amarinus lacustris is a species of freshwater crab from australia , new zealand and nearby islands , where it lives in water of various salinities .

it grows up to 10 mm ( 0.4 in ) wide , with an h-shaped groove on its back .

it is an omnivore and is eaten by crayfish and fish .

it was first discovered in lake pupuke , near auckland , and is the only freshwater crab in new zealand .

amarinus lacustris

major group : crustacea minor group : malacostraca order : decapoda family : hymenosomatidae genus : amarinus species : lacustris this family is represented in australia by a single freshwater species , amarinus lacustris chilton .
sensitivity rating : signal grade 3 . amarinus lacustris is commonly found in freshwater with higher salinities .
hymenosoma lacustris chilton , l . c . , vol . 44 , p . 128 ( with synonymy ) .
the hymenosomatid crab amarinus lacustris is abundant in some southeastern australian rivers but little is known of its ecology . a study investigated the population characteristics , timing of reproduction and patterns of habitat use by a . lacustris in five riffle and pool habitats from each of the hopkins and merri rivers vic . distribution of amarinus lacustris was similar between the two rivers , but log - linear modelling showed that there was a strong association between crab sex , habitat occupied and time of year . these patterns are probably the result of the reproductive cycle of a . lacustris , which appears to show both ontogenetic and sex - related changes in habitat use during its life cycle , taking advantage of seasonal fluctuations in flow regime that may assist egg / larval . . .
amarinus pumilus , bicol river estuary of balongay , calabanga , northwest of naga city , camarines sur province , luzon , philippines .
the hymenosomatid crab amarinus lacustris is abundant in some southeastern australian rivers but little is known of its ecology . a study investigated the population characteristics , timing of reproduction and patterns of habitat use by a . lacustris in five riffle and pool habitats from each of the hopkins and merri rivers vic . distribution of amarinus lacustris was similar between the two rivers , but log - linear modelling showed that there was a strong association between crab sex , habitat occupied and time of year . these patterns are probably the result of the reproductive cycle of a . lacustris , which appears to show both ontogenetic and sex - related changes in habitat use during its life cycle , taking advantage of seasonal fluctuations in flow regime that may assist egg / larval development and dispersal ( a ) .
elamena ( ? ) lacustris chiltou , trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 14 , p . 172 .
most species of hymenosomatidae ( small spider crabs ) are estuarine or marine , but a single species amarinus lacustris occurs in inland lakes and running waters with salinities in the range 1 - 9 gm / litre . this species is found in new zealand , norfolk island , lord howe island , southern victoria , south australia and tasmania .
i have set up a murray - darling basin ( i . e . cold water ) biotope . plants native to victoria , fish so far are melanotaenia fluviatilis and nannoperca australis . some paratya shrimp , some hydridilla mussels . i ' d be interested in swapping notes with anyone else doing anything similar . in particular , anyone know where to get spider crabs , amarinus lacustris ?
two female specimens of new zealand ' s only entirely freshwater crab , amarinus lacustris , were collected from the mangere river in northland . as the occurrence of this crab in mangere river has not been widely documented previously , and as currently little is known about the general disribution of this aquatic crustacean new zealand , the intention of this note is to extend our knowledge of its geographical occurrence
got it ! proof that amarinus lacustris can be bred in an unheated freshwater tank ! god it took me forever to spot one in a camera friendly place ! this little baby ( crablet ? ) is perhaps 2 - 3mm in size at most including the legs , and has grown to this size in less than a month ( sorry i can ' t be more specific ! ) .
walker , k . , 1969 . the ecology and distribution of halicarcinus lacustris ( brachyura : hymenosomatidae ) in australian inland waters . aust . j . mar . freshwat . res . 20 : 163–173 .
ecology : hymenosomatidae species are commonly known as ' false spider crabs ' . instream habitat : hymenosomatid crabs generally occur in shallow marine coastal waters and estuaries , however , amarinus lacustris is the only species noted as occurring in freshwater streams and lakes . this species is found in large numbers on snags , amongst vegetation or under and around rocks . feeding ecology : these crabs are detritivores and omnivores . habit : the pointed terminal leg segment enables them to climb freely on logs . they are crawlers and burrowers . life history :
meet blinky . he’s a species of tiny freshwater crab named after the mutant , three - eyed fish in the simpsons . however , the blinky fish was a product of nuclear waste rather than a natural deformity – as is the case with poor lil blinky the crab . blinky is a species of amarinus lacustris crab which was spotted by gerhard scholtz of the humboldt university of berlin in germany . instead of the crab having the usual two compound eyes , it has three , with one of them being conspicuously located in the middle of its forehead . it also has an odd structure on . . .
lucas , j . s . & p . j . f . davie , 1982 . hymenosomatid crabs of queensland estuaries and tidal mud flats , including descriptions of four new species of elamenopsis a . milne - edwards and a new species of amarinus lucas . mem . qd . mus . 20 : 401–419 .
fw crab from down under info . hi , this isn ' t a question - i just happened across your website and noticed a question someone asked about amarinus lacustris - a genuinely freshwater crab found in s . e . australia . here is a photo if you are interested . its about 6 - 7mm across the carapace . although i am no expert , i ' m happy to answer any queries anyone might have , although you were quite right in your reply - there is little info available . it would be illegal to attempt to export this animal . < thank you for this input . will post on wwm . bob fenner >
i ' m the guy who sells the amarinus laevis . i supply exotic aquatic in carnegie and a few other places around melbourne . i ' m a shrimpkeeper myself and these guys absolutely do not eat shrimplets . if they wanted to and they wanted to , and if they where somehow fast enough , they have no way to grab it .
it will thus be seen that this crab , hymenosoma lacustris , is known from three localities in the north of new zealand , from norfolk island , lord howe island , and from two localities in victoria , australia , and that it is therefore a fresh - water species widely distributed in localities now separated by broad tracts of ocean .
grow to approx 22mm , so they ' re just a tad bigger than amarinus lacustris . he ' s breeding them in fresh water successfully and selling them really cheap . if anyone was keen to get some i can put you in touch ? i have set of 8 females and 2 males arriving this week so pics coming soon . apparently they ' re completely shrimp safe and survive / breed in water conditions suited to both neos / tigers and crystals / tbs . they do , however , snack on tiny snails but ignore adult ones . the guy keeping them says this allows him to have adult ramshorns in the tank to do clean - up duty without them breeding like mad and taking over the place .
i sent new zealand specimens to mr . fulton for comparison with those from the other localities , and , although he detected some slight local variations , he found that they were all so much alike that in the account published by himself and the late f . e . grant in 1902 , * he referred them all to hymenosoma lacustris ( chilton ) .
non - australia species of amarinus : ( click on images to increase resolution ; all drawings were taken from : ng pkl , chuang ctn ( 1996 ) the hymenosomatidae ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura ) of southeast asia , with notes on other species . the raffles bulletin of zoology , supplement no . 3 : 1 - 82 ( ask me for a pdf ) )
these are small , brown crabs that live in estuaries and coastal lakes . the carapace ( the body excluding legs ) usually has a diameter of no more than 3 - 4 cm . only amarinus lacustris ( the species we need the most ) occurs in freshwater streams and lakes , the others prefer brackish conditions typical of river mouths . these crabs are best collected by dragging an fine - meshed scoop net through vegetation growing on muddy sediments , or by picking up vegetation that they cling to . again , we mostly need samples from tasmania , but specimens from victoria ( west of wilson ' s promontory ) , south australia , queensland , norfolk island ( and other islands in the region ) , as well as non - australian species would also be useful .
freshwater invertebrates , id ? hey guys i am trying to id a crab that is appearing more and more frequently in australian stores . it has been incorrectly identified by several stores as amarinus lacustris ( freshwater spider crab ) . i suspect the supplier is keeping this myth alive * lol anyway , the crab in question is often referred to as a
brown backed crab
. orange / brown body with a chocolate brown h symbol on its shell . claws of equal size and quite heavy set , not long / slender . it seems to get to about 2
shell width . i would love to know the scientific name for this little beauty , as although i am sure i could keep it happy using general crab knowledge , it would be nice to know its specifics . sincerely , abbey aka callatya < hey there , sorry it took me forever !
