . [ links ]
15 . gibbs , p . e . , p . l . pascoe & g . w . bryan . 1991 . tributyltin - induced imposex in stenoglossan gastropods : pathological effects on the female reproductive system . comparative biochemistry and physiology , part c : comparative pharmacology 100 ( 1 / 2 ) : 231 - 235 . [ links ]
16 . gil , m . n . , a . torres , m . harvey & j . l . esteves . 2006 . metales pesados en organismos marinos de la zona costera de la patagonia argentina continental . revista de biologia marina y oceanografia 41 ( 2 ) : 167 - 176 . [ links ]
17 . ketata , i . , x . denier , a . hamza - chaffai & c . minier . 2008 . endocrine - related reproductive effects in molluscs . comparative biochemistry and physiology , part c : comparative pharmacology 147 : 261 - 270 . [ links ]
18 . marshall , d . j . , r . bonduriansky & l . f . bussière . 2008 . offspring size variation within broods as a bet - hedging strategy in unpredictable environments . ecology 89 ( 9 ) : 2506 - 2517 . [ links ]
19 . massara paletto , v . , m . g . commendatore & j . l . esteves . 2008 . hydrocarbon levels in sediments and bivalve mollusks from bahía nueva ( patagonia , argentina ) : an assessment of probable origin and bioaccumulation factors . marine pollution bulletin 56 : 2082 - 2105 . [ links ]
21 . oehlmann , j . , p . d . benedetto , m . tillmann , m . duft , m . oetken & u . schulte - oehlmann . 2007 . endocrine disruption in prosobranch molluscs : evidence and ecological relevance . ecotoxicology 16 : 29 - 43 . [ links ]
22 . oehlmann , j . & u . schulte - oehlmann . 2003 . topic 4 . 2 . endocrine disruption in invertebrates . pure and applied chemistry 75 ( 11 - 12 ) : 2207 - 2218 . [ links ]
23 . oetken , m . , j . bachmann , u . schulte - oehlmann & j . oehlmann . 2004 . evidence for endocrine disruption in invertebrates . international review of cytology 236 : 1 - 44 . [ links ]
25 . penchaszadeh , p . e . , a . averbuj & m . cledón . 2001 . imposex in gastropods from argentina ( south - western atlantic ) . marine pollution bulletin 42 ( 9 ) : 790 - 791 . [ links ]
26 . ramirez llodra , e . 2002 . fecundity and life - history strategies in marine invertebrates . advances in marine biology 43 : 87 - 170 . [ links ]
27 . scarabino , v . 1977 . moluscos del golfo san matías , provincia de río negro , república argentina . inventario y claves para su identificación . comisión de la sociedad malacológica de uruguay 4 : 177 - 285 . [ links ]
28 . stroben , e . , j . oehlmann & p . fioroni . 1992 . the morphological expression of imposex in hinia reticulata ( gastropoda : buccinidae ) : a potential indicator of tributultin . marine biology 13 ( 4 ) : 625 - 636 . [ links ]
av . angel gallardo 470 ( c1405djr ) ciudad autónoma de buenos aires república argentina tel / fax . : ( 5411 ) 4982 - 6595 / 8370 / 8797 / 4791 / 6670 / 1561 / 9410 . ( 5411 ) 4981 - 9365 / 9282 info @ urltoken
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molluscous animals , and their shells the zoology of captain beechey ' s voyage 101 - 142 , pls . 33 - 38 henry g . bohn : london . [ stated date : - - jul 1839 . ]
genre buccin . buccinum de linné spécies général et iconographie des coquilles vivantes 9 1 - 108 , pls . 1 - 29
the ovate - conical shell is elongated , smooth , and shining . it is of a reddish yellow color , scattered over with longitudinal flames of a brown red . a transverse band of the same color surrounds the base of the shell . the spire is elongated and composed of eight whorls slightly angular at their upper part , and very slightly convex . the first whorls are plaited longitudinally . the aperture is ovate , whitish , and strongly emarginated at its base . the outer lip is thin . the columella is smooth and yellowish .
this handsome species is particularly remarkable by the turreted whorls , and above all by an original deposit of whiter calcareous matter , which is seen at the upper part of the lower whorls of the shell .


the ripiphoridae ( formerly spelled rhipiphoridae ) are a cosmopolitan family of some 450 described species of beetles .

informally they are known by the common name " wedge-shaped beetles " .

the ripiphoridae are unusual among beetle families in that many species are hypermetamorphic parasitoids , an attribute that they share with the meloidae .

members of the family differ in their choice of hosts , but most attack various species of bees or wasps , while some others attack cockroaches .

many species of ripiphoridae have abbreviated elytra , and flabellate or pectinate antennae .

genera include allocinops , rhipistena and sharpides .

species that attack bees typically lay their eggs on flowers .

there the eggs hatch almost immediately into small planidial larvae and lie in wait for a visiting host .

the planidium mounts the bee and rides it back to the hive .

there it dismounts and seeks a cell occupied by a host larva .

the planidium then enters the body of the host .

it changes its skin and shape , then remains more or less dormant until the host larva pupates .

it then emerges from the bee pupa and begins to feed .

it eats the entire pupa , then pupates in its turn and completes its metamorphosis before emerging from the hive to mate and lay eggs .

fossil species in the genera paleoripiphorus and macrosiagon have been described from mid - to lower-cretaceous amber from sites in france , germany and burma .

