hesperia uncas , the uncas skipper or white-vein skipper , is a butterfly of the hesperiidae family .

it is found from us midwest to southern portions of the three canadian prairie provinces , north as far as edmonton , alberta .

the wingspan is 32 – 42 mm .

there are two generations per year with adults on wing from may to june and again from august to september , in canada from mid-june to late july .

the larvae feed on deschampsia elongata , stipa , bromus rubens , and poa pratensis .

adults feed on flower nectar from various flowers , including rabbitbrush , needlegrass ( stipa nevadensis ) , and blue grama ( bouteloua gracilis ) .

hesperia uncas

uncas skipper ( hesperia uncas ) ( w . h . edwards , 1863 )
katja schulz marked
uncas skipper , hesperia uncas lasus , female
as trusted on the
hesperia uncas lasus
page .
leslie ries set
image of hesperia uncas
as an exemplar on
hesperia uncas edwards 1863
.
uncas skipper hesperia uncas w . h . edwards , 1863 | butterflies and moths of north america
hesperia uncas uncas ; [ nl4a ] , # 1634a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
= hesperia uncas uncas ; [ nl4a ] , # 1634a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
listed incorrectly by pelham ( 2008 ) as hesperia uncas giuliani mcguire , 1998 .
butterflies of canada - uncas skipper ( hesperia uncas ) ( w . h . edwards , 1863 ) - canadian biodiversity information facility ( cbif )
flight season : hesperia uncas flies in canada from mid - june to late july .
hesperia uncas reeseorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia uncas grandiosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
hesperia uncas fulvapalla ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia uncas terraclivosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia uncas giuliani ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia uncas macswaini macneill , 1964 ; blancos corral , white mts . , mono co . , california
arizona one subspecies , hesperia uncas uncas , is recognized in apache co . arizona ( toliver , holland , and cary , 1994 ) * 04 * . hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is recognized arizona ( agfd , 1995 ) * 03 * . arizona county distributions are for hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified ( stanford and opler , 1995 ) * 05 * . colorado hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is verified in colorado ( stanford and opler , 1995 ) * 05 * . texas hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is verified in texas ( stanford and opler , 1995 ) * 05 * oklahoma hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is verified in oklahoma ( stanford and opler , 1995 ) * 05 * . utah hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is verified in utah ( stanford and opler , 1995 ) * 05 * .
uncas skippers live for about 3 weeks after emerging from pupation as adult butterflies .
hesperia uncas gilberti ; [ nl4a ] , # 1634b ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
uncas skipper caterpillars only eat certain kinds of grasses . these grasses are mostly blue grama (
hesperia uncas edwards , 1863 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 ( 1 ) : 19 ; tl : denver , colorado
christensen , c . 2014 .
hesperia uncas
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
hesperia uncas macswaini ; [ nacl ] , # 4018b ; [ boc ] , 72 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
uncas skippers , like other butterflies and moths feed on flowers nectar and therefore help contribute to pollination of plants .
hesperia uncas lasus ; [ nacl ] , # 4018a ; [ nl4a ] , # 1634c ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
minnesota department of natural resources . 2014 .
hesperia uncas
( on - line ) . species profile : minnesota dnr . accessed april 16 , 2014 at urltoken .
to cite this page : christensen , c . 2014 .
hesperia uncas
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
* * * note * * * common name - bison - m has elected to use the common name designated by the north american butterfly association , for this species ( nmba , 2000 ) * 10 * . new mexico two subspecies of hesperia uncas , h . u . uncas and h . u . lasus , are recognized in new mexico ( cary and holland , 1992 ) * 01 * . for information regarding the subspecies , h . u . lasus , see bison - m account # 211270 . arizona one subspecies , hesperia uncas uncas , is recognized in new mexico ( toliver , holland , and cary , 1994 ) * 04 * . hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , is recognized in arizona ( agfd , 1995 ) * 03 *
hesperia uncas grandiosa austin & mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 66 ) : 777 ; tl : nevada , white pine co .
hesperia uncas gilberti macneill , 1964 ; univ . calif . publ . ent . 35 : 85 , pl . 1 , f . 4 - 6 ; tl : mexico , distrito federal
hesperia uncas fulvapalla austin & mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 66 ) : 777 ; tl : nevada , nye co . , railroad valley
hesperia uncas terraclivosa austin & mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 66 ) : 779 ; tl : nevada , lander co . , toquima range
hesperia uncas giuliani mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 37 ) : 461 ; tl : california , mono co . , adobe hills , 7100ft
hesperia uncas reeseorum austin & mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 66 ) : 776 ; tl : neava , lander co . , reese river valley
similar species : the rhesus skipper ( polites rhesus ) is dark brown with no orange on the upperside , and males lack the black stigma . the white veins beneath distinguish uncas from other hesperia species . [ compare images ]
in minnesota , uncas skippers are considered an endangered species . this is because their grassland habitats in the state of minnesota have been destroyed by people . since this does not leave much area for uncas skippers to live in , their population size has gotten much smaller . people are trying to protect the land that the skippers live on to prevent them from disappearing from minnesota . in the rest of the country , uncas skippers are just fine and are not an endangered species .
there is not much known about what animals prey on uncas skippers . as quick fliers , they are likely able to fly away and escape from many predators .
uncas skippers feed on flowers nectar . while they move from flower to flower , they also help to pollinate these flowers , which allows the plants to reproduce .
hesperia uncas ; [ nacl ] , # 4018 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 10 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1634 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
1995 : hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , was listed under the natural heritage global rank
g4
(
g4
=
apparently secure
) ( agfd , 1995 ) * 02 * . arizona 1996 : hesperia uncas , subspecies not specified , was listed under the natural heritage state rank
s ?
in arizona (
s ?
=
state rank uncertain
: insufficient information for definitive state ranking ) ( agfd , hdms , 1996 ) * 08 * .
range : the uncas skipper has a wide range throughout the american midwest , extending into the southern part of the three prairie provinces , north as far as edmonton , alberta .
uncas skippers are small butterflies at 28 to 34 mm long , with a thick body . they measure 3 . 1 to 3 . 81 cm from wing tip to wing tip . the bottom of their wings are white with dark brown or black markings and spots . like all skippers , uncas skippers have short antennae with clubbed ends and tips that curve backwards .
the uncas skipper inhabits dry native prairie or barrens prairie on sand dune forms . more sparsely vegetated slopes and summits are especially critical . adults will range more widely in search of nectar .
hesperia colorado colorado ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado harpalus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia colorado dodgei ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia colorado leussleri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia colorado ochracea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado susanae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado oroplata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado mojavensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia lindseyi eldorado ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia lindseyi mccorklei ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia leonardus leonardus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia leonardus pawnee ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia leonardus montana ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia metea metea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia metea intermedia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia attalus attalus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia attalus nigrescens ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia meskei meskei ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia meskei pinocayo ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia sassacus sassacus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia sassacus nantahala ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia miriamae miriamae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia miriamae longaevicola ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia ( hesperiini ) ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 68
= hesperia colorado harpalus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
= hesperia leonardus leonardus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
= hesperia leonardus pawnee ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia metea scudder , 1863 ; proc . essex inst . 3 : 177 ; tl : connecticut
= hesperia attalus attalus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
= hesperia sassacus sassacus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia eburus plötz , 1885 ; berl . ent . z . 29 ( 2 ) : 226
hesperia comma benuncas ; [ bmat ] : 98 , pl . 31 , f . 50 - 53
hesperia pahaska leussler , 1938 ; ent . news 49 ( 1 ) : 5 ; tl : nebraska
hesperia assiniboia ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado idaho ; [ boc ] , 74 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia colorado oregonia ; [ boc ] , 74 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia colorado tildeni ; opler & warren , 2002 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia colorado mattoonorum ; [ boc ] , 74 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia sassacus harris , 1862 ; treatise ins . injur . veget . ( 3rd edn ) : 315 ; tl : cambridge
hesperia nevada nevada ; [ boc ] , 80 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia nevada sierra ; [ boc ] , 89 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
can primarily be found in both alkaline and short grasslands , as well as grassy alkaline flats . some western populations appear commonly clustered on thistles in southwestern road ditches by the dozens . uncas skippers in california are located at higher elevations in the white mountains of mono and inyo .