the former northern extension of new zealand which seems necessary to account for the distribution of the crab hymenosoma lacustris seems also indicated by the range of the large land - shell placostylus , † a genus which is represented by two species in the north of new zealand , and by others in lord howe island , new caledonia , new guinea , fiji islands , new hebrides , and solomon islands , and by the fact that the predominant earth - worms in the north island belong to the subfamily megascolecinae , which is characteristic of australia and tasmania , and is also represented in norfolk island . ‡
the dietary importance of prey of estuary perch ( macquaria colonorum ) was examined spatially , temporally and among size classes . fish were collected from the hopkins river vic from september 1998 to february 1999 . the species is a euryhaline , euryphagic carnivore with spatial , temporal and size class variations in diets . fish caught from estuarine locations consumed primarily paratya australiensis while freshwater fish consumed mostly tricopteran larvae . in both freshwater and estuarine locations , the relative importance of p . australiensis decreased with increasing length of fish . diet changed seasonally , indicating opportunistic changes in prey . the species selected particular prey items relative to environmental availability ( p . australiensis , amarinus lacustrine ) ( a ) .
to this must be added its occurrence in lord howe island , as mentioned at the beginning of this paper . mr . oliver has , however , called my attention to the fact that in 1889 mr . r . etheridge recorded a fresh - water crab in lord howe island . in his account of “the general zoology of lord howe island” ( australian museum , memoir no . 2 , p . 34 ) he saya , “by far the most important member of the decapoda was mr . whitelegge ' s discovery of a fresh - water crab , plentifully distributed in the water - carrying gullies of the north ridge , behind the old settlement , at a height of from 200ft . to 300ft . above high - water mark . it is a species of hymenicus . ” this crab is recorded in the list of species on p . 36 as “hymenicus sp . ” there can be little doubt that it is the same species as the single specimen obtained by mr . oliver— i . e . , hymenosoma lacustris ( chilton ) .
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, m . a . , d . sc . , m . b . , c . m . , ll . d . , f . l . s . , professor of biology , canterbury college , new zealand .
[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 2nd november , 1914 . ]
made towards the end of 1913 by mr . w . r . b . oliver on lord . howe and norfolk islands there is one specimen of a small fresh - water crab ,
( chilton ) , which was obtained under a stone in a fresh - water stream on the top of mount gower , about 3 , 000 ft . above sea - level , in lord howe island .
this crab is already known from some northern parts of new zealand , from norfolk island , and from localities in victoria , and its occurrence in lord howe island is therefore , of considerable importance , and affords another link in the chain of evidence that will finally lead to the explanation of its geographical distribution . a brief account of the history of this crab seems , therefore , desirable .
it was described by myself in 1882 under the name elamena ( ? ) locustris , from lake takapuna ( also called pupuke ) , north shore , auckland . the waters in lake takapuna are fresh ; but as the lake is only a very short distance from the seashore , and there was no similar crab then known from other fresh waters in new zealand , i did not for some time attach particular importance to its fresh - water habitat , but considered it as being possibly a “relict” form that had only recently adapted itself to life in fresh water . a fuller knowledge of lake takapuna would , in itself , have shown that this view was erroneous , as will be seen from the account i give below ; but at that time little was known of the fauna of the lake .
in the next year ( 1883 ) , having obtained further specimens , i redescribed the species and placed it under the genus hymenosoma as defined by haswell in his catalogue of the australian crustacea published in 1882 .
nothing more was added to our knowledge of this form till the year 1901 , when i received , through the kindness of messrs . w . and r . m . laing , specimens from fresh - water streams in norfolk island which appeared to me to be practically identical with the new zealand species . about the same time mr . s . w . fulton , of melbourne , obtained specimens from norfolk island , and also from lake colac , victoria , and these , together with a single specimen collected some years previously by dr . t . s . hall in the moorabool river , victoria , also appeared to belong to the same species :
about a year later messrs . lucas and hodgkin , in their investigation of some of the fresh - water lakes of new zealand , obtained one male and one female specimen from lake waikare , auckland . these were afterwards submitted to me for examination , and in my report published in 1906 † were assigned to the same species , which was therefore evidently more widely distributed in the northern part of new zealand than i had originallv
[ footnote ] * proc . roy . soc . victoria , vol 15 ( n . s . ) , p . 59 .
thought . its area of distribution was afterwards still more extended by its discovery in the river waipa , specimens having been sent to me from that locality by mr . cheeseman , and recorded by me in trans . n . z . inst . , 1912 , p . 128 .
its true fresh - water character was not at first recognized owing to ignorance of the nature of lake takapuna , in which it was first found . this lake is situated very near to the sea , its eastern edge being not more than 200 ft , from the high - tide mark in rangitoto channel , while its western edge is within 400 yards of waitemata harbour ; the deepest part is stated to be 168 ft . , which is about 100 ft . below the bottom of the neighbouring rangitoto channel . it was formerly thought that there might possibly be some connection between the lake and the neighbouring sea , and it was doubted whether there was not a substratum of sea - water in the lake at depths below that of the channel . in 1899 mr . j . a . pond undertook the investigation of the waters of the lake , and the following facts , together with those already given , are taken from his paper published in 1900 . * he took samples of the water from the surface at various distances from , the margin , and also one from the pump - well at the pumping - station which supplies the suburb of devonport . these samples were submitted to analysis , and “yielded chlorine 2 . 87 gr . per gallon in each instance , while the total solids at 105° c . were 8 . 68 gr . per gallon from the lake and devonport samples , the pump - well 8 . 96 gr . per gallon . ” he also obtained samples from different depths—viz . , 50 ft . , 100 ft . , 157 ft . , 160 ft . , and 163 ft . “the results of analysis gave chlorine 2 . 87 gr . per gallon , equal to chloride of sodium 4 . 73 gr . in each sample , while the total of solids gave 8 . 68 gr . per gallon in each instance , the water from the bottom of the lake being decanted from the precipitated matter . there is , therefore , not the slightest difference in these two factors of the waters at varying depths , and these agree with our analysis of samples taken at various periods . ”
mr . pond ' s results show the takapuna is a genuine fresh - water lake without any connection with the neighbouring sea . this character is also confirmed by the fauna of the lake , for mr . h . suter , to whom i applied for information , informs me that the general fauna of the lake is decidedly
[ footnote ] * pond , j . a . , “on the percentage of chlorine in lake takapuna , ” trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 32 , pp . 241 , 242 .
fresh - water , no marine or relict forms being known to him . of freshwater mollusca he has collected the following : potamopyrgus corolla gould , potamopyrgus corolla salleana fisher , isodora tabulate , moesta h . adams , latia neritoides gray , corneocyclas novae - zelandiae prime , diplodon menziesi depauperatus hutton ; the small fresh - water leech glossiphonia novae - zealandiae dendy was discovered in the lake by mr . suter , and he has several times seen in it specimens of the fresh - water crayfish paranephrops .
it is therefore evident that this little crab is a genuine fresh - water species , and judging from its distribution it must be of very considerable antiquity . owing to the difficulties of its dispersal across wide tracts of sea by ordinary means , it seems almost certain that the localities at which it is now found were formerly connected by land , though , of course , the land connections need not have been continuous throughout the whole length of its area of distribution at any one time . nothing is yet known of the animal ' s life - history . presumably it has a free - swimming zoea stage , but even if this could reach the sea from the lakes and rivers in which the adults live it is difficult to imagine how it could cross the seas and ascend other fresh waters so as to account for its present distribution . in one female from lake takapuna there are about twenty zoeae lying free under the abdomen of the female . they are of rather a large size for such a small crab ; the abdomen is still folded under the thorax , which is fully 1 mm . in length , and they appear to have been only recently hatched from the eggs ; the appendages are short and do not look as if they could be of much use for locomotion , and it is possible that in this species , as in many fresh - water forms , the young are carried about by the female for a longer time than in the case of corresponding marine species .
its distribution is an important addition to the evidence showing connection between the north of new zealand and lands lying farther north . a full explanation of the phenomena would involve discussion of the origin of the whole fauna and flora of new zealand so far as the northern element is concerned , and this would be quite out of place in a paper such as this . it may , however , be desirable briefly to recapitulate what is known with regard to the distribution of other fresh - water malacostracous crustacea from new zealand .
the whole of new zealand , and also occurs in fresh waters at the chatham islands . it is not known from any part of australia , but , curiously enough , appears to occur again in assam , specimens from this locality being in the collections of the indian museum , and , according to mr . s . kemp , * proving to be indistinguishable from those obtained in new zealand . on the other hand , the fresh - water prawn known in australia as x . compressa ( de haan ) extends as far as norfolk island , and though it is placed by bouvier in the same genus as x . curvirostris it differs markedly from that species in the character of the rostrum . x . compressa is a species of wide distribution , and extends from australia right up to japan .
carapace nearly circular , rather broader than long ; flat , naked , or with a few scattered hairs . rostrum broad , strongly depressed , its upper surface concave from side to side , extremity in form of an obtuse angle . anterolateral margins of the carapace with 2 obscure teeth . cheliped of male small , propod only slightly broader than the carpus , hairy . ambulatory
[ footnote ] * kemp , s . , “notes on decapoda , in the indian museum , no . 4 , ” records indian museum , vol . 7 , p . 113 .