ripiphoridae

kaupp a . , falin z . & nagel p . 2001 . an annotated catalogue of fossil ripiphoridae , taxonomic notes , and the description of a new genus and species from baltic amber ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae : ripidiinae ) . mitteilungen aus dem geologisch - paläontologischen institut der universität hamburg 85 : 165–195 .
batelka j . 2005 . new synonym of the genus clinops ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae ) with bionomical and distributional notes on c . spectabilis . folia heyrovskyana , series a 13 : 27–34 .
batelka j . 2009 . clinopalpus hanae , a new genus and species of ripiphorid beetle from malaysia ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae : pelecotominae ) . acta entomologica musei nationalis pragae 49 ( 1 ) : 239–245 .
falin z . h . 2003 . phylogenetic analysis and revision of the genera and subfamilies of the ripiphoridae ( coleoptera ) . phd thesis , university of kansas . university microfilms international , ann arbor , michigan .
falin z . h . & engel m . s . 2010 . notes on cretaceous ripidiini and revised diagnoses of the ripidiinae , ripidiini , and eorhipidiini ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae ) . alavesia 3 : 35–42 .
batelka j . , kundrata r . & bocak l . 2016a . position and relationships of ripiphoridae ( coleoptera : tenebrionoidea ) inferred from ribosomal and mitochondrial molecular markers . annales zoologici 66 ( 1 ) : 113–123 . urltoken
perrichot v . , nel a . & neraudeau d . 2004 . two new wedge - shaped beetles in albo - cenomanian ambers of france ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae : ripiphorinae ) . european journal of entomology 101 : 577–581 . urltoken
batelka j . 2012 . ptilophorus purcharti sp . nov . , the first ripiphorid from socotra island , with an account of the biogeography of the ptilophorini ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae ) . acta entomologica musei nationalis pragae 52 ( supplementum 2 ) : 269–285 .
batelka j . , prokop j . & engel m . s . 2016b . new ripiphorid beetles in mid - cretaceous amber from myanmar ( coleoptera : ripiphoridae ) : first pelecotominae and possible mesozoic aggregative behaviour in male ripidiinae . cretaceous research 68 : 70–78 . urltoken
falin z . h . 2002 . 102 . ripiphoridae gemminger and harold 1870 ( 1853 ) . in : arnett jr r . h . , thomas m . k . , skelley p . e . & frank j . h . ( eds ) american beetles . volume 2 . polyphaga : scarabaeoidea through curculionoidea : 431–444 . crc press , boca raton , florida .
ivierhipidius , gen . nov . , with four new species , ivierhipidius paradoxus sp . nov . ( belize , honduras ) , ivierhipidius monneorum sp . nov . ( brazil ) , ivierhipidius youngi sp . nov . ( ecuador ) and ivierhipidius cechorum sp . nov . ( argentina ) , are described and figured . the new neotropical genus shares strong similarities with the asian pterydrias reitter , 1895 ( = eorhipidius iablokoff - khnzorian , 1986 ) ( currently placed in ripidiinae : eorhipidiini ) , but most similarities consist of lack of modifications , and may be plesiomorphic . it is placed in ripiphoridae incertae sedis , awaiting a review of higher taxonomic relationships within ripiphoridae . ivierhipidius is known only from winged males ; the female , which is assumed to be flightless , immature stages and life history are unknown .
lawrence j . f . , falin z . h . & ślipiński a . 2010 . 11 . 8 . ripiphoridae gemminger and harold , 1870 ( gerstaecker , 1855 ) . in : beutel r . g . & leschen r . a . b . ( eds ) handbuch der zoologie / handbook of zoology . insecta : coleoptera , beetles . vol . 2 : 538–548 . w . de gruyter , berlin .
a new species of ripiphoridae gemminger & harold , 1870 , archaeoripiphorus nuwa gen . et sp . nov . , is described and illustrated from a well - preserved impression fossil from the middle jurassic jiulongshan formation collected at daohugou village , shantou township , ningcheng county , inner mongolia , china , representing the oldest documented occurrence of the ripiphoridae described from the mesozoic era . it shares several characters belonging to two basal ripiphorid subfamilies ( pelecotominae and ptilophorinae ) , but it cannot be attributed to either of them and is herein placed as subfamily incertae sedis . an overall similarity between archaeoripiphorus gen . nov . and recent pelecotominae and the occurrence of wood - boring beetles in the same formation implies a similar parasitoid host preference in xylophagous beetles for a . nuwa gen . et sp . nov . , putting a spotlight on a potential host - parasitoid relationship in the mesozoic .
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one species in britain , the wasp - nest beetle metoecus paradoxus ( l . ) . a spectacular beetle , 10 - 12mm long , with a bright orange abdomen , orange side patches on the pronotum , huge feathered antennae and triangular wedge - shaped translucent elytra which do not entirely cover the flight wings . larvae are parasitic in wasp nests , traditionally said to be only found in subterranean nests but several modern records are from nests in roof spaces . eggs are laid in the autumn on rotting wood , and larvae hitch a lift on wasps which visit to collect wood scrapings . once back at the nest , the larva drops off and finds a part - grown wasp grub , which it parasitizes and eats before emerging as an adult in mid - summer .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 49d1c45d - a40b - 4a0a - a2bd - eb0639bc3324
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6e307a06 - bb86 - 4a9b - b495 - 475a019401b3
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yun hsiao department of entomology , national taiwan university , no . 27 , lane 113 , sec . 4 , roosevelt rd . , taipei 10617 , and state key laboratory of biocontrol , ecology and evolution , school of life sciences , sun yat - sen university , guangzhou 510275 , guangdong taiwan , province of china
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böving a . g . & craighead f . c . 1931 . an illustrated synopsis of the principal larval forms of the order coleoptera . entomologica americana 11 : 1–351 . urltoken
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chang h . , kirejtshuk a . g . & ren d . 2011 . on taxonomy and distribution of fossil cerophytidae ( coleoptera : elateriformia ) with description of a new mesozoic species of necromera martynov 1926 . annales de la société entomologique de france ( n . s . ) 47 ( 1–2 ) : 33–44 . urltoken
chang h . , nabozhenko m . , pu h . , xu l . , jia s . & li t . 2016 . first record of fossil comb - clawed beetles of the tribe cteniopodini ( insecta : coleoptera : tenebrionidae ) from the jehol biota ( yixian formation of china ) , lower cretaceous . cretaceous research 57 : 289–293 . urltoken
cockerell t . d . 1917 . fossil insects . annals of the entomological society of america 10 : 1–22 .