hesperia comma laurentina ; [ nacl ] , # 4020c ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia comma borealis ; [ nacl ] , # 4020d ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia lindseyi lindseyi ; [ nl4a ] , # 1631a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia ottoe edwards , 1866 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 6 ( 4 ) : 207 ; tl : kansas
hesperia pahaska pahaska ; [ nl4a ] , # 1633a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia pahaska martini ; [ nacl ] , # 4025b ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia metea licinus ; [ nacl ] , # 4027a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia attalus slossonae ; [ nacl ] , # 2029a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia meskei edwards , 1877 ; can . ent . 9 ( 3 ) : 58 ; tl : bastrop co . , texas
hesperia meskei straton ; [ nacl ] , # 2030a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia sassacus manitoboides ; [ nacl ] , # 2033a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia attalus nigrescens gatrelle , 1999 ; taxonomic rep . 1 ( 10 ) : 12 ; tl : south carolina , horry co .
hesperia susanae miller , 1962 ; ent . news 73 ( 4 ) : 85 ; tl : white mtns , apache co . , arizona
hesperia leonardus harris , 1862 ; treatise ins . injur . veget . ( 3rd edn ) : 314 , f . 138 ; tl : massachusetts
hesperia meskei ; [ nacl ] , # 2030 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia dacotae ; [ nacl ] , # 2031 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia miriamae ; [ nacl ] , # 2034 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia nevada sierra austin , emmel , emmel and mattoon , 1998 ; ; tl : tahoe meadows , carson range , washoe co . , california
hesperia comma pallida staudinger , 1901 ; in staudinger & rebel , cat . lepid . palaearct . faunengeb . , 1 : 92 ; tl : turkey
hesperia comma oroplata scott , 1981 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 1 : 8 ; tl : spring creek , fremont co . , colorado
hesperia comma manitoba ; [ nacl ] , # 4020a ; [ boc ] , 74 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia comma hulbirti ; [ nacl ] , # 4020k ; [ boc ] , 74 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia colorado f . ochracea lindsey , 1941 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 34 ( 4 ) : 770 ; tl : platte canyon , colorado
hesperia metea intermedia gatrelle , 2003 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 3 ) : 4 ; tl : south carolina , pickens co . , nr . lake issaqueena
hesperia meskei pinocayo gatrelle & minno , 2003 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 3 ) : 6 ; tl : florida , monroe co . , big pine key
hesperia hulbirti lindsey , 1939 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 32 ( 1 ) : 171 ; tl : hurrican hill , olympic mts . , washington
hesperia pahaska williamsi ; [ nacl ] , # 4025a ; [ nl4a ] , # 1633b ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
diagnosis : the veins on the underside of the hindwings are white , and the medial row of white spots is expanded into a continuous or nearly continuous white band that crosses the veins . the females of uncas have larger white spots on the upperside of the forewing than other species , and are a little darker than the males . wingspan : 24 to 31 mm .
is very similar to other skippers that it flies with , but this butterfly is small at 28 to 34 mm long , with a robust body , angled forewings , and shorter , more round hind wings . its wingspan averages 3 . 1 to 3 . 81 cm . on the underside of its wings , the uncas skipper has extensive hindwings of white chevron with connected spots , with white veins and blotchy dark brown to black markings . the white spots orientate inwardly and outwardly by dark green shades . the populations located in mono county , california have reduced hindwing white veining and often have dark brown to black markings . like all skippers , uncas skippers have antennas that are relatively short which have clubbed ends and tips that curve backwards .
the caterpillars build shelters by tying together leaves and other plant pieces with silk . they live in these shelters and build bigger shelters as they grow . caterpillars that are hibernating for winter have been found in shelters buried in the soil . adult uncas skippers are very strong , fast fliers . their wings beat so fast that they often look like a blur to human eyes .
lindsey , a . w . 1942 . a preliminary revision of hesperia . denison university bulletin , journal of the scientific laboratories 37 : 1 - 50 + 6 plates .
hesperia miriamae macneill , 1959 ; wasmann j . biol . 17 ( 1 ) : 90 ; tl : nr mono pass , northwest inyo co . , california , 12000ft
hesperia nabokovi ; burns , 1987 , j . lep . soc . 41 ( 4 ) : 174 , f . 1 - 15 ; [ nl4a ] , # 1632
hesperia tildeni freeman , 1956 ; lepid . news . 9 ( 6 ) : ( 196 - 198 ) ; tl : cherry flat reservoir , santa clara co . , california
hesperia juba ; [ nacl ] , # 4019 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1630 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69
hesperia woodgatei ; [ nacl ] , # 4021 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1636 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia pahaska ; [ nacl ] , # 4025 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1633 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia pahaska f . williamsi lindsey , 1940 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 33 ( 2 ) : 375 ; tl : baboquivari mts , pima co . , arizona
hesperia viridis ; [ nacl ] , # 2028 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1635 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia sassacus nantahala gatrelle & grkovich , 2003 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 3 ) : 3 ; tl : north carolina , clay co . , hwy at buck creek , 3400ft
hesperia colorado mattoonorum mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 37 ) : 464 ; tl : smith r . , del norte co . , california
= hesperia metea licinus ; freeman , 1948 , ent . news 59 ( 8 ) : ( 203 - 206 ) ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia colorado f . leussleri lindsey , 1940 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 33 ( 2 ) : 373 ; tl : warner ' s hot springs , san diego co . , california
hesperia miriamae longaevicola mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 37 ) : 463 ; tl : california , mono co . , mt barcroft , 13400ft , white mtns
depending on the area , uncas skippers can go through their entire life cycle once or twice a year . in south dakota and most of its range , there are two generation per year , with adults present from may to june and july to september . in minnesota , there is one generation per year from june to july . after mating , the female finds plants to lay her eggs on , usually a kind of grass called the hairy grama (
hesperia leonardus ; [ nacl ] , # 4023 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 3 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
hesperia metea ; [ nacl ] , # 4027 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 4 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia attalus ; [ nacl ] , # 2029 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 1 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 73
hesperia sassacus ; [ nacl ] , # 2033 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 9 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
uncas skippers have four life stages : egg , larvae ( also called a caterpillar ) , pupae , and adult . this is called complete metamorphosis . adults mate in the spring or summer and lay eggs . the eggs hatch after 10 days . caterpillars go through several developmental stages called instars , become pupae , and transform into adult butterflies . these butterflies mate and lay eggs , but when these caterpillars hatch and reach their fourth or fifth instar stage , they go into hibernation for the winter , and do not come out of hibernation until the following spring . in the spring , they become pupae for 2 to 3 weeks , and then adults , and repeat the entire life cycle . there are some parts of their range , like in minnesota , where the uncas skippers only have one generation per year , meaning that they only lay eggs once per season , and the caterpillars that hatch from this first batch go into hibernation .
hesperia comma maroccana picard , 1950 ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 28 : 129 - 130 ; tl : afraou des beni abdallah , daya chicker , tameghilt , col du taghzeft ( morocco )
hesperia comma borealis lindsey , 1942 ; j . sci . labs . denison univ . 37 ( 1 / 2 ) : 19 , pl . 1 , f . 9 , 16 ; tl : nain , labrador
hesperia comma mojavensis austin & mcguire , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 39 ) : 481 ; tl : nevada , clark co . , spring mtns , kyle canyon ski area
hesperia lindseyi ; [ nacl ] , # 2032 ; [ boc ] , 78 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1631 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia lindseyi macneilli ; severns & severns , 2005 , j . lep . soc . 59 ( 3 ) : f . 1e - f ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia columbia ; [ nacl ] , # 4026 ; [ boc ] , 76 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1628 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 72
most of the uncas skipper habitat remaining in the state forest has been dedicated as a state scientific and natural area and is being managed to protect and restore the native sand prairie and savanna . conifers in the core habitat patches have been removed and management to open up additional habitat and to restore intervening woodlands to oak scrub are underway . there have also been discussions about removal of conifers from the rest of the remaining habitat patches , which are within a recreation area in the state forest .
macneill , c . d . 1964 . the skippers of the genus hesperia in western north america , with special reference to california ( lepidoptera : hesperiidae ) . university of california publications in entomology 35 : 1 - 230 .
hesperia lindseyi macneilli emmel , emmel & mattoon , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 38 ) : 475 ; tl : california , mendocino co . , branscomb rd at laytonville , 1645 '
hesperia ottoe ; [ nacl ] , # 4022 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 5 ( text ) ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 71
hesperia nevada ; [ nacl ] , # 2035 ; [ bow ] : pl . 22 , f . 8 ( text ) ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 75
hesperia lindseyi septentrionalis emmel , emmel & mattoon , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 38 ) : 477 ; tl : little shata r . , e of montague , siskiyou co . , california
hesperia lindseyi septentrionalis ; [ boc ] , 78 ; severns & severns , 2005 , j . lep . soc . 59 ( 3 ) : f . 1c - d ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 74
hesperia colorado ; [ boc ] , 74 ; [ opler ] ; shapiro & forister , 2005 , j . lep . soc . 59 ( 3 ) : 161 - 165 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 70
hesperia lindseyi eldorado emmel , emmel & mattoon , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 38 ) : 476 ; tl : california , el dorado co . , west slope sierra nevada , meadow brook barrens , traverse creek
hesperia pahaska martini macneill , 1964 ; univ . calif . publ . ent . 35 : 148 , pl . 1 , f . 7 - 9 ; tl : 4 . 5mil se of ivanpah , new york mtns , san bernardino co . , california
males and females differ greatly on the upper side of the wings . males will typically have a brownish orange darker coloration . small light colored spots can be seen near the forewing tips . males also have a linear black band of scent scales that are used in courtship . these scales are placed on the long axis of the forewings . females tend to be darker , with larger white spots on the forewings . uncas females tend to have larger , and more broad wings which is a characteristic found in skippers . both sexes will become duller with age as the scales fall off , but the pattern will never disappear .