[ footnote ] † suter , h . , “manual of the new zealand mollusca , ” p . 763 .
[ footnote ] ‡ benham , w . b . , trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 37 , p . 282 , and vol . 35 , p . 273 .
legs somewhat densely covered with long hairs , tarsi long , slender , compressed , densely haired . last pair of legs somewhat shorter than the preceding . abdomen of male of 5 joints subequal in length , 3rd rather narrower than the 1st and 2nd , 4th nearly as wide as the 3rd , last broadly rounded at the end ; margin fringed with very short hairs , some longer ones being scattered on the surface . abdomen of female with slight median ridge along its whole length .
fulton and grant have pointed out that the specimens from different localities differ slightly as to the prominence of the obscure teeth on the margin of the carapace , the hairiness of its surface , and the small teeth or tubercles on the wrist and hand of the cheliped of the male . these features were , however , found ; not to be constant , and i agree with them in considering all the forms as belonging to one species . even if it should be necessary for systematic purposes to distinguish local varieties , it would not affect the importance of the fact that the same fresh - water crab is found in several lands now widely separated by sea .
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transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , 1881 . [ electronic resource ]
[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 13th october , 1881 . ]
genus hymenicus , dana . ( miers ' cat . n . z . crustacea , p . 50 . )
hymenicus marmoratus , sp . nov . plate viii . , fig . 1 .
garapace smooth , naked and flat ; sub - triangular with the sides arched , about as broad as long ; front projecting and trilobate . antero - lateral margin with two teeth , the posterior one sharp , long , and very distinct , the anterior one short and blunt . abdomen of male sub - triangular , first segment broadest and more or less rectangular , penultimate segment narrower than the preceding , the last segment sub - triangular , rounded at the apex . anterior legs rather large and swollen ; tarsi of the remaining legs somewhat densely haired , the other joints being sparsely haired . colour - variously marked with white and reddish - brown . length . 25in .
hab . common amongst sea - weed in rock - pools in lyttelton harbour .
though common at lyttelton harbour this crab does not appear to have been hitherto described . it is closely allied to hymenicus varius , but differs in the shape of the carapace , in having the two teeth on the anterolateral margin well marked , and also in colour .
genus elamena , m . —edwards . ( miers ' cat . n . z . crustacea , page 52 ) .
carapace nearly circular , rather broader than long . rostrum broad , strongly depressed , concave above , sides parallel , obtusely pointed at the end . antero - lateral margin of the carapace with two nearly obsolete teeth . last pair of legs much shorter than the preceding . colour ( in spirit ) - carapace brown , legs yellowish , spotted with brown . breadth . 15in .
this species is remarkable from the fact that it is an inhabitant of fresh water .
i am somewhat doubtful about referring it to elamena , as i have only seen a single specimen , a female .
professor hutton kindly handed over this and the preceding species to me for description .
genus anthura , leach . ( bate ' s and westwood ' s brit . sessile - eyed crust . , vol . ii . , p . 157 . )
anthura , ( ? ) flagellata , sp . nov . plate viii . , fig . 2 .
body long , slender , sub - cylindrical , thoracic segments sub - equal . antennæ near equal , the inner one with a distinct flagellum . first three pairs of thoracic legs sub - chelate , the first pair being considerably larger than the
two following , and having the hand stout and ovate , and the finger long and curved ; the second and third pairs similar in shape and equal in size ; the four posterior pairs are all nearly equal to one another , and are nonchelate . first five abdominal segments confluent ; the last segment has its posterior edge notched at the centre . its appendages are broad , operculiform , and biramous , the inner branch formed of a single joint , broad and concave , enclosing the other branch , which has two broad joints , the basal one being much longer than the terminal joint . the terminal segment ( telson ) squamiform , rectangular , with the posterior angles rounded . the posterior edges of the telson and of the appendages of the last abdominal segment are fringed with numerous long setæ . length , . 3 in .
this species differs from anthura in that the first five ( instead of four ) abdominal segments are confluent and that the inner antenna has a distinct , flagellum , but as i have only a single specimen i have not made a new genus for it .
microdentopus maculatus , g . m . thomson ( ann . & mag . n . h . , ser . v . , vol . iv . , p . 331 ) .
this species was described by mr . thomson , from a single specimen , a female . it appears to be moderately common amongst seaweed in the rock - pools at lyttelton . amongst some specimens answering very well to his description i took one which also agreed with that description in every particular except as regards the gnathopoda . these ( plate viii . , fig . 3 ) are very peculiar , the meros is produced inferiorly into a long acute spine reaching slightly beyond the extremity of the succeeding joint , the carpus ; this spine bears a small tuft of setæ about one - third of its length from its extremity . the carpus is large , and is rather more than twice as long as broad . the propodos is much smaller ; its inner edge is fringed with numerous setæ . the last joint forms a strong finger slightly curved at the end , its inner edge is smooth ; numerous long setæ arise at its base . the second pair of gnathopoda are of more normal shape , the meros not being produced into a spine .
the first pair of gnathopoda closely resemble those of aora gracilis and aora typica , * though slightly different from both of them . mr . thomson has taken aora typica in dunedin harbour , and he speaks † of its resemblance to microdentopus maculatus , and hints that they may possibly be male and female of the same species . the animal i have , though distinct
from aora typica , is , however , so very like microdentopus maculatus in every part except the gnathopoda that i have little doubt that it , and not aora typica , is really the male . this is also confirmed by the fact that the two were found together .
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chilton , c . 1882 ,
additions to the new zealand crustacea
, transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , vol . 14 , pp . 171 - 174 , 8 pls
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 336752
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i was looking at thai micro crabs and they seem so adorable . but sadly afaik not available in australia .
so cute , @ wayne6442 used to have some from possibly @ northboy but both have been away from skf for a little while .
ooooh so there ' s hope ! i sooooo want to put about half a dozen of them in my glass shrimp tank .
i ' m gonna attempt a weekend trip to straddie to look for some if no - one has any already . provided there are some good non - protected areas to go searching that is .
i ' ve seen them in an irrigation ditch in western victoria many years ago . i ' d love to find them again .
since i manage to find quite a few interesting critters when i go hunting for wild local aquatics i might actually manage to find some of these guys , assuming they are in my area . i know there are plenty of the much larger fresh water crabs about .
i wonder if night hunting for them might make them easier to find ? i find many shrimp , crabs and fish are less timid at night and with a bright torch the shrimp eyes often give themselves away by reflecting light and the light stuns them long enough for you to scoop with a net .
cool let me know what you find ! i ' m kinda keen for any unusual looking peaceful native inverts for my native tank . i ' ve decided riffles don ' t count as peaceful because they don ' t understand it ' s not cool to eat tiny shrimplets so they now have their own tank - _ -
unfortunately it appears that the native micro crabs are only found down south , but there is bound to be a similar species found in our northern waters .
two of my favourite natives that are harmless in my tanks would have to be notopala snails and these whopping great black shelled snails .
water parameters - 6 - 8ph , 10 - 30deg c . . . they are very hardy and love coldwater or tropical tanks . they are an estuarine species but these ones have been bred in and live in freshwater . . . . they are fully aquatic and don ' t need an area to leave the water . they are very hardy and will breed readily in a wide range of parameters .
i ' m going to get a couple to take some macro photo ' s off . i ' ll keep with my bloody mary / tang tigers and see how they go together
i had a reputable breeder here in victoria ask me about a month ago if i would be interesting in getting crabs ? ! i was initially confused . lol
looks like there may be a source of collection soon for them @ waffle . i will advise what i find out .