crowson r . a . 1995 . some interesting evolutionary parallels in coleoptera . in : pakaluk j . & ślipiński s . a . ( eds ) biology , phylogeny , and classification of coleoptera : papers celebrating the 80th birthday of roy a . crowson : 63–85 . muzeum i instytut zoologii pan , warsaw .
forbes w . t . m . 1926 . the wing folding patterns of the coleoptera . journal of the new york entomological society 34 : 42–139 .
franciscolo m . e . 1962 . the genus glipodes leconte , 1862 ( coleoptera : mordellidae ) with description of a new species from venezuela and costa rica . proceedings of the royal entomological society of london b 31 : 131–136 . urltoken
gao k . - q . & ren d . 2006 . radiometric dating of ignimbrite from inner mongolia provides no indication of a post - middle jurassic age for the daohugou beds . acta geologica sinica 80 : 42–45 . urltoken
gunter n . l . , levkaničová z . , weir t . h . , ślipiński a . , cameron s . l . & bocak l . 2014 . towards a phylogeny of the tenebrionoidea ( coleoptera ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 79 : 305–312 . urltoken
han g . , liu z . , liu x . , mao l . , jacques f . m . b . & wang x . 2016 . a whole plant herbaceous angiosperm from the middle jurassic of china . acta geologica sinica 90 : 19–29 . urltoken
handlirsch a . 1906–1908 . die fossilen insekten und die phylogenie der rezenten formen : ein handbuch für paläontologen und zoologen . verlag wilhelm engelmann , leipzig . urltoken
huang d . & yang j . 1999 . early cretaceous fossil mordellidae ( insecta , coleoptera ) from western beijing . acta palaeontologica sinica 38 ( 1 ) : 125–132 . [ in chinese with english abstract ]
hudson g . v . 1934 . new zealand beetles and their larvae . an elementary introduction to the study of our native coleoptera . fergusson and osborn , wellington .
kergoat g . j . , soldati l . , clamens a . l . , jourdan h . , jabbour - zahab r . , genson g . , bouchard p . & condamine f . l . 2014 . higher - level molecular phylogeny of darkling beetles ( coleoptera , tenebrionoidea , tenebrionidae ) . systematic entomology 39 : 486–499 . urltoken
kuschel g . 1990 . beetles in a suburban environment : a new zealand case study . the identity and status of coleoptera in the natural and modified habitats of lynfield , auckland ( 1974–1989 ) . dsir plant protection report .
lacordaire t . 1859 . histoire naturelle des insectes . genera des coléoptères . tome 5 . libraire encyclopédique de roret , paris .
lawrence j . f . & newton jr a . f . 1995 . families and subfamilies of coleoptera ( with selected genera , notes , references and data on family - group names ) . in : pakaluk j . & ślipiński s . a . ( eds ) biology , phylogeny , and classification of coleoptera : papers celebrating the 80th birthday of roy a . crowson : 779–1006 . muzeum i instytut zoologii pan , warsaw .
liu z . - j . & wang x . 2016 . yuhania : a unique angiosperm from the middle jurassic of inner mongolia , china . historical biology : 1–11 . urltoken
liu m . , lu w . & ren d . 2007 . a new fossil mordellid ( coleoptera : tenebrionoidea : mordellidae ) from the yixian formation of western liaoning province , china . zootaxa 1415 : 49–56 .
liu m . , zhao y . & ren d . 2008 . discovery of three new mordellids ( coleoptera : tenebrionoidea ) from the yixian formation of western liaoning , china . cretaceous research 29 : 445–450 . urltoken
mckenna d . d . , wild a . l . , kanda k . , bellamy c . l . , beutel r . g . , caterino m . s . , farnum c . w . , hawks d . c . , ivie m . a . , jameson m . l . , leschen r . a . b . , marvaldi a . e . , mchugh j . v . , newton a . f . , robertson j . a . , thayer m . k . , whiting m . f . , lawrence j . f . , ślipiński a . , maddison d . r . & farrell b . d . 2015 . the beetle tree of life reveals that coleoptera survived end - permian mass extinction to diversify during the cretaceous terrestrial revolution . systematic entomology 40 : 835–880 . urltoken
mi j . , sun c . , sun y . , cui s . & ai y . 1996 . early - middle jurassic phytoecology and coalaccumulating environments in northern hebei and western liaoning . geological publishing house , beijing . [ in chinese ]
pan x . , chang h . , ren d . & shih c . 2011 . the first fossil buprestids from the middle jurassic jiulongshan formation of china ( coleoptera : buprestidae ) . zootaxa 2745 : 53–62 .
ren d . & krzeminski w . 2002 . eoptychopteridae ( diptera ) from the middle jurassic of china . annales zoologici 52 ( 2 ) : 207–210 .
ren d . , tan j . , shih c . & gao t . 2010 . chapter 2 . the upper mesozoic stratigraphic characteristics in northeastern china . in : ren d . , shih c . , gao t . , yao y . & zhao y . ( eds ) silent stories––insect fossil treasures from dinosaur era of the northeastern china : 12 - 21 . science press , beijing .
selander r . b . 1957 . the systematic position of the genus nephrites and the phylogenetic relationships of the higher groups of rhipiphoridae ( coleoptera ) . annals of the entomological society of america 50 : 88–103 . urltoken
švácha p . 1994 . bionomics , behaviour and immature stages of pelecotoma fennica ( paykull ) ( coleoptera : rhipiphoridae ) . journal of natural history 28 : 585–618 . urltoken
tan j . , chang h . , yue y . , shih c . & ren d . 2010 . chapter 18 . coleoptera––sacred , precious and strong . in : ren d . , shih c . , gao t . , yao y . & zhao y . ( eds ) silent stories––insect fossil treasures from dinosaur era of the northeastern china : 180–215 . science press , beijing .
wang b . & zhang h . 2011 . the oldest tenebrionoidea ( coleoptera ) from the middle jurassic of china . journal of paleontology 85 ( 2 ) : 266–270 . urltoken
wang w . - l . 1993 . on liaoximordellidae fam . nov . ( coleoptera , insecta ) from the jurassic of western liaoning province , china . acta geologica sinica 67 ( 1 ) : 86–94 . [ in chinese ]
watt j . c . 1983 . the huhu prionoplus reticularis ( cerambycidae ) and other coleoptera in acacia . new zealand entomologist 7 : 364–365 . urltoken
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full reference : m . gemminger . 1870 . new taxa . catalogus coleopterorum hucusque descriptorum synonymicus et systematicus . tom . vii . tenebrionidae , nilionidae , pythidae , melandryidae , lagriidae , pedilidae , anthicidae , pyrochroidae , mordellidae , rhipidophoridae , cantharidae , oedemeridae 1801 - 2179
see also bouchard et al . 2011 , crowson 1981 and lawrence and newton 1995
the spencer entomological museum was formally established in 1953 from the holdings of dr . g . j . spencer , a professor in the ubc zoology department . thanks largely to the efforts of dr . spencer and later dr . g . g . e . scudder , director from 1958 - 1999 , the collection now houses over 600 , 000 specimens . most holdings are from bc , the yukon , and alaska . the collection moved from the zoology department to its new home in the beaty biodiversity museum in 2009 .