hesperia lindseyi mccorklei severns & severns , 2005 ; j . lep . soc . 59 ( 3 ) : 166 , f . 1a - b ; tl : oregon , douglas co . , hillside n of jackson creek road , 3 . 8mi e of junction with south umpqua road
mcguire , w . w . 1998 . 37 . descriptions of three new subspecies of hesperia ( lepidoptera : hesperiidae ) from the western united states . pp . 461 - 474 in : t . c . emmel , editor . systematics of western north american butterflies . mariposa press , gainesville , florida .
hesperia comma ; [ bow ] : pl . 11 , f . 18 - 19 ; [ bru ] , 131 ; [ nacl ] , # 4020 ; [ mrs ] , 732 ; [ boc ] , 74 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1629 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 69 ; [ otakar kudrna ]
subspecies : there are three subspecies , but only the nominate subspecies occurs in canada .
early stages : the larva is light brown with a dark dorsal stripe and pale lateral stripes . the head is dark brown with cream - coloured marks on the face . foodplants include blue grama ( bouteloua gracilis ) and needlegrass ( stipa spp . ) .
abundance : this skipper tends to be uncommon to rare in the northern part of its range ; there are no recent records from manitoba and it may no longer occur there .
habits : it occurs in short - grass prairie , usually on dry sandy prairie hillsides .
remarks : this is a wary , fast - flying species , difficult to follow with the eye . like other prairie skippers , it appears to be declining in numbers as its habitat continues to disappear .
© 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .
wings are brownish orange . underside of hindwing has white veins , white spots extended along the veins , and black submarginal patches .
males perch on tops of small hills or mesas to await females . females lay eggs singly on or near the host plants . caterpillars eat leaves and take shelter in tied - up leaves .
one brood from june - july in high elevations ; two broods from may - september in the remainder of the range .
high plains from central alberta east to southern manitoba ; south to east - central california , southeast arizona , west and north texas ; south to southern mexico . a stray to southwest iowa and eastern minnesota .
g4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .
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males and females have very different colors and patterns on the upper side of their wings . males have a brownish - orange color , with small light spots . males also have a black band of scent scales on their wings . females are darker in color than males , with large white spots on the front wings . females also have larger , broader wings . both sexes become duller with age as the scales on their wings fall off , but the pattern will stay the same .
the eggs are greenish white . the young larvae or caterpillar is pale brown , and the head is a darker brown with cream spots and streaks in the front .
, is found across canada from saskatchewan to alberta , and down into the united states through the rocky mountains and great plains . from the great plains it lives as south as texas and new mexico . in new mexico and minnesota , there are two populations that are completely separated from the rest of the country .
can be found in grasslands . some western populations can be seen gathered in large numbers on thistle plants in southwestern road ditches .
probably mate right after they emerge from pupation in the spring . males will look for female mates by perching on plants or on the sand . many males will also collect on hills or ridges , which may get the attention of the female . males also produce chemicals called pheromones from the scent scales on their wings . these pheromones attract the females . when they want to mate , females will fly down to where the males are sitting . females usually only mate once in their lives , while males will mate with many different females .
) . the female will lay only a single egg before moving on to the next tuft of grass .
how often does reproduction occur ? females mate once in their lives , while males will mate as much as possible .
breeding season depending on the region , mating takes place from late spring to late summer .
females provide nutrients in their eggs for the young to use to grow and develop . female parents also lay the eggs on specific grass plants so that the caterpillars will have something to eat when they hatch . however , after the eggs are laid , the parents leave and do not come back .
the larvae will live in shelters that grow in size , that they themselves built out of silk and plant materials . the shelters are built bigger and bigger as the larvae grow too . overwintering larvae have also been found in shelters that have been build under the soil . adult
are very rapid and strong fliers . they have a very fast wing beat that almost appears to be like a blur to human eyes .
have a black line of scent scales on their wings . while trying to attract mates , males produce pheromones from these scent scales . the pheromones let the female skippers know that the males are there and ready to mate , and attract the females to them . males also communicate with females by sight . the males gather in groups on high ridges , which females see and know that the males are there to mate .
courtney christensen ( author ) , minnesota state university mankato , robert sorensen ( editor ) , minnesota state university , mankato , angela miner ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .
. new york , united states of america : oxford university press , inc . .
biokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright © 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .
marrone , g . m . 2002 . field guide to butterflies of south dakota . south dakota department of game , fish , and parks , pierre , south dakota . 478 pp .
royer , r . a . 1988 . butterflies of north dakota : an atlas and guide . science monograph number 1 , minot state university , minot , north dakota . 192 pp .
scott , j . a . 1986 . the butterflies of north america : a natural history and field guide . stanford university press , stanford , california . 583 pp .
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
, ranges across canada from saskatchewan to alberta , and down into the united states through the rocky mountains and great plains . from the great plains its range extends south to texas and new mexico .
there are two isolated populations , one in south central mexico and the other in minnesota . in minnesota , a small population only exists in the sand dunes of sherburne county . this population is 500 kilometers east of its known limits in the dakotas . this population in minnesota is different , phenotypically , than that of the population in the great plains . two recent sightings of
males in southwestern minnesota might indicate a wider distribution in the eastern side of south dakota , however lack of habitat in this area would likely prevent the establishment of a population .
the eggs appear greenish white and are hemispherical . the young larvae form is pale brown , and the head is a darker brown with cream spots and streaks in the front .
pupae emerge during the spring or summer , depending on the region . in south dakota and much of its range ,
has two generations , one in may and june , the other in july to september . in minnesota , it has only one generation in june and july . after emerging from pupation , adults take flight and find mates . eggs are laid , and hatch after about 10 days . in the first generation , larvae go through several instar stages , pupate , and then emerge as adults . in the second generation ( or for the only generation in minnesota ) , larvae develop until the fourth or fifth instar , and then go into hibernation for the winter . they emerge again in late spring or summer , and pupate for 2 to 3 weeks before emerging as adults and beginning the cycle again .
probably mate shortly after emergence and will rarely remate . the males will look for receptive females by perching on low vegetation or directly on bare sand . males use the scent scales on their wings to produce pheromones for courtship . many males will also collect on hills or ridges , which may draw the attention of females , though little is known for sure about this behavior . receptive females respond to males by descending into the vegetation where mating follows .
can have one or two generations per year . in south dakota and most of its range , there are two generation per year , with adults present from may to june and july to september . in minnesota , there is one generation per year from june to july . after mating , the female finds plants to oviposit on ; all observed ovipositions of
) , which is a tufted grass . the female will lay only a single egg before moving on to the next tuft .
breeding interval females mate once in their lives , while males will mate as much as possible .
females provide provisioning in their eggs , as well as lay the eggs on suitable host plants for the larvae to feed upon hatching . after the eggs are laid , there is no more interaction or care by the parents .
have a linear black band of scent scales on their wings that release pheromones during courtship . males also may communicate with females visually , as the males collect in groups on high ridges before females , likely a visual cue to females .
