the great frigatebird ( fregata minor ) is a large seabird in the frigatebird family .

major nesting populations are found in the pacific ( including the galapagos islands ) and indian oceans , as well as a population in the south atlantic .

the great frigatebird is a lightly built , large seabird up to 105 cm long with predominantly black plumage .

the species exhibits sexual dimorphism ; the female is larger than the adult male and has a white throat and breast , and the male 's scapular feathers have a purple-green sheen .

in the breeding season , the male is able to distend its striking red gular sac .

the species feeds on fish taken in flight from the ocean 's surface ( mostly flying fish ) , and indulges in kleptoparasitism less frequently than other frigatebirds .

they feed in pelagic waters within 80 km ( 50 mi ) of their breeding colony or roosting areas .

great frigatebird

. the magnificent frigatebird , the ascension frigatebird , the christmas frigatebird , the great frigatebird and the lesser frigatebird are the five different frigatebird species .
great frigata , great frigate , greater frigate bird , greater frigatebird , lesser frigatebird , north pacific man - o - war - bird , pacific frigatebird .
the magnificent frigatebird is the larger of the two with a wingspan measuring up to 114cm in length , compared to the great frigatebird’s wingspan of up to 105cm .
the galapagos is home to two species of frigatebird : the great frigatebird and the magnificent frigatebird . similar in size , shape and appearance , the long , smooth shoulder feathers of the frigatebird are the most noticeable difference between the two . the subtle difference of colour of the sheen on the plumage on their backs distinguishes the great frigatebird from the magnificent ; the great has a green sheen whilst the magnificent has a purple iridescence in the sunlight .
great frigatebird soundscape . . . parabolic . . . very windy . . . some female whinneying . . .
gauger , m . , v . schreiber , e . schreiber . 2002 . great frigatebird ( fregata minor ) .
female frigatebirds lay only one egg every couple of years as the frigatebird chicks take an average of 9 months to rear . both the male frigatebird and the female frigatebird feed their chick for the first few months but the male frigatebird will then leave the
unlike the incredible flying ability of the frigatebird , the frigatebird is unable to walk that well and cannot swim . frigatebirds have a
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - great frigatebird ( fregata minor )
> < img src =
urltoken
alt =
arkive species - great frigatebird ( fregata minor )
title =
arkive species - great frigatebird ( fregata minor )
border =
0
/ > < / a >
the frigatebird is sometimes called the
man - o - war bird
because it harasses other birds until they regurgitate recently captured food , which the frigatebird snatches in midair .
gauger metz , v . and schreiber , e . a ( 2002 ) great frigatebird ( fregata minor ) , cornell lab of ornithology . birds of north america online .
great frigatebird soundscape . . . parabolic . . . very windy . . . some female whinneying . . . sooty terns fly through after 03 . 50 . . .
great frigate bird soundscape . . . parabolic . . . very windy . . .
great frigate bird soundscape . . . parbolic . . . very windy . . .
great frigatebird soundscape . . . parabolic . . . very windy . . . a number of female calls after 01 . 45 . . . a sort of whinney . . .
the great frigatebird inhabits small , remote islands in tropical and sub - tropical waters , where it breeds in small bushes , mangroves and even on the ground ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
breeding interval great frigatebirds breed as often as every 2 years , but generally mate less often .
) . great frigatebirds occasionally drink fresh water by dipping their bill into water while in flight .
( great barrier reef marine park authority ( gbrmpa ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .
great frigate bird soundscape . . . parbolic . . . very windy . . . some windblast . . .
species ) that drive smaller fish to the surface . great frigatebirds will also feed opportunistically in coastal areas on turtle hatchlings , fish scraps from commercial fishing operations , and on seabird nestlings in breeding colonies , including great frigatebird nestlings from their own nesting colonies . they are often seen foraging in large , mixed - species flocks , especially flocking with sooty terns (
great frigate bird soundscape . . . parabolic . . . very windy . . . females sort of whinny . . .
the great frigatebird is pantropical ( between about 25°n and 25°s ) , nesting in colonies on islands from the western atlantic ocean throughout the pacific ( including the hawaiian archipelago ; figure 1 ) and southern indian oceans . it is not found in the caribbean .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the frigatebird article in your website content , school work and other projects .
the great frigatebird is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range , including on several hawaiian islands , the republic of kiribati and the cocos islands . it is also protected by law in many areas where it occurs , although law enforcement can prove challenging on remote , isolated islands and the level of protection afforded this species varies greatly . conservation priorities for the great frigatebird are further surveys to determine population numbers and status , so that informed conservation recommendations can me made and enforced protection of conservation laws ( 5 ) .
the great frigatebird is a member of the pan - tropical , monogeneric family , fregatidae , the frigatebirds . the adult males of all species are very similar in appearance with long heavily bowed , dihedral wings , predominantly black plumage and long forked tails . the frigatebirds have a reputation for being the consummate pirates of the tropical oceans and are typically very aggressive in their pursuit of prey captured by other birds ( frigatebirds or otherwise ) . the great frigatebird is much less dependent on kleptoparasitism and will generally feed by surface seizing for flying - fish . the great frigatebird is distributed throughout the tropical latitudes of the pacific ocean , below the equator in the indian ocean and locally in the south atlantic and breeds in large colonies , in the neotropics , on the galalpagos and various islands off central america .
the great frigate bird resembles a huge blackbird that hovers lazily in the sky . frigate birds belong to the family fregatidae , which contains five species world - wide . in the galapagos there are two species : the great frigate bird and the magnificent frigate bird . of the two , the great frigate bird has the greater world - wide distribution , being found primarily throughout the tropical pacific and indian oceans .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - christmas frigatebird ( fregata andrewsi )
> < img src =
urltoken
alt =
arkive species - christmas frigatebird ( fregata andrewsi )
title =
arkive species - christmas frigatebird ( fregata andrewsi )
border =
0
/ > < / a >
) . however , great frigatebirds capture most of their food themselves , by grabbing fish at or just below the water ' s surface .
the great frigatebird has been identified as a conservation value in the north - west ( dsewpac 2012y ) marine region . see schedule 2 of the north - west marine bioregional plan ( dsewpac 2012y ) for regional advice . maps of biologically important areas have been developed for great frigatebird in the north - west ( dsewpac 2012y ) marine region and may provide additional relevant information . go to the conservation values atlas to view the locations of these biologically important areas . the
species group report card - seabirds
for the north - west ( dsewpac 2012y ) marine region provides additional information .
the oldest known magnificent frigatebird was at least 19 years , 9 months old when it was recaptured and rereleased in the lesser antilles during a scientific study .
great frigatebirds are best known for their kleptoparasitic habits ; they frequently steal food from other sea birds by harassing them until they drop their prey or regurgitate a recent meal . they pursue other birds , especially near nesting colonies , diving at them and grabbing them until they release their food . great frigatebirds then dive rapidly to catch the released prey or regurgitate before it hits the water . bird species commonly harassed by great frigatebirds are boobies (