the osmeriformes comprise an order of ray-finned fish that includes the true or freshwater smelts and allies , such as the galaxiids and noodlefishes ; they are also collectively called osmeriforms .

they belong to the teleost superorder protacanthopterygii , which also includes pike and salmon , among others .

the order 's name means " smelt-shaped " , from osmerus ( the type genus ) + the standard fish order suffix " - formes " .

it ultimately derives from ancient greek osmé ( ὀσμή , " pungent smell " ) + latin forma ( " external form " ) , the former in reference to the characteristic aroma of the flesh of osmerus .

in the classification used here , the order osmeriformes contains two suborders , six families , some 20 genera , and about 93 species .

other authors choose a slightly different arrangement , but whether treated as suborders ( galaxoidei and osmeroidei ) or superfamilies ( galaxoidea and osmeroidea ) , the division in two lineages is generally maintained .

the " marine " smelts and allies ( e.g. the odd-looking barreleyes ) were formerly included here as suborder argentinoidei ; they are now usually considered more distantly related than it was believed and treated as order argentiniformes .

when the marine smelts were included here , the subdivisions of the osmeriformes were down-ranked by one .

osmeriformes

the salamanderfish is unique in the osmeriformes in that , rather than broadcasting its eggs and sperm , it undergoes internal fertilization .
osmeriformes ( smelts , galaxiids , and relatives ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
osmeriformes ( smelts , galaxiids , and relatives ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
waters jm , wallis gp : cladogenesis and loss of the marine life - history phase in freshwater galaxiid fishes ( osmeriformes : galaxiidae ) . evolution 2001 , 55 ( 3 ) : 587–597 . pmid : 11327165
order osmeriformes ( argentines and smelts ) complex posterior branchial structure , the crumenal organ ; adipose fin present in many forms . 6 families , 57 genera , and about 202 species . marine , all oceans . order salmoniformes ( salmons ,
kenaley , c . p . , and j . w . orr . 2006 . rouleina attrita ( teleostei : osmeriformes : alepocephalidae ) : new records for the eastern north pacific and bering sea . ichthyological research 53 : 200 - 202 . online > >
fossil osmeriformes include speirsaenigma lindoei , the oldest fossil osmerid from the paleocene formations of alberta , canada , and a presumed close relative of the ayu ( plecoglossus altivelis ; suborder osmeroidei ) , enoplophthalmus ( osmeroidei ) from europe , and possibly the family pattersonellidae within the argentinoidei .
…up of the orders salmoniformes , osmeriformes , and esociformes . the superorder protacanthopterygii , considered to be the most primitive of the modern teleosts , contains about 366 species in the fresh waters and in the oceans of the world . included in this group are the familiar trouts , salmons ,
citation : ruiz - jarabo i , gonzález - wevar ca , oyarzún r , fuentes j , poulin e , bertrán c , et al . ( 2016 ) isolation driven divergence in osmoregulation in galaxias maculatus ( jenyns , 1848 ) ( actinopterygii : osmeriformes ) . plos one 11 ( 5 ) : e0154766 . urltoken
order osmeriformes ( argentines , deep - sea smelts ) complex posterior branchial structure , the crumenal organ ; adipose fin usually present . freshwater and marine , all oceans . 12 families , 79 genera , and about 290 species . suborder argentinoidei about 72 species ; 3–40 cm ( about 1–15 . 75 inches ) long ; marine ,
the nine families of osmeriformes are : smelts ( osmeridae ) ; salamanderfishes ( lepidogalaxiidae ) ; new zealand smelts or southern graylings ( retropinnidae ) ; galaxiids or southern minnows ( galaxiidae ) ; argentines or herring smelts ( argentinidae ) ; barreleyes or spookfishes ( opisthoproctidae ) ; deepsea smelts ( microstomatidae ) ; tube shoulders ( platytroctidae ) ; and deepsea slickheads or slickheads ( alepocephalidae ) .
morphological characteristics that are unique to , and present in , all members of the osmeriformes have not yet been determined , and this is reflected in the placement of the group and its constituent members at different taxonomic levels by many researchers , including fink ( 1984 ) , eschmeyer ( 1990 ) , johnson and patterson ( 1996 ) , and helfman et al . ( 1997 ) .
unlike the other marine , and often deep - sea , members of the osmeriformes , such as the argentinoidea , the alepocephaloidea are generally black / brown in color , have a dorsal fin situated toward the back of the body , do not possess an adipose fin , and generally have large mouths that , except for the three species of leptochilichthyes , have teeth on the upper jaw .
there are several physical characteristics of the major groups of osmeriformes that help to distinguish them . helfman noted that osmeriformes have a single dorsal fin made up of soft rays , have abdominal pelvic fins , often have an adipose fin , and generally have a toothless maxilla . the smelts ( super - family osmeroidea ) are typical osmeriforms , in that they are elongate fishes with bright silvery scales , and have a dorsal fin situated toward the center of body , as well an adipose fin and a forked caudal fin . in most species , fingerlike filaments rising from the pyloric region of the stomach ( pyloric ceca ) are present , these structures aid digestion . although most osmeroids are covered with bright silvery scales , others , such as the ayu ( subfamily plecoglossinae ) are olive dorsolaterally and white ventrally . an adhesive membrane that acts as an anchoring mechanism surrounds the eggs of all members of the osmeroida , and several species smell of cucumber instead of fish .
if the classification given above is accepted , the osmeriformes contains two suborders , the osmeroidei ( the smelts , galaxiids , etc . ) , which includes four families and approximately 70 species , and the argentinoidei ( the argentines , deepsea smelts , etc . ) , which includes five families and approximately 170 species . just as it is likely that changes to the classification of this group will occur with the collection of more data , so it is also likely that the number of species will increase .
eight species of osmeriformes are listed by the iucn . one species is classified as extinct , one species as endangered , one species as critically endangered , three species as vulnerable , and two species as data deficient . in addition , many australian forms are considered by the australian society for fish biology to be data deficient to endangered , largely because of land clearing and the subsequent degradation of freshwater habitats . many deepsea forms are small and rare , and thus are likely to be overlooked by conservationists .
in light of the lack of consensus among these studies , it seems prudent , for the time being at least , to retain the traditional groupings / orders of the esociformes , salmoniformes , and osmeriformes , while modifying them slightly to take into account the thorough studies of johnson and patterson ( 1996 ) and waters et al . ( 2000 ) . such a scheme has been used in this chapter . however , it is likely that , with the collection of additional molecular data from a suite of taxa that represents all the major groupings , a further revision to the classification of the
lower
euteleostean fishes will occur .
due to their generally small size and / or inaccessibility ( in deepsea forms ) , most osmeriformes are of little importance to humans , either commercially or recreationally . however , in the northern hemisphere , eulachon , capelin , european smelt , and ayu form the basis of important local commercial and recreational fisheries during their spawning migrations , and in the southern hemisphere , the juveniles of the anadromous species , such as the tasmanian whitebait and common jollytail , form the basis of important commercial whitebait fisheries in new zealand and chile . in australia , massive falls in whitebait capture during the 1970s led to the closure of the fishery . however , it has since been reopened as a tightly regulated recreational fishery .
det finns olika uppfattningar både om den inbördes släktskapen mellan norsartade , laxartade och gäddartade fiskar och om hur deras släktskap med andra egentliga benfiskar ( teleostei ) ska uppfattas . norsartade fiskar och laxartade fiskar räknas ibland till en och samma ordning och ibland som två separata ordningar . här har vi valt det senare synsättet , vilket innebär att det finns två ordningar , norsartade fiskar ( osmeriformes ) och laxartade fiskar ( salmoniformes ) , som är systergrupper . de två ordningarna är också nära besläktade med ordningen gäddartade fiskar ( esociformes ) och utgör tillsammans systergrupp till denna ordning . ordningen norsartade fiskar omfattar totalt ca 90 arter fördelade på två överfamiljer ; osmeroidea som endast innefattar familjen norsfiskar ( osmeridae ) och galaxioidea som är uppdelad i familjerna sydnorsfiskar ( retropinnidae ) och galaxider ( galaxiidae ) .
members of the osmeriformes are usually very small to small fishes , ranging in size from 1 . 2 to 27 . 5 in ( 3–70 cm ) ; 0 . 0016 oz to 3 lb ( 0 . 22 g–1 . 3 kg ) . the maximum length recorded for the eastern australian galaxiid ( galaxiella pusilla ) is only 1 . 5 in ( 3 . 9 cm ) , and the mean length of males and females at maturity is only 0 . 9 and 1 . 1 in ( 2 . 4 and 2 . 8 cm ) , respectively . however , some representatives of the argentines ( argentinidae ) and slickheads ( alepocephalidae ) may reach considerably larger sizes than the diminutive eastern australian galaxiid , including the slickhead ( alepocephalus rostratus ) of the western mediterranean and eastern atlantic , which attains a length of at least 27 . 5 in ( 70 cm ) .
the systematics of the
lower