and they have cleaned out a moderately infested tank of mini ramshorns and pond snails , haven ' t seen a snail in that tank for weeks . found they really appreciate some driftwood with deep cracks they can really wedge into during the day . they also get a little rowdy when they don ' t all have something to eat but it ' s minor squabbles no injury has resulted .
they are in with red nose and chameleons , and a few plants . they don ' t seem to do anything to the plants that i can tell , the red nose have been munching on them already . and there are baby chameleons running around without any apparent drop in numbers .
great looking little guys . @ gbang , could you start breeding these guys stat into bright colouring ? ? now there is a challenge !
i am just concerned about shrimplets : if these crabs eat baby snails , surely they would go for newly hatched shrimplets ? at 2cm total size ( on gumtree ) the pincers are large enough for this .
i believe exotic aquatic in carnegie , vic had some small crabs for sale a month ago , they ' ve got a video up on their facebook page . not sure if they are the same as above though ?
yeah i was wondering the same - for example if there was as moulting shrimplet that is temporarily immobile or a weaker shrimplet . there ' s only one way to find out . . . . i ' m going to be keeping a careful eye on them and report back about this .
i asked the breeder and he says they ' re not fast / agile enough to capture a shrimplet even if they wanted to eat one . yay !
interests : keeper of the more uncommon species or rainbowfish , however , also interested in aquatic plants .
i ' ve bought crabs from this guy before ( if that is you , harrison ! ) and he is reputable beyond belief . highly recommended . he ' s generous , genuine and super friendly . someone i wish all people i bought from were like . i cannot recommend this man enough !
@ ihavecrabs , you should become a subscription member and sell them here too . i think it ' s going to be popular if shrimp safe . ? ?
nawwww such beautiful bromance ! ! yes it is harrison ! defs second that recommendation .
sign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !
a while ago i took all the shrimp out of my black cherry shrimp tank and put all the nonblacks ( chocolate or not dark enough black ) cherries into another tank , but left a tub of water with remaining shrimp too hard to catch from the black tank sitting around . the tub remained in the shed for a while and then migrated outside and was left where frangipani leaves along along with flowers and leaves from golden bells shrub fell into the tub . fast forward to this afternoon and i needed the forgotten about tub to pre - age some water for my native shrimp tank . simple enough idea , just tip out the tub rinse it and then refill . but when i went to the tub low and behold not only was there 2 small guppies living quite happily but also quite a few shrimp . after painstaking catching we removed the shrimp and i found a rather nice surprise colouration . the main really surprising thing was that the frangipani ( horrid white caustic sapped plants in case anyone is not familiar with it ) is not apparently toxic to shrimp , which was not something i ever planned to test nor would i have considered trying . any way here are some pictures of the nice coloured shrimp saved from the tannin rich soup that was in the tub . . . . . . next question is what on earth do i do with this one ?
i would love to try it , but akadama is not available in australia . at least , not that i am aware of . and i am not willing to pay for shipping such a heavy bag from overseas . you should do a review of it and post it on here for other hobbyists . add some pictures , water parameter tests , etc . 👍
ok i have my first red pinto babis , its very difficult to found them . also f1 from black pinto x crs and f1 from black pinto x tangerine tigers . crs look sames in f1 , but tangerine tigers are weird , i will post a video when i get a litle bigger .
i believe it is the amount of spikes / bumps ( or lack of ) on the beak as well the spacing that helps to visually distinguish shrimp species when the shrimp are other wise quite similar in size and at a glance appearance .
i ' ve also noticed they have slight bumps or spikes on their beaks . do all species have this ? i believe they are also low order as i have two berries shrimp and their eggs are smaller than their eyes .
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sexing all crabs is incredibly easy . underneath the tail as you ' ve stated on females is a round tail to hold the eggs , whereas on males the tail is just a little triangle , this is the same for all crabs . looking at my comment now i realise that it ' s about as useful as the 5cent piece : p
i guess the question is : can they produce viable offspring in freshwater ? carrying eggs is one thing , illustrated by the countless amount of das that hold eggs in freshwater .
ah , sorry , should have clarified . i believe them capable of being able to reproduce in freshwater aquaria because of the size of the eggs , which would have been a lot easier to see if i ' d thought to take pics while they were still held under the tail . my understanding of why das don ' t grow into adulthood in freshwater aquaria was that the shrimplets were too small , and the environment too sterile to provide them with the necessary microscopic food ? these little crab ' s eggs are a little larger than rcs eggs , so i assumed the newborn crabs would be large enough to find sufficient food for themselves ? the second lot i received also had females carrying eggs , so i ' ll do my best to show them .
wow , so sorry guys , i ' ve been gone for forever ! rl is pretty killer at the moment , and i ' ve been having a lot of issues working computers out , so sorry for the long wait on this one ! i ' m working through the vids as we speak , so they should be up later this afternoon . in the meantime though , i can confirm something very exciting ! they are capable of reproducing in freshwater aquaria ! and they seem to grow quite quickly too ! i have several teeny tiny seethrough crabs scuttling around in the tank , they ' re so adorable i could die ! unfortunately my camera just won ' t cut it for something so small and clear , but trust me when i say that they ' re there ! will have more up soon !
cheers , rufus
i completely lost it . well , okay , that sounded more awesome than what i really did , which was yell . and by yelling i mean sending a bunch of text messages all in caps !
wow max ! thats awesome mate ! make sure you keep us updated . . . i was just about to bump this thread also : p
bleugh , got called in to the late night shift at work , sorry guys . video is uploading now , but it won ' t be finished for about another 30 mins . will edit this post when it ' s done to add a link to the vid . edit : here it is ! they have very fine hairs on their legs that debree sticks too , which means that on the sand substrate that i have in their tank , they all but disappear ! all of the muck in the bottom of the bag came directly off their legs . thanks for the ' grats guys , i ' m going to try my best to catch footage of one of the babies ! fingers crossed . . . xz
very neat , congrats on the crablets ! i reckon there is a nice niche for freshwater inverts like this on the market . i ' d line up for some of these if i knew where to go .
also maybe not a good idea to state where they can be caught wild , unless its a very common . . . .
very high cuteness coefficient . years ago i went on an undergraduate ecology field trip to the western district volcanic lakes near colac , victoria . the bus stopped at an irrigation ditch and we all got out to wave nets around and catch some of these guys .
i found about 20 of these awesome little guys up near port stephens ( north of sydney ) . after hours of searching i found that the best place to find them was in driftwood that could be easily pulled apart ( as they burrowed into the wood and were hard to get out ) .
awwwwww man i thought you meant these ones http : / / www . aquariumindustries . com . au . . . rry - spider . pdf
aquis have proven on numerous occasion to have a distinct lack of humour .
~ saundo
database contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families
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retropluma solomonensis nom . nov . , a replacement name for retropluma laurentae mclay , 2006 ( crustace . . .
figure 18 in revision of the crab genus garthambrus ng , 1996 , with the description of two new genera . . .
figure 18 . gonopods . zarenkolambrus minutus sp . nov . : a , b , holotype male 6 . 2 x 5 . 1 mm ( mnhn ) , french polynesia , austral is , raevavae , smcb , stn d 66 , 23 ° 50 . 54 ʹs 147 ° 42 . 73 ʹw , 400 m , 3 dec . 1990 ( scale bar = 1 mm ) . — zarenkolambrus epibranchialis ( zarenkov , 1990 ) : c , d , male cl 5 . 0 mm , eastern pacific ocean , near sala y gómez , ignolnaya , rv professor stockman , stn 2007 , 6 – 7 may 1987 . . . [ show full abstract ]
figure 14 . garthambrus tani ahyong , 2008 in revision of the crab genus garthambrus ng , 1996 , with th . . .
figure 14 . garthambrus tani ahyong , 2008 : male 28 . 5 x 21 . 2 mm ( mnhn ) , new caledonia , vauban , stn cb 113 , 500 m , 12 apr 1978 . a , dorsal view ; b , front view ; c , side view
figure 3 in revision of the crab genus garthambrus ng , 1996 , with the description of two new genera . . .
figure 3 . terminology used in this work based on a generalised garthambrus species : a , ventral regions ( note absence of the sub - gastrobranchial groove ) ; b , view of the anterior ventral portion of the carapace .
figure 19 in revision of the crab genus garthambrus ng , 1996 , with the description of two new genera . . .
figure 19 . zarenkolambrus minutus sp . nov . : holotype male 6 . 2 x 5 . 1 mm ( mnhn ) , french polynesia , austral is ( rae vavae ) , smcb , stn d 66 , 23 ° 50 . 54 ’ s , 147 ° 42 . 73 ’ w , 400 m , 3 dec 1990 .
bacher , g . j . & j . s . garnham , 1992 . the effect of salinity on several freshwater species of southern victoria , epa report srs number 92 / 003 , epa , melbourne , australia .
bayly , i . a . e . & w . d . williams 1973 . inland waters and their ecology . longman australia pty limited , hawthorn , 314 pp .
binyton , j . , 1966 . salinity tolerance and ionic regulation . in boolootian , r . a . ( ed . ) , physiology of echinodermata . johnwiley & sons , inc . , new york : 359–377 .