. as quick fliers , they are likely able to evade any ground predators , as well as many airborne predators .
is listed as endangered . this is due to the destruction of its habitat in that state , and only a small population in an isolated area remains there . conservation efforts are underway to protect the population and its habitat in this area .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
in deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .
a period of time when growth or development is suspended in insects and other invertebrates , it can usually only be ended the appropriate environmental stimulus .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .
a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,
incomplete metamorphosis
is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and
complete metamorphosis
is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
offspring are all produced in a single group ( litter , clutch , etc . ) , after which the parent usually dies . semelparous organisms often only live through a single season / year ( or other periodic change in conditions ) but may live for many seasons . in both cases reproduction occurs as a single investment of energy in offspring , with no future chance for investment in reproduction .
one of the sexes ( usually males ) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex . for example : antlers , elongated tails , special spurs .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
( on - line ) . species profile : minnesota dnr . accessed april 16 , 2014 at
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
640x546 ( ~ 33kb ) usa : table mtn , ( ~ 47°19n 120°42w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo © markku savela
500x401 ( ~ 22kb ) usa : table mtn , ( ~ 47°19n 120°42w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo © markku savela
500x630 ( ~ 38kb ) usa : table mtn , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo © markku savela
600x505 ( ~ 39kb ) usa : fr9708 , table mtn ( 47°18 ' 28n 120°41 ' 25w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 19 . 7 . 1999 , photo © markku savela
800x577 ( ~ 47kb ) usa : table mtn ( ~ 47°19n 120°42w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo © markku savela
500x642 ( ~ 48kb ) usa : mima mounds natural area preserve , thurston co . , wa , 13 . 8 . 2001 , photo © markku savela
the exact identification of these species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .
pamphila comma var . ? lato grum - grshimailo , 1891 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 25 ( 3 - 4 ) : 459
800x800 ( ~ 107kb ) underside a patch of a meadow steppe at the village fadino , 10 km s of the city omsk , west siberia , russia . 15th august 1995 , photo © oleg kosterin
= erynnis comma colorado ; dyar , 1905 , j . n . y . ent . soc . 13 : 129
pamphila dimila moore , [ 1875 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 4 ) : 576 ; tl : runang pass , busahir
pamphila manitoba var . laurentina lyman , 1892 ; can . ent . 24 ( 3 ) : 59 ; tl : lower st . lawrence
comma lena ( korshunov & p . gorbunov , 1995 ) ; ; tl : yakutia , chukot peninsula
pamphila manitoba var . assiniboia lyman , 1892 ; can . ent . 24 ( 3 ) : 57 ; tl : regina
pamphila colorado scudder , 1874 ; mem . boston soc . nat . hist . 2 : 349 , pl . 10 , f . 18 ♀ , 16 - 17
1600x1606 ( ~ 277kb ) underside male usa : pike national forest , sugar creek on cr - 67 ( about 39°18 ' n 105°10 ' w ) , douglas co . , co , 29 . 7 . 2012 , photo © markku savela
700x830 ( ~ 68kb ) underside usa : fr 9705 nr . liberty and lion gulch , ( 47°17 ' 44n 120°39 ' 54w ±0 . 5km ) , kittitas co . , wa , 14 . 8 . 2001 , photo © markku savela
1400x1074 ( ~ 162kb ) female usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40°40 ' 35
n 109°29 ' 14
w ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo © markku savela
1000x1380 ( ~ 152kb ) female usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40°40 ' 35
n 109°29 ' 14
w ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo © markku savela
800x752 ( ~ 70kb ) upperside female usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40°40 ' 35
n 109°29 ' 14
w ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo © markku savela
1200x1240 ( ~ 181kb ) underside male usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40°40 ' 35
n 109°29 ' 14
w ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo © markku savela
pamphila oregonia edwards , 1883 ; can . ent . 15 ( 8 ) : 150 ; tl : trinity co , california
pamphilus juba r . dodgei bell , 1927 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 35 ( 2 ) : 175 ; tl : santa cruz , california
800x600 ( ~ 85kb ) male a forb meadow on a se slope 12 km se of the village gazimurskii zavod , gazimurskozavodskoi district , e chita province , e transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 24th july 1997 , on dianthus versicolor fischer ex link , photo © oleg kosterin
500x609 ( ~ 45kb ) underside usa : mima mounds natural area preserve , thurston co . , wa , 13 . 8 . 2001 , photo © markku savela
erynnis lindseyi holland , 1930 ; ann . carnegie mus . 19 ( 3 ) : 158 ; tl : nellie and ukiah , california
arizona , new mexico , s . texas , n . mexico . see [ maps ]
pamphila woodgatei williams , 1914 ; ent . news 25 ( 6 ) : 266 ; tl : new mexico
pamphila pawnee montana skinner , 1911 ; ent . news 22 ( 8 ) : 413 ; tl : colorado , chaffee co . , 7500ft ; salida
pamphila juba var . viridis edwards , 1883 ; can . ent . 15 ( 8 ) : 147 ; tl : new mexico
pamphila attalus edwards , 1871 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 : 276 ; tl : nr waco , texas
pamphila slossonae skinner , 1890 ; ent . am . 6 ( 7 ) : 138 ; tl : florida
pamphila straton edwards , 1881 ; papilio 1 ( 5 ) : 78 ; tl : indian river [ brevard co . , florida ]
pamphila sassacus dacotae skinner , 1911 ; ent . news 22 ( 8 ) : 412 ; tl : volga , south dakota
pamphila manitoboides fletcher , 1904 ; can . ent . 36 ( 5 ) : 128
pamphila nevada scudder , 1874 ; mem . boston soc . nat . hist . 2 : 347 , pl . 10 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl :
colorado , oregon
atalopedes nabokovi bell & comstock , 1948 ; amer . mus . novit . no . 1379 : 19 ; tl : hispaniola
butterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .
[ ² ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .
descriptions of certain species of diurnal lepidoptera , found within the limits of the united states and british america . ( no . 1 - 3 )
descriptions of certain species of diurnal lepidoptera found within the limits of the united states and british america . no . 5
a catalogue of the american hesperiidae , indicating the classification and nomenclature adopted in the british museum . part iv . hesperiinae and megathyminae
dodge , with description of a new form ( lep . , rhop . )
systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition
neue hesperiden des indischen archipels und ost - africa ' s aus der collection des herrn h . ribbe in blasewitz - dresden , gesammelt von den herren : c . ribbe auf celebes , java un den aru - inseln , künstler auf malacca ( perak ) ; kühn auf west - guinea ( jekar ) ; menger auf ceylon
a systematic revision of some of the american butterflies ; with brief notes on those known to occur in essex county , mass .
a natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors
one hundred butterflies from the james mountains new mexico ( lepid . ) , with notes and description of a new species
wright , 1905 the butterflies of the west coast of the united states butts . west coast us : 3 - 257
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
is a year - round resident in the central western united states , north into south central canada and south to southern mexico ( scott 1986 ) . habitats are prairie , open woodland and sagebush . host plants are several species of grasses , especially
. eggs are laid on or near the host plant singly . there is a variable number of flights depending on latitude with one flight at high altitude with the approximate flight time june 150 july 31 , two flights , mainly june 1 - june 30 and aug . 1 - aug . 31 on the plains , and several flights from late april - sept . 15 in the southern part of their range ( scott 1986 ) .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !


the dolphin gull ( leucophaeus scoresbii ) , sometimes erroneously called the red-billed gull ( a somewhat similar but unrelated species from new zealand ) , is a gull native to southern chile and argentina , and the falkland islands .

it is a coastal bird inhabiting rocky , muddy and sandy shores and is often found around seabird colonies .

they have greyish feathers , and the feathers on their wings are a darker shade .

dolphin gulls have a varied diet , eating many things ranging from mussels to carrion .

the modern scientific name leucophaeus scoresbii , together with the obsolete common name scoresby 's gull , commemorates the english explorer william scoresby ( 1789 – 1857 ) .

dolphin gull

figure s2–s17 . figure s2 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 682 , a mussel feeder . figure s3 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 683 , a colony feeder . figure s4 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 686 , a mussel feeder . figure s5 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 688 , a colony feeder . figure s6 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 689 , a colony feeder . figure s7 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 690 , a mussel feeder . figure s8 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 692 , a colony feeder . figure s9 . gps fixes of female dolphin gull number 696 , a colony feeder . figure s10 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 684 , a colony feeder . figure s11 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 685 , a colony feeder . figure s12 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 687 , a colony feeder . figure s13 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 691 , a mussel feeder . figure s14 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 693 , a mussel feeder . figure s15 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 695 , a mussel feeder . figure s16 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 697 , a mussel feeder . figure s17 . gps fixes of male dolphin gull number 700 , a colony feeder .
dolphin gull . first cycle and adult birds . porvenir , chilean patagonia . november 2015 .
yorio p , boersma pd , swann s ( 1996 ) breeding biology of the dolphin gull at punta tombo , argentina . condor 98 : 208–215 .
the dolphin gull is resident on falkland islands . however , wide dispersion around the islands is reported . the birds from mainland s america move northwards . those from argentina ( punta tumbo ) move 200 km to north , on valdés peninsula . like all laridae , the dolphin gull has powerful and agile flight .
protection / threats / status : the dolphin gull’s population is estimated at 6 , 700 / 19 , 000 mature individuals . the falklands’ population is the largest with about 4 , 000 breeding pairs . these populations appear fairly stable in spite of introduced predators on the islands . the dolphin gull is not currently threatened .
aspects of the feeding ecology of dolphin gulls have been described at different locations throughout its range , although the information is largely anecdotal and descriptive . dolphin gull diet can include food dropped by other colonial seabirds , feces of marine mammals , intertidal mussels , algae , and invertebrates washed ashore after storms [ 15−21 ] , . movements of dolphin gulls have been mapped by radio tracking at punta tombo , where 99 % of locations were within 2 . 4 km of the dolphin gull colony [ 15 ] .