euteleosts , particularly the protacanthopterygii ( the pikes , salmons , and smelts ) , has been in a constant state of flux since about the middle of the 1970s . many phylogenies developed since that time considered that the protacanthopterygii included three main lineages , one that included the pikes , pickerels , and mudminnows ( esociformes ) , another including the salmons , trouts , chars , graylings , and whitefishes ( salmoniformes ) , and a third comprising the freshwater and diadromous smelts , the galaxiids , the southern graylings , the marine argentines , deepsea smelts , barreleyes , and slickheads ( osmeriformes ) . the ancestor of the remaining teleosts , the
higher teleosts ,
or the neoteleosti , is thought to be either the common ancestor of the protacanthopterygii and the neoteleosti , or to have risen within the protacanthopterygii ( johnson and patterson , 1996 ) . however , many researchers did not necessarily formally recognize any of the above groups at the order level . furthermore , the precise relationships of the various members of these groups has been a source of constant debate among ichthyologists researching the
lower
euteleosts ( johnson and patterson [ 1996 ] , as well as rosen [ 1974 ] , fink [ 1984 ] , nelson [ 1994 ] , and begle [ 1991 and 1992 ] ) , who base their research primarily on anatomical and morphological data , and the most extensive study utilizing molecular data of waters et al . ( 2000 ) .
the first suborder of the osmeriformes , the osmeroidei ( smelts , galaxiids , etc . ) , is restricted to latitudes north and south of the tropics . within this suborder , those taxa that constitute the super - family osmeroidea are , with the notable exception of some members of the tribe salangini ( icefishes and noodle - fishes ) , restricted to the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere . the osmeroidea have a wide distribution , occurring in the arctic , atlantic and pacific oceans , as well as the rivers that drain into these oceans . however , they are absent from the indian ocean and its drainages , presumably a reflection of the fact that the vast majority of species comprising this super - family occur in cool temperate waters . they are also absent from the mediterranean and its drainages . the tribe osmerini ( smelts ) has a circumpolar distribution , with representatives in the arctic , atlantic , and particularly the pacific oceans , but the ranges of the plecoglossinae ( the ayu , or sweetfish ) and the salangini are far more restricted ; both these groups are found only in the coastal waters and drainages of the eastern pacific . however , while the plecoglossinae and the salangini do not occur in the arctic or atlantic oceans or their drainages , their extension into the lower latitudes is far greater than any other member of the osmeroidei . for example , the plecoglossinae , represented solely by the ayu , has a range that extends from northern china to korea and taiwan in the south ; the salangini , represented by 11 species , has a range that that has a similar northern extent of its range but extends into vietnam .
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the university of chicago library english - greek dictionary a vocabulary of the attic language by s . c . woodhouse , m . a . late scholar of christ church , oxford london george routledge & sons , limited broadway house , ludgate hill , e . c . 1910
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) the english - greek lexicon here presented contains features which , i trust , will render it acceptable both to teachers and to learners . the vocabulary has been compiled from attic authors of the best period . so little composition is attempted nowadays outside the range of attic that i have refrained from introducing words and phrases that belong to other dialects . moreover , the scope of the work within the limits i set myself has attained a magnitude that would render any large increase of vocabulary a burden rather than a help to the student . the writers from whom i have selected my material are , as far as prose is concerned , thucydides , plato , xenophon , demosthenes , and the orators . for verse i depend upon the authority of aeschylus , sophocles , and euripides , excluding , however , in each case , the lyrical passages . comedy is covered by aristophanes .
occasionally words have been incorporated from homer , herodotus , and aristotle . i have had recourse to these writers , however , only when i could find no equivalent in the best attic for the word i wished to translate , and in all such cases i have indicated the source from which the word is derived .
i have included in the vocabulary a few late greek renderings of latin words such as the names of the roman magistracies , but have signified in each case that the word lies outside the sphere of classical attic .
i have not drawn upon xenophon to any large extent , because his style is unfortunately vitiated by the admission of many un - attic elements , and is therefore not a safe guide for budding composers .
in introducing phrases and sentences from the greek i have thought it best to give chapter and verse for the quotations . not only is the context so often essential for defining shades of meaning , but the constant reference to the best models is the surest way to success in composition .
it has not been my intention to supply any but the bare outlines of grammatical information . my chief aim has been to suggest ideas and to help in their analysis . i have marked quantities where no indication is given by position or accent , but not in the case of words used only in prose .
mistakes in orthography and accentuation are , i fear , inevitable in a work this size ; but the proofs have been carefully revised , and i can only hope that the number of errors is not large .
the abbreviations should cause no difficulty . p . before a word signifies that it has prose authority . v . before a word shows that it is found in verse . a word with both p . and v . before it may as a rule be used in any species of composition . should , however , the name of an author be placed in brackets after the words , this means that its use is limited to that particular writer .
if a word occurs in aristophanes , i have indicated its presence in that author by the letters ar . before it , but in the case of words occurring frequently in both prose and verse , i have not thought it necessary to signify that they are found in aristophanes as well . a word used often both by prose and verse writers may safely be employed in comedy . it sometimes happens that a word of prose associations is found in verse , and that one commonly confined to poetry is used in prose . in such a case i have put in brackets after the word a reference to the passage in which it occurs . thus on page 158 may be found the following : -
confess . v . trans . p . & v . [ greek omitted ] ( soph . phil . 980 ; eur . i . a . 1142 & frag . ) .
this means that the word [ greek omitted ] appears both in prose and verse , but its use in the latter is restricted to three passages .
i have added a supplement of proper names , including some of the greek equivalents for names famous in roman history .
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maxilla included in gape of mouth ( the toothless maxilla is excluded from the gape in protroctes and lovettia and almost so in aplochiton ; adipose fin present or absent ; radii absent on scales ; loss of basisphenoid and orbitosphenoid bones . osmeriforms spawn in freshwater except the argentinoidei , osmerus eperlanus , and perhaps one or two salangids .
greek aktis = ray , thunderbolt , beam + greek pterygion , diminutive of pteryx = wing , fin . ref . 45335 .
greek , osme = bad smelling + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .
it is often stated that members of this group are generally silvery and elongate fishes . however , this probably reflects the fact that most authors are more familiar with the northern hemisphere species of the family osmeridae ( smelts ) than with other groups . for example , even though members of the southern hemisphere families galaxiidae and lepidogalaxiidae are generally elongate , only a few have a silvery belly and none could be considered silvery overall , the majority having a brownish or olive base color overlaid with stripes , spots , or mottling of various colors . in addition , although many argentinidae possess silvery sides , many species found in the other families of the suborder argentinoidei , and in particular those that inhabit the deep oceans , are black or brown in color . in regard to shape , most members of the order are elongate , but the opisthoproctidae ( barreleyes ) are often deep bodied and laterally compressed .
in contrast to the predominantly silvery osmeroidea , fishes in the super - family galaxioidea ( galaxiids and relatives ) often have a brown - to - olive base color overlaid with stripes , bands , or spots of various colors . although members of the retropinnidae and some species of the galaxiidae , i . e . , the single species lovettia sealii ( tasmanian whitebait ) , and both species of aplochiton , have an adipose fin and a deeply forked caudal fin , the other galaxiids and the salamanderfish ( lepidogalaxias salamandroides ) have no adipose fin and a truncate or rounded caudal . pyloric ceca are present in both species of aplochiton and some other members of the galaxiidae . the majority of the galaxiidae are scaleless .
like the osmeroidea , most members of the super - family argentinoidea ( argentines , deepsea smelts , and relatives ) are generally silvery , and have a dorsal fin situated toward the middle of the body and a forked caudal fin . although some species within the microstomatidae and the bathylagidae ( deepsea smelts ) possess an adipose fin , others do not . most members of this group have small mouths with no teeth on the upper jaw . as is the case with many fishes that are nocturnal or inhabit deep waters , many members of the super - families argentinoidea and alepocephaloidea ( slickheads and relatives ) have very large eyes , an adaptation that maximizes the collection of the little light available in poorly lit waters .
