dioithona oculata is a species of small crustacean , a marine copepod in the order cyclopoida .

it is native to the indo-pacific region but has spread to other parts of the world .

it is a free-swimming epipelagic species found near the surface of the water .

it was first described as oithona oculata by the irish zoologist george philip farran in 1913 .

dioithona oculata

ecology of swarming in the planktonic copepod dioithona sp . ( crustacea : copepoda )
buskey ej ( 2003 ) behavioral adaptations of the cubozoan medusa tripedalia cystophora for feeding on copepod ( dioithona oculata ) swarms . marine biology 142 : 225–232 .
issued from in bull . ocean res . inst . , univ . tokyo , 1985 , no . 20 . [ p . 144 , fig . 95 ] . as oithona oculata . indo - pacific georaphical distributio of dioithona oculata .
e . j . buskey ,
energetic costs of swarming behavior for the copepod dioithona - oculata
, marine biology , 130 ( 3 ) , 1998 , pp . 425 - 431
morphological characters of oithona oculata ( = dioithona oculata ) female : 1 - anterior part of prosome rounded in dorsal view . 2 - rostrum blunt . 3 - p5 with 2 setae . 4 - length of exopod 3rd segment in legs p1 - p4 shorter than that of terminal spine of exopod 3rd segment .
e . j . buskey and others ,
the swarming behavior of the copepod dioithona - oculata - in - situ and laboratory studies
, limnology and oceanography , 41 ( 3 ) , 1996 , pp . 513 - 521
e . j . buskey and others ,
the role of photoreception in the swarming behavior of the copepod dioithona - oculata
, marine and freshwater behaviour and physiology , 26 ( 2 - 4 ) , 1995 , pp . 273 - 285
( of oithona oculata farran , 1913 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the cubozoan medusa tripedalia cystophora preys on dense swarms of the copepod dioithona oculata in the mangrove prop - root habitat of puerto rico . the copepod swarms form in shafts of sunlight that penetrate the mangrove canopy during the day . t . cystophora are found primarily within the same illuminated areas , feeding heavily on the dense swarms of copepods . laboratory studies were conducted . . . [ show full abstract ]
ambler , j . w . , s . a . broadwater , e . j . buskey & j . o . peterson , 1996 . the mating behavior of dioithona oculata in swarms . in lenz , p . h . , d . k . hartline , j . e . purcell & d . l . macmillan ( eds ) , zooplankton : sensory ecology and physiology . gordon and breach publishers , amsterdam ( the netherlands ) : 287 - 300 .
. . . hyperactivity may finally have a considerable effect on the energy budget of copepods . buskey ( 1998 ) for instance measured changes in the respiration rate of the copepod dioithona oculata with activity and found a significant metabolic cost of swimming at higher speed to maintain position in currents , with a mean respiration rate in copepods swimming at 8 . 6 mm s −1 twice as much as in copepods swimming at 3 . 5 mm s −1 . in our study however , we observed modest changes in swimming speed and it is unknown whether significant impairment in feeding efficiency or increased metabolic expense would occur . . . .
issued from : o . tanaka in spec . publs . seto mar . biol . lab . , 10 , 1960 [ p . 61 ] . as oithona oculata . female : inner and outer marginal setae on the endopodal segments of swimming legs p1 to p4 .
issued from : o . tanaka in spec . publs . seto mar . biol . lab . , 10 , 1960 [ p . 61 ] . as oithona oculata . female : number of outer marginal spines and inner marginal setae on the exopodal segments of swimming legs p1 to p4 .
( of oithona oculata farran , 1913 ) okemwa , e . n . ( 1992 ) . a long - term sampling study of copepods across a tropical creek in mombasa , kenya . e . afr . agric . for . j . 57 ( 4 ) : 199 - 215 . [ details ]
issued from : s . nishida in bull . ocean res . inst . , univ . tokyo , 1985 , no 20 . [ p . 65 , fig . 34 ] . as oithona oculata . female : a , a2 ; b , mx2 ; c , mxp ; d , p1 ; e , p2 ; f , p3 ; g , p4 .
issued from : s . nishida in bull . ocean res . inst . , univ . tokyo , 1985 , no 20 . [ p . 67 , fig . 36 ] . as oithona oculata . male : a , a2 ; b , mx2 ; c , mxp ; d , p1 ; e , p2 ; f , p3 ; g , p4 .