the great frigatebird breeds on small , remote tropical and sub - tropical islands , in mangroves or bushes and occaisionally on bare ground ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) . fish , squid and chicks of other bird species ( e . g . sooty terns ) have all been identified as prey ( weimerskirch
the christmas frigatebird is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .
there are five species of frigatebird found across the world in all sub - tropical and tropical oceans . the frigatebird’s distinctive shape , a strong silhouette in the shape of a ‘w’ allows them to soar with minimal effort ; flying without flapping their wings for hours and even days at a time upon the warm , equatorial air currents and cumulus clouds .
the great frigatebird is a widespread seabird , with breeding colonies found on isolated islands in the tropical and sub - tropical waters of the pacific and indian oceans . it also used to breed on the brazilian islands of trindade and martin vaz in the southern atlantic , but there are no recent records of this ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
so it seems the life of a frigatebird is simply hopping off at the bottom of this atmospheric roller coaster , eating and getting back on again to search for the next meal .
, especially in their immature or juvenile plumages . incomplete understanding of regional variation in plumage patterns , vocalizations , and soft body parts in widespread species , such as great ,
great frigatebirds are also sometimes known as
man o ' - war birds ,
a reference to their aggressiveness towards other birds and an analogy to the fast
frigate
or
man o ' war
ships used by pirates . great frigatebirds are also known as
iwa
in hawai ' ian , a name which means
thief .
great frigatebirds are found in tropical waters globally . they occur between 25 degrees north and 25 degrees south . nesting colonies are known from offshore islands throughout the tropical pacific , western atlantic , and south indian oceans . most of what is known about great frigatebirds is known from nesting colonies and there is little information about their range and movements outside of the breeding season . males and females may occupy separate ranges outside of the breeding season . great frigatebirds are considered sedentary , although individuals disperse from nesting areas to broader ranges when not breeding .
the magnificent frigatebird spends most of its life flying effortlessly over the ocean . it rarely lands on the water even though it has webbed feet , because unlike other seabirds it lacks waterproof feathers .
great frigatebirds are considered
least concern
by the iucn because of their large population sizes and range . populations have historically declined , primarily because of disturbance at historical breeding colonies and destruction of nesting habitats . in addition , introduced predators can seriously impact nesting populations . populations may still be declining , but there is little data to understand the pattern of decline . they are protected by the u . s . migratory bird treaty act . great frigatebird adults and young are captured and eaten by humans and die when they collide with man - made structures .
nonstop flight : how the frigatebird can soar for weeks without stopping : the two - way scientists have been attaching transmitters on the huge seagoing birds and are astonished by their ability to stay aloft .
wbm oceanics & g . claridge ( 1997 ) . guidelines for managing visitation to seabird breeding islands . townsville , queensland : great barrier reef marine park authority . available from : urltoken .
great frigatebirds are found over open , tropical ocean waters and near offshore , oceanic nesting islands . males and females may occupy different ranges outside of the breeding season , which may be influenced by their different wing loading characteristics and the nature of winds over different areas of the ocean . when not breeding , great frigatebirds wander widely to feed on fish and squid in areas with high concentrations of prey , such as at ocean upwellings , divergences , and convergences . great frigatebirds breed on islands without predators . they nest in trees and shrubs , such as beach naupaka (
great frigatebirds commonly forage and nest with other species of seabirds . they will steal food from other seabirds as well , especially from boobies , tropicbirds , and petrels . parasites reported include feather lice (
although some frigatebirds look slightly browner than black . outside of the mating season , male frigatebirds and female frigatebirds can be easily identified due to the fact that the female frigatebird has a white patch on her underside .
in the world , so the frigatebird is naturally an adept pilot . frigatebirds have been known to stay in the air for nearly a whole week and only land on the rocky cliffs to breed or to rest .
you can tell the two species of frigate birds apart by their sounds – a great frigate bird makes a ‘gobbling’ noise like a turkey , while a magnificent frigate bird will make a rattling or drumming sound .
great frigatebirds rarely land on the ground or on the water , except perhaps to pick up nesting material or by accident . their short legs and small feet make them ungainly on the ground and make it difficult to propel themselves off of the water . their feet are not webbed . however , they can soar for many hours without flapping , taking advantage of updrafts over water . they will soar over nesting colonies rather than roost , when the winds are right . great frigatebirds are more likely to be active and soar along the fronts of storm systems or in high wind , they are more likely to roost in calm winds . great frigatebirds have exceptionally low wing loading , which differs between sexes because of their differences in size . this may explain the fact that sexes are segregated geographically outside of the breeding season . there is some evidence that great frigatebirds return to the same area to breed .
there are no adverse effects of great frigatebirds on humans . they live on remote , offshore islands and over open ocean . they may take fish scraps from commercial fishing operations or steal small fish from nets or baited hooks .
there are few data on the migration range of this species , but it is thought to spread out from breeding colonies and inhabit a much broader area of the ocean when not nesting . its numbers have declined since humans began inhabiting its range - building on nesting islands and taking frigatebirds for food . great frigatebird populations that remain generally nest in remote areas and have been little studied by scientists . many areas of the biology of this species are in need of study .
most of the frigatebird’s day is spent hunting for food , consisting of mainly squid , fish , jellyfish and crabs , as well as stealing fish from other bird’s mouths . some females have even been recorded eating other seabird chicks straight from the nest .
orta , j . , kirwan , g . m . , garcia , e . f . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . great frigatebird ( fregata minor ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
great frigatebirds seem to maintain body temperatures of about 40 degrees celsius , shivering at lower temperatures . nestlings are dependent on parents to protect them from the heat of the tropical sun . they use a variety of body postures to help radiate or absorb heat .
since the frigatebird spends most of its life at sea , its habits outside of when it breeds on land aren ' t well - known — until researchers started tracking them around the indian ocean . what the researchers discovered is that the birds ' flying ability almost defies belief .
diamond , antony w . and elizabeth a . schreiber . 2002 . magnificent frigatebird ( fregata magnificens ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
these aerial acrobats , often called man o ' - war birds , have an ill - deserved reputation as full - time pirates because they are often seen chasing other seabird species , particularly boobies , to commandeer a meal . hanging in the air near a nesting colony , a frigatebird lies in wait for an unsuspecting seabird returning to the colony to feed its chick . with great aerial dexterity , it pursues the returning seabird , sometimes even grabbing its tail feathers . eventually the victim regurgitates its meal , whereupon the adept frigatebird darts down , catching the fish before it hits the water . the name
frigatebird