( ephemeroptera : coloburiscidae ) and its relationship to distribution and life history . journal of biogeography 18 : 231–235 .
( heller , 1862 ) ( decapoda : atyidae ) . new zealand journal of marine freshwater research 17 : 147–158 .
endean , r . , 1966 . the coelomcytes and coelomic fluids . in boolootian , r . a . ( ed . ) , physiology of echinodermata . johnwiley & sons , inc . , new york : 301–328 .
goetsch , p - a & c . g . palmer , 1997 . salinity tolerances of selected macroinvertebrates of the sabie river , kruger national park , south africa . archives of environmental contamination and toxicology 32 : 31–41 .
gordon , n . d . mcmahon , t . a . & finlayson , b . l . 1991 . stream hydrology . an introduction for ecologists . john wiley & sons , west sussex , 526 pp .
haage , p . , 1969 . salinity preference and tolerance of caddis larvae ( trichoptera ) . opuscula entomologica 34 : 73–89 .
haigh , e . h . & h . davies - coleman , 1999 . the development of a production facility for standard laboratory test organisms for ecotoxicological research . report no 755 / 1 / 99 , water research commission , south africa , 245 pp .
riek ( atyidae : crustacea ) . honours thesis , university of tasmania , australia .
hart , b . t . , p . bailey , r . edwards , k . hortle , k . james , a . mcmahon , c . meredith & k . swadling , 1991 . a review of salt sensitivity of australian freshwater biota . hydrobiologia 210 : 105–144 .
hawking , j . h . & t . r . new , 1995 . development of eggs of dragon - flies ( odonata : anisoptera ) from two streams in north - eastern victoria , australia . aquatic insects 17 : 175–180 .
herczeg , a . l . , s . s . dogramaci & f . w . j . leaney , 2001 . origin of dissolved salts in a large , semi - arid groundwater system : murray basin , australia . marine freshwater research 52 : 41–52 .
hinton , h . e . , 1981 . biology of insect eggs in three volumes . pergamon press , oxford , 1125 pp .
kefford , b . j . , 2000 . the effect of saline water disposal : implications for monitoring programs and management . environment monitoring and assessment 63 : 313–327 .
kefford , b . j . , 2002 . south african study tour : effects of salinity on aquatic invertebrates . final report for ben j . kefford ' s traveling fellowship ( land and water australia project no rm 11 ) . department of biotechnology and environmental biology , rmit university : melbourne , australia .
kefford , b . j . , p . j . papas & d . nugegoda , 2003 . relative salinity tolerance of macroinvertebrates from the barwon river , victoria , australia . marine freshwater research 54 : 755–765 .


axiocerses styx is a butterfly in the lycaenidae family .

it is found in north-eastern tanzania .

the habitat consists of lowland forests at altitudes between 600 and 1,000 meters .

axiocerses styx

2 axiocerses styx stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .
© 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .
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an african genus with many recently - described species . larvae are attended by ants .
ackery , p . r . , smith , c . r . & vane - wright , r . i . ( ed . ) 1995 carcasson ' s african butterflies . canberra : csiro .
heath , a . 1997 a review of the african genera of the tribe aphnaeini ( lepidoptera ; lycaenidae ) . metamorphosis , occasional supplement 2 , 1 - 60 .
larsen , t . b . 1991 the butterflies of kenya and their natural history . oxford , u . k . : oxford university press .
larsen , t . b . 2005 butterflies of west africa . stenstrup , denmark : apollo books .
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bothriopsis oligolepis is a venomous pitviper species found in peru and bolivia .

the specific name is derived from the greek words oligo and lepis , meaning " few scales " ; probably an allusion to the lower numbers of dorsal and ventral scales that it has compared to b. bilineata .

bothriopsis oligolepis

lachesis bilineatus var . oligolepis werner 1901 : 13 lachesis peruvianus boulenger 1903 : 354 lachesis peruvianus — werner 1927 : 256 bothrops peruviana — amaral 1929 : 240 bothrops peruvianus — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 53 bothrops oligolepis — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 53 bothriechis oligolepis — schätti , kramer & touzet 1990 : 877 bothriopsis oligolepis — welch 1994 : 31 bothriopsis peruviana — welch 1994 : 31 bothriopsis peruviana — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 249 bothriopsis oligolepis — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 249 bothrops oligolepis— wüster et al . 2002 bothriopsis oligolepis — fenwick et al . 2009 bothrops oligolepis — carrasco et al . 2012 bothriopsis oligolepis — wallach et al . 2014 : 110
the genus status of bothriopsis is controversial . according to schätti et al . ( 1990 ) there is not enough evidence to separate this genus from bothriechis spp . on the basis of more recent studies of ecuadorian pitvipers , bothriopsis albocarinata , bothriopsis alticola and bothriopsis peruviana are now classified as bothriopsis ( or bothriechis ) oligolepis ( schätti 1990 , schätti and kramer 1993 ) . campbell and lamar ( 2004 ) place bothriopsis punctata back in the genus bothrops ( bothrops punctatus ) .
bothriopsis medusa is a venomous pitviper species found in venezuela . no subspecies are currently recognized .
bothriopsis punctata is a venomous pitviper species found in south america and panama . no subspecies are currently recognized .
venomous ! bothrops albocarinatus is considered as a subspecies of bothriechis ( bothrops ) oligolepis by schätti & kramer 1993 . the same authors consider bothriechis oligolepis as a senior synonym of lachesis peruvianus boulenger 1903 , a notion that was confirmed by harvey et al . ( 2005 ) . synonymy partly after peters & orejas - miranda 1970 .
bothriopsis pulchra is a venomous pitviper species found in south america . the specific name is latin , meaning
beautiful
, in reference to the color pattern . no subspecies are currently recognized .
justification : bothrops oligolepis has been assessed as least concern owing to its wide distribution in peru and northern bolivia . further research is required into the threats that this species may face . at present , it is unlikely to be undergoing a significant population decline and is not considered as threatened .
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mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
carrasco , p . a . , mattoni , c . i . , leynaud , g . c . and scrocchi , g . j . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 1 - 15 .
de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .
this species is distributed in south - eastern peru , in the cordillera de carabaya and the departments of apurimac , cuzco , huanuco , junín , pasco , and puno . this species is also recorded from northern bolivia .
it is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes . however , the habitat within its range is relatively undisturbed , which suggests that there are no major threats currently affecting this species .
there are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for this species , however , in places , its distribution coincides with protected areas . further research is required into the possible threats to the species .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : mtkd “d 1714 m . dr . ” ( presumably konigl . zoologisches museum dresden ) , as cited in the original description .
amaral , a . do 1930 . estudos sobre ophidios neotropicos xviii . lista remissiva dos ophidios da região neotropica . mem . inst . butantan 4 : 126 - 271 [ 1929 ] - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1903 . descriptions of new snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 12 : 350 - 354 - get paper here
boulenger , george a . 1912 . descriptions of new reptiles from the andes of south america , preserved in the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 10 : 420 - 424 - get paper here
campbell , j . a . & lamar , w . w . 1989 . the venomous reptiles of latin america . comstock publishing / cornell university press , ithaca
carrasco , p . a . , c . i . mattoni , g . c . leynaud , and g . j . scrocchi . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 109 - 124 - get paper here
catenazzi , a . , lehr , e . & von may , r . 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of manu national park and its buffer zone , amazon basin and eastern slopes of the andes , peru . biota neotrop . 13 ( 4 ) : 269 - 283
mcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & touré , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists’ league , 511 pp .
schätti b ; kramer e 1993 . ecuadorianische grubenottern der gattungen bothriechis , bothrops und porthidium ( serpentes : viperidae ) . revue suisse de zoologie 100 ( 2 ) : 235 - 278 - get paper here
schätti , beat ; kramer , eugen ; touzet , jean - marc 1990 . systematic remarks on a rare crotalid snake from ecuador , bothriechis albocarinata ( shreve ) , with some comments on the generic arrangement of arboreal neotropical pitvipers . revue suisse de zoologie 97 ( 4 ) : 877 - 885 - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
werner , f . 1927 . neue oder wenig bekannte schlangen aus dem wiener naturhistorischen staatsmuseum ( iii . teil ) . sitzungsb . akad . wiss . wien , math . naturwiss . kl . 143 [ 135 ? ] : 243 - 257 [ 1926 ] - get paper here
werner , franz 1901 . reptilien und batrachier aus peru und bolivien . abhandl . ber . zool . anthrop . mus . dresden , 9 ( 2 ) : 1 - 14 [ 1900 ]
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
this species is distributed in south - eastern peru , in the cordillera de carabaya and the departments of apurimac , cuzco , huanuco , junn , pasco , and puno . this species is also recorded from northern bolivia .