( of oithona oculata farran , 1913 ) suárez - morales , e . , j . w . fleeger , and p . a . montagna . ( 2009 ) . free - living copepoda ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 841–869 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college statio [ details ]
issued from : s . nishida in bull . ocean res . inst . , univ . tokyo , 1985 , no 20 . [ p . 66 , fig . 35 ] . as oithona oculata . male : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , forehead ( lateral ) ; c , thoracic segment 5 and genital segment ( lateral right side ) ; d , anal segment and caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; e , a1 ; f , md ; g , mx1 .
issued from : s . nishida in bull . ocean res . inst . , univ . tokyo , 1985 , no 20 . [ p . 64 , fig . 33 ] . as oithona oculata . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , thoracic segment 5 and genital segment ( ventral ) ; c , anal segment and caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; d , a1 ; e , md ( mandibular palp ) ; f , md ( biting edge ) ; g , mx1 .
issued from : s . nishida , o . tanaka & m . omori in bull . plankton soc . japan , 1977 , 24 ( 2 ) . [ p . 140 , fig . 13 ] . as oithona oculata . female ( from aburatsubo cove , sagami bay ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ) , b , forehead ( lateral ) ; c , 4th thoracic segment , 5th thoracic segment with p5 and genital segment ; d , md ; e , mx1 ; f , p1 ; g , p2 ; h , p3 ; i , p4 . prosome length / urosome length = 1 . 45 . nota : setae formula of exopod p1 to p4 are the same as those for oithona nana .
. . . the ratio between active metabolism ( maximum respiration rates in aerobic conditions ) and standard metabolism is the so - called factorial scope , which ranges between 2 and 10 in marine invertebrates ( hernández - león and ikeda , 2005 ) . in fishes this quotient is higher ( 10–20 , brett , 1964 ) but is normally rather low in marine zooplankton ( 2–4 , gaudy and thiebault - botha , 2007 ; 3 in euphausia pacifica , torres and childress , 1983 ; 4 in acartia tonsa , kiørboe et al . , 1985 ; 6 in diothona oculata , buskey , 1998 ) . perhaps , these rather low values were related to the length of incubation normally used to assess respiration rates in marine zooplankton . . . .
issued from : o . tanaka in spec . publs . seto mar . biol . lab . , 10 , 1960 [ pl . xxvi , 5 - 10 ] . as oithona oculata . female ( from 35°09 ' s , 20°13 ' e ) : 5 , head ( lateral ) ; 6 , forehead ( dorsal ) ; 7 , urosome ( dorsal ) ; 8 , md ; 9 , p1 ; 10 , p4 . nota : prosome and urosome in proportional lengths 58 to 32 . rostrum not visible from the dorsal , represented by a blunt process . the last thoracic segment has on each side a small spine on the postero - lateral margin . urosomal segments and caudal rami in the proportional lengths 13 : 29 : 15 : 16 : 12 : 15 = 100 .
issued from : g . p . farran in proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1913 . [ plate xxx , figs . 8 - 9 ] . as oithona oculata . female : 8 , mxp ; 9 , p4 . nota : proportion of total lengths ( p . cent ) prosome : 58 . 75 , urosome : 41 . 25 . relative lengths of urosomal segments and caudal rami : 7 : 17 : 8 : 8 : 7 : 8 . setal formula of the exopod swimming legs p1 to p4 ( se = outer setae ; si = inner setae ) , p1 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 4 si ; p2 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si ; p3 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si ; p4 : 1 , 1 , 2 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si .