sexual dimorphism has been recorded in some members of the osmeriforms . for example , female salamanderfish attain lengths of over 2 . 7 in ( 7 cm ) , but the males are much smaller and have never been recorded at lengths greater than 2 in ( 5 cm ) . furthermore , the males develop a series of enlarged scales , or a scale sheath , around their anal fin , which is absent in females . males of many osmerids develop tubercles during the breeding season . in addition to exhibiting sexual dimorphism with regard to differences in size , some osmeriforms develop nuptial coloration . for example , during the breeding season , some galaxiids become particularly brightly colored . the black - stripe minnow ( galaxiella nigrostriata ) develops a bright orange to vermillion lateral stripe , which is often highlighted by the development of dark brown to black stripes on either side .
in contrast to the northern hemisphere osmeroidea , the three families in the super - family galaxioidea are found only in the southern hemisphere . the most widespread family is the galaxiidae , representatives of which are found in australia ( where 22 of the 35 species occur ) , lord howe island , new caledonia , tasmania , chile , argentina , and the tip of south africa . two of the remaining three families , the retropinnidae and prototroctidae , are found in australia and new zealand . two species of the retropinnidae , the australian smelt ( retropinna semoni ) and the tasmanian smelt ( retropinna tasmanica ) , together have an extensive range that encompasses much of subtropical and temperate eastern australia . the cucumberfish ( retropinna retropinna ) and stokell ' s smelt ( stokellia anisodon ) are found in new zealand . the prototroctidae are represented in australia by a single species , the australian grayling , found in the coastal streams of new south wales , victoria , and tasmania . the new zealand grayling ( prototroctes oxyrhynchus ) was last recorded in the 1920s . the third family of southern hemisphere osmeroidei , lepidogalaxiidae , consists of the single species , the salamanderfish , which is confined to the acid / peat flat region of the southwestern tip of western australia .
in contrast to the suborder osmeroidei , whose members occur in fresh or coastal marine waters and essentially have a holarctic distribution , the obligate marine members of the suborder argentinoidei can be found in all ocean waters from the arctic in the north , through the atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans ( including tropical and equatorial regions ) , to the southern ocean around antarctica in the south . species of the family opisthoproctidae , subfamily microstomatinae , are found in tropical to temperate regions of the atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans . fishes in the subfamily bathylaginae are represented in the subarctic to antarctic , atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans ; members of the family argentinidae are found throughout atlantic , indian , and pacific waters ; and members of the families platytroctidae and alepocephalidae are found in all oceans .
osmeriforms are found in most aquatic habitats , in fresh waters in torrential mountain streams , slow - flowing rivers , ponds , lakes , and even pools that become completely dry for several months of the year , to highly variable salinity of estuaries , out into shallow inshore marine habitats , and on to the meso - and bathypelagic regions of the open ocean ( deeper than 9 , 840 ft / 3 , 000 m ) . thus , with the exception of the freshwater systems of the lower latitudes of the americas , africa , the indian subcontinent , and australia , members of this order may be found in marine and freshwater environments off or in all of the continents . furthermore , in the more temperate regions of the southern hemisphere , they are likely to be encountered in any aquatic habitat that fish biologists sample .
for example , in the fresh waters of australia , species such as the australian grayling and the climbing galaxias ( galaxias brevipinnis ) tend to be restricted to the upper reaches of river systems , where they are found in shady areas over a rocky substrate in clear waters of moderate - to fast - flowing tributary streams . other species , such as the barred galaxias ( galaxias fuscus ) , although also restricted to the headwaters of river systems , appear to prefer the slower - flowing pools below riffles and rapids . further downstream , species such as the australian smelt and the trout minnow ( galaxias truttaceus ) tend to be found in the still to slow - flowing backwaters of streams and rivers , and to lakes and swamps , where they are found amid vegetation , logs , rocks , and other structure around the margins . other species of southern hemisphere osmeriforms , such as swan galaxias ( galaxias fontanus ) , clarence galaxias ( galaxias johnstoni ) , and pedder galaxias ( galaxias pedderensis ) are most commonly found in lakes and pools ; tasmanian mudfish ( galaxias cleaveri ) and swamp galaxias ( galaxias parvus ) occur in muddy marshes and swamps ; and black - stripe minnow and salamanderfish inhabit small tannin - stained and acidic pools that often become completely dry in summer . other southern hemisphere forms , such as the western minnow ( galaxias occidentalis ) , are found in all the above habitats , as well as in many of the brackish , salt - affected , streams , rivers , and lakes that are unfortunately becoming more common in southwestern australia . some populations of trout minnow and common jollytail ( galaxias maculatus ) spend their adult lives in rivers and lakes , but move down into the brackish areas of estuaries to spawn . the larvae then move out to sea , where they spend the first year of life before moving back into rivers as juveniles .
in the northern hemisphere , most osmeriforms in fresh waters are usually anadromous forms on their annual spawning run , however , some species , such as the rainbow smelt ( osmerus mordax ) of north america and ayu of asia , have both anadromous or amphidromous and freshwater populations . freshwater populations of both these species tend to spend their adult life in lakes .
in addition to the severe environmental conditions of deepsea environments , other osmeriforms , such as salamanderfish and black - stripe minnow , live in small , tannin - stained and acidic pools that often become completely dry in summer , habitats which are equally extreme .
published works describing the behavior of osmeriform species are scarce . the few that do exist generally describe the spawning migrations of the freshwater , anadromous , and coastal forms , or the migrations of juveniles of the amphidromous forms back into the rivers . for example , with the onset of winter rains , many galaxiids move upstream into tributaries and feeder streams where they spawn amongst flooded vegetation ( western minnow ) , or on rocks ( marbled galaxias , galaxias olidus ) . during these upstream migrations , some species , such as climbing galaxias and western minnows , can
climb
obstacles as high as 33 ft ( 10 m ) by jumping and wriggling in an eel - like fashion , using their pelvic and pectoral fins to lever themselves forward and upward . this is quite a feat , considering that individuals of these species are rarely larger than 6 in ( 15 cm ) . species that have amphidromous populations , such as the common jollytail , undertake migrations . the adults move downstream to spawn in estuaries , the larvae that result then move out to sea before returning to the rivers in large schools of so - called whitebait . the spawning migrations of the amphidromous , anadromous , and coastal forms are described in the species descriptions of the ayu , eulachon , and the capelin , respectively .
virtually nothing is known about the behavior of the deepsea osmeriforms . however , two behavior patterns are likely in at least some species . first , most mesopelagic fishes undergo vertical feeding migrations , in which they move to the epipelagic zone at night to feed on the abundant zooplankton found in this region . such migrations have been recorded for at least one species within the argentinoidea , the long - snout blacksmelt ( dolicholagus longirostris ) , so it is likely that other species also undertake such daily migrations . second , many species of deepsea fishes have bioluminescent light - emitting organs called photophores , which are thought to be used for attracting mates ( by flashing in particular pulse patterns ) , for attracting prey items , and for
hiding
the fishes from predators . the latter mechanism is thought to work in those species that live in regions into which some light just penetrates , whereby rows of photophores along the ventral surface reduce the chance that the fish is silhouetted when viewed from below .
although some representatives from most groups , including the capelin and the slender argentine ( microstoma microstoma ) , prey predominantly on small benthic and pelagic arthropods , others , such as the surf smelt ( hypomesus pretiosus ) and european smelt ( osmerus eperlanus ) , have much wider diets , ingesting arthropods , fishes , mollusks , and worms . the agassiz ' s slickhead ( alepocephalus agassizii ) feeds on crustaceans , worms , echinoderms , and comb jellies . other species of osmeriforms are , or become , specialist feeders . the mirrorbelly ( opisthoproctus grimaldii ) is reported to feed on the stinging cells and tentacles of jellyfishes , and others , such as the ayu and black - stripe minnow , both exhibit marked shifts in diet at the end of their larval / juvenile stages .