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to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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northern and northwest south america . b . bilineata and b . taeniata also in the amazon basin . isolated population of b . bilineata on the east coast of brazil . see link
distribution
at the top of the page for detailed information .
appearance as for bothriechis spp . most species are also well adapted to an arboreal way of life and possess a prehensile tail . the largest species , b . punctata und b . taeniata , can reach a length of up to 1 . 5 m . slender to sturdy body , with triangular head clearly distinct from the body . generally cryptic markings with green or brown colouring .
inhabit wet mountain forests ; b . bilineata and b . taeniata in wooded lowlands of the amazon basin . with the exception of these two species , forest pitvipers are very rare and limited to small distribution areas .
bites rare , but the venom is potentially dangerous ( particularly in the larger species ) . according to a study in southern colombia , of 93 crotaline bites , 14 were caused by b . bilineata ( haad 1980 / 81 ) .
campbell and lamar 1989 , 2004 , chippaux 1986 , lancini 1986 , pérez - santos and moreno 1988 , schätti et al . 1990 , schätti and kramer 1993
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mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré , 1999 : null . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1 . xi + 511 .
nomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .
the specific name , medusa , refers to the greek mythological female monster , medusa , who had venomous snakes for hair .
adults of b . medusa usually grow to 50–70 cm ( 1 . 6–2 . 3 ft ) in total length ( including tail ) . the maximum reported total length is 80 cm ( 2 . 6 ft ) ( roze , 1966 ) or slightly longer ( sandner - montilla , 1975 ) . the body is moderately slender .
the scalation includes 20 - 21 ( usually 21 ) rows of dorsal scales at midbody , 160 - 168 / 153 - 162 ventral scales in males / females and 51 - 62 / 46 - 56 mostly undivided subcaudal scales in males / females . on the head , the canthals , internasals and rostral are elevated to form a distinct canthal ridge . there are 1 - 6 intersupraoculars , 6 - 9 ( usually 7 ) supralabial scales and 8 - 10 sublabial scales .
the color pattern consists of a tan , yellowish brown , reddish brown , gray or olive ground color overlaid with a series of long and irregular transverse bands . these bands are dark brown with pale centers , weakly subdivided laterally and separated from each other with short and lightly colored interspaces . in some individuals the contrast may be so poor that they appear to have a uniform dorsal coloration . the belly is yellow with many small and dark spots and flecks . on the head , a dark postocular stripe is present that frequently fuses with the first lateral body blotch . it is marked above and below by a pale narrow border .
b . medusa is found in venezuela , including the cordillera de la costa ( coastal range ) , the federal district and the states of aragua , bolívar and carabobo . the type locality given is
caracas
( venezuela ) .
. they are distinguished by the presence of a heat - sensing organ , a pit 4mm deep and 3mm wide located between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head ( also known as receptors ) . currently , 18
; a species known to reach a maximum of 3 . 65 m ( 12 . 0 ft ) in length—the longest venomous snake in the new world .
what makes this group unique is that they all share a common characteristic : a deep pit , or fossa , in the loreal area between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head . these
- detecting organs , which in effect give the snakes a sixth sense to help them find and perhaps even judge the size of the small , warm - blooded prey on which they feed .
. it is deep and located in a maxillary cavity . the membrane is like an eardrum that divides the pit into two sections of unequal size , with the larger of the two facing forwards and exposed to the environment . the two sections are connected via a narrow tube , or duct , that can be opened or closed by a group of surrounding muscles . by controlling this tube , the snake can balance the air pressure on either side of the membrane .
when prey comes into range , infrared radiation falling onto the membrane allows the snake to determine its direction .
having one of these organs on either side of the head produces a stereo effect that indicates distance , as well as direction . experiments have shown , when deprived of their senses of sight and smell , these snakes can strike accurately at moving objects less than 0 . 2°c warmer than the background .
the paired pit organs would seem to provide the snake with thermal rangefinder capabilities .
clearly , these organs are of great value to a predator that hunts at night , as well as for avoiding the snake’s own predators .
its accuracy sometimes is 0 . 0002 % . among vipers , these snakes are also unique in that they have a specialized muscle , called the muscularis pterigoidius glandulae , between the venom gland and the head of the ectopterygoid . contraction of this muscle , together with that of the
, both of which have been found above the treeline at over 4 , 000 m elevation .
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, most are nocturnal , preferring to avoid high daytime temperatures and to hunt when their favored prey are also active . the snakes ' heat - sensitive pits are also thought to aid in locating cooler areas in which to rest .
as ambush predators , crotalines will typically wait patiently somewhere for unsuspecting prey to wander by . at least one species , the arboreal
of china , is known to select a specific ambush site and return to it every year in time for the spring migration of birds . studies have indicated these snakes learn to improve their strike accuracy over time .
many temperate species ( e . g . most rattlesnakes ) will congregate in sheltered areas or ' dens ' to overwinter ( see
) , the snakes benefitting from the combined heat . in cool temperatures and while pregnant , vipers also bask on sunny ledges . some species do not mass together in this way , for example the copperhead ,
like most snakes , crotalines keep to themselves and will strike only if cornered or threatened . smaller snakes are less likely to stand their ground than larger specimens . pollution and the destruction of rainforests has caused many viper populations to decline . humans also threaten vipers , as many are hunted for their skins or killed by cars when they wander onto roads .
: a species among the most prolific of all live - bearing snakes . many young crotalines have brightly coloured tails that contrast dramatically with the rest of their bodies . used in a behavior known as caudal luring , the young snakes make worm - like movements with their tails to lure unsuspecting prey within striking distance .
north america from the northeastern and central usa southward through peninsular florida and southwestern texas . in central america on the atlantic versant from tamaulipas and nuevo león southward to the yucatán peninsula , belize and guatemala . along the pacific coastal plane and lower foothills from sonora south through guatemala , el salvador , honduras and nicaragua to northwestern costa rica .
the mountains of eastern mexico southeastward on the atlantic versant and lowlands though central america to central panama . on the pacific versant , they occur in isolated populations in east - central and southern mexico , guatemala , el salvador , costa rica and panama .
southern mexico ( southeastern oaxaca and the northern highlands of chiapas ) , through central america to northern south america ( colombia , western venezuela , ecuador and northern peru .
eastern panama and most of northern south america , including the pacific lowlands of colombia and ecuador , the andes mountains from venezuela and colombia to bolivia , the amazon basin and the atlantic forests of brazil .
northeastern mexico ( tamaulipas ) southward through central and south america to argentina ; saint lucia and martinique in the lesser antilles ; ilha da queimada grande off the coast of brazil .
southern mexico ( highlands of guerrero and southeastern oaxaca ) , southward through the highlands of central america ( guatemala , el salvador , honduras , northern nicaragua , costa rica ) to western panama .
russia , east of the ural mountains through siberia , iran , the himalayas from pakistan , india , nepal and china , korea , japan and the ryukyu islands .
nepal and seven sisters ( assam ) of india eastward through burma , cambodia , thailand , laos , vietnam , west malaysia , taiwan , japan ( okinawa ) and indonesia ( sumatra and borneo ) .
mexico ( colima , oaxaca and chiapas on the pacific side , the yucatan peninsula on the atlantic side ) southward through central america to northern south america ( ecuador in the pacific lowlands , northern venezuela in the atlantic lowlands ) .