issued from : i . rosendorn in wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . \
valdiviella \
, 1917 , 23 . [ p . 38 , fig . 23 ] . as oithona oculata . male : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , md mandibular palp ) ; c , mx1 ; d , exopod of p1 ; e , exopod of p2 ; f , exopod of p3 ; g , exopod of p4 . nota : proportion of lengths ( p . cent ) prosome : 61 . 54 , urosome : 38 . 46 . relative lengths of urosomal segments and caudal rami : 12 : 14 : 11 : 11 : 10 : 10 : 9 . setal formula of the exopod swimming legs p1 to p4 ( se = outer setae ; si = inner setae ) , p1 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 4 si ; p2 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si ; p3 : 1 , 1 , 3 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si ; p4 : 1 , 1 , 2 se ; 1 , 1 , 5 si . female : p5 with 2 setae .
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ferrari , 1993 ( p . 764 ) ; ambler & al . , 1991 ( p . 1257 ) ; 1996 ( p . 287 ) ; buskey & al . , 1996 ( p . 301 , photoreception , swarming ) ; boxshall & halsey , 2004 ( p . 611 ) ; rasch & wyngaard , 2006 ( p . 627 : tab . 1 , genome size ) ; ferrari & dahms , 2007 ( p . 23 , 26 , 29 , 30 , rem . n , p . 42 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 63 , 87 , figs . copepodites i - vi , fig . 28 : p3 )
issued from : f . d . ferrari & t . e . bowman in smiths . contr . zool . , 1980 , 312 . [ p . 24 , fig . 15 a ] . male ( sem ) : a , integumental organ of cephalosome ( x 10 , 000 ) . nota : organs with form of shallow pore without thickened peripheral ridge , small hair arises from the center of pore .
buskey , 1998 ( p . 13 , rem . : p . 18 , swarm & mating ) ; humphrey , 2008 ( p . 84 : appendix a ) ; marques - rojas & zoppi de roa , 2017 ( p . 495 , table 1 ) ; jerez - guerrero & al . , 2017 ( p . 1046 , table 1 : temporal occurrence ) .
south africa ( off cape of good hope ) , brazil ( . . , vitoria bay , bracui estuary , mucuri estuary ) ; barbada is . , caribbean colombia ( tayrona ) , bahia de mochima ( venezuela ) , belize , caribbean , jamaica ( kingston harbour ) , g . of mexico , gulf of oman , arabian gulf , laccadive is . ( lagoons ) , madagascar ( nosy bé ) , rodrigues is . , indian , nicobar is . ( nankauri harbour ) , christmas is . , straits of malacca , china seas ( yellow sea , east china sea ) , taiwan ( tapong bay ) , korea ( e , s & w ) , japan , palau is . , australia ( new south wales , great barrier , coral reef ) , new caledonia , caroline is . , samoa is . , california ( san pedro bay ) , mission bay , bahia cupica ( colombia ) , chile ( n )
razouls c . , de bovée f . , kouwenberg j . et desreumaux n . , 2005 - 2018 . - diversity and geographic distribution of marine planktonic copepods . sorbonne université , cnrs . available at urltoken [ accessed july 09 , 2018 ]
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database .
walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
lee cnw . ( 2002 ) . the ecology of planktonic copepods and hyperbenthic communities in the cape ' d aguilar marine reserve , hong kong . phd thesis . the university of hong kong . [ details ]
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ivanenko , viatcheslav n . , ferrari , frank d . , defaye , danielle , sarradin , pierre marie and sarrazin , josée
chullasorn , supawadee , ferrari , frank d . and dahms , hans - uwe
ferrari , frank d . , ivanenko , viatcheslav n . and dahms , hans - uwe
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[ book review : ] the copepodologist & # 39s cabinet : a biographical and bibliographical history , volume 1 , aristotle to alexnder von rdmann ( 330 b . c . to a . d . 1832 )
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[ book review : ] copepoda : calanoida : diaptomidae , in . h . j . f . dumont ( ed . ) guides to the identification of the microinvertebrates of the continental waters of the world
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. . . the ratio between total and basal metabolism of cyclopoid o . davisae ( 3 . 0 ) was as high as in calanoids a . clausi ( 3 . 2 ) and c . euxinus ( 2 . 6 ) . the difference between total and basal metabolism of o . davisae corresponded to sufficiently high ( about medium ) of their activity but does not reach the critical level when the ratio between the total and basal metabolism increase to 6 ( svetlichny and umanskaya 1991 ; buskey 1998 ) . while o . davisae is considered a thermophilic ( uye , sano , 1995 ) copepod , females of this species in sevastopol bay can withstand broad interseasonal variations in temperature from 5 – 8 °c in cold period to 26 – 28 °c in summer . . . .