devillers p ( 1977 ) comments on plumages and behaviour of scoresby’s gull . gerfaut 67 : 254–265 .
table s1 . location , identity , and size of seabird and mammal colonies visited by the dolphin gull leucophaeus scoresbii from new island . places were surveyed from a sailing boat in december 2010 .
dolphin gulls are widely distributed around the falklands coast , but their breeding sites are more restricted .
introduction : the name of this species pays tribute to the english explorer william scoresby ( 1789 - 1857 ) . the dolphin gull belongs to the genus leucophaeus for its peculiar behaviour , plumage , and chick’s appearance .
chicks fledge by march . dolphin gulls feed and scavenge on variety of food , from mussels to carrion .
the dolphin gull shows very peculiar plumage with uniform pale grey head and upperparts . the mantle is darker . primaries are uniformly black , whereas secondaries and inner primaries show a broad , white , triangular trailing edge . the tail is white .
this shot is from january , 1996 , on sea lion island in the falklands and shows a dolphin gull standing along a rocky shoreline . this was taken with a canon t - 90 and an fd 400mm f / 5 . 6 lens on fuji sensia .
range : the dolphin gull occurs in southern south america , around the coasts of southern chile and argentina , to tierra del fuego and falkland islands . outside the breeding season , it can be seen further north on both mainland coasts . it is resident on falklands .
pierotti r , annett ca ( 1991 ) diet choice in the herring gull : constraints imposed by reproductive and ecological factors . ecology 72 : 319–328 .
habitat : the dolphin gull occurs on the rocky coasts . its breeding sites vary from low sea cliffs , through sand or gravel beaches , to marshy depression and headlands . on falkland islands , it often occurs near fresh water or on rocks over sea . the non - breeding birds often frequent harbours .
the brain of an adult bottlenose dolphin is about 25 % heavier than the average human adult ' s brain . photograph : stephen frink / getty images
figure s18–figure s19 . figure s18 . kernel density analyses of gps data of dolphin gulls leucophaeus scoresbii . the 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 and 95 % density contour areas of tagged dolphin gulls that repeatedly attended seabird and seal colonies ( denoted as ‘colony feeders’ ) . gps locations of colony feeders are marked with triangles . mussels , seals and seabirds present per site : site 1 ) imperial shags leucocarbo atriceps , rockhopper penguins eudyptes chrysocome , black - browed albatrosses thalassarche melanophris ; site 2 ) imperial shags and rock shags phalacrocorax magellanicus , fur seals arctocephalus australis ; site 3 ) rock shags ; site 4 ) blue mussel mytilus edulis chilensis ; site 5 ) imperial and rock shags ; site 6 ) imperial and rock shags , southern giant - petrels macronectes giganteus ; site 7 ) imperial and rock shags . the dolphin gull colony at new i . is indicated with a white square . a second dolphin gull colony in the region is marked with a black square . figure s19 . kernel density analyses of gps data of dolphin gulls leucophaeus scoresbii . the 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 and 95 % density contour areas of tagged dolphin gulls that repeatedly attended mussel beds ( denoted as ‘mussel feeders’ ) . gps locations of mussel feeders are marked with circles . mussels , seals and seabirds present per site : site 1 ) imperial shags leucocarbo atriceps , rockhopper penguins eudyptes chrysocome , black - browed albatrosses thalassarche melanophris ; site 2 imperial shags and rock shags phalacrocorax magellanicus , fur seals arctocephalus australis ; site 3 ) rock shags ; site 4 ) blue mussel mytilus edulis chilensis ; site 5 ) imperial and rock shags ; site 6 ) imperial and rock shags , southern giant - petrels macronectes giganteus ; site 7 ) imperial and rock shags . the dolphin gull colony at new i . is indicated with a white square . a second dolphin gull colony in the region is marked with a black square .
behaviour in the wild : the dolphin gull usually occurs in the vicinity of seabirds colonies , near marine mammals and even close to slaughterhouses . it feeds mainly on carrion and offal , chicks and eggs of seabirds , mussels and other marine invertebrates . it scavenges around the marine mammals , taking dead fish , placentae and especially faeces .
40–46 cm ; 524 g ; wingspan 104–110 cm . uniquely plumaged gull , with uniform grey suffusion on head and underbody , dark mantle and black primaries , the latter with . . .
yorio p , quintana f , gatto a , lisnizer n , suárez n ( 2004 ) foraging patterns of breeding olrog ' s gull at golfo san jorge , argentina . waterbirds 27 : 193–199 .
the dolphin gull ( larus scoresbii ) is an uncommon gull of extreme southern south america in argentina and chile . it also occurs on the falkland islands . the bird at right was perched on a tie - down rope of a cruise ship at ushuaia , argentina on the beagle channel , in february , 2003 . the shot was taken with a canon d60 and ef 70 - 200 f / 2 . 8 l is lens and 2x extender . the next three shots show dolphin gulls in flight as they patrolled a shag colony at bleaker island in the falklands in february , 2000 . these gulls are on the watch for any injured chick or unguarded egg so that they might get a meal . these were shot with a canon eos 1n and ef 70 - 200mm f / 2 . 8 l lens and 1 . 4x extender on fuji velvia .
the 50 % kernel density distribution of tagged dolphin gulls that repeatedly attended seabird and seal colonies ( denoted as ‘colony feeders’ ; sites 1–3 and 5–7 ) are marked red . the 50 % kernel density distribution of birds that repeatedly attended mussel beds ( denoted as ‘mussel feeders’ ; site 4 ) are marked light blue . gps locations of colony feeders are marked with triangles , while those of mussel feeders are marked with circles . mussels , seals and seabirds present per site : site 1 ) imperial shags leucocarbo atriceps , rockhopper penguins eudyptes chrysocome , black - browed albatrosses thalassarche melanophris ; site 2 ) imperial and rock shags , fur seals arctocephalus australis ; site 3 ) rock shags ; site 4 ) blue mussel mytilus edulis chilensis ; site 5 ) imperial and rock shags ; site 6 ) imperial and rock shags , southern giant - petrels macronectes giganteus ; site 7 ) imperial and rock shags . the dolphin gull colony at new i . is indicated with a white square . a second dolphin gull colony in the region is marked with a black square .
the studied breeding colony at new island ( 51°43′s , 61°18′w ; 76 nests ) , falkland islands / islas malvinas , in the south - western atlantic is indicated with a white square and an arrow . a second dolphin gull colony ( 20 nests ) in the region is marked with a black square . data correspond to eight incubating females and eight incubating males tagged during 2–9 january 2009 . gps fixes are marked with a circle .
citation : masello jf , wikelski m , voigt cc , quillfeldt p ( 2013 ) distribution patterns predict individual specialization in the diet of dolphin gulls . plos one 8 ( 7 ) : e67714 . urltoken
yorio , pablo petracci , pablo and garcía borboroglu , pablo 2013 . current status of the threatened olrog’s gull larus atlanticus : global population , breeding distribution and threats . bird conservation international , vol . 23 , issue . 04 , p . 477 .
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the dolphin gull’s calls vary from harsh croaking to screaming calls . the alarm call is a series of “kek , kek , kek…” long calls are high - pitched and loud , ending in a prolonged laughter . these long calls are used to attract a mate , to call the chicks and to defend the territory . many calls are individually recognizable , and allow parents and chicks to recognize each other within the colony .
we found that individual dolphin gulls specialized on particular feeding sites and diets , and the specialization was consistent over a range of several days ( gps loggers ) as well as several weeks ( stable isotope values ) .
suárez , nicolás pozzi , luciana and yorio , pablo 2010 . nest site selection of the kelp gull ( larus dominicanus ) in the beagle channel , tierra del fuego , argentina . polar biology , vol . 33 , issue . 2 , p . 215 .
dolphins are quick learners . calves stay with their mothers for several years , allowing the time and opportunity for extensive learning to take place , particularly through imitation . at a dolphinarium , a person standing by the pool’s window noticed that a dolphin calf was watching him . when he released a puff of smoke from his cigarette , the dolphin immediately swam off to her mother , returned and released a mouthful of milk , causing a similar effect to the cigarette smoke . another dolphin mimicked the scraping of the pool’s observation window by a diver , even copying the sound of the air - demand valve of the scuba gear while releasing a stream of bubbles from his blowhole .
lisnizer , nora garcía - borboroglu , pablo pascual , miguel and yorio , pablo 2015 . transfer processes drive population dynamics of kelp gull colonies in patagonia : implications for management strategies . marine biology research , vol . 11 , issue . 7 , p . 738 .