southeastern canada , eastern and northwestern usa , isolated populations in northern and central mexico .
southest asia from india to southern china and japan , and the malay archipelago to timor .
mcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , touré t . 1999 . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1 . herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .
please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . unsourced material may be challenged and removed .
mehrtens jm . 1987 . living snakes of the world in color . new york : sterling publishers . 480 pp . isbn 0 - 8069 - 6460 - x .
campbell ja , lamar ww . 2004 . the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere . comstock publishing associates , ithaca and london . 870 pp . 1500 plates . isbn 0 - 8014 - 4141 - 2 .
parker hw , grandison agc . 1977 . snakes - - a natural history . second edition . british museum ( natural history ) and cornell university press . 108 pp . 16 plates . lcccn 76 - 54625 . isbn 0 - 8014 - 1095 - 9 ( cloth ) , isbn 0 - 8014 - 9164 - 9 ( paper ) .
bullock , t . h . and diecke , f . p . j . ( 1956 ) . properties of an infrared receptor . journal of physiology 134 , 47 - 87 .
stidworthy j . 1974 . snakes of the world . grosset & dunlap inc . 160 pp . isbn 0 - 448 - 11856 - 4 .
shine r , sun l , kearney m , fitzgerald m . 2002 . why do juvenile chinese pit - vipers ( gloydius shedoaensis ) select arboreal ambush sites ? ethology 108 : 897 - 910 . issn 0179 - 1613 . pdf at university of sydney school of biological sciences . accessed 26 october 2006 .
gumprecht , a . & f . tillack ( 2004 ) a proposal for a replacement name of the snake genus ermia zhang , 1993 . russian journal of herpetology 11 : 73 - 76 .
wright & wright ( 1957 ) , handbook of snakes volume ii , comstock publishing associates , seventh printing 1985 .
goris , r . c . ( 2011 ) infrared organs of snakes : an integral part of vision . journal of herpetology 45 : 2 - 14 .
for other uses , see rattlesnake ( disambiguation ) and rattler ( disambiguation ) .
rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats , hunting small animals such as birds and rodents . they kill their prey with a venomous bite , rather than by constricting . all rattlesnakes possess a set of fangs with which they inject large quantities of hemotoxic venom . the venom travels through the bloodstream , destroying tissue and causing swelling , internal bleeding , and intense pain . some species , such as the tiger rattlesnake and the mojave rattlesnake , additionally possess a neurotoxic component in their venom that causes paralysis and other nervous system symptoms .
the threat of envenomation , advertised by the loud shaking of the titular noisemaker (
rattle
) at the end of their tails , deters many predators . however , rattlesnakes fall prey to hawks , weasels , king snakes , and a variety of other species . rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon as neonates , while they are still weak and mentally immature . large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans . rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened by habitat destruction , poaching , and extermination campaigns .
rattlesnake bites are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in north america . however , rattlesnakes rarely bite unless provoked or threatened ; if treated promptly , the bites are rarely fatal .
located at the end of their tails , which , when shaken , makes a loud rattling noise that deters predators or serves as a warning to passers - by .
rattlesnakes are native to the americas , living in diverse habitats from southwestern canada to central argentina . the large majority of species live in the american southwest and mexico . four species may be found east of the mississippi river , and two in south america . in the united states , the states with the most types of rattlesnakes are texas and arizona .
in a narrow range of altitudes . most species live near open , rocky areas . rocks offer them cover from predators , plentiful prey ( e . g . rodents , lizards , insects , etc . that live amidst the rocks ) , and open basking areas . however , rattlesnakes can also be found in a wide variety of other habitats including
rattlesnakes prefer a temperature range between 80 and 90°f ( 26 and 32°c ) , but can survive temperatures below freezing , recovering from brief exposure to temperatures as low as 4°f ( - 16°c ) , and surviving for several days in temperatures as low as 37°f ( 3°c ) .
region in mexico . this same study found the most probable vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area to be pine - oak forests .
feeding habits play an important ecological role by limiting the size of rodent populations , which prevents crop damage and stabilizes ecosystems .
. if the bitten prey moves away before dying , the rattlesnake can follow it by its scent .
when it locates the fallen prey , it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout , flicking its tongue , and using its sense of smell . once the prey has become incapacitated , the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth . the prey is then ingested head - first , which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner which minimizes the girth of the meal .
the gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful , allowing for the digestion of bone , as well as flesh . optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature between 80 and 85°f ( 25 and 29°c ) . if the prey is small , the rattlesnake often continues hunting . if it was an adequate meal , the snake finds a warm , safe location in which to coil up and rest until the prey is digested .
rattlesnakes are believed to require at least their own body weight in water annually to remain hydrated . the method in which they drink depends on the water source . in larger bodies of water ( streams , ponds , etc . ) , they submerge their heads and ingest water by opening and closing their jaws , which sucks in water . if drinking dew , or drinking from small puddles , they sip the liquid either by capillary action or by flattening and flooding their lower jaws .
( fire ants ) likely do , as well . on occasion , hungry adult rattlesnakes
, and rattlesnakes form part of its natural diet . rattlesnakes sense kingsnakes ' presence by their odor .
when they realize a kingsnake is nearby , they begin enacting a set of defensive postures known as
body bridging
. unlike its normal erect and coiled defensive - striking posture , the rattlesnake keeps its head low to the ground in an attempt to prevent the kingsnake from gaining a hold of it ( the head being the first part of the rattlesnake to be ingested ) . the rattlesnake jerks its body about , while bridging its back upwards , forming an elevated coil which faces the kingsnake . the elevated coil is used to strike the attacker , and is also used to shield the head from the kingsnake .
signature . these pits have a relatively short effective range of about 1 ft , but give the rattlesnake a distinctive advantage in hunting for warm - blooded creatures at night .
aside from this pair of simple eyes , rattlesnakes are able to detect thermal radiation emitted by warm - blooded organisms in their environment . functioning optically like a pinhole camera eye , thermal radiation , in the form of infrared wavelength light , enters , passes through the opening of the pit and strikes the pit membrane located in the back wall , warming this part of the organ . due to the extremely high density of these heat - sensitive receptors innervating this membrane , the rattlesnake can detect temperature changes of 0 . 003°c or less in its immediate surroundings . infrared cues from these receptors are transmitted to the brain by the trigeminal nerve , where they are used to create thermal maps of the snake’s surroundings . due to the small sizes of the pit openings , typically these thermals images are low in resolution and contrast . nevertheless , rattlesnakes superimpose visual images created from information from the eyes with these thermal images from the pit organs to more accurately visualize their surroundings in low levels of light . research conducted recently on the molecular mechanism of this ability suggests the temperature sensitivity of these pit organs is closely linked to the activity of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 , a temperature - sensitive ion channel saturated in the pit membrane . this ability to detect infrared radiation in their surrounds enhances the rattlesnake ' s ability to hunt prey and identify predators during periods of low - level light .
, which means they are capable of some form of color vision . the rattlesnake eye lacks a
, making it impossible for them to see sharply defined images . instead , they mostly rely on the perception of movement .
rattlesnake eyes are capable of horizontal rotation , but they do not appear to move their eyeballs to follow moving objects .
are not as highly specialized as those of other vertebrates , such as mammals . thus , their sense of hearing is not very effective , but they are capable of sensing
rattlesnake fangs are connected by venom ducts to large poison glands near the outer edge of the upper jaw , towards the rear of the head . when the rattlesnake bites , muscles on the sides of the venom glands contract , which squeezes the venom through the ducts and into the fangs . when the fangs are not in use , they remain folded against the palate .
rattlesnakes are born with fully functioning fangs and venom , and are capable of killing prey at birth .
adult rattlesnakes shed their fangs every 6–10 weeks . at least three pairs of replacement fangs lie behind the functional pair .
rattlesnake venom is a mixture of five to 15 enzymes , various metal ions , biogenic amines , lipids , free amino acids , proteins , and polypeptides . it contains components designed to immobilize and disable the prey , as well as digestive enzymes which break down tissue to prepare for later ingestion .
the venom is very stable , and retains its toxicity for many years in storage .
older snakes possess more potent venom , and larger snakes are frequently capable of storing larger volumes of it .