. . . 3a , the peak of the probability density function of the velocity shifts to the right , indicating higher cruising velocities . because e . affinis spends most of its time swimming slowly , higher cruising velocities may cost copepods a substantial fraction of their energy budget ( buskey , 1998 ) . in . . .
. . . observations , in fact , indicate that the cost of foraging depends linearly on foraging effort ( e . g . swimming , filtering ) , and is several orders of magnitude greater than the rate of energy dissipation ( buskey , 1998 ) . nevertheless , this view , which can greatly underestimate the cost of foraging , remains common in zooplankton foraging models ( e . g . . . .
. . . however , the above estimate does not take into account the losses involved at the different stages of energy conversion , which might have a significant effect on the net cost of propulsion . this could explain the observations made previously on copepods and larger crustaceans , which showed a significant increase in the metabolic rate of the organism during locomotion activity ( halcrow and boyd , 1967 ; torres and childress , 1983 ; svetlichny and hubareva , 2005 ; buskey , 1998 ) . high propulsion costs would drive evolution towards optimizing swimming , something that has been proposed for other organisms ( spagnolie and lauga , 2011 ; tam and hosoi , 2011 ) . . . .
. . . swimming against the environmental flow would require metabolic rates falling between routine and active levels , that is , between minimum and maxi - mum motor activity ( prosser , 1961 ) . for zooplankton , those rates are substantially higher than the basal metabolism required for organismal maintenance : 2 . 6 and 6 times higher for krill and copepods , respectively ( torres and childress , 1983 ; buskey , 1998 ) . thus , decays in oxygen concentrations would affect swimming performance much before being lethal . . . .
. . . however , the implicit assumption that energy dissipation dominates the cost of foraging 136 does not hold . observations , in fact , indicate that the cost of foraging depends linearly on foraging 137 effort ( e . g . , swimming , filtering ) , and is several orders of magnitude greater than the rate of energy 138 dissipation ( buskey , 1998 ) . nevertheless , this view , which can greatly under - estimate the cost of 139 foraging , remains common in zooplankton foraging models ( e . g . , visser et al . , 2009 ) . . . .
. . . in altruistic species , grouping with related individuals can further increase the benefit of aggregation ( young et al . 1994 ; fraser et al . 2005 ) . these benefits are supposed to outweigh grouping costs such as increased predation ( kemp 2012 ) , reduced food availability ( spieler & linsenmair 1999 ) , increased energetic expenditure ( buskey 1998 ) or increased exposure to parasites ( c ^ ot e & poulin 1995 ) . intriguingly , one non - adaptive explanation is rarely considered , namely that grouping behaviour results from parasite manipulation . . . .
monitoring water quality , plankton , and meteorological data within the mission aransas nerr .
to improve the knowledge of the texas coastal zone ecosystems and to promote public appreciation and support for stewardship of coastal resources .
behavioral adaptations of the cubozoan medusa tripedalia cystophora for feeding on copepod ( dioithon . . .