burger , j . , gochfeld , m . , garcia , e . f . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . dolphin gull ( larus scoresbii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
figure s20–s23 . figure s20 . feeding in seabird colonies . most dolphin gulls leucophaeus scoresbii ( traill , 1823 ) at new island feed on the scraps of food dropped while larger seabirds such as imperial cormorants leucocarbo atriceps ( king , 1828 ) ( upper picture ) or gentoo penguins pygoscelis papua ( j . r . forster , 1781 ) ( lower picture ) feed their chicks . usually , dolphin gulls walk or fly close to a cormorant or penguin while feeding chicks . when the birds interrupt their feeding to attack the gull , they commonly drop some food , which is then picked up by the gull . figure s21 . feeding in mussel beds . dolphin gulls feed in mussel beds ( upper left picture ) by picking out blue mussels ( mytilus edulis chilensis ) , which they open by dropping them from some height unto the rocks below ( lower picture ) . the mussel shells with holes are regularly found as a result ( upper right picture ) . figure s22 . feeding in mussel beds dense beds or mats of blue mussel mytilus edulis chilensis are common in the falkland islands / islas malvinas but largely confined to sheltered bays and inlets . a particularly large blue mussel bed is located in beaver harbour , on the east side of beaver island ( pictures below ; see also fig . 1 ) . figure s23 . additional food source . occasionally , dolphin gulls picked up krill larvae or other invertebrates that washed ashore after storms in the intertidal zone .
many species live in complex societies . to fit in , young dolphins must learn about the conventions and rules of dolphin society , teamwork and who’s who in the group . for these dolphins , play provides an ideal opportunity to learn about relationships in a relatively non - threatening way . at sarasota bay in florida , randall wells and his team have observed groups of juvenile male bottlenose dolphins behaving like boisterous teenage boys . using its head to do the lifting , one dolphin may even get another dolphin air borne , actually tossing it out of the water . it’s unclear exactly what is going on . it could be play , but more likely these are serious interactions that are defining social relationships .
to analyze individual specialization in dolphin gulls , we here used gps position logging and stable isotope analyses of red blood cells to determine the diet assimilated over a period of several weeks prior to sampling . in particular , we ask whether :
suárez , nicolás retana , maría valeria and yorio , pablo 2012 . spatial patterns in the use of foraging areas and its relationship with prey resources in the threatened olrog’s gull ( larus atlanticus ) . journal of ornithology , vol . 153 , issue . 3 , p . 861 .
fieldwork was carried out at new island nature reserve , falkland islands / islas malvinas , ( 51°43′s , 61°18′w , fig . 1 ) , southwestern atlantic ocean , between 2 and 9 january 2009 . in december 2010 , we surveyed from a sailing boat all the major feeding areas visited by the dolphin gull from new island ( file s1 , fig . s1 ) . the identity , location and size of seabird and mammal colonies ( i . e . potential food sources ) are presented in the file s5 , table s1 .
the dolphin gull breeds in small colonies , from 25 to 200 pairs , often mixed with other laridae species . it can be seen alone or in pairs , and also in small loose groups . they are monogamous and territorial . they are usually more vocal during the breeding season . once the pair is formed , both mates engage in displays and calling , and also perform courtship feeding . copulation is typically accompanied by calls and by “wing - flagging” . both mates defend strongly the territory of which the surface varies through the breeding cycle .
the present data did not support any differences based on gender or morphology ( tables 1 and 2 ) . although dolphin gull males are heavier than females ( table 2 and [ 16 ] ) , we detected no consistent differences in foraging between the sexes ( table 1 ) . all calculated trip parameters were similar between females and males ( table 1 ) . also the proportion of males and females attending mussel beds or seabird and seal colonies was 1∶1 . consequently , the specialization in mussel feeders and colony feeders cannot be explained by sex - related differences .
the following diet samples seen to be consumed by dolphin gulls at new i . were included as stable isotope reference values : dried regurgitates of imperial shags obtained at the colonies on new i . , blue mussel tissue from new i . and beaver i . , and krill euphasia sp . washed up on a new i . beach . in previous studies [ 3 ] , [ 62 ] , we found that imperial shag regurgitates are mainly composed of fish , squid and lobster krill . because the colonies in the region are not accessible , we were not able to obtain two other items seen to be consumed by dolphin gulls from new island : rock shag regurgitates and sea lion feces . however , in patagonia where imperial and rock shags also occur sympatrically , they feed on a similar trophic level [ 20 ] . sea lions and gentoo penguins also take similar prey [ 16 ] , [ 25 ] , therefore we consider the regurgitates of imperial shags included in the present study representative of the prey taken by the dolphin gull at the different seabird and mammal colonies .
masello , juan f . wikelski , martin voigt , christian c . quillfeldt , petra and votier , steve 2013 . distribution patterns predict individual specialization in the diet of dolphin gulls . plos one , vol . 8 , issue . 7 , p . e67714 .
gulls are generally classified as dietary generalist carnivores ( e . g . [ 67 ] – [ 71 ] ) , but a similarly high degree of individual specialization for particular diets or foraging locations has been found in other gull species . individual herring gulls larus argentatus in newfoundland were specialized in either blue mussels or in human refuse or in seabird prey [ 71 ] . a population of western gulls larus occidentalis contained specialists foraging on fish or on human refuse [ 72 ] . foraging area fidelity was observed in black - legged kittiwakes rissa tridactyla as well as in olrog’s gull larus atlanticus [ 73 ] , [ 74 ] . this behavior may increase foraging efficiency , as birds can learn when and where to obtain prey , reducing the time required searching for feeding habitats [ 73 ] , [ 74 ] . foraging area fidelity is thus more likely to occur where prey is spatially predictable or concentrated [ 74 ] . but , which mechanisms could generate the observed specialization for particular feeding sites in dolphin gulls ?
herring gull pairs pick nesting sites together in the soft soil , sand , or short vegetation of their territory . to protect the nest from prevailing winds and hide it from predators , it is usually placed next to a rock , log , or bush . this also hides it from the nearest neighbors . crevices may be used as nest sites in rocky areas .
to assess individual consistency in the diet of the dolphin gull , we analyzed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes of red blood cells from each of the individual studied . sia of red blood cell samples integrates , for each individual , the foraging behavior over a period of several weeks ( i . e . long - term variability and consistency ) [ 45 ] . of the two major constituents of whole blood , blood plasma and red blood cells , plasma has a much faster turn - over with a half - life of ca . three days , while red blood cells have a half - life of ca . 30 days and are therefore integrated over a much longer time [ 61 ] .
we studied the distribution and abundance of seabirds along the beagle channel during february and march 1997 . we examined the distribution and abundance , following the strip transects methodology , of species and their relation with habitat and foraging strategy of the birds . we divided the study area into six zones a priori . we made 20 trips aboard tourist vessels . the species most abundant in the study area were the imperial cormorant , dolphin gull , kelp gull , black - browed albatross , south american tern and chilean skua . we concluded that seabirds were distributed non - randomly in the marine environment of the beagle channel . the shallow waters present the largest seabird density in the beagle channel . the islas bridges zone had the highest total density of seabirds , followed by the bahía ushuaia zone . the first zone holds colonies of most of the seabird species nesting in the channel . the presence of seabirds in the bahía ushuaia zone is influenced by the islas bridges zone itself , from where breeding birds come , and also by ushuaia city , the port and the open garbage dump , where birds that feed on carrion can find alternative sources of food . the distribution of species in the whole study area was related to the foraging strategies , interactions with other species and characteristics of the habitat . we identified three groups of bird species and four independent species by cluster analysis . the first group included the black - browed albatross and the magellanic penguin , which were associated with deep waters . in the second group the imperial cormorant and chilean skua were associated with shallow waters along the study area , especially in the islas bridges zone where these species breed . lastly , the kelp gull and southern giant petrel formed interspecific groups on the coast in places influenced by humans . the independent species numbered four . the rock cormorant associated with shallow waters in kelp bed areas . showing a completely different foraging behaviour from the rest of the species , the dolphin gull occurred in shallow waters in the islas bridges zone associated with sea lions ' and cormorants ' colonies . diving petrels were associated with deep waters on the west side of the channel . the south american tern was distributed all along the study area .
her cunning has not stopped there . one day , when a gull flew into her pool , she grabbed it , waited for the trainers and then gave it to them . it was a large bird and so the trainers gave her lots of fish . this seemed to give kelly a new idea . the next time she was fed , instead of eating the last fish , she took it to the bottom of the pool and hid it under the rock where she had been hiding the paper . when no trainers were present , she brought the fish to the surface and used it to lure the gulls , which she would catch to get even more fish . after mastering this lucrative strategy , she taught her calf , who taught other calves , and so gull - baiting has become a hot game among the dolphins .
at the institute for marine mammal studies in mississippi , kelly the dolphin has built up quite a reputation . all the dolphins at the institute are trained to hold onto any litter that falls into their pools until they see a trainer , when they can trade the litter for fish . in this way , the dolphins help to keep their pools clean .