osmeriforms are preyed on by a wide variety of predators . for example , sharks , as well as a variety of bony fishes , seals , birds , and dolphins , have been reported to prey on the eulachon ( thaleichthys pacificus ) ; bony fishes and squids prey on the argentines .
fishes in the suborder osmeroidei , such as the surf smelt and capelin , show a diverse array of breeding strategies , undergoing extensive migrations from coastal seas to surf beaches and estuaries , where they often form massive spawning aggregations , males pressing against females until they release their eggs , the males then releasing their sperm . the eggs are then fertilized and wave action buries them below the sand . other members of the osmeroidei , such as the eulachon and ayu , move up into rivers to spawn . freshwater populations of northern hemisphere osmeroids tend to undergo similar spawning migrations , and may spawn in habitats similar to those of the migratory forms , such as the ayu . they may also spawn in different habitats . the freshwater forms of the european smelt tend to spawn in lakes , the anadromous forms spawn in rivers .
within the southern hemisphere osmeroids , the tasmanian smelt is anadromous , spending most of its life in the sea before returning to estuaries and rivers to spawn . in other species , such as the common jollytail , most populations are amphidromous . the adults of this species live in fresh water , but during autumn move downstream to spawn in estuaries . spawning takes place on spring tides amid inundated vegetation , the eggs developing out of water and hatching two weeks later on the next spring tide . the larvae are then washed out to sea , where they feed and develop into juveniles before returning to the rivers to complete their life cycle . in purely freshwater forms such as the western minnow , migrations into tributaries or into the shallows of lakes are usual .
within the argentinoidei , stout blacksmelt ( pseudobathylagus milleri ) , and the longsnout blacksmelt produce planktonic eggs and larvae , and it is likely that other members of this suborder do likewise . little other data are available on the reproductive behavior in the deepsea osmeriforms .
the age at first maturity , whether the adults survive to spawn in more than one year , and the spawning pattern , spawning period , and number and size of eggs vary greatly within the order . for example , anadromous forms of the european smelt do not spawn until their third or fourth year , when during a short breeding season of one to three months they produce 8 , 000 to 50 , 000 small ( 0 . 02–0 . 03 in / 0 . 06–0 . 09 cm ) demersal eggs . adults usually die after spawning . other species , such as the mudminnow ( galaxiella munda ) , which becomes mature at the end of its first year of life , has a spawning period that extends for three to four months , during which they produce several small batches ( 37–92 ) of smallish ( 0 . 06–0 . 05 in / 0 . 09–0 . 14 cm ) demersal eggs . most mudminnow die within one or two months of spawning . unlike the above two species , the western minnow spawns at the end of its first year and can live to spawn a further four times .
alepocephalus tenebrosus gilbert , 1892 , santa barbara channel , california , united states , 359–822 fathoms ( 2 , 154–4 , 932 ft / 655–1 , 500 m ) .
total length about 23 . 6 in ( 60 cm ) , moderately sized , fusiform , laterally compressed ; dorsal fin posteriorly placed ; adipose fin absent . skull translucent , body brown to black . swim bladder absent .
marine . deep waters , oceanic at depths 150–18 , 045 ft ( 46–5 , 500 m ) .
little is known about the biology and behavior . however , other slickheads are gregarious , forming large schools close to the bottom .
larvae and juveniles ingest benthic and planktonic crustaceans . others feed on squids , arrow worms , comb jellies , and other deep - sea fishes such as anglerfishes .
english : atlantic argentine ; french : grande argentine , saumon doré ; german : goldlachs ; spanish : pez plata , sula .
standard length about 27 . 5 in ( 70 cm ) , moderately sized , elongate ; dorsal fin medially to anteriorly placed , anterior to origin of pelvic fins . adipose fin present . brown to olive dorsally , silver laterally and ventrally . mouth small , and lacks teeth on jaws .
western atlantic , from davis strait in the north , to georges bank in the south . eastern atlantic from denmark strait to west coast of scotland and deeper parts of the north sea .
marine . deep waters , oceanic at depths of 460–4 , 725 ft ( 140–1 , 440 m ) .
feeds on benthic and planktonic crustaceans , squids , arrow worms , and comb jellies . preyed upon by bony fishes , such as swordfishes and hakes , and seals .
attains sexual maturity at the end of the fourth year . spawns in late winter off canada , and in april and may in the north sea . eggs and larvae are pelagic . juveniles settle on the bottom of waters up to about 410 ft ( 125 m ) deep before moving out into deeper water .
not listed by the iucn . may be particularly susceptible to overfishing because they have a fairly long population doubling time of between 4 . 5 and 14 years .
a commercial fishery was started by russia in 1963 , joined by japan in 1968 . estimated sustainable yield is 5 , 500–24 , 250 tons ( 5 , 000 to 20 , 000 metric tons ) .
length about 7 . 9 in ( 20 cm ) , small , elongate , scaleless ; dorsal fin posteriorly placed . olive green dorsally , fading to cream / white ventrally . dark lateral bars often present .
restricted to the southern corner of western australia , from approximately 155 mi ( 250 km ) north of perth to 50 mi ( 80 km ) east of albany .
fresh waters in streams , rivers , lakes , and ponds / pools ; also in brackish habitats . schools amid riparian vegetation and open waters at all depths .
during the day most food eaten is from the water surface ( e . g . , flying insects and spiders ) , although insect larvae and small crustaceans from the substrate and within the water column are also taken . at night switches diet to freshwater shrimps .
attains sexual maturity at the end of the first year at about 2 . 9 in ( 7 . 5 cm ) . breeding occurs during wet winter months between june and september , peaks in august ( winter ) . migrates into creeks or the inundated shores of lakes to spawn . mean number of mature eggs is 905 ; diameter of mature eggs is 0 . 05 in ( 0 . 13 cm ) . can live up to five years and will spawn at the end of each of these years .
galaxias pusillus nigrostriatus shipway , 1953 , a small drain running into marbellup creek on a property owned by mr . byland , elleker , near albany , western australia .
total length about 2 in ( 5 cm ) , tiny , elongate , scaleless ; dorsal fin posteriorly placed . between june and september , adults develop nuptial coloration of two longitudinal black stripes separated by a brilliant yellow ( in light - colored waters ) to red stripe ( in dark - colored waters ) . in dark - colored waters , the dorsal - most black stripes extend upward and meet . larvae show the same nuptial coloration . outside breeding season , color is uniform brown to black , with a faint dull - yellow to red lateral stripe .
restricted to a small area of peat flats on the southern coast of western australia , from augusta in the west ( about 220 mi / 350 km south of perth ) to albany in the east . two disjunct populations about 125 mi and 250 mi ( 200 and 400 km ) to the north were found in the 1990s , suggesting that the loss of habitat caused by massive urban and rural development during the previous hundred years had a significant impact .
fresh waters in streams , ponds , and shallow pools . most commonly found in highly tannin - stained and acidic ephemeral pools , in which salamanderfish also occur . small schools found amid riparian vegetation and open waters and at all depths .
estivates when pools become dry in summer . large numbers are found in even the smallest pools ( 11 . 8 in / 30 cm diameter ) before they completely dry up . when pools were filled artificially , black - stripe minnow and salamanderfish emerged from the substrate within two hours . unlike salamanderfish , does not apparently have any specific anatomical , physiological , or behavioral adaptations to aid estivation , and must presumably survive in crustacean burrows ( and similar ) that contain water through the dry season .
active carnivores at all stages . the smallest larvae , 0 . 19–0 . 43 in ( 0 . 5–1 . 1 cm ) , feed predominantly on rotifers ; larger larvae , 0 . 5–0 . 9 in ( 1 . 2–2 . 3 cm ) consume fewer rotifers , but far more small crustaceans and insect larvae . juveniles and adults continue to take crustaceans and insect larvae , but a large part of their diet consists of terrestrial insects and spiders taken from the surface . larvae and small juveniles assume a head - down , tail - up stance ( between 30 and 45° ) , forming their body into an
s
shape as prey approaches , striking at high speed when the prey is within about half a body length .
sexually mature at the end of the first year , when males are about 1 . 3 in ( 3 . 3 cm ) and females 1 . 4 in ( 3 . 7 cm ) . individuals spawn several times between june and september , peak activity in late june / early july . mean number of mature eggs is 62 ; diameter is 0 . 03 in ( 0 . 07 cm ) . most adults die within two months of spawning .
not listed by the iucn . regarded as vulnerable by the australian society for fish biology .
the western australian department of fisheries and commercial breeders of ornamental fishes are considering its suitability as an aquarium fish .
lepidogalaxias salamandroides mees , 1961 . tiny creek about 6 mi ( 9 . 6 km ) east - northeast of shannon river , western australia .
length about 2 . 9 in ( 7 . 5 cm ) , small , elongate ; dorsal fin posteriorly placed . scales absent on head , back , and belly . pelvic fins well developed , even at hatching . males have enlarged anal fin sheathed with scales . brown to gray overall , dark saddlelike markings dorsally , and blotches laterally , the latter forming a pair of stripes during breeding .