was inspired by the resemblance of this behavior to the actions of the fast , maneuverable frigates , or man - o ' - war ships , used by pirates centuries ago . the hawaiian name for the species ,
' iwa ,
also means
thief .
but , in fact , frigatebirds catch the majority of their meals without stealing them . they fly along waiting for a flying fish to break the ocean surface , or catch fish and squid that are swimming within several centimeters below the surface .
species ) . nests are usually above 0 . 5 m and may be several kilometers inland on larger islands . great frigatebirds are superb soaring birds and do not need to come to land frequently to roost . they can soar for long period of time , including overnight .
great frigatebirds form monogamous , mated pairs yearly . if a pair is unsuccessful in mating , then they may divorce and select a new mate to attempt breeding . extra - pair copulations are frequent and males often attempt to copulate with mated females when their mates are absent .
great frigatebirds are important members of pelagic ocean ecosystems . adults , nestlings , and eggs are collected for food in some areas . on islands in the pacific young frigatebirds were sometimes raised as pets and used to convey messages from traveling islanders to their homes . nesting colonies contribute to guano deposits .
the breeding period of the magnificent frigatebird is exceptionally long . males and females incubate the eggs for around 56 days , and once hatched , chicks don ' t leave the nest until they are about 167 days old . even after they leave the nest , females continue to feed them until they are one year old .
there are 5 recognized subspecies of great frigatebirds . subspecies vary in body size , plumage , eye ring color , and bill color , but patterns of variation have not been well described . subspecies are defined geographically and banding studies suggest that there may be little migration of individuals among regions . subspecies are :
the christmas frigatebird is found in the northeast indian ocean , these birds are only known to breed on christmas island ( 4 ) . the distribution of birds at sea is not well documented but they may wander widely and are known from the coasts of indonesia , malaysia , thailand ( 6 ) and northern australia ( 4 ) .
the christmas frigatebird feeds mainly on flying fish and cephalopods ( such as squid ) , which are scooped from the surface of the water ( 6 ) . a proportion of its food is obtained by harassing other seabirds such as red - footed boobies ( sula sula ) , until they are forced to regurgitate their meal ( 4 ) .
great frigate birds are large , with iridescent black feathers ( the females have a white underbelly ) , with long wings ( male wingspan can reach 2 . 3 metres ) and deeply - forked tails . the males have inflatable red - coloured throat pouches , which they inflate to attract females during the mating season .
great frigatebirds are active during the day , often roosting at night , although they will soar throughout the night as well . they forage in flocks , sometimes with multiple seabird species , and roost in groups of just a few to thousands . nesting colonies are large and often include other species , such as red - footed boobies (
great frigatebirds nest and range widely within tropical indian and pacific oceans . frigatebirds begin to breed after 9 years . females do not breed every year because it takes a year and a half to raise a chick . males are believed to breed every year ( with a second female ) . fidelity to nest sites and mates is low .
with an extremely large range and population , estimated at half a million to one million birds , the great frigatebird is not currently considered to be at risk of extinction ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . however , some populations are thought to be decreasing , most likely due to a combination of habitat destruction , from the loss of nesting trees to cultivation or tourist developments , and disturbance . in some areas , predation of eggs and chicks by introduced predators and direct persecution by humans for food is also a threat ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . this decline has been most notable within the atlantic subspecies , fregata minor minor , which is now absent on st helena , with no recent breeding records from the other islands which it occupies , suggesting that this subspecies may be on the verge of extinction . the christmas island population could also become extinct within the next 20 years due to overharvesting for food , while the colony on aldabra island was extirpated by impacts from tourists , but was later recolonised after conservation efforts ( 5 ) . the great frigatebird is also threatened by the occasional severe storms that are caused by the el niño , which can cause partial or total breeding failure and starvation in juveniles ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . these threats are compounded by the species’ very slow reproductive rate , and a large drop in a population may go unnoticed for several years due to its long lifespan ( 2 ) .
the lack of waterproof plumage means that this species obtains most of its prey either just above , floating on , or submerged a few centimetres below the water surface . as such , its main source of prey is flying fish ( airborne or just beneath the surface ) , but it also takes squid , jellyfish and scraps discarded by boats , and will often feed over tuna and other predatory fish that drive smaller fish species to the surface ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . in addition to catching prey , the greater frigatebird will sometimes harass other bird species on the wing , forcing them to release food that they have recently caught , which is then snatched from mid - air before it reaches the water ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . when not airborne , the great frigatebird perches in trees , bushes or , less preferably , on the ground . a gregarious species , roosting takes place in large colonies , where , during the day , individuals may display a remarkable sunning posture , involving sitting upright with the wing undersides rotated upwards while fully extended to the sides , exposing the chest and underwings to the sun ( 4 ) .
in the galapagos , the two species can be seen nesting side by side , but when frigate birds are sighted in the air , they typically are magnificent frigate birds , as great frigate birds tend to forage much further out at sea . as with the three similar species of booby birds , similar species of frigate birds avoid competition by feeding in different locations .
while roosting and in nesting colonies they defend small display and nesting sites with bill - snapping , vocalizations , lunging , and gular displays among males . these territories are very small , so that individuals are able to touch each other . there is no firm data on home range , but estimates suggest that great frigatebirds feed from 80 to 500 km from their colony .
frigatebirds have to find ways to stay aloft because they can ' t land on the water . since their feathers aren ' t waterproof , the birds would drown in short order . they feed by harassing other birds in flight until they regurgitate whatever fish they ' ve eaten and the frigatebird takes it . or they fly over a fish - feeding frenzy on the ocean surface and scoop up small fish that leap out of the water to escape larger fish .
there is little available information on longevity in great frigatebirds . the oldest banded bird lived to 37 years and a maximum age of 40 years is estimated and from 25 to 30 years is considered a typical lifespan . at one site , during a productive year , between 60 and 70 % of eggs laid were successfully raised to fledging . but complete failure , or failure rates of up to 81 % are reported from el niño years when food is scarce .
magnificent frigatebirds soar along the coast in the southern united states , mexico , and the caribbean staying near water ; a perfect excuse for a walk on the beach . they tend to take flight later in the afternoon when winds and thermals are greatest , helping keep them aloft . look for their long and angular wings and slender silhouette soaring effortlessly alone or with a group of frigatebirds . if you hear gulls and seabirds making a ruckus , look up and you might find a frigatebird harassing them for their meal .
great frigatebirds have highly specialized for life in flight . they have the highest ratio of wing are to body mass of any bird . they have exceptionally long wings for soaring , long , forked tails for maneuverability in flight , and very small legs and feet . their legs and feet are so small that they cannot walk on them , only perching between flights . great frigatebirds are also one of few seabird species that are sexually dimorphic in both size and plumage . males are smaller than females and are entirely black , with a greenish - purple sheen dorsally . females are larger , with a black head and black feathers dorsally , but with a white chin and chest that merges into their white belly . males have a large , red , inflatable gular sac that becomes enlarged during the breeding season and is used in courtship displays . male gular sacs become smaller and fades in color outside of the breeding season . immature individuals are similar to females in plumage , but with light rufous feathers on the head and between the grey chin and chest and white belly . great frigatebirds are distinctive birds , most often seen soaring above the water , where their long , forked tail and long , pointed wings held in a
w
shape make them easy to identify . they have long bills with a strongly hooked tip . they are from 85 to 105 cm in body length , from 205 to 230 cm in wingspan , and from 1 to 1 . 8 kg mass .
beachgoers delight in this large , black pterodactyl - like bird that soars effortlessly on tropical breezes with hardly a flap , using its deeply forked tail to steer . watching a magnificent frigatebird float in the air truly is , as the name implies , magnificent . these master aerialists are also pirates of the sky , stealing food from other birds in midair . males have a bright red pouch on the throat , which they inflate like a balloon to attract females . females unlike most other seabirds look different than males with their white chest .
great frigatebirds are generally quiet , but they make a variety of sounds in different contexts , especially at breeding colonies . they snap their bills and squawk at birds that are too close to them in breeding colonies . hatchlings use a harsh begging call , along with bobbing of their heads and spread wings . adults call to young as they return also , to let them know they are coming with food . males call more than females but there are no songs . there are 3 kinds of calls : landing calls , warbling , and reeling calls . landing calls occur when adults are returning to the breeding colony , although females are usually quiet . warbling and reeling calls are used by males during courtship displays , along with bill - rattling . these calls may be used when flying over potential female mates or when engaging in mutual head - waving as part of courtship . great frigatebirds also use bill - snapping or rattling and vibrations of their mandibles to make sounds . bill - snapping is used in agressive interactions , rattling and vibrations are used in courtship .
the great frigatebird is highly specialized for an aerial life , having a greater ratio of wing area to body mass than any other bird , a deeply forked tail for agile maneuvering , and very small legs and feet ( which make walking impractical ) . it is among the few seabirds that are sexually dimorphic in plumage as well as in size . both males and females have a gular sac , analogous to that of the pelican , but only the male inflates the sac into a bright - red balloon . he does this to attract a female during courtship : groups of males sit in bushes , gular sacs inflated , whinnying , and wing - waving at females flying overhead . once a nest is built and incubation is proceeding , the male ' s gular sac gradually deflates and disappears into the throat - feathers . both sexes provide parental care during the long incubation period and exceptionally long chick - rearing period . as is characteristic of many tropical seabirds , frigatebirds have a long life span ( 30 - 40 years ) , exhibit deferred maturity , lay only 1 egg , and have a very slow - growing chick .
the frigatebird’s most unusual trait is displayed by the males . during the breeding season the males regularly inflate the thin , red , gular sac on their throats with air . these fleshy , red balloons are used to show off to and attract females during the mating season . the display of courtship for the frigatebirds is to sit in groups with wings spread , sacs inflated and heads tilted back . clattering their bills , shaking their heads and quivering their wings they call to females flying by in order to win a mate . these birds exhibit sexual dimorphism , with the female being larger than the male .
habitat destruction and human predation have been the major causes of population decline in the past ( 6 ) ; dust pollution from phosphate mine driers caused one major nesting site to be abandoned ( 4 ) . dust suppression equipment has since been installed and human predation has ceased since this species has been protected ( 4 ) . birds that have been displaced in the past may now be using sub - optimal habitat , which could pose a threat to their survival ( 4 ) . the christmas frigatebird is confined to a few breeding colonies on a single island and this , together with their low reproductive rate ( 4 ) , makes the population alarmingly vulnerable to any chance event .
the breeding behaviour of the great frigatebird is highly unusual and dramatic . during courtship , the males gather in groups of various sizes , with gular pouches inflated , bills clattering , and wings and heads waving , while calling to attract females flying overhead . once a pair decides to mate , they snake necks together and nibble at each others feathers , before commencing the construction of a nest . the male provides material such as twigs , while the female does the actual building , but both birds defend the nest from intruders or theft of nesting material by other males ( 4 ) . after mating , a single white egg is laid , which is incubated in turns for 51 to 57 days by both the male and female ( 5 ) . the chick , which takes around 17 to 24 weeks to fledge , may be fed by both parents for an additional 5 to 18 months ( 2 ) . this extended period of parental care exhibited by all frigatebirds is the longest of all birds , and means that a pair can only breed in alternate years . however , despite this intense level of parent care , many chicks starve to death within months of becoming fully independent because they do not learn to feed themselves . some areas in which they nest are severely affected by the occurrence of el niño events , during which many young starve to death as the local fish move elsewhere and good fishing skills become even more important ( 4 ) .
the christmas frigatebird is a very large , mostly black seabird with a glossy green sheen to feathers of the head and back ( 4 ) . females are larger than males ( 5 ) ; they have a white breast and belly , a narrow white collar around the lower neck and a whitish bar across the upperwing ( 4 ) . males are dark all over apart from a white patch on the lower abdomen . they have a red gular pouch , which becomes more vibrant in the breeding season and is inflated during mating displays ( 4 ) . juveniles have more mottled feathers on their upper - parts ( 2 ) , a pale fawn head , white throat and a russet necklace ( 4 ) . they take around four years to gain adult plumage ( 4 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
ioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2
the totipalmate water and diving birds ( suliformes ) are sister to the wading birds ( ibis , herons ) and pelican allies ( pelecaniformes ) ( prum et al . 2005 ) .
olson ( 2017 ) proposes species status based on bone and slight plumage differences . stet ssp ( sacc 768 )
as a junior synonym . steeves et al . 2009 , gill et al . 2010 .
s , e indian ocean and the pacific to islands off w mexico and w south america .
the genera of cormorants and the distinctions between
shags
and
cormorants
remain mostly unresolved due to conflicts among studies and missing taxa ( siegel - causey 1988 , kennedy et al . 2000 , christidis & boles 2008 ) . see kennedy & spencer 2014 for revised classification under ioc review .
( siegel - causey 1988 , kennedy et al . 2000 , christidis & boles 2008 )
for now ( kennedy et al . 2000 ; christidis and boles 2008 ) ; change english name from shag to cormorant
australia , new zealand , chatham is . , new caledonia , rennell i . ( solomon is . )
includes at least 10 core species ( kennedy et al . 2000 ; christidis and boles 2008 )
update
rough - faced shag
to new zealand king shag ( gill et al . 2010 )
update
bronze shag
to stewart island shag ( gill et al . 2010 ) ; change to foveaux shag with split of otago shag (
( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , kennedy et al . 2005 , schodde et al . 2012 ) .
( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , christidis & boles 2008 , kennedy et al . 2005 , schodde et al . 2012 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
christidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .
justification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
) . it is predominately sedentary , with immature and non - breeding individuals dispersing throughout the tropical seas with the exception of the east and central atlantic .
american samoa ; aruba ; australia ; brazil ; british indian ocean territory ; brunei darussalam ; chile ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; colombia ; comoros ; costa rica ; ecuador ( galápagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mayotte ; mexico ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; nauru ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; philippines ; réunion ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; tonga ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; united states minor outlying islands ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna
. 2004 ) . it is frequently observed attempting to steal food from other bird species ( kleptoparasitism ) ( vickery and brooke 1994 ) . however , this behaviour represents a minor source of energy ( vickery and brooke 1994 , weimerskirch
2004 ) , and they are frequently observed foraging at the coast or inland at most places where they breed ( weimerskirch et al . 2004 ) .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22697733a110667065 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis .
if you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .
thank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .
sign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .
bhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !
there was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
javascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .
austral avian record ; a scientific journal devoted primarily to the study of the australian avifauna .
formerly included in f . aquila . subspecies somewhat poorly differentiated . proposed race peninsulae ( from ne australia ) regarded as a synonym of palmerstoni . five subspecies normally recognized .
mathews , 1914 – w indian ocean ( aldabra , comoros , europa i ) .
( j . f . gmelin , 1789 ) – c & e indian ocean to se asian seas and sw pacific ocean .
( j . f . gmelin , 1789 ) – w & c pacific ocean ( carolines , marshalls , hawaiian is , phoenix is , line is , marquesas , tuamotu , society is , pitcairns and sala y gómez i ) .
mathews , 1914 – e pacific ocean ( revillagigedo is , cocos i , galapagos ) .
mathews , 1914 – s atlantic ( trindade i and martim vaz is off e brazil ) .
82–105 cm ; male 1000–1450 g , female 1215–1640 g ; wingspan 180–230 cm . breeding male is brownish black with some bluish but mostly green gloss . . .
usually silent away from breeding colonies , but may utter grating calls when excited . calls at nest . . .
tropical and subtropical seas , breeding on small , remote islands , in mangroves ( e . g .
throughout year , varying with locality ; some preference for laying in dry season . probably biennial , when successful , although recent work . . .
sedentary , with dispersal of immatures and non - breeders throughout tropical seas , mostly in indian . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . global population estimated at 500 , 000–1 , 000 , 000 birds ; main threats are probably habitat destruction and disturbance , in some . . .
only subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !
only members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !
get access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .
also available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 € ( instead of 59 . 90 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 € ( instead of 89 . 85 € )
supporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .
view more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .
also available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 € ( instead of 89 . 9 € ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 € ( instead of 134 . 85 € )
there is a registration fee of 20€ . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won’t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .
if you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .
this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
> stream xumo @ ½ó + ¸5ìé ~ ïr $  sùù8í ! » !  +
dwj ~ u ~ bf ` iä 3oþ¼y \ ¤ õýqrlø0æo ¼¯ûúé½çý´ô ( ! í¿ ' ïìr | ìviäç ~ úç£ @ ` oþï  dãa áh÷ê² ~ â¸la¢ $ ñr ® ~ lq0¬yú² k } ¯çrm \ àà ` ¹ùbw§ % «éxdwqxõô @ øûì ) ±ýkè $ y . £ãy¶ ð8õ . ^ õfv $
| ¥ hvªwum¢ ^ éz³ë°0§´ ( á ×¢èï 1 æ % ö ( ßge¾þo | } ¬ùfsv ^ òþ ºûz5 fñ¢kì² ( ¥ : æc ývþùðf»ûer³îól5 | ³os3daóy ê¶ì ÷ùã¦tsjr6ëá40òãei zùjðú¡ía¥ , c - ¦ùçh ( ö¼8y9 ý ^ þn´úðgøíù¨ ( ê»
· ³òül¨êâêí _ õm + î¢ { % moo»îâôx¤å & º£eæq7ðj 7ñ $ \ åá ; ¡â ^ ñ u1§« ; né¼döéôqá h + spîh9 ãkwåº² } f 9 '  :   / §«aw {  . ã¦á÷0â¸ur¦aé1¡ju¸u : ®58º } í²¼s $ ûfäz5
( ò·pþø¢zwy ` 8 : ´qõ wvyü < < @ ï % [ jtûzóhê * + v = j $ èt z3tì¤¸çü¹û3uùa . aou¾3ò zðóácöºôøúµsç 2nýæ¼òwv %  } î·¿ ` ðýj²c » * a { eùû / t¯ÿ ? üòì endstream endobj 50 0 obj <
qu kù÷zû 2 ( ; b ' åzr - n©ãth¿öndjßöá¡©©æbtß¹ ! ïsjq / skz # þe é¨æîücþi : ì _ ®
< 9ú3é ;  ¯báå9g©j ) ã |  èãøz3ó² / b ' b3økðyþì äýy íé $ èxðä } / ¹ +  ! ½änî² 0õ¸¥fò7×nuðâ êu _ çí s¼t¾f pä1
ýëã ` í { ; aÿ < , § + tè  , # üi rü¡¦ów»§±æ ¦ c9 ! øé í¶©m % ðèíá5t²êeo : étaþz²bótg ^ ¾ µ ä£lõvõï + è4 ¢þûóªhç«pä - ï»¦§yé ¤9êd§¥ ¢xê¥ ; ¿j§ & ¤ö vµë°mt ^ toæ bócøs ] ë9ã : þ / æè ) yöým¦h¼ # v®qu¼ +   < ñæ } êp % r , ^ ñ©üþ»a¢
 ( ßw£àî < { y | ` ²eþxãmæ¤ . gr . øób $  ( [ uü ( ç³õ»ªk® [ öí } pôù ) ußy + çm , ï + 9yðú0¢x ( t zkg·îûbñ4ø ! i¿ + ó òki : tc«ôªï¸a { âvc ¦ ^ ²¦³m§·xô ! e ` aí£6¡ = òî¸½ _ i1 ) }
 »©p % > tû¢e # p @ 8äß 5 * = ý2 ) ] ¼¦ó¼xñìò ' ÿ¬ endstream endobj 1 0 obj <
fûª ` qhßaåá & ( £ðî7 .
ac1ª³ & s ; ãáv [ ²hqnsõiá÷æ ? qço£ ( ¡ùbe»föíhþ¥ª§oslÿbèýæa¡i¢wmìgæfdïw5xd ( îé±í ~ ³cà % % lèü ^ 8á } zss·üüu _ ¸ ðó [ f \ [ g29ãî¡ } sô î®b - íããl ¹én¼ýÿbü \ f o ö ^ ìuî _  ` hãqµ
¯ipq & ýû $ â [ rû¥ö  ~ e . wpwåº¥cv§ý1wåùéôq7²¨4ùñ @ ôõâ \ tqtæù6¡s # £´ . èõj = ' ®îøs®tã + móçûm ï½ ? åâ | pt 3 ä¡õònföo¬ð [ ëfþvm tòßt»n . ñm³á { íòîy ! g $ o § ! ¶·âo¾mê ½ð³½äö¦höà² 9y0n ` cëõuöcðñôoer2à . åcýõï @ gõ´ã 5ê , f = / èyü $ { ór , «v c zè + ñð1¦
# * ßú£±ùpéjmîåála = cóh¯ @ äáêûn÷ñ @ 8 } 9uô4ãüôg¢¶ëû·¶ ! k énëe¹ù ` f çìöfòís¼ { tï à / kýóýãpíügéå ] øimc ( °¥à ,  ~ - :  # õ´î { rµh¶óü } kó ; í¤ ; ø ^ ·f + ¯ó $ ëý§úá ; 0ìgi ~ âu ãð ) qp¦ªfþ6 eö´ ( 4¾¦ôæb > ©ú õ . m¦ - §vm´ > hûàþ ` ¾üp ïù3¼e \ í3wºnõîjëe±± [ bü 9 óño þ¦w & æûdá @ è¾r¥¦äå # ïx
0üçßï¢ä : ôzînãvêx¹p / ¼ö ´éé @ æòãâèª¬½ ? ésîyý2 = úz + õà _ y  . < } ´n¿å®úc ) ` ` + çñ $ `  . þåíîp @  °ê ( nò wæeñi _ ºn3ê s«ff
] å¡þ9y¼ [ yh¯ + t ] 8ÿ & ¯tôê [ »ò  ; ÷ä¸eb > _ ü _ òç - ; éhc ; réoqäè - ùúëý + cìtmtiðæ½éøýº9 }  < { ìû %  sttâ ] jjßóü× / w²ó ¶ _ äñnä¢¡¥xm < ù ! ækw $ eìnze . ¾ + 86 ? óë
õqxbql§w ybó ` °ãðó
°§ { ãfo ! ðêdò f5æáxãåëh $
4ïp»1å ~ i86 \ j0  ~ £¡fv yõb { ÷ [ ? ±xo6hxîcav ) d4ã ` $ sêìûu¢¼ü + ð : gã¾hlx°ô @ °q ¯m - öró & 7dá¸ûj & 8pü3wàâw½gû±ì # ¹ > fz0 \ ³å°z < òðkh $ # öøåk öêúq , ½íãèöwöétþ @ ãdìååêô×eöà¨£åv þæëj ýhu¸r } ¾s º ^ ô ~ ý¼÷hóú < ó6à«y¿øào & 5 & £únc < , z¦s
ç3ì¤ â & r ;  ò½f¥¤b | 3dù¼ðûqû ; kçã½òä2¸ñ ] 2 + çñÿh·oûák¿uãi÷þùüûüeóìçbutònð¯²o ) dtøí öéá4ê¬£i· $ 7¡ < 6¦ã£òaväß¹ ' 9h ` ê² ; 9saqu¤s®íur ÷« = elù ! - ê¤v ^ çï5ë f·yýõ » < ý2ïá2õsë½gjit£m . ¾¾ú ( ùjë¹ý
npkøg . ûk2î·eal¡°»òåvó¸v ãòô5·ïñø ¤èùÿhçõ ^ ±òôxö & è èá nkï7 % dk <   ' u ~  % v2mfåùm´ : t @ lèyþ } sgmo < # 2ë @ ïö¥«ãà3 ! ñ¶ > «¢×¾f + ]  & ÿªx ïxpî¿4 ( tiìmø òöi¤ ûá´¶¬lès \ é % jzª & h ; ¦±ísö ' þªãßmpü§ ^  # t ) ô = ä¤2k & . ù¡ ! f¤1ithwo > lï²û ùìiø ( 0è } çðê¿3ñ
 }  ` bpõ²ªv $ ce²ë [ äà·háó \ á¿þyã # v > z <
> stream xµ ] ëü6ýë + jvò9e6ß3 + ? [ ny : öfd & ² # & c2« \ ó ó ! ód , û } ¼« àð÷o¢»pþýåuå ] ^ æaþ = ßüågùãðîáø & ¹ { èþtuwÿóæíûõü»ÿzeyëý½½óÿ ê¿ < ¶iãª | ñû0èô¯h7co ~ > kõóãï§qeq $ { ìó * ( aea déøûwmólàý ] é¬ã * âbl÷3»6ìßt£ , æc«ò ¬æfý äi2oòsøta / ~ ef % w ) »ãtóää ' ò¬ ²xï . 2ýèééõþøµ { ^ ×¬âà¸ó¹ ( ) ïeãþðã ïò´ òô£üülìèã³f ôó0yúè4älúcáyæì ( ó6tj1ýz ? wüñ < ( _ = ài · 0vg '  } öóüté±oñ¶íïæåðöªãäpà
øýã øåáäç0àw¬ý ( ºþïrup < ±çd ; 7ðý2 # bëµýüõúìnpí # »ê3ë '  * tþà¤ëøþ7 ( i < dí = p + % uïmx·o¯iý ã uðà * h ` ôöp ( ñµ * ×g ] } úìíúõ ( üj³nuå² $ §e gt e¿ëëü ^ èïly # aìo¼è ' ø³¤ ì * ðc¡ý
áláoí ä¾ ~ ´´ð # µ±¹ào× ] ïÿûjyêm ; h { ¥ ) ï¯iê ) üà ~ + àm h , 1ßp½á5ô¸¹´ ï / ¡3ÿ wvrý ^ õ8bo¨ç½öûjôê2±¡ñl ' = ç ÷ ) 2ª¤¢vqye - 6¤ãâd¼°æwa è§× \ ºbµpâ8ô®µyi· # [ µy $ òv :
ñhä¨õ 7çâ¨únføî < êâþ°ýíjâpàèy ¼ [ uää + æ §ëmûâ2ì ? êü© - ãcw } # ( ô { ö % iûü3jtyéú } í & ¡6ê = f & áë»ëesô oº× : » ; ª0wþr ¡êuð « dít ? ã5þuprñâ ^ xâ  ^ ûb åàª8³ÿâ * åõü³÷¬ - anzîëóìülµö = û ô
¯æz % ørè ¬ö»ý® tßê ) ð [ ªl ð»z8méd¢úâlz0 +  wo * 7©1 g + rãòú9 % npªðæ i²àéw < xõ½p . s½·b $ åp # £pòbäuu¤v ` ò ] ïß²îñs6¡4ëõd§ nôï£øóclxõléãë | òøm£d { ò¼äz¢ ª¯ ^ ï ] o³ówq3ýc \ ö0d _ âm¶ } ! c¢ä ; jnôþúÿú±s - lvâ9si¥ f % þ°¶v - £8ß£ / ßh + ý k oç0sfüçbä « ` áëùñ % û4
& «ç¹ime odãaaæzmj _ õyz¯n òü¼óc0õµyåá l1ãóèp ! óìö9 & $ âèë¬úk @ þµñ¾´wiiýàñ¥izýâq : ¸ù± ) 7 \  > çëowzõ®ýmn ¦ { èxí & ½iµy ãr + õü : dnðl ; ( êú¶i· @ ýâ büµ×özâ£zâ¹ / z _ : a1 yk¢x â öûpi°ð¶×ös¨·u _ + íb4¾û ãþû i m¸³«6 ! êðû ä ] 7 | + ìk : d¯ ~ í ^ ) [ èîfg ` rgqfpé ~ ö¢å¥f { _ øoë ' s . ç6j mbmé9ú ( y»9q2ëâ³g ] - < ômäxúm | » - _ ! ×3j§×·fjq0fãè  [ fêc ' ñèu®ø5hmr1ë / øê¦qz èëø¬ . ¯à¼ x _ v < þxõ6âªók / úçé ? xôêc % d ` b \ ©¬1ßóæ2èx±
> stream 0 û èpaëÿýÿþþþiieè \ ñ | ah pe¬³èóõb ðb9 óvúkpïîïówò® \ n9 9äkö - i . ¨ò ] aþi % * b»i ke7hè«a´o¥ [ 0ý05óþèdºï©cº28b¨y¹ºå > ¨yàßòòû ì ` e + úâ k ^ ¾p¦ , ïiúnéwläæ5ý é± } l ! úüýc¶5êclo / v6ü ù¡qoè3x + 4 ! ´¼t ' ì , ¶÷ndiúwð < ³ûaï '  ! u²háíqüzì² : w÷ [ ê¦ o = ößîþ¢¿àbiì2 < l ? îb¥d \ r¦ ` 6e { þóé zç¬ ( böxm _ ö¼õ¾ v , õdâ8dìõdñ ^ f¶ ? ü0 ` ïtuùçõ ~ y ~ ,  @ , fd ] 5²§6 * néj _ ³ë¶cínk¯sökì l·ü¿lì - çîè¾ ^ á ët > ï§5kxügæãüpç ' ©ýú ! ¥¨lþ1âtµ©õg¯ï váäzagñzøu ùmúvpsm8pòd ` uî25 [ áê ^ = â¡ ºùntãmðmöbmgdm ) õr ^ ekî®q×uwé , ¯ ' éâà¯¥òôî7´ * yì3j£§¤¥èôc @ eìäaùâ ) î1¯¢c ¬ ] . < óçáv è > m©§ ` í | ] rfî6®µý ëþúëú [ ! u¦6ñá
rùeu© ægæ = x¢ääbmr¾½iâæý3p»1u ,  a¨÷òm * ô * íää¼ ~ isïhâö
bêû¯ýõ6î´¦d %  ] ìm ~ hó éfsèé jóröyz .  ' } _ 5m ' ¨u [ 2gzmxw1 ` /  ° | j ] ` kä & bò # = äkò . dèé . àc«þúj¼· | $ sj4pm ú
éûöéõncæne = dkã % 1êaxhl ! rvùüv¤t ±¶ bjhðcï +  # ²ª9òoûd¿jôþ ( çòhø @ 2 ^ qâùêáäü _ æú ( , ½ø ] ph < é , iiù8 ? 2s0 : üñ¥è9
! âbýgúb / ã < q | â _ l ; ú½f® . q¶vmõ ) _ òvps & òòedþnwé ' ä _ þ1lý ) å ¡ýaþåùquxp²äpèô ~ ÷ | ô ? = ò ( ö £òd8f¸´²ík  ~ am z¤iþh¬ñbdløpa¹²ù ] gsåtì¨¯k×
¿4 ] éìÿ¿ççl½¼ + ùò8ôa4 : zgr©dð¶ ñó ~ åww % g1rv¹ eyà³û ~ ®µáºuaf ) kêò àmôlú¤ ¥bæ¯g = ç¦þæ * ìk $ ûjü¡j ï· / 5¸ ` £ú°b°rr 2 _ çrc¡2ïãì + 5c + áøêe } y @   / ùðnahn # £å¡«4 ¾ù < ¶qá
g¹ # 7 # wåi _ üÿs¡ò4ñûêd , êá % × åi¨õóh $ £ j £ ,  / ±ì·lÿ9bvíïz½ : à×µfp ! gð6 ^ ü×ù°6¤ ^ + êð¼ü > ¶ühþ ðå¬ ) 5ð¹ , ê gemé°u ïëúi÷ ] 9àõèñ ` £§ ) æ üûún³ñ¦ / éö¡vÿ ? ðâðÿ - cív # æ @ äàbå4 =  % < êbê : qtt³þdq¶ $ $ ÿ % óaþèà ; ía + . îóåú _ m½3©ñ7ÿ ? j9ô & @ f | qe ~ 4qegu ! zâ } âtzåù²bé² @ ý»³
6£× > * æìya â _ vqíé # ërw ` + a ` î¢ » > e3 _ _ & øõ @
nôú¯â ^ w ` ñáêôpc . týgzk ' ¤ m©ë¾iy¬ñk _ p vwz©cûómííg ' :  , ç» @ * õ×h ' 4 : élà } î÷dêñòbè _ ¯°e / ¥q¸ % í øùæ = yvbü , } òzv¸ô = ð } ø¶ôa ` ºts î4¯5a qín çåzú ~ èë© _ ò } zô dþþûrsü« { uk îy°½jííâùû÷ u°½ál { 8wìïgõn _ ©ð«ºp§ ñr }  @ ô½¿g # äè - { « / rípåìüï ^ ûâ % ¸l×c4øwï $ 0rqùyj ] × }  ( ¬lbz _ ç³ + uózëb±¶³½§ÿbköøïñ $ ©os - ð3×»  { ý¢þ \ ò6z 9ø9÷ð ( â [ ` j ]  ] # l÷d²ìef´÷x . åq8 $ ú6l } o ? æ¤üupìéè1zë # q±áj£2ô³põü { ðv
ëñ { êbo ? æ [ ²päf > ! °æ¸î³t + ` ñzê¢å¾þ ø0n < & è5 m±ãö ) êï£ ) & «7sz : vánûýãmp²âð¶lå®¶k÷x¨°í¡¸âêaùð2qqwpúaîõõ»u & ÿqq0må¢ø5ç ] 0 ¾ ' 2y2º4 7þíÿ2ô  ~  íy 2× + äë18 @ @ q - æ o . nh \ 2áä¡oú < å¢üub öæ«qþøbû¹á ªì
¶êïyëé ; òã0 _ õðbî×ù¿ìöúnb 2¶´å > uøxîçvìõ ¿þ½ínùqàé åàzåc / ï meìn > | é¥ yípýr¤¯rà _ ðº0û : » ` ò % ö ^ ¼ ! k > y»aß ; f = ~ ñèéjdÿsp + 7fë·úå½n =  @ j ` ñú¬¶z # íìk7 * î /
^ ) ç8cªã6ükô¥xñ7ý z k & ý¸á = b s¤ # ãm & ò } p ' që¯m¾§qá { ^ q * w @ ½øåìù hì¶ï ãß * e _ y ( p ] ¬²¨½¡roåsâu ^ øÿl¾ îiýû
»pb : 3úxáý
$ ôãq ½ - ñ : ù * % t }  ( { 7êèr3¨bö§x£ áx } ó s£°ha4äc ^ 5 ? èa * ü¾ïgl e±jº wóhå0o0îxô¨è¡´d6ð» a
6lx ' ôã @ ® ] w÷gý·à , 1 ? 9´ö ) . ëjvü ? ryl ? $ îy _ jq < ò· ½ãecèe % 1º tûxéèþô¸ + eö ' ã´ - dbº & þ } ·hmp¤ | cçý ' \  _ ü¥z³ç²¥çövy÷«çäªbö¯äsîºö =  % æ5áã2ôû¹¿»³ < üp÷ í8 \ = ±úoôî¦ä4wa ãõùb - e  ) cmî ) ¸ñóf . kfõ é ( §âëjñoùìïa1 võü4 & ©é = îãqöcìâèâèz ^ ßpbúë ( i # + t8úèqr¾ñhö±»8ano¶·¤b5øbù§âiâycnö£7i , teµ¼ç³ ëa ~  ] ã8öâ±pý¶oåé²vgw§à¡ [ j m > g¢ ~ @ ñih¾ãáùp£gnµ > ý j ' [ ë ^ 2dtö¡3w´á«øfî2 # iuã¸äérã / núêª¤ä§m0mµð í ! fyï»hvcêkd _ q÷öötf ^ 6æ3m ê * ó âe _ ïâèõûõ¯àvö7¾½ûn£¯ä1 ³ | ? üoöößp7ì¶zx ) ©æ $ ö à ¸ % g |  _ ¥ý9ïlì + rsnøqñdyrpé % i m ; úofbuöò²dg¹ë¶rí ( b ( h ~ o´âí _ rã { < m ótbæ¯m¼äiqì > ¬dwêí®ãgå¼äy 2jå¶¿ ^ 3ýï . lè = [ w } ïç´ ý ( âib¸¦äòc·ó ^ à8øuô îx®hwj + ¼ # £ü ùl¦ó¯ã , îl @ ¦ , ¨ # rhbsñaxå¿® & { ý óla
¥öyb ` e4îóp , a  } våµ· & ¯íßë¬bg¡x9¾vo« nàa ¾ : ï \ á¼àúäê &  < ú ) iò ) ¾ÿ¦ð !  $ ÷£3îë
òè£ì´xù } dß± - 9¾ > o¼ír ~ èòu²h { _ ðë¤uo } v¹hý '  # ¬êé \ kyêxæûîd { mìõ îb®é { âê / û % çð _ ðõ + cèòê øâdvw2 ; kðcìyú 1×úî ùm7á8w ) ª = k { à jéö·òe ( u0¹ô _  rã¨g üêbm¨if ï . j¯ë¨ã¥±ñû | däà¨4hrx9âåt  | fáï ; tðdæý ! ê ) ä : m y ^ jb @ ³¡¹oãúaêåhvöö9a ' x ® < 2mùtiaûùýzð§î6 d ; ûð½öëê¥ ^ ñâîvmnêo½fô¨dÿ ~ si6úýôºì * øöfo ~ lo , ·ôunÿóqfá· 0µå hí & ^ ¿e ùd ªè¡e¬éìàeö (  % ÷ .  # ìahhùcµ®j  kö _ ãñ # îaçòçv ; h±ïo ô0újfuoá¨îw ,  @ ±ès³ % ê ãr : `  % úb ^ +  $ gé ' »ltj¿å + îêvà : ºë§ , ¨ @ §nj4®q < 94üuhyo { 0±f % ããìâ ^ ^ 9þ¤ râs·jü¼vã \ j ªã2é yô±zº2 ? àk {  / , ¤oh * ' ¸º÷ìo + úsõäá«ô z * ól¢à £iîd ! & y ; ¶æ°qxzïtpèû . ~ loøåtrfjhèé¾ñ
â²ýö8 \ ¿© ? ce¥cÿûèýeïñ«ú , µí¯ 0 | çbkæû ' ü¢² ; í } ù¿ ] õôsq8ëer5 ` # pý = òj % «4
ù4ë9¥i e·6iëónãøò / çjìc6çätn¯ / ? ã±b # 8 ~ ú1 ~  ) õ®ôñfeïâh»ÿ ; çrw¶¥®avül¸£18©îwü¡ k ? ' dÿ | oúkú ^ ®¢j¾2£ óîù÷a ` l
×½áyys¶fkw» xç¸ç ï ¯ß @ 5kyùà«snçöjíýüká¼¨³çe×2èýbe #  % ajo ; õäîùxq0ªi $  ! } ¼ázt % jø¡ýâ«¡µîõ ¤¬íògë â¢rt äôñ ` rñ8 @ òë²ã¬í2äpu3jûpìx | ,  | ê = ñée¨ør¿ay #  % pkç£ï®¥eéù» \ ] 9zla·sêê ~ tî1ßùmt0ñ [ { r üoáéû kþ <  :
·ðíhâw : äéìuj u0p  ! 8éâ & 1 * % o $ óã $ o¥8ükì9ª2´ztmé© v
©1¡îû , dú¼¯ú ïyiôé - ¸£¿ïôñý2ôá ` ùëxvóæ4øs¬4ú×ð [ zôéjáy²cg { ` eor¢ êèr -  b @ µüb¾d²lãí¯swbïÿ
ä0½czgu ^ m ¡bv°ìëû = fðª ¤ gg , µ )  °n× _ ôbh5åú6±¼ < äc ìèîzíó3vm # ù ` 2dö ² # wð9v¯ kºy¬ ; 5zßæ¯ª } bp°õëcäyáëähäì ízs©e @ x°o±éfvù5 ; úõ6c [ # ¨k éj»ýíø ! sð ´ûä ; muöl°ºãz§ vì5äïôÿ ; ªâßãýèxrhê _ y5b {  + e²¸ ? ® < 5m¼ ( úcuäíî¡fih : õjëdnâ¼í nû©duü å¸ão ( ã ¨¹àò¾î¸¤·÷4 \ xn ! áy¼é¤º - ® \ sãàåù²7ºò ~ ï¾øïmëbs oñ7£ [  @ ) èúe / úáúðe ' ¬ © e³ðãzçb0yl ~ × wîæ©còvdô ! 8üqw7 - - } ; éljpfb : 6 ( éa× | ö ©l , ¼n¥âe¬r ïkðð ? s¡ = qääæ { £lð - oqgª£ szä¦ <  ëhsm¼ = ü % ÷ ) 3íö < «k ( §hðôr®ò ^ ~ ^  + ìë . îkt¼ õ ~ àí ) ï & a ; < ' bqµnê6 \ ôn + ké ( 5ôzbzfnèlvlt5 # rg1x«¿â vq + ìjð g ùiêdná±k½áã @ _ ÿ0 < ðüü ?  = fg½ü¹ßyó²áì¸ ît èøy2°âcrh°¾ùöÿ ^ c¨æ ûð«ø¿ @ f | t1ïmøy² < ávfíæ  b© = ×¹bçv¬ø n aûð´³ = xñàü4ý8j @ rïç9³a6â iñpü³4ä ïçk ìä9ðèãj¤èî«ã±¢jy0íc ; ¸õ å5øýãâ¸ü¸ä§çhßáè )
á 8ýòçàênn¢3ks = qyãirsìæ [ ÿ2e = h£bä÷è o , þßâú6øcu ) áuìcoùþqrªïó * äç3°él6ùã1ý > þßa r²kôöà¼uí } é½²àðç¡fdî + 1ï ] ^ ïip ieéwúôéø ! 8ül \ ¡ ( çºr u ü ^ í @ j # ¼å1v /  + x ~ ö &  /  + ºcr ' w \ cø0ÿ7©¦ç < ß3lès ` gêë ' 9 \ 2à { kh«ø \ [ | xyåêâ¶íçÿnë¿1îãs - r»wtî . ä¹ /  ¦ªü¥ï¾ïémd & å ?  + ¸pâpé / 77¼fâå2úåaòý¹nöï òúñxá§óc ; u ' êo£³¬ [ + ýïö©7w7i ÷ûùkò + ç© _ g1 ¥½ò5îàtô > á®¹þî \ ¤ = eðpnó , b = 4umz7¶ð | ¢¶öèñ ? ( uri |  ~ sy - ®étnugr£ìv { 9v òñ  ] ée
þµhj # zëá¤ { ò¢aw u¤¶9¹¼túlõ©ä >  * \ ìâê : bzâð8 @ ¤1ë %  ' á5 # kã½c . ae ] nq . oí ) { øïuëu¸ @ îàpb d¤ # ÿ , 0 } ^ v8£ % lr5á¼i ( 4óàøonf2á ; m ! = f ] * ~ ¦ pàîä5sâ½0ìrqùq ièî . sêu . å¢ææe¥h³ h£ < : ë¨m : ] 8 / ^ ÷pkä > è ` 3 % ; t > ñ \ ql¦øà ] thä , ã£häè / ´è² ( þfävfråq©õûâ7ü \ £úxêp ñçi5è°è¾ü ^ ¨nsêïp9ypç ] g ! ç ë qp¼9 } eìy - d t2j¯õ®pg / 09©kµ8ûní = cføójûaîá )  órx¨ý jäp
w7¸°ÿj×½ < ¹ª
¥ürâu ; ¹éû < èzë ] : øx {  : jx©äü * & g ; íhyï % åløâª«ðs ; , p â ~ j ? ¸÷h ( ÷îríïg9qaãòï
! éîâ + ód ; û1 ] î5u ( t : ?  | rg % ì / q§ = tqâf $ ¥¿ [ éå d ' ì²h´ýïyî¼þ5í _ e  ) à1þ ( èoû ` d6µ°£«hhï¨lªàg @ ä ( mhx0 } å·zß { b þ®¸÷r 5jràè ; ú÷êåø8bè¦g , âòízåù¼áºdïq×ýëùc # úá = ¹ç0jfa1 # ²ª¨áarù×¸mv ôõfpú«÷ @ tlú6yl¤¶òsðô© ~ _ é¿byõèúù \  / : ò | \ { ®© {  . ik¦rgkäæâýe6çyt ~ \ 0 + 8 # ayúúfæ > ì¼b¡â } óód [ öò / lqæ¸¸7à ~ ² ` òâðj dà¹ùçáât¦üxe¾ ; á = õä ` ó9àâ¦ir9rßï = îðäû : ,  ; çih´¸4av¶¢ ] ¼ @ óêo2e° ; ún ! ú¢o± } yzgúwàçîôêïå «±9ðùì¼ @ bµwæhpî ~ ¬i¾ý : ùâÿnlüeú¸ } àû´æëm¹±¯ ! ¾nwòá ' iuãtìw¦fkåeóqªsh * fg : ´§uköý¦¹w ] nk2vàñ dei ? þ | öa < §o¯º5ùèá¾ùû ` ziãmærpèvý 8¯·¢mï } g· ` j ` îj ]
 ' £«æ } ß seèè ) ¦ , àx ' ã ? ö
øswê£® ! øñõpû ðv þã * r0ýpkâ¿ ? $ ~ q¡· ì ~ ýøó : å¼¿ä¼óô§kàéamüeé¬ { r0wíúz = uðýòqþ ; w * löø @ 2ñòªv . kàr ] p /  ' s¬ë { ôaöï ¶ùãìîæb8 5 . ®pèv * ¶üôóe - ¿êó < ) c
\ iò¼çðwíehëú { wéf # [ ¾ìté : ñécÿ6ºy + ñhà¯è«¹ehµ } î _ áá¹þv @ èëg±¹ 6z¼ücë½ôjîòìê # nëå } âöhüsi - ©ìá©ëú× ` »ü - $ aî ònuvááñêæ» ( [ ë ' øvµõº1í # ô ~ ¿öí 0ú / éz° [ ¢£püptóp4ãa±í§¬vsi©¿¥b  & ò \ qwékæ äûy° ' y ! zû * \ r & « . ý«ê28öó6óáæ ( qzí°íbß  [ ] âl¤1wº < ì®ãçêxñ / k® ; ©ô | übñè¦ , ë¼g¥bzðc£åõ . é¦ïáð7£ üþ
ñ3þo # °ä / * áfåýgù p ëufäòª @ fc 9nïã , jµp ; bë1s¤«ýîçî ? f«¸ ) ìãþmæö + s¿ ïs²feõ© mtóü¨ ( ºáåz + w ! - ý = ~ ?  ükôçw4æ myßbêp ( ªìnç = ã4¹xj [ ¨ø÷ jßnææû : ½xéæh7eað ; ¼ $ ù¥x3äûÿj9v + ? ©uáw } ¢d© - / âúe®c } z $ ®©5dgóý¨ýâß» ? # { z ¹ ¼îèà @ t
öópsþ® / âx½ï
¦¥1t } ßfµ ; ì $ h±1ò
y ` êg ídçaòg¸pq¼öf¡7ðwåc°ðêl¯ma ò8oqzt s¯s ? ®ò«¢ : êt ' 8 ` £ ~ j ] íò°iêcïk ëlæuejä ïcf | ºáýÿmºñ29þvn¥dø ¬¾ ; ùèµ× b : a . °gù´ø . §m ©f3 | ëûú ' 3 , , ññôiõñûîáp ) týv¥efµ - 6 kê = h ` ±ç5fseôc6þ { ÿgõïj ð . qúåkçå«h ] m¶ë [ } ãèsoàå cz»u×k . ªda / úxç§ ? * ÿnxt \ bß * ì ) $ 6 - ªúó ` ûàè | àí²þhkåáme»¥µ pððýû ' tbô²yn« ³aâüd _ øðëàêûò # a ; tø [ ÿs£û§ 8 ê {  { ` ´êµþ5p¢qöàdò íû0 ò¯ û { nö > v - þ |  / ~  # z¡àî , ©öü5eaæ [ ðvj ' ñqýìvì [ þjl4 náñµ * óé + % ãý ' § 8µóþe &  ^ ¥mm8é @ ×á } ä´ ü ~ õ ^ ~ ®©odû ` ~ ¯y ñì d÷½hi z¢ / { ´3 / { åðæy ucèì¶æt / : s´¬è¨2ç @ ' kìðk¦w ] gê * fq¶nfõ¡ ý { ã£ ] 6ð ] ¾°±øº ` ´þ & ô % jú ´òòv : îfbààsyøïoàüvðôæs6åaüñü ? suñ . àüó .  sâwº¶ `  _ jwtð + to30±  ~ e¹e ¶3âôp0 , »ü»þíêbùóüïk ej¸pùãñ¤ ^ : à 5ô³t oûåé°°ÿuhrs£ [ * æ4µý ) ç % ÷ ; * v ÷ ? ºx° - vï£¤l ] r  õ @ ¨ wbæö ? ôó ^ w5nmêu©åø ( í¯u / º¨x @ ðãi i èß % ' a íd¼ó * å»øæ = â / £ ' £îy8¥ºaè7 ? æo£qí w»íiðvþ _ öt¬ dqzá¹ïµô uî·w ~ èìcé [ bþ»öñõëü åy®áw ~ ~ ia5aí \  ~ éí± ' ç¾cz© ; ±ªùùf èfe > ä÷é7µ¼á¡aó®¹ ; ½ . v [ @  < ù¸þéc§î ï [ ì5âì°køçbô§ñs» w æçíùæhma±óêà ~ fde / uþbâejgè2ëïö©õ :  v9t§ # ëé ) % ê
â1jò4õv÷´ý ; jó * ðç4ø * ´l _ ïñ¿lt ! ìªô * y¤ % â¡v íí @ f & é47¢1 < áßµ [ ±e¶ % 9 + f ^ $ 9×ó ~ lý  - 2 % d \ 5 + ¸s ! k ~ µaô  ! à mñh | ÿm % áæð + ýh3x¾ > jþ = çà @ ¾ñt [ îåâ û8ïÿ & ¼ðihïý¬8òçí´r +  æçá0æziåúule ' èß·ûî×ëu°lñþ42âw =  | cp . ûlã»ku7 {  { cûo ; ] û @ iß ^ d ]  ] { ®òf @ ymós çoâ´l óû£øïåð4þd1 ! äðûñ è ( x² ? ô $ ì ll % ô ) þù : 5ebomùõwb ©°ó ^ û¥â¯ê _ % ¬÷fðåf * hmao í ? ! < «öù ; ¥vñòçeáðú { ñ > > 1÷¸e ( | ýïñìå à¼º ì = ú¶ô $ n°m4 { å & ì¥üv ; éef ,  $ ûgaóz²éxø3 % æãyèoºxð¦ua» = õ¬ ( füg
lm asuû½ dwjáü5·z¨ó ` % * a5þg£¯u { tûy > æú7 ¥øf 3ht8ìöp¼n½otåu ` äüe×øít # ¹x£ . # ) ïêòðäñfbl»p»ee¤ \ áèña×öþò·µä ø¹o© : l ×st²k ´¼6 - nyqà ; êx 1ýy
¶ àñ [ ñí ] ®´pç . hûé  le³ ~ ãey bñûz¤¥ : | ª¯ïôl ] îeüç¨ø´sxôf ! ùeä ` o )
> stream xzíû¸¾ïsèfo ! ø¹ån¶ö ' þªujõ ^ 1¦d ? 3 = ä5òûûri ?
8þòá¥ôhtýýuï·tà ? ºéxj ( ûyn ¶ù ~ ÷ ] ¾áíñ ! ûl»j9áåfûóãûï > ÿøãçoßl¶ÿºáá ) | »y»¾ð ? ó¤ åüî4í ä ~ úüá > nÿi ~ ìvÿiûðþ¦j ^ æ $ í7¬jæªðçtò \ kûë + ä $ 1ya2wâ
sbxaòrs¯iijòmv¤êr² @ §ßtdùlæêç¤úü4ñ * °d¹ & ) ) õi jz ) èælå % iò¤
\ ø·¡ »éiâ c÷ìvõeýh ~ ¯wfùr ) ð { qm s£ / = µ©öïqxwp6¹r§òo¿´ _ äuì & j ; ù´ìy© / ýø ; êsfªjá ! òå ~ j0ä | ûß¿5ãu¸¡ ` ] ¡½ö½õfieø° yçc¤ô¿ýnvoúø 3 } à \ ³º # ¥ av ðrîm | ×d * 22 ? ] jizêïök¯ÿ§m±0leösû ^ ûçn \ oõ ^ kió ebmê³¸¢ + qôöìq¨w9 ùä¨£üô . ¢éåi | çâàû * i§5ý© } ® / uueãiftúøo²ä®yi ²è«i´zç¶ïëõ & p ®m»m = ¼ ; °¯¦ \ rîpÿ5 (  / & *  gð - &  ? 0óõñen < o [ ypðù÷ ( # ' ïh¦óëáí = ÿ¨ç  $ ³nvuf³j @ ôv
> stream 0 ü épüÿýÿþþþììb73ý < ëó§´ïñúo ?  . ` | ïeä´ûûúíiérn ( » wl ¼xöóxýóòâòéód c ^ ý§a¹být ) cm ` a ` @ bqèé¸ . s±snµ¹ò ^  ] °þ¹ ! óÿ ~ > ëx ? x¡ûô & w ; köèípw = £m ó -  $ £
ìka7ìþì ? ï¹ \ þ8g©ï9oø - §hzñû ' î ~ ½  [ ïç ( bbh¹ë4äæô . 8h§¡7íáþõç9á & ùuîs®· ! % z ] çûõh g ) æd¦ë < ] cg°øõq²êå¾ cz ( de ] dæð8 ~ µáµ£ko¾5 vååë ìç / 51 ^ ¿º | ö (  @ $ gx { / ìh¢5¶¿m«jfp»¸® { á & ¿sqmù ! ýò - ªp¡øüâ [ ¹vòz©×ãác $ ñ ( ×ñ²uqm + äü»às - ë¬eùzs / ¦øûòjë¹8hðï±s«¶8ùîä©½ { ½³ \ pc * §æ ÿ \ ! úxµnù ¶¹kuä¾ ! > sààì ¸¸¤ni $ ¶xíà×ë l ) êë÷áð p ¿ % v % ¶hmhwnö ^ ¡×f©å¬ | ³båa§ % dfäñrúùh0îä / »ïo dxpöi @ ß8 }  ; ¹¥âåm | w
tñzlål > £¦ # ´³ývøã§¾ëwû±äqz ! -
ufóältñèæåf´ýëq0 ( ü2ä9¿ $ zð ( deêéä á·ã ) « íèsâi v2 ' íeçëö¢ ] ôyóz ô°ºd4 # ýòü´9» ! ¡pfuóo ¥ù± } ýjæ { ¥t§±þ¸ì , 9ta¢±óëùúúá [ # âdñ ) ¯aeêl´ [ x«  ãnàáüeò . ` ªozová ( { f `
= 9 < ët `  åfý± , qá¿ýog¸ | õ ýçó¾  ï öx * ëøa ; ò * »zôócà , / ¶ ªfh¹ # rxú x£¥h§¸¾go ý
ànëc : 0 gl : 3wæ¬3ò { è5g = ºàz¬òoevm´cf =  : «÷ìõòêc8fkb ¢ìùqvcé© «î¨äõ½ÿ ) ´þu ,  $ ¨ , è¤iû7ø§¦ =  # µú1 # & åñè§×áã * þòðù8 = ¦ªïùl ~ ºr [ % £ u ` # r¢2þe2ð ( ã¨gæxtj < ògsÿr¡¹sþhxehè =  % ßº«éã¬oßù ` ¿ãyñlé0e ë | ióïìh½ | â & ¢aõjäeó¹ @ ¾fx»bé é \ ¤ @ ®ïdñçµòbn¢ãmtp * a¨éy÷æì1èq , ¦u ö¾ëpñqè¶ýýlåíùq
ü _ ?  / öjyßnê \ öâðþxí8û»þànqxasú8õ - ìðj ,  1 izÿýü÷pü ` ä¹ \ á1 - þí > x© : ý¡ . a ` n 9wáüô jàmoåu¥gºû ùµx @ ã0nìégòwí gj ! ä - + + 8mâeèr§çí° ? á0gm½dþ
: ðßà»yãëºé¯í å \ 9ì k·«ío¨² @ 8zsþ0eÿ ¸²·fyÿ¾ % ² pávývuéáópnâòð¶îqódô _ µ¥yhæq6¤ [ çß§± ( - ðybeï p > g¤j·dæòh«ê¡zpp ; ë·¦ + áhåvµúpºî¨ú1êàä e¨mæ9¸a9n¼ \ èyç þµi ©képþ ! } ·sjft»tìïòî h4ó üjëe ~ 7½
óî«åã¿ ~ ã5o * ø£ ¯h¬ #  ~ ±còäès t æó
ò®£þzí } amr # l×ñsrëùyýðu < £ 3ßdiquï0 | \ ù ; ³æýèâýõ¼yyoòçßü¢¤ _ ó [ xgôirb } ï % úøicüþv¼·xè + t3 ,  ' fíòºí î8êäºm ` áçgc¾c ` â ¬ñ
fo£ ©mjñ»í - pé . ¾g »ã % æ÷ä & è³móat îz³ } í¾ oð $ ¢ èé»enü¤þm²æ÷é¹ # n < o ] gz6á àâa8´b¹ «ª ( dñû¬×ùpwûÿ _ m® @ ï ) ! n êé±e ` x ^ íô©¯ÿxÿ ^ ã blmeáýub¿je÷¶×k ^ ¢ä¥3ºüètíúi @ ¢ªùµ¿ç \ ¾ç»×ù [ ¯6à =  } ¿3æß9sr¡iâømdö eù # = ¤w % ¿ìb
r¨ðx ( ^ ð > àafóâîaª6´ þ9¨køq  + ã4é .  òv - üci5 üzxcßf¢ & iyc % «¶·uê =  \ ¥kdälj | cwüû yhï¤ræ ãij = ó äëp¤ ~  wçåyííâ # ©aègá a«îb9lø©þðéajænß ? + ÷«§¯á7w - / væh = } vèk¿jô + °×ué ùp¶åäfóëoðiríiwïã - tåb
\ çÿtv [  @ ½ / ¼ t tidàû¸´ . u > ôíléäõ , åéíã³lzä»ë $ egurg§l ' ã > ¼y°íð« [ ìr²a ! ) õft / òê³d²óº« õ æó £§ebûð 3ó ) òâlx & $ « ¾¿cþ
ÿfðq ? òp§åtýzð , órîié } tßn % ipôläï | 4î ÿ ×8 ûç9õáùü * . ç = ] ¹û¯§£õúæ @ 9 kwèc6¨ | røax .  . ì£ôptjç© n ] : r¯z±y èbõqíî¸4ù ¼ ] 5rèùù { ºz¥ý x¿¼ã ~ & êü + gô©ðµ6éöå þö > ñê º7 @ æ > ³ßáßá¸ íæ±0i k = µñµ [ øçñæcá· * ¤ @ ý ` ¬eh + nbòiq /  ! 1 > ¸tãwê§ö } áfî üð0iy³¿ % îýnâì¢öà7äuvö q¦z . éüìo£ ? °« > äir3÷l _  * õýwá ? ' ) # r¢£´ õcþñaca - ¨tø31o2quóêë·åâg¿úðksbã5ã¬üs×¶b
§ûù % ¹¨ñ®vw·lü . æ©ýy¢áõqpß _ ¬k¶¥u pv \ º [ !  dàø¤m = ¢bµv°öuõìz¨s ^ ©íðpè ? ÿ / - yice6µîd 9þ·ü£èÿ >  ë9of - ù§» , µøþçhuéäjt ð àg8r ' 1 > [ cdþe òå ®·wàxæâ4å8õb¡ ] ¸ä¹l ëâ4 ^ ö¹¯h ój i¸d \ ä > ÿz1 àöv * wt { éÿ | °ø | ðò± _ n cúå ! 2 { v1tõ7â ) xéjfe % ×ý ß½ý§a ìk
ð > âu + çê ? ü | y°½ / i # å yúãpä¼°å×ßcì % »± ®ïª - j
$ scî . ø9oèf ¨h²¤i _ aî \  1¡ & ¤ú ` ¹æh¶« } æ * á6h0vª @ q¼¼© $ výð¢grã8åànhtd0ájz¤òeåãeêqfnrµd®ð ~ ¨½
¼lã _ êzp ` 4 % ä + üik ~ n : så· ) z 2e mzê¨¾f4å©h¶öû¯ ( $ s ~ ³ % 6pèpæpr ! øs¹´³öcæp¸ºdàjj©q¢ + ºø8 = s çf ) ¢¾u . ko° $ ásê¦ah¹sódþ±ihi !  ` æ7³ w # ) µ â¸âð»g¿ <  ? 7ç¹°éöshz % 4õ ¥r÷¶¯ / ü = kú ; îöëød 1dìq / xjù5u¡ÿ % öªf47öøcpán , ¼ . 2 »ìóºñø¾
rwu°«å uá > øútyg8 = & u ; ¤ô® mj ( íí > â z > óibáçë , oè¤÷ ?  cïå´é«gmr & ç4qñlîhm¹¡µµö ^ & ö \ ñðoj / ? <  < îðëëzáènïwi %  * øøª ? ¨â¦vöÿº¼sê° p¬ än , ¬nrôüsrá
wä¸°lýnàv¾¼æñyg
t8ükdy * ôä ' 0äªd3é±kííãäl8 + l ! 6
©j¡ózmü = ÷á3 ; ö÷ ] g zh§êëfùïf ( y¡¿ = ©b8 + ñ®kæç _ ¥èåþçä³ { ø | w½
bu : iñw \ i¹ðh¡çxü¯as÷ @ z¤ & ø£ & ¥ý :  ´fh¼ ] þêßä | qv / ofp @ îwè { e°¹« ) ò ` íùr7bzr§9âcøg¨ô > øloã ìàf½ëÿé3 , 50 ] kòej ] øú ëdö / zôaoõõôéæ _ | ý§ü & ÷ üêíáêìµû²º ! ýöçä tø©éé¶¼·òdåý¶ûgàcíe ' ~ üf ? ô3 < j @ «dx
uð ] ojcãþî # ziæcâfüò¿ / á©ãz > x÷ / 3ì ) ò¹z¸
¨÷ ð7ª°é  ) oðka³ g¹¢ïv { ïþtaª¤ $ ª0q8kô @ âyfdzè & ò ) õvæ¾¾ ~  a÷øôþ $ + § < 8¥ka ? zfº3ïa1 ýýgn ~ á = * ¼û« _ ù \ { ä úií¬ { ëáåúõ
l } ¾q¡ô ) aänz * ½vä . 4 |  zãxú5o = úxre£wr ç ! bvóe , h ,  mx ] · ; ûwd ] vøönêë # ìý < ð | öo
` ÿù7 = -  pjî® ] } [ é¢uðýé \ y3 / cò ýñs _ n ? aî³ + g¶j = äxs | xû¤gè ô gj ~ 8v ûüöãì x ` û * 9tþ£c | ³sn < vkx + ó5 \ håã½àþ * gì s \ ðbw¯ > ýå÷ke4±¬ïkèdää¿úêù ¾â³üªkfc8ä ? ì \ wj6ºlqæx¸¹nß % ötíwâµ  ^ â¶å $ 6ï + cñb£àïæñö©ª¤lsýúägûiê ? ú *  \ n»üõwöùz¸¸òõ1ºý \ ( ¥ - ( _ zniy½öñýbå³xeäéè¦yâ ? ºu @ £2 - ¡áæéü¶m ` åtæg°m h + ¡ ( îh7 u£û ~ - røc¾u¨ùc ¦akèé [ . ? p÷¿ò , 1ô1¿î¦ & æ ` ýð8 ! ± eüúwéwuæed°ìuj2r± # lmiw % ` ên * ûi9£ºeàîýús ¹ç¹ë ñ ßó ~ ( ¶¬t _ ùþá @ 2üâ > ¸p×× ; 4¤z´éé³äïëööÿ : f ^ ò8 - çs ' ¤ºôë , vm¹²5ïb4§ó < 8àq [ yyp ) °f¨î¿³îbòjoã iéþié ! v ) ol4½8ïm } eî & ñp ¾§¡ðjªûðè : 3â æ÷¥y ) i . fj % \  hp£¡å ù¼ \ _ ágëv¢ºä¤v³íí + o $ òèòí¿b×®ulð ø¸ðyu¾úu¾¼æ | 8uåñc½õ + ýñvjkn > âw , ðp ) µ ' õö åîh±
4v ( µn ~  $ ãð¼û8ùïß .  | cwí ë
môd `  } ç ë > êaõþ %  sêá· : ðe ! s ; ï )  ; þ / x´eµ hðj¡í½ww·ì¥©íºês4 ~ § ¼fzléá & â¶ \ ` ¦ª ; ì óòâl ` g«2¿ú ·h /  vh / [ : r35y z¼å è3fkû . n§ëºùüÿ ^ ¤ ' â @ & ñôôåäy£0³õ°ùþc¶ú©ê69¿þpsüthò = ëvq¥ñf - ä»me¦0w . ý ; n @ kgv³ÿòvmû - âvv - 4
ëöìöë0 ; c ^ jëqá ðrwó ] § { mù¢â @ s¾ äí½3¨äár
cµàinä¬ü®¥ã¢êë½ú
ÿ & e ; d å7¾áõõ - «xí % 4 }
9©ú | ´ ýbhöäê % mlï¡ócpb¥¬¯ , çð §êîoðüò $ ~ smîø
frigatebirds are remarkable for being capable of staying in flight for extended periods , covering several days and nights , and may even sleep while on the wing . like other frigatebirds , this species uses thermals to soar to heights of up to 2 , 500 metres , gliding downwards and climbing again in succession , with little need for wing flapping . this effortless flight allows long distances to be covered with minimal energetic cost ( 3 ) .


ditrigona chionea is a moth in the drepanidae family .

it was described by wilkinson in 1968 .

it is found in china .

the wingspan is 16-20.5 mm for males and 17-21 mm for females .

the fore - and hindwings are lustrous white , the forewings with the costa buff , but more brownish at the base .

the fasciae are pale brown with faint sub-basal and antemedial fasciae , a weakly lunulate postmedial fascia and a dentate subterminal fascia .

the hindwings are as the forewings , but with only one fascia proximal to the postmedial fascia .

ditrigona chionea

no one has contributed data records for ditrigona diana yet . learn how to contribute .
have a fact about ditrigona artema ? write it here to share it with the entire community .
have a definition for ditrigona artema ? write it here to share it with the entire community .
copyright © 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved
enter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
nb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .
we use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .
curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
edit your maps . learn and tell what a subject is about by adding or removing correlations between topics .
knowledge gamification . play and test knowledge discovery between two topics - ( alpha version ) .
engage your friends to explore how world knowledge is interconnected . start a map and share it with # chainletterknowledge hastag : get your friends to take the call and extend your discovery , and see where your kick - start will lead !
engage your friends to extend your story : follow where your kick - start leads .
enter the forbidden forest : take the challenge to find a fastest path through world knowledge .
popular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more
sign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .
have a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .
simply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
copyright © new earth online . content from external sites are the property of their respective owners where stated .
conservation status where available has been identified by the iucn red list of threatened species .