dolphin gulls nest in close proximity to each other in dense colonies . breeding sites are associated with other colonial seabirds and marine mammals , mainly cormorants , penguins , gulls and sea lions . on the atlantic coast of argentina , 26 colonies with an estimate of fewer than 700 breeding pairs in total are found from tierra del fuego north to punta tombo [ 28 ] . the population size of the falkland islands / islas malvinas is unknown ( but less than 500 breeding pairs from our own observations ) . in chile , the species is found north to chiloe island [ 29 ] . dolphin gulls lay a clutch of one to three eggs , and timing of breeding coincides with the peak breeding activity of the associated colonial seabirds [ 17 ] .
a dolphin’s ability to invent novel behaviours was put to the test in a famous experiment by the renowned dolphin expert karen pryor . two rough - toothed dolphins were rewarded whenever they came up with a new behaviour . it took just a few trials for both dolphins to realise what was required . a similar trial was set up with humans . the humans took about as long to realise what they were being trained to do as did the dolphins . for both the dolphins and the humans , there was a period of frustration ( even anger , in the humans ) before they “caught on” . once they figured it out , the humans expressed great relief , whereas the dolphins raced around the tank excitedly , displaying more and more novel behaviours .
herring gull populations declined by over 3 . 5 % per year between 1966 and 2015 , resulting in a cumulative decline of 83 % , according to the north american breeding bird survey . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a continental population of over 246 , 000 breeding birds and lists it as a species of low concern . the species rates an 11 out of 20 on the continental concern score . herring gull is not on the 2016 state of north america ' s birds watch list , but the 2014 state of the birds report listed it as a common bird in steep decline . human activities are the main threats to local populations . for example , atlantic coast populations were nearly wiped out in the late 1880s by hunters seeking feathers and eggs . but by the 1980s , their numbers had increased tenfold to more than 100 , 000 pairs . conservation movements ended exploitation in many areas , though numbers had shrunk so far that hunting became unprofitable anyway . other changes inadvertently aided recovering populations . increasing numbers of coastal fishing boats in the 1930s dumped
garbage fish
and waste , providing a rich new food source . the growing number of onshore refuse dumps also attracted gulls but probably had mixed effects , since chicks fed human refuse show poorer survival rates . whaling , the destruction of dolphin and porpoise populations , and intensive fishing of larger fish like cod and salmon decreased competition for the smaller fish that gulls favor . more recently , however , continued overfishing has made even these smaller fish less numerous . and changing fishing practices have meant less waste from fishing boats . oil pollution , pesticide contamination , and deliberate control measures have threatened some herring gull populations . back to top
dolphins can also use tools to solve problems . scientists have observed a dolphin coaxing a reluctant moray eel out of its crevice by killing a scorpion fish and using its spiny body to poke at the eel . off the western coast of australia , bottlenose dolphins place sponges over their snouts , which protects them from the spines of stonefish and stingrays as they forage over shallow seabeds .
the dolphin gull is a patagonian endemic distributed in the temperate and sub - antarctic coastline of chile , tierra del fuego and argentina . it is found along rocky coastline often in the vicinity of fresh water , seabird and marine mammal colonies , slaughterhouses , farmyards and even sewers . though it could be confused with the two other dark - backed gulls found in its range , band - tailed and kelp , its obvious bright red bulbous bill and dusky grey head and underparts make it quite distinctive . its juvenile plumage is also unique among gulls having a dark gray hood , whitish belly and slaty - brown wing coverts . its main source of food is scavenged carrion , bird eggs and chicks , other marine invertebrates . it can often be found scavenging around marine mammals for dead fish , placentae , and in particular , feces .
nisbet , ian c . t . , d . v . weseloh , craig e . hebert , mark l . mallory , alan f . poole , julie c . ellis , peter pyle and michael a . patten . 2017 . herring gull ( larus argentatus ) , version 3 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
of course , an understanding of tv is of little use in the wild , but the ability to respond to new situations has huge implications . in the shallows of florida bay , laura engleby and her team have recently discovered an ingenious fishing strategy . a number of the local dolphin groups seem to use a circle of mud to catch mullet . the action usually begins with one dolphin swimming off in a burst of speed . it then dives below the surface , circling a shoal of fish , stirring up mud along the way . on cue , the other dolphins in the group move into position , forming a barrier to block off any underwater escape routes . as the circle of mud rises to the surface , the mullet are trapped . their only option is to leap clear out of the water and unwittingly straight into the open mouths of the waiting dolphins .
in the present study , we analyzed individual specialization of foraging behavior in dolphin gulls leucophaeus scoresbii , a scavenger endemic to the southernmost coasts of south america . the diet described for this species mostly consists of food dropped by penguins , cormorants and petrels while these birds are feeding their chicks ( for a review see [ 15 ] ) . other described food items include intertidal mussels , crustaceans and polichaetes , invertebrates washed ashore after storms , southern sea lions otaria flavescens feces , rests of seabird eggs stolen by other avian predators from several penguin and cormorant species , insects , algae , carrion , and food derived from human activities ( [ 15 ] and references therein , [ 16 ] – [ 20 ] ) . the feeding behavior influences the distribution of dolphin gulls , which is highly dependent on food from seabird colonies , e . g . imperial shags leucocarbo atriceps , and magellanic penguins spheniscus magellanicus ( e . g . [ 17 ] , [ 21 ] ) . at punta tombo , argentina , individual birds were seen repeatedly at the same place , suggesting individuals have an affinity for particular foraging locations [ 15 ] , [ 17 ] .
it has been suggested that temporal pattern of food availability may influence individuals to take certain prey . for example , dolphin gulls at punta tombo are thought to be mainly associated with sea lions and cormorants , because cormorant food scraps and sea lion excrement are available throughout the day . in contrast , most magellanic penguins feed their chicks early and late in the day , and little food is available to dolphin gulls in the penguin colony at other times [ 15 ] . likewise , in herring gulls the main food sources are available for different amounts of time and at different times each day [ 70 ] . however , in our study temporal restrictions are unlikely to explain the specialization pattern for several reasons : firstly , the stable isotope data clearly showed that the individual specialization was maintained over several weeks prior to the study , including time before the onset of incubation duties . secondly , patterns of food availability are not fixed ( e . g . low tides that determine the availability of mussels do not occur at constant times of day ) . furthermore , most foraging trips were long enough to include a low tide independent of the time of departure .
“intelligence” is a term with many definitions and interpretations . it’s difficult enough to measure in humans let alone other animals . large brains are traditionally associated with greater intelligence , and the brain of the adult bottlenose dolphin is about 25 % heavier than the average adult human brain . generally though , larger mammals tend to have larger brains , and so a more accurate estimate of brain power comes from the ratio of brain size to body size - the “encephalisation quotient” ( eq ) . while river dolphins have an eq of 1 . 5 , some dolphins have eqs that are more than double those of our closest relatives : gorillas have 1 . 76 , chimpanzees 2 . 48 , bottlenose dolphins 5 . 6 . the bottlenose’s eq is surpassed only by a human’s , which measures 7 . 4 ( australopithecines - hominids that lived around 4m years ago - fall within the dolphin range : 3 . 25 - 4 . 72 ) . but we don’t know enough about the workings of the brain to be sure of what these anatomical measurements truly represent . today , most scientists share the view that it is behaviour , not structure , that must be the measure of intelligence within a species .
the nonparametric fixed kernel density estimator was used to determine the 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 and 95 % density contour areas ( the estimated foraging range ; [ 41 ] ) . kernel densities indicate where , during a foraging trip , birds spent most of their time [ 41 ] . density contours corresponding to kernels were calculated for locations in a lambert equal - area azimuthal projection centered on the south pole , as in [ 42 ] . arcgis 9 . 3 was used for calculations together with hawth ' s analysis tools [ 43 ] . gps data - points at the colony were excluded from our analyses because dolphin gulls do not forage at their breeding colony on new i . or in areas very close to it .
kernel density analysis of gps data indicated two major foraging strategies in dolphin gulls from new island ( for 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 and 95 % density contour areas see file s3 , figs . s18 , s19 ) . the 50 % kernel distribution of tagged dolphin gulls detected 7 major foraging sites that individuals attended repeatedly : either an important blue mussel site in the area of beaver harbour ( hereafter ‘mussel feeders’ ; site 4 in fig . 2 ; file s1 , fig . s1 , and file s3 , fig . s19 ) or several seabird and seal colonies on new i . and neighboring beaver i . ( hereafter ‘colony feeders’ ; sites 1–3 and 5–7 in fig . 2 ; file s1 , fig . s1 , and file s3 , fig . s18 ) during a week of tracking . the seabird colonies consisted mainly of imperial shags ( sites 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , and 7 in fig . 2 ) and rock shags phalacrocorax magellanicus ( sites 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 , and 7 in fig . 2 ) . a smaller number of positional data were recorded in colonies of rockhopper penguins ( site 1 in fig . 2 ) , gentoo penguins ( fig . 2 , and file s1 , fig . s1 ) , black - browed albatrosses ( site 1 in fig . 2 ) , and southern giant - petrels ( site 6 in fig . 2 ) , and fur seals ( site 2 in fig . 2 ) .