restricted to a small area of peat flats on the southern coast of western australia . used to extend from margaret river in the west ( about 186 mi / 300 km ) south of perth ) to albany in the east ; in 2003 its range had contracted to central 93–125 mi / 150–200 km ) of this area .
fresh waters in streams , ponds , and shallow pools . most common in ephemeral , tannin - stained , highly acidic ( ph 3 . 0 ) pools that can exceed 95°f ( 35°c ) in summer . solitary and benthic , rests on pelvic fins amid riparian vegetation and in open waters . larvae and juveniles most common in very shallow water ( less than 3 . 9 in / 10 cm ) , tend to move into deeper waters ( usually less than 39 . 4 in / 1 m ) as they grow .
exhibits several behaviors rare among fishes . like lungfishes , estivates when pools in which they live become dry , burrowing into the substrate , forming an
s
shape , and producing a mucous cocoon , emerging when pools refill with winter rain . unlike black - striped minnow , buries itself before the pool becomes almost dry .
active carnivore at all stages , feeds on small crustaceans and insect larvae . individuals rest on the substrate with their head and body raised up , supported by the large pelvic fins present at hatching . unlike any other species of fishes , salamanderfish have very large gaps between the vertebrae immediately behind the head . these gaps allow them to move their head from side to side when scanning for prey , which is crucial , as muscles that allow movement of the eyes are absent or greatly reduced . when prey are within about half a body length , darts forward , engulfing and swallowing prey whole .
about 27 % attain sexual maturity and spawn at the end of the first year , when males are 1 . 5 in ( 3 . 9 cm ) and females are about 1 . 7 in ( 4 . 3 cm ) . all two - year - old fishes mature and spawn . each individual spawns several times between late may and late august , peak activity in late july / early august . mean number of mature eggs is approximately 82 ; diameter is 0 . 07 in ( 0 . 18 cm ) . many fish survive to spawn in two seasons , but only a few survive to spawn at the end of the third and fourth years . spawning behavior is unique . males develop an enlarged anal fin surrounded by a sheath of scales . on finding a receptive female , a male will approach and nudge her sides , if she does not swim away or react aggressively , he will approach from the side , and using his scale sheath grasp the female around her anal fin and cloaca . sperm is introduced into the female via his enlarged anal fin . in the laboratory , males may remain attached to a female for several hours . when physically removed , a male always reattaches from the same side ; apparently , just like humans , salamanderfish are either right or left
handed .
none , although the western australian department of fisheries and commercial breeders of ornamental fishes are considering its suitability as an aquarium fish .
leuroglossus stilbius gilbert , 1890 , pacific off northwestern mexico , albatross sta . 2997 , 221 fathoms ( 1 , 326 ft / 400 m ) .
english : esperlan , smoothtongue , southern smoothtongue ; spanish : esperlan , esperlan de lengua suave .
length about 7 . 9 in ( 20 cm ) , small to moderately sized , elongate ; dorsal fin medially placed ; adipose fin present ; eyes large . body light to dark , may be silvery .
eastern pacific from oregon , united states , in the north , to gulf of california , mexico , in the south .
marine . deep waters , oceanic at depths between surface and 2 , 265 ft ( 690 m ) .
benthic and planktonic crustaceans , worms , and tunicates have been recorded in the guts of juveniles . reported to be preyed upon by tunas off the coast of the united states . likely to have specialized eyes as those of some close relatives . eyes are positioned on the top of the head to increase binocular vision , and in each eye a gap in front of the lens increases illumination of the retina , which itself has specialized photoreceptors . these specializations ensure great visual sensitivity in the forward plane and spatial perception , attributes particularly relevant when searching for prey in dim environments .
spawning occurs in the california current between december and may . eggs and larvae are pelagic .
macropinna microstoma chapman , 1939 , northeastern pacific , 53°50
00
n , 134°20
00
, 2 , 950–2 , 300 ft ( 900–700 m ) wire out .
length about 1 . 8 in ( 4 . 5 cm ) . small , deep - bodied , laterally compressed ; dorsal fin posteriorly placed ; adipose fin present . eyes telescopic and large . head clear , body black dorsally and ventrally , may be silver laterally .
north pacific from bering sea in the north to japan and mexico in the south .
marine . deep waters , oceanic at depths about 330–2 , 950 ft ( 100–900 m ) .
not much is known . other barreleye feed on stinging cells of jellyfishes . each stalked eye in the closely related brownsnout spookfish ( dolichopteryx longipes ) has two retinas , one directly below the lens , the other to the side of the lens . the first retina contains a golden to silvery pigment that ensures any light is reflected backward and forward , passing through photoreceptors several times before its energy is expended , and thus maximizing the efficiency of the eye . the second retina , although not as efficient , permits the barreleye to distinguish the movement of brightly lit objects , and thus see prey from below . due to the excellent binocular vision provided by these tubular eyes , the barreleye can determine position precisely , and can also see predators that may be approaching from its side . such optic specializations thus aid in both feeding and predator avoidance .
english : whitefish , lodde ; french : capelan atlantique ; german : lodde ; spanish : capelan .
total length about 9 . 8 in ( 25 cm ) . small , moderately deep bodied ; dorsal fin medially placed ; adipose fin with long base . body covered in small scales . olive dorsally , silver laterally and ventrally . enlarged pectoral and anal fins ; two ridges of enlarged scales along each side of body in breeding males .
marine . oceanic moving into coastal seas to spawn . found down to about 985 ft ( 300 m ) .
all stages feed on zooplankton and small benthic organisms such as euphausiid shrimps , copepods , amphipods , and worms . predators such as rays , a range of bony fishes , seabirds , seals , whales , and dolphins take an estimated 3 . 3 million tons ( 3 million metric tons ) in the northwest atlantic .
forms massive spawning aggregations over shallow banks . spawns over a two to three month period between march and october , depending on location . two males flank and hold a female with enlarged fins and scale ridges until she releases her eggs , they then release the sperm . females release up to 12 , 000 adhesive eggs . many individuals survive to spawn in more than one year , although most spawning animals are in year three or four . many fish spawning along shorelines , particularly males , become stranded on beaches and die .
very important in commercial , recreational , and traditional fisheries throughout the range . in 1998 the commercial fishery in the northwest atlantic was estimated at 121 , 000 tons ( 110 , 000 metric tons ) . marketed fresh , frozen , salted , dried , smoked , as fish meal ( males ) , and roe ( females ) .
english : ko - ayu , sweetfish ; french : ayu ; japanese : koayu .
length about 11 . 8 in ( 30 cm ) . small , moderately deep bodied ; dorsal fin medially placed ; adipose fin present . body covered in small scales . olive dorsolaterally , white ventrally .
marine , brackish , and fresh waters . amphidromous , demersal in coastal seas , estuaries , rivers , streams , and lakes to a depth of about 33 ft ( 10 m ) . landlocked forms also exist . in rivers and lakes appears to prefer clear waters .
except for feeding and reproduction little is known regarding specific behavior patterns . in rivers , form territories , which they guard by attacking and nipping other ayu .
larvae and juveniles feed primarily on small benthic crustaceans such as copepods and amphipods . juveniles of the amphidromous form move into fresh waters in winter and spring , moving up into the higher reaches of rivers and streams . adults use specially modified jaws and teeth to scrape algae from rocks . adults have also been reported to eat small pebbles , although it seems likely that these were inadvertently ingested while grazing on algae . the few adults that survive spawning and return to the sea have been reported to feed on zoobenthos .
sexual maturity usually attained at end of first year at about 7 . 9–11 . 8 in ( 20–30 cm ) . spawns in freshwater during autumn , when adults move downstream to the spawning grounds . at night , excavates small pits in sand or gravel banks into which about 10 , 000 adhesive eggs ( 0 . 04 in / 0 . 1 cm ) are released . eggs hatch 14–20 days later . larger individuals spawn once , after which most die ; smaller individuals have about a 50 % chance of surviving to spawn again two weeks later .
ayu form important commercial , aquaculture , recreational , and traditional fisheries . in japan the commercial fishery and aquaculture accounted for 16 , 500 tons ( 15 , 000 metric tons ) and 8 , 820 tons ( 8 , 000 metric tons ) , respectively , in 1979 . sport fishing in japan involves baited hooks , flies , as well as a traditional method . in the traditional method , an ayu that has a small free - swinging treble hook fastened to it is attached to the line . anglers swing the attached fish to ayu guarding territory , and when the resident fish nips the back of the
invader
it is caught on the free - swinging hook . in japan the ayu forms the basis of the cormorant fishery , whereby cormorants are trained to dive for fish . this fishery is believed to date back at least 2 , 500 years , but is now for tourists .