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the characteristic sound of a rattlesnake - - the rattle shaking , as a result of extremely rapid tail movement .
according to rubio ,
the most widely accepted hypothesis for the evolution of the rattle is that the rattle is a warning device for predatory animals that might be a threat to the rattlesnake . it produces a signal to drive them away .
, which are created by modifying the scales that cover the tip of the tail . the contraction of special
shaker
muscles in the tail causes these segments to vibrate against one another , making the rattling noise ( which is amplified because the segments are hollow ) .
the muscles that cause the rattle to shake are some of the fastest known , firing 50 times per second on average , sustained for up to three hours .
at birth , a “prebutton” is present at the tip of the snake ' s tail ; it is replaced by the “button” several days later when the first skin is shed . however , no sound can be made by the rattle until a second segment is added when the skin is shed again .
a new rattle segment is added each time the snake sheds its skin , and the snake may shed its skin several times a year , depending on food supply and growth rate .
rattlesnakes travel with their rattles held up to protect them from damage , but in spite of this precaution , their day - to - day activities in the wild still cause them to regularly break off end segments . because of this , the age of a rattlesnake is not related to the number of rattles on its tail .
) . also , the tails of males taper gradually from the body , whereas the tails of females narrow abruptly at the vent .
rattlesnake skin has a set of overlapping scales which cover the entire body , providing protection from a variety of threats including dehydration and physical trauma .
, has the top of its head covered with small scales , except , with a few species , a few crowded plates directly over the snout .
an important function of the skin is the sensation of changes in air temperature , which can guide the snakes towards warm basking / shelter locations .
. to maintain a stable body temperature , they exchange heat with their external environment . snakes often move into open , sunny areas to absorb heat from the sun and warmed earth - a behavior known as
to another are among the most important behavioral actions in its daily life .
rattlesnakes do not generally have bright or showy colors ( reds , yellows , blues , etc . ) , instead relying on subtle earth tones that resemble the surrounding environment .
creases in the epidermal tissue connect the scales of rattlesnakes . when ingesting large prey , these creases can unfold , allowing the skin to expand to envelop a much greater volume . the skin appears to tightly stretch to accommodate the meal , but in reality , the skin is simply smoothing out from its creased state and is not under very high tension .
most rattlesnake species mate during the summer or fall , while some species mate only in the spring , or during both the spring and fall .
once a receptive female has been located , the male often spends several days following her around ( a behavior not common outside of the mating season ) , frequently touching and rubbing her in an attempt to stimulate her .
) , fight each other during the mating season , in competition over females . these fights known as
combat dances
consist of the two males intertwining the anterior portion of their bodies , often with their heads and necks held vertically . the larger males usually end up driving the smaller males away .
. the ova are arranged in a continuous chain in a coiled section of the oviduct , known as the
tuba
.
, located in the base of the tail . the hemipenis is retracted inside of the body when mating is not occurring . females can store semen for months in internal recesses known as
, which permits them to mate during the fall , but not fertilize the ova until the following spring .
) , has been observed to exhibit complex social behavior reminiscent of that in mammals . females often remain with their young in nests for several weeks , and mothers have been observed cooperatively parenting their broods .
rattlesnakes generally take several years to mature , and females usually reproduce only once every three years .
in the colder winter months . they often gather together for hibernation in large numbers ( sometimes over 1 , 000 snakes ) , huddling together inside underground
rattlesnake dens
or hibernacula .
rattlesnakes often return to the same den , year after year , sometimes traveling several miles to get there . it is not known exactly how the rattlesnakes find their way back to the dens each year , but may use a combination of
species with long periods of hibernation tend to have much lower reproductive rates than those with shorter hibernation periods , or those that do not hibernate at all . female timber rattlesnakes in high peaks in the
during very hot or dry periods , which is why they are rarely seen during the hottest and driest months of summer .
rattlesnakes tend to avoid developed areas , preferring undisturbed , natural habitats . rapid habitat destruction by humans , mass killings during events such as
, and deliberate extermination campaigns all pose threats to rattlesnake populations in many areas . several species of rattlesnakes , such as the timber rattlesnake ,
, and canebrake rattlesnake , are listed as threatened or endangered in many u . s . states .
in more heavily populated and trafficked areas , reports have been increasing of rattlesnakes that do not rattle . this phenomenon is commonly attributed to
non - rattling snakes are more likely to go unnoticed , so survive to reproduce offspring that , like themselves , are less likely to rattle .
rattlesnakes are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in north america and a significant cause in central and south america .
rattlesnakes tend to avoid wide - open spaces where they cannot hide from predators , and generally avoid humans if they are aware of their approach .
rattlesnakes rarely bite unless they feel threatened or provoked . a majority of victims ( about 72 %
) are males , often young and intoxicated . around half of bites occur in cases where the victim saw the snake , yet made no effort to move away .
hikers and campers should avoid contact with rattlesnakes by remaining observant and not approaching the animals . hikers should be particularly careful when negotiating fallen logs or boulders and when near rocky outcroppings and ledges where rattlesnakes may be hiding or sunning themselves . snakes occasionally sun themselves in the middle of an open trail , so such areas are not the only places where they are encountered . hikers are advised to keep their distance when encountering a rattlesnake on a trail and allow the snake room to retreat .
caution is advised even when snakes are believed to be dead ; rattlesnake heads can see , flick the tongue , and inflict venomous bites for up to an hour after being severed from the body .
an estimated 7 , 000 to 8 , 000 people are bitten by venomous snakes in the united states each year , with about five deaths .
the most important factor in survival following a severe envenomation is the time elapsed between the bite and treatment . most deaths occur between six and 48 hours after the bite . if antivenom treatment is given within two hours of the bite , the probability of recovery is greater than 99 % .
when a bite occurs , the amount of venom injected is under voluntary control by the snake . the amount released depends on a variety of factors , including the condition of the snake ( e . g . having long , healthy fangs and a full venom sack ) and its temperament ( an angry , hungry snake that has just been stepped on vs . a satiated snake that was merely surprised by walking near it ) .
about 20 % of bites result in no envenomation at all . a lack of burning pain and
in ( 1 cm ) away from the fang marks after one hour suggests either no or minimal envenomation occurred . a lack of edema or
in the area of the bite after eight hours indicates a lack of envenomation for most rattlesnake bites .
children generally experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per unit of body mass .
remain calm and retreat from the snake at least 15 feet . arrange to have the victim transported to a medical facility as soon as possible .
remove restrictive clothing items ( rings , bracelets , watches , buttoned shirts , etc . ) from the victim .
if ( and only if ) the victim is more than an hour away from a medical facility , place a lightly constricting band ( that admits one finger beneath it ) above the bitten area to prevent the systemic spread of the venom .
keep victims calm ; put them at rest ; keep them warm and give them comfort and reassurance ( which will lower their heart rate , slowing the spread of the venom ) . keeping a victim ' s
down , however , should never interfere with getting him or her to a medical facility .
if the snake is still present or nearby , try to get an accurate description by using a camera or remembering certain physical traits such as color , pattern , or length . this can help ensure the proper antivenom is administered . however , one should never put oneself at risk of being bitten to obtain this description .
be used , nor should any incisions or suction be applied to the wound .
, often referred to as antivenom , is commonly used to treat the effects of local and systemic pit viper envenomations .
that protect from the toxic effects of the venom . these antibodies accumulate in the blood , which is then extracted and
in the united states , more than 15 , 000 domesticated animals are bitten by snakes each year . rattlesnake envenomations account for 80 % of the deadly incidents .
animal is bitten , the hair around the bite should be removed , so the wound can be clearly seen . the crotaline fab antivenin has been shown to be effective in the treatment of canine rattlesnake bites . symptoms include swelling , slight bleeding , sensitivity , shaking , and anxiety .
paintings , central american temples , and the great burial mounds in the southeastern u . s . are frequently adorned with depictions of rattlesnakes , often within the symbols and emblems of the most powerful deities .
the ancient maya considered the rattlesnake to be a
vision serpent
that acted as a conduit to the
otherworld
.
rattlesnakes are a key element in aztec mythology and were widely represented in aztec art , including sculptures , jewelry , and architectural elements .
verses mark 16 : 17 - 18 which reads ,
in my name . . . they will pick up snakes with their hands
.
others have compared the flavor to a wide range of other meats , including veal , frog , tortoise , quail , fish , rabbit , and even canned tuna .
, described the taste ,
at least when breaded and fried , like a sinewy , half - starved tilapia .
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