in january 2009 , tagged dolphin gulls breeding at new i . ( falkland islands / islas malvinas , south - western atlantic ocean ) , foraged at several nearby islands in the southwest of the archipelago ( fig . 1 ) . one thousand and forty - nine ( 1 , 049 ) gps fixes were recorded during 66 foraging trips of eight incubating females and eight incubating males ( fig . 1 ) . individual data for each of the 16 instrumented dolphin gulls is shown in separate maps in the ( file s2 , figs . s2− s17 ) . the length of the foraging trips ranged from 3 to 41 kilometers , lasting from 1 . 5 to 15 . 5 hours , and reaching a maximum distance of 18 kilometers from the colony at new i . ( table 1 ) . individuals flew to their preferred foraging places one to three times per day ( table 1 ) . foraging trips took place mainly during the day hours ( n = 62 ) , except in the case of four individuals that performed one overnight foraging trip each . no differences in foraging trip parameters were observed between females and males ( table 1 ; see also file s2 , figs . s2− s17 ) despite strong sex differences in body mass ( females , mean 529±46 . 3 g , range 430−590 g , n = 10 ; males , mean 611±23 . 3 g , range 570−650 g , n = 10 ; t = - 5 . 0 , df 18 , p = < 0 . 001 ) .
dolphin gulls were caught at their breeding colony at new i . ( fig . 1 ) , using an incubation trap ( described in [ 37 ] ; see also [ 15 ] ) on 2 january 2009 . during that breeding season , the colony consisted of 76 nests . gps / acceleration loggers ( e - obs gmbh , munich , germany ) were deployed on 10 female and 10 male incubating dolphin gulls using tesa® tape . we followed the long - term attachment method ( method 2 ) of recording devices to penguins and other seabirds developed by [ 38 ] ( see also [ 25 ] ) , with devices placed to the center of the back . these loggers provide detailed position ( longitude , latitude ) , as well as acceleration data and time of day . the loggers weighed 20 g and measured 45×23×20 mm , representing 3 . 6 % of the adult body mass ( mean 550±15 . 7 g , range 450 to 630 g ) . we took blood samples for molecular sexing and isotope analyses . later on in the lab ( max planck institute for ornithology , seewiesen ) , all birds were sexed following standard molecular methods [ 39 ] . this was done to confirm an equal number of each sex in our sample . body mass was recorded using a digital balance to the nearest 1 gram . additionally , we recorded clutch size ( the number of eggs laid per nest ) . birds were released 10 metres from their nest , and all returned to their eggs within 2−3 minutes .
individual dolphin gulls at new i . repeatedly foraged at the same place , suggesting individuals have an affinity for particular foraging locations and diet types . this may increase foraging efficiency , reducing the time required searching for feeding habitats . stable isotope analyses allowed us to establish that dietary individual specialization observed over several days was maintained for a prolonged time . the present data do not allow us to distinguish more experienced or older from younger breeding birds , or test for offspring imprinting . however , the fact that mussel feeding females were heavier suggests that this might be a particularly favorable strategy for individuals which have learned the complex behavioral pattern needed to open the mussels . it would now be interesting to determine whether one of the foraging specializations is advantageous in the long run or during specific seasons or years . a larger sample size will be necessary to achieve this , but the present data suggest that stable isotope data can provide the necessary information to distinguish strategies .
positional data obtained from gps loggers ( geographic coordinate system wgs1984 ) were used to plot and analyze , with the use of arcgis 9 . 3 , the trips performed by the birds . trip length was calculated as the total cumulative linear distance between all positional fixes along the foraging trip , outside of the colony . for each trip , the maximum distance from the colony was calculated as the linear grand circle distance between the furthest point of the plotted trip and the geographical coordinates of the departure colony , determined by gps . trip duration was determined as the time lapse between departure and return from the colony . as dolphin gulls are slightly sexual dimorphic [ 17 ] , data were checked for sexual differences ( table 1 ) , but no differences were detected . therefore , we here pooled the data of males and females . throughout this study means are given ± standard deviations ( sd ) unless stated otherwise . the significance level used is p < 0 . 05 .
the stable isotope values of the reference prey types ( blue mussels , imperial shag regurgitates and krill ) were well separated ( fig . 4a ) , suggesting their suitability as sources in a mixing model . the distributions resulting from the siar stable isotope mixing model ( fig . 4b , c ) suggested that the individuals recorded mainly in beaver bay ( file s1 , fig . s1 ) took 53 % mussels ( 95 % ci from 40 to 65 % ) , 27 % krill ( 95 % ci from 18 to 36 % ) , and 20 % food obtained by scavenging from colonies ( 95 % ci from 10 to 30 % ) . individuals recorded in other foraging sites fed much less on mussels ( modeled mean 28 % ; 95 % ci from 15 to 41 % ) , but obtained much more food by scavenging from colonies ( modeled mean 58 % , 95 % ci from 47 to 69 % ) . krill contributed 14 % ( 95 % ci from 5 to 23 % ) . dolphin gulls find krill opportunistically on beaches where it is washed ashore , usually after storms ( file s4 , fig . s23 ) . these results indicate an individual consistency in foraging strategies over a period of several weeks , in line with our short term observations of foraging locations .
to keep track of the many different relationships within a large social group , it helps to have an efficient communication system . dolphins use a variety of clicks and whistles to keep in touch . some species have a signature whistle , which , like a name , is a unique sound that allows other dolphins to identify it . dolphins also communicate using touch and body postures . by human definition , there is currently no evidence that dolphins have a language . but we’ve barely begun to record all their sounds and body signals let alone try to decipher them . at kewalo basin marine laboratory in hawaii , lou herman and his team set about testing a dolphin’s ability to comprehend our language . they developed a sign language to communicate with the dolphins , and the results were remarkable . not only do the dolphins understand the meaning of individual words , they also understand the significance of word order in a sentence . ( one of their star dolphins , akeakamai , has learned a vocabulary of more than 60 words and can understand more than 2 , 000 sentences . ) particularly impressive is the dolphins’ relaxed attitude when new sentences are introduced . for example , the dolphins generally responded correctly to “touch the frisbee with your tail and then jump over it” . this has the characteristics of true understanding , not rigid training .
breeding range : falklands & southern south america length : 43cm . falklands population : ~ 4 , 000 breeding pairs world population : ~ 6 , 000 breeding pairs
they usually nest in small colonies on sand or shingle beaches , coastal plains or inland near to large ponds . such colonies are often mixed with other nesting gulls or terns , and as with most gulls they are very sensitive to disturbance .
the nest is a simple hollow lined with vegetation , in which 2 to 3 eggs are laid during december . as the chicks mature they form into creches , allowing both parents to collect food .
they are often seen harassing penguin colonies , but in fact do little harm since they mostly take discarded scraps and excreta .
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larus scoresbii ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was previously placed in the genus leucophaeus .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
. 1996 ) . in argentina , the total population has been estimated at c . 700 pairs . on the falklands , there are 3 , 000 - 6 , 000 pairs which are widely distributed in small colonies ( woods and woods 1997 ) .
the population is estimated to number 10 , 000 - 28 , 000 individuals , roughly equating to 6 , 700 - 19 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : although wetlands international consider the current population trend to be unknown , it is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .
this species can be found on rocky coasts , feeding mainly on carrion , offal , bird eggs and chicks , but will also take marine invertebrates and other natural food . it scavenges around marine mammals for dead fish , placentae and particularly faeces . it exploits human intrusion into colonies by preying on unguarded eggs and chicks . it probes seaweed , captures swarming beach flies and will pick mussels which are then dropped onto rocks . it does not frequent rubbish dumps but will sometimes feed at sewage outlets . colony attendance begins in september laying highly asynchronous broods . colonies are small , with a maximum of 210 pairs recorded , and can be found on low sea cliffs , sand or gravel beaches , marshy depressions or headlands , usually in the vicinity of seabird colonies , marine mammals , slaughterhouses , sewers or farmyards ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .
cats , rats , mink mustela vison and patagonian fox dusicyan culpaeus have been introduced to the falklands , but their effect on l . scoresbii is not known ( croxall et al . 1984 ) . habitat destruction and modification due to introduced rabbits and stock may have had some effect on the distribution on the species . chiloe island , an important breeding site for the species in chile , is heavily populated and many aquaculture farms have been established inshore and along shorelines ( duffy et al . 1984 ) .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22694271a111243095 .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .