the little green woodpecker or golden-backed woodpecker ( campethera maculosa ) is a species of bird in the family picidae .

it is found in africa , living in forest edges , clearings , and forest-shrub mosaics .

the international union for conservation of nature has assessed it as a least-concern species .

little green woodpecker

little green woodpecker ( campethera maculosa ) is a species of bird in the picidae family .
first photo record of this rare non breeding visitor , the little green pigeon in singapore by francis yap .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto the little woodpecker utters high - pitched , dry rattle .
mtdna data and plumage characters support split of levaillant ' s woodpecker from green woodpecker ( pons et al . 2011 , perktas et al . 2011 )
eastern grey woodpecker is split from african grey woodpecker ( hbw 7 , redman et al . 2009 )
description : the little woodpecker is a small bird as the name suggests . this south american species is fairly common within its range .
range : the little woodpecker is resident within the wide range , a large north - eastern part of south america east of the andes .
from piaui woodpecker to kaempfer ' s woodpecker ( sacc 249 ) ; see azevedo et al . 2013 re species status
the little owl is small in stature but full of charisma , writes david chapman .
) , and we were specifically interested in which features of wood pastures affected woodpecker occurrence . we did not analyse the three unprotected species because they occurred too rarely or too frequently to be modelled ( site occurrence of great spotted woodpecker : 23 / 28 ; green woodpecker : 26 / 28 ; lesser spotted woodpecker : 5 / 28 ) .
ochre - backed woodpecker is split from blond - crested woodpecker ( benz & robbins 2011 , sacc 742 ) . eng = ochraceous ?
surprisingly , environmental variables at different spatial scales had little effect on the presence of protected woodpecker species . the only environmental variable positively related to the presence of two species was surrounding forest cover ( especially evident for the grey - headed woodpecker ;
we detected the middle - spotted woodpecker in 11 , the grey - headed woodpecker in 16 , and the black woodpecker in 7 of our 28 wood pasture sites . the best ranked models for individual species included the intermediate context group and the null model for the middle spotted woodpecker , and the intermediate context and broader landscape context groups for the grey - headed woodpecker (
habitat : the little woodpecker frequents humid terra firme and várzea forest edges , but also cloud forest and gallery forest edges , borders of swampy lagoons and river banks . it may be found in deciduous woodland , mangroves , densely wooded savannahs , caatinga and areas with scattered trees . the little woodpecker can be seen from 400 to 1200 metres of elevation according to the range .
( rasmussen & anderton 2005 ) ; change english name to freckle - breasted woodpecker to drop extraneous
pied
. spot - breasted woodpecker is preoccupied (
explore the little pools of amazing sea life that are left by the tide on the rocks around our coast .
adding to the excitement , francis yap posted a photo of a male little green pigeon , treron olax , taken from his favorite jelutong tower on 16th . our last record for this rare non - breeding visitor was in 2004 .
but uses nearby wood pastures for foraging . we observed the grey - headed woodpecker twice or more in only 9 out of the 22 sites in which it was ultimately detected , which may support the notion that it uses wood pastures for foraging rather than breeding . the grey - headed woodpecker forages on ants , although it is less specialized compared to the green woodpecker
the green woodpecker ' s tongue is so long that it has to coil behind the skull , over the eyes and into the right nostril just to fit inside the bird ' s . . .
distribution of green - backed woodpecker in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) .
diet : the little woodpecker feeds on ants , termites , beetles and their larvae , and numerous other insects . it forages alone , in pairs or in small groups and may join mixed species foraging flocks .
classification of pied woodpecker assemblage ( dendropicini ) follows fuchs & pons . ( 2015 ) .
= 0 . 009 ) . the r - statistic from the analysis of similarity was only slightly larger than zero indicating that compositional dissimilarity between groups was only slightly larger than within groups . only two species showed a clear habitat preference : the green woodpecker for wood pastures and the lesser spotted woodpecker for forests (
pons , j . - m . , olioso g . , cruaud c . and fuchs j . 2011 . phylogeography of the eurasian green woodpecker ( picu viridis ) . j . biogeogr . 38 : 311 - 325 .
protection / threats / status : the little woodpecker is uncommon or locally common throughout the range . the species is adaptable and able to live in a variety of wooded habitats . it is not threatened at this moment and considered of least concern .
behaviour : the little woodpecker is usually seen alone , in pairs or in small groups , foraging from low undergrowth to high in trees . it mainly feeds on insects and larvae in semi - open areas . it pecks vigorously on bark and branches . it also drills small holes by hammering . this woodpecker remains inconspicuous at it taps and chisels on hard surfaces with the bill .
the green woodpecker is the largest of the three woodpeckers that breed in britain . it has a heavy - looking body , short tail and a strong , long bill . it is green on its upperparts with a paler belly , bright yellow rump and red on the top of its head . the black ' moustache ' has a red centre in males . they have an undulating flight and a loud , laughing call .
full model summary of all the candidate models for the three woodpecker species protected under the eu bird directive annex i .
see navarro - sigüenza & peterson 2004 , honey - escandón et al . 2008 for proposed split of ' baja woodpecker '
endemic , and status is not threatened . the cuban green woodpecker is a species in the picidae family . it is monotypic within the genus xiphidiopicus . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , and heavily degraded former forest . photo samuel denault .
winkler , h . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . little green woodpecker ( campethera maculosa ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
blue - eared barbet ( p . duvaucelii ) is split into two species , with little barbet occurring on java and bali and blue - eared barbet widespread elsewhere in southeast asia .
relative importance of habitat area , isolation and quality for the occurrence of middle spotted woodpecker dendrocopos medius ( l . ) in sweden
here , we document the habitat value of wood pastures for an assemblage of six woodpecker species in transylvania , romania . our specific objectives were to ( 1 ) compare woodpecker communities between wood pastures and forests ; and ( 2 ) assess which features of a wood pasture are particularly important for different woodpecker species . our findings highlight the conservation value of wood pastures in traditional rural landscapes in eastern europe .
adult male of nominate race has bronze olive - green upperparts with some red - tipped feathers , and / or variable paler indistinct barring which is more conspicuous on rump . small whitish spots are visible on median wing - coverts . the flight feathers are brown with green edges , broader on secondaries and tertials . uppertail feathers are dark brown with finely barred outer rectrices .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . not uncommon in sierra leone ; not uncommon in liberia ; very few records from senegal , all since late 1960s . relatively little known , . . .
the hungry weasel that rode its way to internet fame atop a woodpecker back in march has been immortalised by fans in this wonderful sign .
however , wood pastures may be used by other woodpecker species typically associated with forest environments , as demonstrated in spanish dehesas for the middle spotted woodpecker [ 15 ] . indeed , we found no difference in the number of species between wood pastures and forests , and all three woodpecker species protected by the eu bird directive annex i ( and typically considered to be forest - associated ) were present in both types of sites .
local vegetation structure , including the availability of large trees , is known to influence woodpecker presence elsewhere ( e . g . [ 35 ] ) . the lack of association of woodpecker species with local variables in our study may reflect that wood pastures contain enough old trees to provide critical habitat elements such as dead wood and food resources [ 3 ] - the amount of old - growth elements thus apparently did not limit woodpecker distribution .
oaks ( quercus sp . ) and only oaks ? relations between habitat structure and home range size of the middle spotted woodpecker ( dendrocopos medius )
) . fairly distinctive , small - bodied woodpecker . male has olive - blackish forehead and crown with small red feather tips , red nape . . .
within narcissus flycatcher ficedula narcissina , the monotypic group narcissus flycatcher ( green - backed ) ficedula narcissina elisae is elevated to species rank as green - backed flycatcher ficedula elisae , following zhang et al . ( 2006 ) . green - backed flycatcher breeds in northeastern china ( shanxi and hebei ) ; migrates to southern china , hainan , and southeast asia ( thailand , malaya , and vietnam ) . most records were retained as narcissus flycatcher , except those from within the breeding range or from southern thailand and malaya , where narcissus is very rare . please check your records of both species carefully and update them as needed .
see collar 2011b , clements 6 . 7 ; cf hbw / ibc , h & m4 for proposed split of southern sooty woodpecker . await supplements to numerical index
model coefficients ( and standard errors ) of the environmental variables included in the best ranked models in binomial glms for the middle spotted and grey - headed woodpecker .
similarly to the grey - headed woodpecker , the black woodpecker also may preferentially select beech trees for nesting [ 23 ] , and its diet also includes ants [ 3 ] . however , the black woodpecker is likely to use the landscape at a different spatial scale compared to the other two species . it moves over larger areas [ 34 ] and the intermediate spatial scale chosen in our study may have been too small for this species to show an effect of adjacent forest cover .
non - metric multidimensional scaling of woodpecker composition in both forests and wood pastures , based on a sørensen dissimilarity matrix ( two axes ; stress = 15 . 1 ) .
endemic , and status is critically endangered . the fernandina’s flicker is a species of the woodpecker family . its small population of 600 to 800 birds makes it one of the most endangered species of woodpecker in the world after the possibly - extinct ivory - billed woodpecker . the fernandina’s flicker ranges in length from 14 to 15 inches . it is mostly yellowish - tan , covered with varying amounts of black barring ; its underwings are yellow . the male has a black moustachial stripe , which the female lacks . photo pete morris .
. while it appears that wood pastures should provide good foraging habitat for the grey - headed woodpecker , data on breeding locations would be required to further scrutinize this explanation of occurrence patterns .
well , here ' s one for the books : a woodpecker - riding weasel . the shot was snapped by hobby photographer martin le - may while walking through a london . . .
, which in our study area more frequently occurred in forests rather than wood pastures . it is possible , therefore , that the grey - headed woodpecker selects nest sites in beech trees within forest patches
winkler , h . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . green - barred woodpecker ( colaptes melanochloros ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
near edemic , and status is not threatened . the cuban emerald is distributed in the bahamas as well as in cuba . it is found in a variety of habitats from forest to gardens . it feeds on nectar and insects . the male has a short bill with a black upper mandible and a red lower mandible with a black tip . upperparts are dark green while underparts are shiny green with a hint of metallic blue . the undertail coverts are white and the tail is deeply forked . the female , seen here , is similar but the underparts are brownish - grey with green flanks and the tail is slightly less forked . both sexes have a whitish spot behind the eye . the only other hummingbird in cuba , apart from the occasional ruby - throated hummingbird in transit , is the tiny bee hummingbird ( mellisuga helenae ) . photo doc otto .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . , christie , d . a . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . iberian green woodpecker ( picus sharpei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
with his wife , ann , when he heard a squawk of distress and spotted a bird dancing along the ground . a keen photographer since childhood , when he had been allowed to play with his dad’s slr , he took six shots as a green woodpecker flew off . “i thought , ‘hey , there’s something on its back , ’ and then a weasel dropped to the ground , ” he remembers . it was only when he loaded the images on to his computer that he discovered the picture of a lifetime .
there was this note from jon chan of an unconfirmed sighting in 2013 . he wrote : “ found out one of my buddies , gabriel kang , fellow sunburnbrother and spotter , found a white bellied woodpecker at rifle range rd on 6 feb ’13 at 11 . 15am’ . he heard the call first , suspected something amiss , stopped the car , and it flew past him on the road . described it as crow - size but with a woodpecker’s behaviour . “
endemic , and status is not threatened . the cuban trogon is island’s national bird – its coloring reflecting the red , blue and white of the republic’s flag . it’s found in forests especially near streams . it has a shiny iridescent green back , a violet blue crown and nape . its throat and breast are white , and stomach red . its wings are marked with green , black and white stripes . the bill is reddish with a darker upper mandible . it has piercing red irises . its flared black and white tail is unique among trogons . it feeds by hovering . its diet consists of nectar , fruit , berries and insects . photo paul jones . learn more about the cuban trogon
le - may tweeted and shared his vivid image of the woodpecker with a weasel on its back with his birding facebook group . within an hour , it had 4 , 000 retweets . by the next day , it was more than a million . this alarming - and - yet - cute picture became an internet meme spawning altered versions in which the woodpecker is lugging all sorts of passengers from elephants and giraffes to vladimir putin and john terry . journalists and bloggers around the globe used it freely ; le - may politely asked mainstream media to donate their usual fee to charity .
green woodpeckers spend most of their time feeding on the ground . look out for them on your garden lawn or in parks - short grass provides good feeding opportunities for them . like other woodpeckers , these birds breed in holes they peck in dead wood . they can be seen in england , wales and scotland , though they ' re absent from the far north and west and ireland .
we don ' t think it ' s actually possible to outdo the infamous woodpecker - riding weasel , but the contenders just keep turning up . crows on eagles , genets on rhinos , raccoons on crocs . . . and now a small but fearless blackbird hitching a ride on a red - tailed hawk .
but even green admits there are times when looking through a lens can obscure our vision . he takes groups to watch starling murmurations on the somerset levels . “i tell people to put their cameras down . the murmurations are amazing to watch but they are equally good to listen to , and you need to cup your ears and just hear the breeze of them flying over . you do need to experience the whole thing . ”
for all the high - tech advances , perhaps the biggest financial boon for struggling professionals is a large wooden box : the hide . many photographers now own an expertly positioned hide , which can guarantee sightings of specific species for amateurs – who pay up to £300 for a day crouched in it . tipling owns one ; gomersall is guiding a group to a trio of hides near droitwich , worcestershire , offering sightings of a little owl , a kingfisher and a kestrel .
the subspecies v . p . olivinus ( here displayed on the right ) , occurs in s bolivia , s brazil , paraguay , nw and ne argentina . this race is larger , with short pale supercilium ( often absent ) , and thin whitish moustache ( often partially absent ) . the male has restricted red patch on hindcrown and nape . forehead and forecrown are olive - green finely spotted pale . the female is similar to that of nominate race .
march was the height of the spring migration for most of the passerines as can be seen from the reports from our central forest , bidadari and tuas south . species reported from central forest include a green - backed flycatcher , ficedula elisae , photographed by adrian silas tay on 3rd , a ruddy kingfisher , halcyon coromanda , heard calling and 3 blue - winged pittas , pitta moluccenis at the macritchie boardwalk and an oriental dwarf kingfisher , ceryx erithaca , at prunes trail on 7th by yong yik shih .
frei , barbara , kimberly g . smith , james h . withgott , paul g . rodewald , peter pyle and michael a . patten . 2017 . red - headed woodpecker ( melanerpes erythrocephalus ) , version 2 . 1 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
near endemic , and status is not threatened . the west indian woodpecker is distributed in cuba , the bahamas and grand cayman . it is found in forest , palm groves and mangroves . both sexes have red nasal tufts but the male has a red crown and nape while the female only has red on the nape . it nests in holes that it excavates in dead trees and in live or dead palms . its abandoned nest holes are often used by other species such as the cuban screech - owl , the cuban pygmy - owl , the cuban parrot , and the cuban parakeet . it feeds on insects , larvae , lizards and frogs as well as fruit . given its role in dispersing seed and providing nest holes for other species it is fortunately quite common in cuba . the cuban version of the west indian woodpecker may someday be given endemic status . photo arthur grosset .
iain green spent a decade following tigers in india after turning professional 18 years ago . now he prefers to photograph water voles and kingfishers near his home , running a social enterprise to inspire children using nature photography . do cameras stop us from seeing , or help us see differently ? “the camera is a tool for observation . it encourages you to slow down , take a different view and really look at something , ” he says . he loves how giving cameras to children reveals their creative eye – how they may pick out a lone dandelion , say , poking through a log .
near endemic , and status is not threatened . the cuban crow is one of four species of crow that occur on a few key islands in the caribbean . two of these species , the white necked crow ( corvus leucognaphalis ) , and the jamaican crow ( corvus jamaicensis ) share similar features to the cuban crow and are obviously very closely related to the third , the palm crow . the cuban crow is a sociable and is found across cuba especially in areas that have been cleared for agriculture . its nest is built in tall trees , though little further information about breeding is recorded as yet . photo pedro genaro rodriguez .
the male selects a site for a nest hole ; the female may tap around it , possibly to signal her approval . they nest in dead trees or dead parts of live trees—including pines , maples , birches , cottonwoods , and oaks—in fields or open forests with little vegetation on the ground . they often use snags that have lost most of their bark , creating a smooth surface that may deter snakes . red - headed woodpeckers may also excavate holes in utility poles , live branches , or buildings . they occasionally use natural cavities . unlike many woodpeckers , red - headed woodpeckers often reuse a nest cavity several years in a row .
) . we sampled a larger number of wood pastures than forests because forests are relatively homogenous , whereas wood pastures differ substantially in structural elements and adjacent forest cover . furthermore , we were especially interested in which features of a wood pasture affected woodpecker presence and thus chose more sites to comprehensively cover existing gradients within wood pastures . wood pastures were chosen on the basis of availability and access , and to cover a gradient in surrounding forest cover ( min . = 3 . 3 % ; max . = 96 . 8 % ; mean ± se = 59 . 7±4 . 8 % ) . within each wood pasture we choose one survey site , located approximately in the centre of the wood pasture , for woodpecker point counts . forests were chosen on the basis of accessibility , and each forest site was located randomly at a distance of at least 600 m from the forest edge . wood pastures and forests differed in tree species composition : forests were dominated by oak (
each of the four subspecies of bearded helmetcrest ( o . guerinii ) is elevated to species rank , in accord with sacc proposal 609 ; this revision is based on collar and salaman ( 2013 ) . subspecies stubelii becomes buffy helmetcrest ( oxypogon stubelii ) . note the correction of the spelling of this scientific name , from stuebelii to stubelii . buffy and green - bearded occur in different sections of the colombian andes ( see ebird range map links below ) , white - bearded occurs in the andes of western venezuela , and blue - bearded is restricted to the santa marta mountains of n . colombia but it may be extinct , as it has not been reported in over 50 years .
the plain sunbird lives up to its name with its drab olive - green plumage , which makes it very similar to female sunbirds of other species if poorly seen . we have only one acceptable record of a male seen at senoko on 25 january 1986 by lim kim seng ( bgb 2 . lim , k . s . 1989e ) . the last sighting of the plain sunbird was an unconfirmed record from rifle range road in 2006 by yong ding li and ong kiem sian . plain sunbirds may have been overlooked in the past and dismissed as a female of other sunbirds but birdwatchers looking for this species should note that the males with their bluish patch above its bill are very distinctive .
this generosity might make the big beasts of wildlife photography roar with frustration . earnings for this glamorous breed , who were once handsomely rewarded for spending months staking out snow leopards for national geographic , have vanished in an era where everyone is a photographer . so , is the hard - pressed professional the woodpecker , and social media the weasel on its back ? or has new technology locked professionals and amateurs in a mutually beneficial embrace ? and as technology changes what we can see , is it also changing our vision of the wild ?
kiritimati sandpiper ( p . cancellata ) : polynesian sandpipers were extirpated from many islands shortly after their initial discovery by europeans , and there is little documentation of the appearance or former distribution for most of these species . many earlier authors used the name cancellata to refer to the extant population on the tuamotu archipelago . here we follow walters ( 1993 ) and cibois et al . ( 2012 ) in restricting the name cancellata to an extinct species . change the english name of prosobonia cancellata to kiritimati sandpiper , and revise the range from “isolated islands in tuamotu archipelago ( french polynesia ) ” to “extinct ; formerly kiritimati ( christmas ) island , line islands” . the date of extinction is not known ; it first , and last , was seen by europeans in 1768 . finally , move the genus prosobonia to a new position immediately following arenaria ( cibois et al . 2012 ) .
human - induced landscape change poses a major threat to global biodiversity [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] . forest species face the dual threat of deforestation and intensification of forest management . woodpeckers are especially sensitive to these changes because they require large home ranges and depend on large trees for nesting and dead wood for foraging [ 3 ] . consequently , changes in forest structure and cover have caused woodpecker declines worldwide [ 4 ] – [ 6 ] . because of their demanding habitat requirements , woodpeckers share habitat requirements with many other bird species . therefore , woodpeckers have been considered as potential indicator species for bird species diversity [ 7 ] .
potential endemic , awaiting species reclassification , and status is not threatened . the cuba flicker is a subspecies of the northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) . it is the only woodpecker that commonly feeds on the ground . the cuban flicker ( colaptes auratus chrysocaulosus ) occurs on cuba and grand cayman island . traits that distinguish the cuban subspecies are the presence of a bright red nuchal ( nape ) patch ( absent in others ) and the color of the throat , ear - coverts , crown , and malar stripe . the malar stripe , or “mustache , ” is the only markedly dimorphic trait that distinguishes the sexes . photo naturepicsonline . com .
generally considered separate species from c . cailliautii , and here treated as such owing to its densely barred ( not spotted ) underparts ( 3 ) ; unmarked ( not white - spotted ) upperparts ( 3 ) ; yellower underparts ( yellow - tinged white in other forms ) ( 1 ) ; darker tail ( ns [ 1 ] ) ; and “narrow band” of intergradation “a little beyond the south - eastern margin of the congo forest” # r ( score 2 ) , as well as in angola . race permista sometimes included in c . cailliautii ( as in hbw ) , or treated as separate species , but only distinctions are blackish vs greenish - tinged blackish tail ( 1 ) and female without vs with broad red on nape ( 3 ) ; suggestion of only rare hybridization in ghana called in question and width of hybrid zone not clear ; voices “identical” # r . form togoensis ( ghana to s nigeria ) synonymized with permista . two subspecies recognized .
despite their high cultural and natural values , wood pastures are declining rapidly throughout europe [ 17 ] . considering their important values for a range of species [ 18 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , the conservation of wood pastures should be addressed in relevant policies and directives . for woodpecker conservation specifically , we recommend that conservation policies focus not only on maintaining mature forests but also recognize the complementary value of wood pastures that have retained old - growth structures . there are a few national conservation policies for wood pastures ( e . g . [ 42 ] ) , but to date there is no pan - european conservation policy [ 17 ] .
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ioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2
antillean piculet is sister to the true woodpeckers ( picinae ) rather than a member of the piculet subfamily ( benz et al . 2006 )
early in sequence as a basal branch of woodpeckers ( fuchs et al . 2007 )
sa : coastal suriname and french guiana ; lower amazon r . ; e and se brazil to se peru , n argentina and uruguay
( garcía - trejo et al . 2009 ) ; cf nacc 2013 - a - 12 .
( collar et al . 1999 ) ; bli recognizes . treat species as monotypic . includes
sakhalin and s kuril is . ( se siberia ) , hokkaido ( japan )
for these three species ( h & m4 , fuchs et al . in press )
short , 1982 , winkler & christie , 2002 , hockey et al , 2005 .
e nigeria , sw cameroon , mt . kupe ( wc cameroon ) and bioko i . ( gulf of guinea )
and elliotii . best treated as a hybrid population . christie & winkler , 2002 .
angola , n zambia , n malawi and c tanzania to se dr congo and sw uganda .
proposal to split ' mesoamerican ' flicker ( manthey et al . 2017 ; nacc 2017 - c - 4 declined
recently described from late pleistocene and holocene deposits . likely survived into the historical period . olson 2013 . bli checklist , ver . 9 .
ne and e india to myanmar , w thailand , s china , n laos and nw vietnam .
or : e myanmar , s china , thailand and indochina to sumatra , java and bali .
s myanmar , sw thailand , malay pen . , sumatra and bangka i . ( e of sumatra )
indicates essential reproductive isolation ( fernando et al . 2016 , but see also freed et al . 2015 ) .
zamboanga pen . ( w mindanao , s philippines ) and basilan i . ( s philippines )
or : e java , bali and the kangean is . ( n of bali )
s malay pen . , borneo , sumatra , java , balabac and palawan is .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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lars petersson , paul van giersbergen , nik borrow , charles davies , markus lilje .
what do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .
( valenciennes , 1826 ) – senegal and w guinea - bissau e in coastal zone to c ghana ( aburi region ) , extending inland to mt nimba ( liberia ) ; recorded in s mauritania and sw mali .
( reichenow , 1876 ) – e ghana e to sw south sudan , sw uganda , and s to n angola and c drcongo .
most forest types , mainly at edges . inhabits edges of primary and secondary forest , clearings with . . .
. usually encountered singly or in pairs , sometimes in mixed - species . . .
recorded in aug in senegal ( one record ) ; dec and feb in sierra leone ; in liberia , nest - excavation seen in may and oct , adults feeding . . .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be not uncommon ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : this species appears to benefit from logging and clearance of forests since it prefers more open habitats ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680914a111736218 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : campethera maculosa . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
did you know ? all our dictionaries are bidirectional , meaning that you can look up words in both languages at the same time .
symes , a . , wright , l , pople , r . , burfield , i . , ashpole , j , ieronymidou , c . & wheatley , h .
justification : this recently - split species is undergoing moderately rapid declines in spain , which holds the vast majority of the population . it has therefore been uplisted to near threatened as it almost meets the requirements for listing as threatened under criteria a2abc + 3bc + 4abc .
the species is endemic to spain , portugal and extreme south - west france , where it is found irregularly from pyrénées - atlantiques to hérault ( del hoyo et al . 2015 ) . spain holds c . 90 % of the european population with the most recent estimate for the spanish population at c . 236 , 000 - 420 , 500 pairs ( birdlife international 2015 ) .
the total population is estimated at 246 , 000 - 471 , 000 pairs , which equates to 492 , 000 - 941 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) and 738 , 000 - 1 , 411 , 500 individuals . trend justification : the population size is estimated to be decreasing at a rate approaching 30 % in 16 . 8 years ( three generations ) ( birdlife international 2015 ) .
no serious threats have been identified for this species . habitat loss is not yet a great problem , but it is believed that in future years it could become so ( del hoyo et al . 2015 ) . it is thought the intensification of agriculture and forestry , as well as the conversion of pasture to arable land can affect populations of this species by reducing the population of ants . the clearing of wooded hedgerows , copses , isolated groves and riverine woodland can limit potential nesting sites . wildfires may have caused a decrease in the populations in mediterranean regions . other threats include localized illegal hunting and very cold winters ( martí and del moral 2004 ) .
conservation and research actions underway bern convention appendix ii . there are no known current conservation measures for this species . conservation and research actions proposed habitat management for this species should include the conservation of old trees for nesting in woodlands , orchards and villages and the maintenance and restoration of feeding grounds such as small meadows , pastures , orchards and heaths ( tucker and heath 1994 ) . monitoring and research are needed to inform future conservation measures .
in addition , there were some changes to scientific names and sequence of doves , and several other groups of birds . elsewhere in the world , a large number of taxa were split in the pacific islands , new guinea , indonesia , and malaysia along with several important splits in africa .
the full taxonomy can be downloaded . also , we have a version of the full taxonomy with changes in common name , scientific name , and new additions highlighted ; download that here . for those proficient with spreadsheets , this may be the easiest way to review the changes .
a full summary of the taxonomic changes is below . this is largely in sync with the clements update ; references are not listed in full , but are included in the clements update . since this is a long article , here is a short index :
for taxonomic changes affecting north america , middle america , and south america , please see the more complete summary on the neotropical birds site ; neotropical birds is a free online resource with the goal of providing complete species accounts for life history , habits , range , and behavior for all species in middle and south america .
when the taxonomy is updated in ebird , many of the changes are fairly simple to implement . when a common name changes , a scientific name changes , or when the taxonomic sequence is revised , those changes roll through and start appearing in ebird output fairly quickly . keeping track of name changes is a challenge , and avibase is one of the best ways to do so . just type any bird name in avibase and avibase will show you what the history of that name is , and–if it differs from ebird–it will show what the ebird equivalent is for that name . try it for louisiana heron , for example .
when species are lumped , ebird usually retains the former species as an identifiable group . in these cases , your records may shift to the lumped form and your totals may ( or may not ) drop by one . the actual entity that you observed and reported has not changed in any way other than being “demoted” from species to subspecies .
when splits occur , however , the process is more complicated . in many cases , we have had subspecies options available for reporting in anticipation of the split . all these records update automatically to the new species . but when a bird is reported at the species level , and then that species is split , we update the records in ebird to one of the “child” species whenever possible . we try to be very conservative with this . when two species do not overlap in range ( i . e . , they are allopatric ) we go ahead and make the change . when the species do overlap ( i . e . , are sympatric ) , and do not have clear seasonal or habitat differences , we usually do not make the change . this results in your records being left as the more conservative “slash” option .
one issue with ebird is that reviewing your records of “arctic / kamchatka leaf / japanese leaf warbler” or of “short - billed / long - billed dowitcher” is not currently easy using the my ebird tools . if you know the checklist it is on , you can find the list in “manage my observations” and edit it as needed . if you can find your checklist on the range map of “arctic / kamchatka leaf / japanese leaf warbler” then you can just click on the stickpin for your list and open it from there . but the best option to review your records is to go to my ebird and then click “download my data” from the right side . this downloads your entire ebird database as a csv file that can be opened in excel or a similar spreadsheet program . from there , you should easily be able to sort by name or search for “arctic / kamchatka leaf / japanese leaf warbler” to find your records . then you can scroll to the correct date or just replace the submission id in the url for a checklist view .
the below species were all split in ebird . to see a map of the new species , click “map” . to see you personal lists in my ebird , just make sure you are logged in and click “my records” . if you have seen the species but don’t have any records shown , then please enter your sightings ! below are the splits for this update :
within dusky scrubfowl ( m . freycinet ) , the monotypic group dusky scrubfowl ( biak ) megapodius freycinet geelvinkianus is elevated to species rank as biak scrubfowl megapodius geelvinkianus ( roselaar 1994 , jones et al . 1995 ) .
the two taxa formerly classified as subspecies of herald petrel ( p . arminjoniana ) each are recognized as separate species . these correspond to the two monotypic groups previously recognized in the ebird / clements checklist , as herald petrel ( trindade ) ( p terodroma arminjoniana arminjoniana ) and herald petrel ( pacific ) ( pterodroma arminjoniana heraldica ) . the rationale for recognizing two species is outlined in sacc proposal 582 ; of the literature on this situation , an important recent contribution is brown et al . ( 2011 ) . trindade petrel occurs primarily in the atlantic and indian oceans , while herald petrel is mostly restricted to the pacific . note that this split follows sacc , but nacc has yet to consider this proposal .
clapper rail ( r . longirostris ) is split into three species , in accord with nacc ( chesser et al . 2014 ) . this split is based primarily on maley and brumfield ( 2013 ) . clapper rail is now restricted to the atlantic coast and gulf of mexico shoreline , mostly in saltmarshes ; ridgway’s rail occurs in west mexico , california , and arizona , mostly in saltmarshes but also in fresh marshes along the colorado river , at the salton sea , and in se . arizona .
king rail ( r . elegans ) is split into king rail ( r . elegans ) and aztec rail ( r . tenuirostris ) . king rail occurs in the canada , united states and coastal ne . mexico south to the marshes of the veracruz coast . aztec rail occurs in highlands in mexico , as well as in freshwater marshes near sea level in colima and possibly nearby mexican states .
king rail is split into aztec and king rails , which are very similar but do not overlap in range . this king rail was photographed in massachusetts . photo by marshall iliff .
african scops - owl ( o . senegalensis ) split into african scops - owl , socotra scops - owl , and arabian scops - owl . the ranges are fairly well delineated , with african scops - owl widespread in africa , arabian scops - owl occurring on the southern and eastern arabian peninsula , and socotra scops - owl restricted to socotra .
javan frogmouth ( b . javensis ) is split into blyth’s , javan , and palawan frogmouths . palawan frogmouth is an endemic to that philippine island , blyth’s is widespread in se . asia , and javan frogmouth is now restricted to java and bali .
white - throated nightjar ( e . mystacalis ) is split into white - throated , solomons , and new caledonian nightjar , following cleere ( 2010 ) and dutson ( 2011 ) . solomons nightjar is restricted to the solomon islands , new calendonian nightjar is restricted to new caledonia and possibly extinct , while white - throated nightjar is widespread in new guinea and australia .
gray nightjar ( c . indicus ) is split into gray , jungle , and palau nightjars , following rasmussen and anderton ( 2005 ) and cleere ( 2010 ) . palau nightjar is a palau endemic , jungle nightjar occurs in peninsular india south of the himalayas and on sri lanka , while gray nightjar occurs in the himalayas and much of east and southeast asia . gray nightjar has two records from western alaska .
subspecies are rearranged in mauritius parakeet , causing name changes to the scientific and common names . recent authors follow cheke ( 1987 ) in recognizing an extinct parakeet from réunion island , which was given the name eques by boddaert in 1783 . this extinct parakeet is very poorly known ( and was not included at all in peters 1937 ) , but apparently was very similar to echo , the parakeet on mauritius . consequently these two usually are considered to be conspecific ; since the name eques predates the name echo ( 1876 ) , the scientific name for the species becomes psittacula eques . furthermore , the english name mauritius parakeet no longer is appropriate ; change the english name to echo parakeet .


the alcyonacea , or soft corals , are an order of corals which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons .

soft corals contain minute , spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , useful in species identification .

sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky , grainy texture that deters predators .

in the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals , but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite , thus making them reef builders .

unlike stony corals , most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light .

almost all utilize symbiotic photosynthesizing zooxanthella as a major energy source .

however , most will readily eat any free floating food , such as zooplankton , out of the water column .

they are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish , snails , algae and a diversity of other marine species .

many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby , as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals .

nevertheless , home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs .

soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals , and so those grown via aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild .

alcyonacea

günther eichhorn set
image of anthozoa
as an exemplar on
alcyonacea
.
bob fenner , the soft corals , order alcyonacea ; use in marine aquariums , wetwebmedia . com
it has been suggested that this article be merged with alcyonacea . ( discuss ) proposed since september 2017 .
there are many types of soft coral . they are all members of the order : alcyonacea . the order alcyonacea is part of the subclass octocorallia , known as the octocorals . these are corals with eight - branched tentacles in their polyp structure . alcyonacea order is further divided into several families and suborders , which include not only the soft corals , but also the gorgonians .
there are many types of soft corals , but all of them belong to the order alcyonacea under the subclass octocorallia . octocorallia refers to corals with eight - branched tentacles in their polyp structure . alcyonacea is further divided into families and suborders . [ 3 ]
what made you want to look up alcyonacea ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
soft corals ( order alcyonacea ) tan , leo w . h . & ng , peter k . l . , 1988 . a guide to seashore life . the singapore science centre , singapore . 160 pp .
like the stony corals , soft corals are cnidarians , meaning stinging celled animals . the familiar aquarium soft corals belong in the family alcyoniidae under the alcyonacea order . these are considered to be the
true
soft corals , yet they are just a part of this very large group . the alcyonacea order itself is part of the subclass octocorallia , known as octocorals , and this entire subclass is also often loosely referred to as
soft corals
.
y . benayahu and l . m . chou , 28 feb 2010 . on some octocorallia ( cnidaria : anthozoa : alcyonacea ) from singapore , with a description of a new cladiella species . the raffles bulletin of zoology 58 ( 1 ) pp . 1 - 13 .
the alcyonacea order consists of hundreds of animals . it is divided into several families and suborders that include not only the soft corals , which encompass the leather corals as well , but also the gorgonians . many other unique octocorals include the sea pens , blue coral , and mat polyps like the organ pipe coral .
soft coral is also known as alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral , which is a type of coral that does not secrete calcium carbonate skeleton or form reefs . they are normally colorful and look like underwater plants that swing with the waves in the ocean . they are colonial , and often times little polyps combine together to form a large organism .
gorgonians are classified in the phylum cnidaria , class anthozoa , alongside the orders alcyonacea ( soft corals ) and pennatulacea ( sea pens ) . there are about 500 different species of gorgonians found in the oceans of the world , but they are particularly abundant in the shallow waters of the western atlantic , including florida , bermuda , and the west indies . [ 5 ]
alcyonacea is yet another order of cnidarians that has been heavily reorganized since the end of the 20th century . the order is currently assigned species that are loosely known as soft corals and sea fans . the most abundant soft coral along the coast of norway is the dead man ' s fingers . the most common sea fan , at least on diveable depths , is paramuricea placomus .
the systematic classification of the octocorals involves a huge , highly complex , and diverse group which at present is considered poorly understood and understudied . current taxonomy is under constant flux . for example , the gorgonians have been moved between the order gorgonaria , to more recently being placed as a suborder under alcyonacea order . so it is to be expected that classifications will continue to change . in fact many experts are in favor of a complete revision .
we determined the nuclear 18s rrna sequences for 41 species of octocorals and used these to address the validity of the historical ordinal divisions and the current subordinal divisions within the subclass octocorallia . we also explored the phylogenetic affinities of the species dendrobrachia paucispina , which was originally classified in the order antipatharia ( subclass ceriantipatharia ) although polyp structure indicates it belongs in the subclass octocorallia . trees constructed using maximum likelihood techniques are incongruent with the current and historical taxonomy of the octocorallia . there appeared to be three major clades of octocorals . the first clade included most , but not all , pennatulaceans as a monophyletic group . the second clade contained 21 species , representing all major octocoral groups other than pennatulaceans . the third clade contained members from three suborders of the alcyonacea and one member of the pennatulacea . these data could not be used to distinguish the branching order of the three major clades . the species d . paucispina had a close affinity with the genera corallium and paragorgia ( alcyonacea : scleraxonia ) , although its morphology suggests it is more similar to the genus chrysogorgia ( alcyonacea : calcaxonia ) . the morphological character of dimorphism ( the presence of both autozooids and siphonozooids within a single colony ) corresponded loosely with the topology of the most likely trees , and a single origin of dimorphism could not be rejected . despite sampling from the majority of families within the octocorallia , many of the relationships within this group remain ambiguous .
this dataset was created for potential use as an environmental predictor in spatial predictive models of deep - sea coral habitat suitability . deep - sea corals are of particular conservation concern due to their slow growth rates and vulnerability to disturbance . this is a derived product . modeling can lend insights into the environmental factors driving the distribution of deep - sea corals , helping to build understanding of how these unique ecosystems function . this dataset depicts predicted likelihood of suitable habitat for the deep - sea corals : alcyonacea ( order ) , the suborders calcaxonia , holaxonia , scleraxonia , alcyoniina , stolonifera : of order alcyonacea ; pennatulacea ( order ) , the suborders sessiliflorae , subsessiliflorae : of order pennatulacea ; scleractinia ( order ) , genera dasmosmilia and desmophyllum : of order scleractinia , family caryophylliidae ; and the family flabellidae : of order scleractinia . the dataset also depicts categorical seafloor aspect ( slope direction ) in the u . s . northeast atlantic and mid - atlantic derived from a bathymetry dataset . the likelihood of suitable habitat for deep - sea corals of the above order , suborders , genera , and families are depicted by threshold levels created for the dataset .
gorgonians are sessile colonial cnidarians found throughout the oceans of the world , especially in the tropics and subtropics . the name
gorgonacea
is no longer considered valid and alcyonacea is now the accepted name for the order . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] gorgonians are also known as sea fans and sea whips and are similar to the sea pen , a soft coral . gorgonians are closely related to coral . individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect , flattened , branching , and reminiscent of a fan . others may be whiplike , bushy , or even encrusting . [ 3 ] a colony can be several feet high and across but only a few inches thick . they may be brightly coloured , often purple , red , or yellow . photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive reef aquariums . [ 4 ]
hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
daly , m . , m . r . brugler , p . cartwright , a . g . collins , m . n . dawson , d . g . fautin , s . c . france , c . s . mcfadden , d . m . opresko , e . rodriquez , s . l . romano , j . l . stake . ( 2007 ) . the phylum cnidaria : a review of phylogenetic patterns and diversity 300 years after linnaeus . zootaxa . ( 1668 ) : 127 - 182 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
bayer , f . m . ( 1981 ) . key to the genera of octocorallia exclusive of pennatulacea ( coelenterata : anthozoa ) , with diagnoses of new tax . proc . biol . soc . wash . 94 ( 3 ) : 902 - 947 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of gorgonacea ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of gorgonacea ) bayer , f . m . ( 1981 ) . key to the genera of octocorallia exclusive of pennatulacea ( coelenterata : anthozoa ) , with diagnoses of new tax . proc . biol . soc . wash . 94 ( 3 ) : 902 - 947 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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the eight armed soft corals have no need to produce calcium carbonate from water , to build coral reefs , like the hard corals . the colonies are usually upright fans or fingered stolons with its base in mud or sand . they contain small spiny skeletal elements called sclerites , supporting the colony stem and making the flesh less attractive among potential predators . the polyps arise singly from the stem .
the three common sea fans in the norwegian fjords : p . arborea , p . placomus and p . resedaeformis . they thrive on current exposed locations and are often used by gorgon ' s head as a platform to catch food passing by .
if you are prepared to exceed a depth of 40 meters , the trondheim fjord offers fantastic displays with an abundance of corals , in this case p . placomus , usually associated with tropical waters .
electrical , underwater scooters are excellent tools while surveying in strong currents . here we encountered a small p . arborea surrounded by p . placomus .
mini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !
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you should add how to protect soft and hard coral but , it is good even without . joseph mcilvenna
soft corals are some of the most attractive corals found in the world ' s oceans . they are quite fascinating , taking many exotic forms and often have a very rich and colorful palette . soft corals have all the colors of the rainbow , but their predominant hues are rust , red , orange , yellow , olive and purple .
there are approximately 800 species of soft corals and more than 1200 known species of gorgonians . with so many different species , it is easy to see why not all are considered to be easy keepers . so be sure to learn about the type of soft coral you wish to keep to have a successful experience .
the bushy sea rod is a more aquarium friendly gorgonian that should be housed in a tank that is at least 100 gallons . the lack of light in this video is to help the gorgonian adjust . they grow to over 3 feet ( 1 meter ) and need straight moderate water flow , moderate to strong lighting that has 350 to 550 nm for best absorption and 0 phosphates . they can be easily overtaken by cyanobacteria and algae . avoid the flamingo tongue snail and snails form the murex genus , as these corals will be eaten by them .
this video shows one of the many beautiful contrasts of color that this genus possesses . all dendronephthya species are aposymbiotic , being voracious feeders , absorbing many nutrients in the water , as well as feeding on phytoplankton and / or zooplankton with their polyps , depending on the species . they will also use sweeper tentacles to capture food in the wild . carnation corals are difficult to keep , with only advanced aquarists being qualified to own them . going from the dealer to tank , they often deflate , never to return , then start to decay . they need a constant current and a constant drip of zooplankton and / or phytoplankton to keep them healthy , which in turn can pollute the aquarium .
the green star polyp , or as many call it , gsp , are easy to care for . they are best kept in a 50 gallon tank or more and they like bright lighting , however they can tolerate less light with supplemental feedings . they like moderate to high water movement , and will not do well in slower waters . lysmata or saron shrimp will feed on them and certain species of algae will grow over them .
this video uses organ music as a back drop for this organ pipe coral . this video does well to show more of the inner structure of the coral , with the individual
pipes
for each polyp . colonies can reach 12
tall and 24
around , so a 50 gallon or more tank is needed . bright lighting with feedings of artemia nauplii , rotifers , or dissolved frozen foods with fine particulates are needed . they must have a deep sand bed or refugium to produce other particulates in the water . this was the key in keeping them long term . organ pipe corals like moderate to strong water movement .
corky sea fingers need a few things to stay alive and healthy in captivity . the tank should be 50 gallons at least and 24
or deeper . if there will be other corals , protect them from your spreading gorgonian by making a
rock island
in the middle of the sand . also use media to help keep their toxins under control so they do not kill other corals . corky sea fingers do need decent water quality , moderate turbulent water movement , temps between 68 and 75˚f ( 20 to 24˚c ) and moderate to strong light . fish waste will add to the nutrients they take from the water as well as stirring the sand and at times , feeding live phytoplankton . some aquarists say they do not need food , just strong light , however with moderate light , they may need some very tiny particulate foods .
the carnation coral is very difficult to care for and should be left to the experts . although they are extremely attractive , carnation corals have a poor history of survival . oddly , they have been known to change color ! unlike other corals , they do not use light and they depend on copious amounts of zooplankton and phytoplankton to keep alive . this can quickly pollute a captive system . one suggestion is to hang them upside down , as this is a natural position for them . strong water movement , perfect water quality and a constant drip of phytoplankton is helpful .
the dead man ' s finger coral , alcyonium digitatum is one of several temperate or cold water species must be provided with a cool water environment , which will mean having a chiller for the reef aquarium system . they need 50˚ to 69 . 8˚f ( 15 to 22 . 2˚c ) , so in a normal tropical reef tank , it will die in that environment in about 2 weeks . provide a tank that is at least 29 gallons and they can be fed marine snow and similar products . they encrust and grow to 10
in height , forming 1
diameter
fingers
and are cream , white or yellow with white to clear polyps and need to be fed several times per day . no to low light and strong water movement is best .
the kenya tree coral can be easy to moderate to care for . they come from a more nutrient rich environment and they are more dependent on outside food for survival . they depend on foods in the water column like phytoplankton more so than light . this coral does not need to be under metal halides , but they still need good turbulent water flow . do not expose to fresh water when topping of your tank . this stresses the coral and may lead to its eventual demise .
the palm tree polyp is great for beginners and helps to take nutrients out of the water ! their polyps are housed in little flexible tubes that are also connected to a mat . these little tubes can be 1 / 2
to 2
tall ( 1 to 5 cm ) , depending on the species but the polyps can extend twice as far . they have 8 tentacles and come in a variety of colors such as green , purple , yellow , white , brown , pinkish cream , or cream with centers that can also be contrasting colors . the polyps can retreat completely into the base of their individual calyx .
soft corals are quite numerous throughout the waters of the world , primarily in tropical waters . they are principally found in intertidal zones though a few live at depths of 650 feet ( 200 m ) or more .
soft corals are found on inner reefs , at depths just below the stony corals . they inhabit mostly dim areas , like underneath rocky outcrops or in caverns . they are not usually the dominant coral on many areas of the reef , but can be in areas where there is a lot of sediment .
small cuttings of soft corals are easily collected from the wild . they are less prone to damage or ailments from collecting and shipping than the stony corals . many species thrive and will grow quickly in captivity . many of the popular soft corals are successfully propagated in captivity .
soft corals are cnidarians , which means stinging celled animals . they are also members of the subclass octocorallia , known as the octocorals . these are corals that generally have eight - fold symmetry or eight - branched tentacles in their polyp structure .
the soft corals are primarily colonial sessile animals , with the exception of members from the xeniidae family . sessile meaning they are anchored firmly to the substrate , and from there they can be either erect or encrusting . they can have either a fleshy or leather - like texture and include some of the most vibrantly colored corals . soft corals have all the colors of the rainbow , but predominant hues are rust , red , orange , yellow , olive and purple .
there is a broad spectrum of shapes , but all soft corals have the same morphology . the hermatypic , or reef building corals , are the stony corals . soft corals are not reef building corals . they are called
soft
because unlike the stony corals , they do not have a rigid calcium carbonate skeleton . they are composed mostly of living tissue , though they do have tiny calcareous components called sclerites .
the sclerites are spiny skeletal elements embedded within the tissue . they help to give soft corals some support and add a grainy texture , and they are also used to help identify them . though soft corals don ' t add large calcareous masses to the reef like stony corals do , their sclerites do add large amounts of sediment to the reef .
their entire surface , known as the coenenchyme , is covered with small polyps . there are two types of polyps , the autozooids and the siphonozooids .
the polyps known as autozooids have eight pinnate tentacles and eight septae . their role is to acquire food for the colony . the tentacles capture the prey , primarily planktonic foods from the water column , and move it to the mouth in the center . the eight septae are equal sized compartments with interconnecting channels that distribute the food throughout the colony .
the second type of polyp is known as siphonozooids . it has reduced tentacles and cilia , along with an oral cavity . its job is to pump water into the body of the colony , which supplies oxygen and also helps so keep the soft coral erect .
this family consists of only one genus from the pacific ocean . they are bushy looking , low growing corals that are usually green . they are not yet known in the aquarium trade .
this family consist of a quite a few diverse corals , contained in four subfamilies . those most familiar in the aquarium belong in the subfamily clavulariinae , though this is a very ‘loosely ' defined group . their polyps can have long tall stalks , topped with either feathery tentacles are stark tentacles , but giving them the look similar to the feather duster worm .
they have a poor record of survivability in the aquarium . common names include clove polyps , glove polyps , palm tree polyps , and fern polyps .
these are some of the most colorful and ‘fluffy ' of the soft corals . they can be bushy or tree - like and come in beautiful hues of red , pink , yellow , and purple . being branched and tree - like , they are known by such names as carnation coral , tree coral , and colt soft coral
these are commonly known as the china corals . they form large tall colonies with many thin , brittle branches . their colors are typically red with contrasting white or yellow polyps . they can look like beautifully colored fans , superficially resembling gorgonians from the pacific . they are very rarely available .
this family has both pulsing and non - pulsing varieties . their colors can be white , brown , or a blue hue . many varieties have long feather - like tentacles and their polyps will pump water into the colony , creating a rhythmic pulsing motion . they are known by such names as pulsing xenia , waving hand coral , glove coral , pulse coral , and pom - pom xenia .
these are soft corals that are mostly referred to as the leather corals . this family includes some of the hardiest aquarium coral species . they are often found in areas of high nutrients and lower water quality than others , which lends to being excellent beginners soft corals . they are known for being thick and encrusting and for their leathery skin . they can grow very large and take on many forms .
this genus is extremely variable and can have many forms including branched , fingered , ridged , and lobed . their colors are usually yellow , brown or grayish , but can be other hues as well , and very vibrant . common names often reflect their shapes and colors including such things as finger leather coral , encrusting leather coral , dead man ' s fingers , hand coral , and seaman ' s hand coral .
soft corals include many of the easy to care for coral favorites . many types of soft corals are quite hardy , especially the leather corals in the
are some of the best beginner aquarium soft corals . they are generally very hardy though they do need a typical reef aquarium environment . most leather corals need a moderate to strong water flow and tend to do well under various types of reef tank fluorescent lighting . metal halides are not needed .
some of the leather corals are commonly finger leather coral , toadstool leather coral , mushroom leather coral , cup leather coral , cabbage leather coral , flexible leather coral , knobby finger coral , and the ridged and lobed leather corals . they tend to have a more leathery feel , while other soft corals tend to be sticky or slimy to the touch .
besides the best - known varieties , there are hundreds of other types of soft corals . each of these beautiful animals will have care requirements that are just as diverse as they are . consequently not all soft corals are easy keepers . it is very important to learn about the soft coral species you keep for a successful reef aquarium .
many of the soft corals are quite hardy and some of the easiest corals to keep . a beginner aquarium soft coral will grow into a beautiful , impressive specimen in the reef tank . they are very commonly available and considered to be some of the best beginner corals .
a typical reef environment is what is needed for soft corals . provide moderate to strong lighting and a good water flow . they need good water quality maintained , so a protein skimmer and frequent water changes are very helpful . follow this up with the particular care parameters for the species you are keeping .
despite their great track record in the aquarium , be aware that all octocorals produce toxins . like other corals , these toxins can be released to ward off competition for space . some are highly toxic while the toxins other produce is very minimal . the impact of these toxins is often reported as aquarists find their stony corals receding when kept with too many , or in some cases , any soft corals .
excellent filtration with a protein skimmer , along with activated carbon , can help to remove and control some of the toxin . but soft corals can do best when kept in a tank dedicated to softies , or with a very minimal mix with other corals , depending on the type and space available .
like the stony corals , the majority of the soft corals obtain their nutrition from multiple sources . most species receive nutrients through a symbiotic relationship with marine algae , known as zooxanthellae . they also capture planktonic organisms and microscopic food particles from the water column and can absorb dissolved organic matter .
most species live in symbiosis with the marine algae , zooxanthellae , and will derive the majority of their nutrition from it . but in captivity they usually will eagerly accept small foods like brine shrimp and plankton as well . they will benefit from occasionally soaking food in vitamins as well .
it is common for soft corals to change forms , even within a single species , to adjust to different water flows and types of prey . the polyps can completely retract into the surface . extending and retracting to capture prey can create an interesting pulsing type action . this is especially notable in the xeniidae family , as is commonly seen in the popular
pulsing xenias
.
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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cairns , stephen d . , dale r . calder , anita brinckmann - voss , clovis b . castro , daphne g . fautin , . . .
full author list : cairns , stephen d . , dale r . calder , anita brinckmann - voss , clovis b . castro , daphne g . fautin , philip r . pugh , claudia e . mills , walter c . jaap , mary n . arai , stephen h . d . haddock , and dennis m . opresko
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
grzegorz jagodziński added the polish common name
koralowce
to
anthozoa
.
maggie whitson set
image of anthozoa
as an exemplar on
sabellida
.
kento furui added the japanese common name
センナリヅタ科
to
acrossotidae
.
kento furui added the japanese common name
フトジクコエダ科
to
coelogorgiidae
.
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they are animals ! although they look like plants . they don ' t produce a hard skeleton . each soft coral is a colony of countless tiny polyps .
soft corals are commonly seen on many of our shores . some resemble flowery bushes , others giant leathery disks . yet others are tiny and overlooked . they are found growing on boulders and other hard surfaces , as well as among coral rubble and living hard corals on the reef flats .
which includes the more familiar sea anemones , hard corals and jellyfishes . soft corals are members of the subclass alcyonaria / octocorallia that includes
soft corals are colonies of tiny , individual polyps linked to one another . soft corals can look like branching bushes or trees . they may also be flatter and look like mushrooms . when exposed at low tide , they often flop over and look like a pile of jelly or fried eggs ! when submerged , however , they expand into beautiful plant - like forms and some appear ' furry ' as the tiny polyps expand .
soft coral polyps have 8 ( or multiple of 8 ) tentacles that are pinnate ( branched or feathery ) . some soft corals like
have two kinds of polyps : autozooids have long stalks with eight branched tentacles and emerge from the shared leathery tissue . siphonozooids may be much shorter polyps or don ' t even emerge from the shared tissue and function as water pumps for the colony .
. some large sea anemones and large leathery and flowery soft corals may be mistaken for one another . here ' s more on
although there are some exceptions , many soft corals don ' t produce a hard skeleton . instead in colonial soft corals , the polyps are connected by a shared tissue .
tiny spikes of calcium carbonate , called sclerites , are embedded in the tissue mass . these sclerites are used to identify soft coral species . in some , the sclerites are far apart resulting in a more floppy soft coral . in others , the sclerites are closer or fused together to form firmer support . the entire tissue mass is covered with a skin and the polyp tentacles emerge through this skin . in some soft corals , the skin can be quite tough and leathery looking , thus these are often called leathery soft corals . out of water , soft corals may flop over and may look small . but underwater , they expand and spread out to maximise the feeding surface .
most soft corals feed on plankton , some also feed on finer particles . like other cnidarians , soft coral polyps have tentacles with stingers to capture food .
many soft corals harbour microscopic , single - celled symbiotic algae ( zooxanthellae ) within their bodies . the algae undergo photosynthesis to produce food from sunlight . the food produced is shared with the host , which in return provides the algae with shelter and minerals .
some soft corals are homes to tiny animals . some tiny animals eat soft corals and look just like their much larger prey .
soft corals can reproduce asexually : budding of new polyps enlarges the colony . however , they also reproduce sexually . the polyps may produce sperm or eggs . the eggs develop into free - swimming larvae that drift with the plankton before settling down to start a new colonies .
soft corals protect themselves with unusual substances which are being studied for possible anti - cancer properties . soft corals are also harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade . living coral reefs , however , are worth far more to humans when they left alone . reefs bring in tourists which generate business beyond the shore ( e . g . , hotels , restaurants and travel - related industries ) .
like other creatures of the sea , soft corals are threatened by human activities that degrade or destroy the habitat .
trampling by careless visitors , and over - collection also have an impact on local populations .
flowery soft coral beting bronok , aug 05 ball soft coral beting bronok , jul 08 leathery coral st . john ' s island , aug 05 broad feathery soft coral st . john ' s island , aug 05 fine feathery soft coral beting bronok , jun 06
tiny colourful brittle stars are sometimes seen in soft corals . tuas , nov 03
small ovulid snails are sometimes seen in soft corals . chek jawa , apr 08
tiny red nose shrimp are sometimes seen in numbers in flowery soft coral . tuas , nov 03
from y . benayahu and l . m . chou , 28 feb 2010 .
* wee y . c . and peter k . l . ng . 1994 . a first look at biodiversity in singapore .
sansibia flava ( broad feathery soft corals ) + heteroxenia sp . ( xenia soft coral ) + brown feathery soft corals
soft corals shrug off poor image on the crc reef centre website : preliminary findings of a study on the role of soft corals in offshore and inshore reefs , and some info on their applications in human medicine .
borneman , eric h . 2001 . aquarium corals : selection , husbandry and natural history t . f . h publications . 464 pp
fabricius , katharina and philip alderslade , 2001 . soft corals and sea fans . australian institute of marine science and the museum and art gallery of the northern territoriy . 264 pp
edward e . ruppert , richard s . fox , robert d . barnes . 2004 . invertebrate zoology brooks / cole of thomson learning inc . , 7th edition . pp . 963
pechenik , jan a . , 2005 . biology of the invertebrates . 5 th edition . mcgraw - hill book co . , singapore . 578 pp .
wee y . c . and peter k . l . ng . 1994 . a first look at biodiversity in singapore . national council on the environment . 163pp .
ng , p . k . l . & y . c . wee , 1994 . the singapore red data book : threatened plants and animals of singapore . the nature society ( singapore ) , singapore . 343 pp .
a close - up of an alcyonacean in palau , showing the individual polyps .
peniculid . . . suborder frontoniina clathrostomatidae frontoniidae lembadionidae maritujidae stokesiidae suborder parameciina parameciidae neobursaridiidae urocentridae the peniculids are an order of ciliate protozoa . . . two suborders are recognised the frontoniina typically have a shallow oral cavity , with a long paroral membrane and denser somatic kineties to the right of the mouth . . . originally they were one of three suborders of the hymenostomes , which are now treated as subclasses of the oligohymenophorea . . .
scleractinia - classification . . . the patterns of the septal trabeculae to divide the group into five suborders . . . they also distinguished families by wall type and type of budding . . . alloiteau recognized eight suborders . . .
bat - classification and evolution . . . the two traditionally recognized suborders of bats are megachiroptera ( megabats ) microchiroptera ( microbats / echolocating bats ) not all megabats are larger than . . . the major distinctions between the two suborders are microbats use echolocation megabats do not with the exception of rousettus and relatives . . . consequently , two new suborders based on molecular data have been proposed . . .
sciurognathi . . . sciurognathi is a suborder of rodents that includes squirrels , chipmunks , beavers , and many types of mice . . . this is in contrast to the suborder hystricognathi where the angular process is outside of the plane formed at the root of the incisor due to the presence of a shelf for muscle attachment . . . in spite of this , most texts continue to use these two suborders due primarily to a lack of a viable alternative . . .
harvestman phylogeny - relationship of suborders . . . tord tamerlan teodor thorell ( 1892 ) recognized the suborders palpatores , laniatores , cyphophthalmi ( called anepignathi ) , but also included the ricinulei as a . . . ( after shultz 1998 ) according to current research , the cyphophthalmi , the most basal suborder , are a sister group to all other harvestmen , which are according to this system called phalangida . . . the phalangida consist of three suborders , the eupnoi , dyspnoi and laniatores . . .
, u . s . political activist . as quoted in newsweek magazine , p . 23 ( december 19 , 1994 )
soft corals have a flexible skeleton which is made of a protein called gorgin and calcium carbonate . [ 2 ] they have sclerites , which is a spiky skeleton element that supports their vertical structure as well as gives them texture . they also have gorgonin in the inner core of their colony , which is a type of fibrous protein that enables the flexibility of soft corals and their swinging movement along with the ocean waves . their polyps are anatomically separated from each other , as each polyp is a separate living organism . [ 1 ]
soft coral polyps have eight tentacles . each polyp is shaped like a cup with a ring of tentacles around a central opening called a pharynx that functions as the mouth and anus of the organism . on the tips of coral tentacles , there are stinging cells called nematocysts , which are used to defend themselves and to capture prey like zooplankton . most corals extend their polyps at night since that is when zooplankton is the most abundant . [ 2 ]
consists of one genus from the pacific ocean . bushy looking , low growing , and normally are green .
commonly known as palm tree polyps , and clove polyps . consists of a few diverse corals , contained in four subfamilies . polyps can have long tall stalks with either feathery or stark tentacles .
most colorful and ' fluffy ' of the soft corals . can be bushy or tree - like with beautiful colors : red , pink , yellow , and purple . examples are carnation coral and tree coral .
commonly known as china corals . form large tall colonies with thin and brittle branches . typically are red with contrasting white of yellow polyps . rarely available .
both pulsing and non - pulsing varieties . pulsing means corals ' polyps will pump water into the colony , which would create a rhythmic pulsing motion . colors can be white , brown , or blue . many have long feather - like tentacles .
soft corals can be found in waters world wide but primarily exist in tropical or subtropical climates . they are typically found in intertidal zones . some are found in deep sea , at depths up to six hundred and fifty feet or more . [ 4 ] soft corals exist on inner reefs just below the stony corals . they are not often the dominant corals within the reef , inhabiting dim areas such as caverns . soft corals are easily collected from the wild and most will thrive and grow quickly in captivity . because of this , soft corals are popular for domestic aquariums . [ 3 ]
corals are not entirely self photosynthetic . they partner with autotrophs , internally symbiotic algae like zooxanthellae , to produce nutrients to sustain themselves . the symbiotic relationship between algae and coral is well - known : corals provide protection and algae performs photosynthesis to produce nutrients consumed by corals ; however , the energy corals acquire from this symbiotic relationship is not enough for them to build biomass . studies haves shown that corals mainly use this energy as fuel for respiration and mucus secretion , rather than using it as the main source for growth . thus , corals also feed on other food sources like plankton , detritus , and dissolved molecules in the water column . [ 5 ]
for organic matter in the water , corals use their tentacles to trap small lives and pass them into their mouth . this is known as the “fly trap” mechanism and is generally utilized by corals with short tentacles ; for corals with medium tentacles , they feed on small crustaceans and planktonic worms ; and corals with large tentacles can feed on larger organisms including fish . feeding for corals is essential because they acquire their necessary vitamins like fatty acids through this process . corals’ feeding behavior varies depending on environmental cues like light , tides , currents , temperature , oxygen concentration , and food presence . when there is an absence of polyp predators , which is often at night , corals are more likely to “open up” to feed . [ 6 ] studies have shown that soft corals mainly feed on phytoplankton since plant - digesting enzymes have been found in three soft coral species .
soft corals can feed constantly . they are most known for getting their nutrients from multiple sources such as symbiotic relationships , planktonic organisms , microscopic food particles in the water , and dissolved organic matter . many soft corals obtain the largest portion of their nutrients from symbiosis with the zooxanthellae . some also have stinging cells , nematocysts , that sting passing organisms like plankton to make them easier to capture . soft corals that are kept in captivity will thrive given plankton or brine shrimp . [ 4 ]
soft corals are known to change forms to adapt with water flow patterns and types of prey . some species , like the xeniidae family , are known to exhibit a ' pulsing ' motion . this happens when the polyps retract , extend , and retract again on the surface of the coral in order to capture prey . [ 4 ]
soft corals have a chemical defense mechanism to ward off predators and other species that may harm them . they have allelopathic ( toxic to other species ) chemical effects ; terpenoids and other molecules that poison creatures that wander onto its surface or try to attach onto the corals . they chemicals can be released into the water . [ 4 ]
soft corals are able to reproduce sexually or asexually . they sexually reproduce when the corals release sperm and egg in a mass during a fertilizing event ( brooding ) . the sperm that is released is gathered by female polyps that have eggs . when the egg and sperm fertilize their larva , it eventually settles to the bottom to begin life cycle . [ 4 ] soft corals asexually reproduce by budding and fragmentation . budding is when a new polyp develops out of a previous one . in fragmentation , a large healthy portion is cut away from the organism and begins growing and developing independently . soft corals in captivity can be artificially propagated using the process of cutting and grafting . this involves cutting a reasonable piece of the coral off , soaking it in a sterile solution and attaching it with a kind of glue to a hard substrate . the coral will then adapt and grow on its own . [ 5 ]
soft corals are at danger from humans for reasons of disturbance like collection of corals for commercial and medical purposes . they are also effected by overfishing , pollution and discharge , and tourism .
in many countries , corals have been mined for commercial purposes by making pieces of corals into ornaments , souvenirs , or jewelry . since soft corals are not only colorful and beautifully - shaped but also easy to grow in a given environment , they are also targets for the aquarium industry . moreover , their tissues can be compounded to form medicines , thus they can also be collected for medical purposes . [ 7 ]
overfishing results in increasing algae population that would block sunlight and out - compete corals . overfishing of large predator fish also results in increasing population in polyp - feeding fish which would harm corals . destructive fishing methods like dynamite fishing can have huge harmful effects on corals . dynamite fishing refers to the fishing method that use explosives to bomb an area with a large population of fish and then collect dead fish afterwards . those explosives would not only kill fish , but also destroy coral ' s skeletons and make it hard for corals to maintain their three - dimensional structure . [ 8 ]
corals are affected by multiple pollution sources such as sediment , nutrients , runoff , groundwater seepage , and human changes in water sheds . some pollutants that negatively affect corals are natural ; however , are made worse by human influence . examples of these are : high levels of rainfall ; extreme weather events such as typhoons or hurricanes , highly erodible soils , and limestone hydrologic features . in addition to natural sources are many man - made sources : pesticides , petroleum hydrocarbons , pharmaceuticals , heavy metals , pathogens , and excess nutrients . pollutants can damage coral reefs by blocking their access to nutrients or giving them a burst of too much nutrients , causing an excess of algae to suffocate the corals . [ 8 ]
soft corals draw in a lot of tourism , which is a threat to corals because recreational activities can severely damage coral . recreational use of the coral reefs causes harm due to : breakage of coral colonies and tissue damage from direct contact such as walking , touching , kicking , standing , or gear contact ; breakage or overturning of coral colonies and tissue damage from boat anchors ; changes in marine life behavior from feeding or harassment by humans ; water pollution , and trash and debris deposited in the marine environment . reef resilience says that ,
trampling of corals is also common on shallow , near - shore reef flats and has led to extensive damage in areas with high levels of human use .
it is important for visitors of coral reefs to be informed and conscientious to the creatures and habitats below them . [ 9 ]