successful mating behavior is essential to the survival of all sexually reproducing organisms . to explore the components of a successful mating interaction for planktonic copepods , mating behavior can be compared to predatory behavior using the “components of predation” framework of c . s . holling . as the components of predation can be considered to include encounter , attack , capture and . . . [ show full abstract ]
in situ videotapes indicate that the planktonic mysid mysidium columbiae exhibits positive rheotactic behavior and can use prop roots and other objects as visual cues to maintain position in currents of changing speed within the mangrove prop root environment . the ability of mysids to hold position in currents of different speed was measured in the laboratory in a flow - through chamber . the . . . [ show full abstract ]
the effects of small scale patchiness of phytoplankton on copepod swimming behavior ( pseudocalanus m . . .
the effects of patchy distribution of phytoplankton on the swimming behavior of marine copepods was studied using a video - computer system for motion analysis . the roles of chemoreception and mechanoreception in the identification of food was investigated by exposing the copepod pseudocalanus minutus to conditions designed to simulate only the chemosensory or mechanosensory stimulation . . . [ show full abstract ]
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however , several contrasting and superimposing patterns have emerged , especially at intermediate scales , where a number of environmental factors and adaptive responses at a population level contribute to make ecological interpretations very difficult . too often , investigations have focused on a single spatial scale , direction or time , thus leading to a partial picture of the behaviour of the species investigated . this may also result in a limited or biased interpretation of the emerging patterns and the ultimate causes producing them .
with this study , we approach the problem of identifying the processes which drive the distribution of a freshwater copepod population in a perspective of scale , i . e . focusing the attention on how processes acting at different scales and directions contribute to the emergence of scale patterns of patchiness during the light cycle .
a set of statistical tools ( which includes the introduced “partial variance” , fractal dimension , geostatistical tools and mean residence position indices ) is first introduced and used to answer the following questions .
map of lake piediluco indicating the location of the five stations sampled on 26 and 27 july 2000 along the main axis of the lake . the top figure shows the daily water level fluctuation with the water level at 8 h of sampling encircled . the bottom table shows the water retention time and water quality characteristics relative to different portions of the lake ( channel , portions p1–p4 ) .
) belongs to the spatial plot considered , and 0 otherwise . in particular , when all
) and analysed their trends during the 2 - day period investigated . by rescaling these variance portions with respect to the number of the terms of the summation , we obtain the following quantity , which can be called the “partial variance” , which is useful for comparing the relative extent of the variability of data for the different plots considered :
is the number of distinct pairs pertaining to a specific spatial plot . note that , if the spatial plot is designed as a function of distance lags , the “partial variance” coincides with the semivariance used in variography (
the homogeneity of distribution of different population fractions ( nauplii , copepodites , adult males , adult females with and without eggs ) was tested by using pearson’s chi - squared test of independence . mean residence position ( mrpx and mrpy ) and dispersion ( sdx and sdy ) indices were also calculated for the different population fractions , as follows :
with respect to the origin of the transect and to water surface , respectively . these indices were used for describing the relative localization of population members and for calculating the average separation distance among them , which was taken as an ( inverse ) measure of population cohesiveness .
table i shows the composition of the c . abyssorum population in lake piediluco as estimated on the basis of the integrated set of samples collected during the whole sampling survey . as can be seen , all population stages ( including ovigerous females ) are simultaneously present in the population . this agrees with the previous observations by the authors ( unpublished results ) supporting the hypothesis that the population is asynchronous with a continuous reproduction . however , the population structure is not stable in the lake , and the data in table i suggest that , at the time of observation , it is undergoing a proximate phase of ageing . indeed , the abundance of nauplii is very low and copepodites represent the main fraction of the population , with relative abundance of instars increasing with age . in relation with the aims of the present study , the most important feature of the population is that the male - to - female ratio is significantly ( chi - square p < 0 . 001 ) higher than unity . we shall merely note here ( this point will be treated later in the paper ) that a value of 1 . 97 exactly matches the cubed ratio of the body length of males to females .
average population composition and body length of the development stages of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco resulting from the integrated samples collected on 26 and 27 july 2000
figure 2 shows the spatial patterns of temperature and water quality variables during the investigated period . from the maps , a hypolimnetic dense and anoxic layer can be recognized in the central portion of the lake at depth greater than 6–9 m . the nocturnal inflow of water from river velino is apparent in the maps relative to sampling hours falling within the filling phase ( 06 : 30 h and 22 : 30 h ) : the cooler , denser and less oxygenated waters incoming from the river fill the channel ( station 1 , near the origin of the transect ) pushing back the lake waters before descending toward the hypolimnetic layer . during the diurnal emptying phase ( 11 : 00 h and 16 : 30 h ) , the epilimnetic waters extend toward the western channel and then toward the river . secchi depth ranged from 1 m in the south - eastern portion of the lake to about 1 . 5 m in the western areas .
contour maps of ( a ) water temperature ( °c ) , ( b ) water conductivity ( ms cm −1 ) and ( c ) dissolved oxygen concentration ( mg l −1 ) within the vertical section investigated in lake piediluco at the four sampling hours . the maps have been obtained by averaging the values of 26 and 27 july 2000 . grid nodes indicate the position of the sampling points .
contour maps of density ( ind . l −1 ) of c . abyssorum within the vertical section investigated in lake piediluco at the four sampling hours on 26 and 27 july 2000 . grid nodes indicate the position of the sampling points .
temporal trend of dispersion of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco : ( a ) total variance ( s tot 2 ) and portions of variance associated with the different spatial plots considered ( s p 2 ) ; ( b ) variance - to - mean ratio ( s tot 2 / m ) ; ( c ) partial variances associated with the different spatial plots considered ( s ′ p 2 ) . figures in brackets are the number of point pairs involved in the calculation of each variance portion .
the horizontal large - scale ( s ′ 950h 2 , s ′ 1900h 2 ) and inter - station variability ( s ′ inter 2 ) is considerably higher than the others .
the variability associated with intra - station ( s ′ intra 2 ) and small - scale plots ( s ′ 3h 2 , s ′ 3v 2 , s ′ 6v 2 , s ′ 9v 2 ) have a comparable extent . this suggests that the within - station variability is due mainly to an isotropic small - scale patchiness .
all spatial plots show a clear daily fluctuation , with high values reached during daytime and low values during night . however , the ratios between the various terms remain almost unchanged during the day ( e . g . s ′ 3v 2 / s ′ 3h 2 = 0 . 95 ; s ′ intra 2 / s ′ inter 2 = 0 . 28 ; s ′ 3h 2 / s ′ 950h 2 = 0 . 26 ) .
the degree of horizontal dispersion clearly increases with scale , whereas the vertical variability does not show a significant variation with scale .
the strength of the scale dependence and its variation during the day can be evaluated by the fractal dimension ( fig . 5 ) : the high values found indicates that short - range processes affect the complexity of the spatial distribution more strongly than long - range effects , both along the horizontal ( d - horizontal = 1 . 89 on average ) and vertical ( d - vertical≈2 in most cases ) directions . in particular , the very high values of d - vertical indicate that the small - scale complexity is so high to smooth out any vertical trend .
temporal variation in the fractal dimension ( d ) of the horizontal and vertical distribution of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco .
the whole spatio - temporal pattern that emerges is compatible with an aggregation–dispersion process occurring daily at a small scale , whose effects are so important to be observable at all the spatial scales and direction investigated .
( a ) empirical and theoretical normalized variograms for c . abyssorum density data collected in lake piediluco on 26 and 27 july 2000 ( figures indicate the numbers of pairs included in each distance class ) . ( b ) kriged maps of c . abyssorum density in the region of station 4 .
the mapping of the densitiy of the different fractions of individuals considered ( nauplii , copepodites , adult males , adult females with and without eggs ) does not lead to the identification of patterns of distribution that are appreciably different from those obtained for the population as a whole , neither at a system nor at a local scale . this is actually due to the fact that they are very similar , as confirmed by the high correlations found among individual counts ( see example in table ii ) . however , a chi - square test of homogeneity reveals that they are statistically different : as can be seen from table ii , all the pairs compared are different at a significance level > 99 % , with the exception ( which is such only in this case ) of the case involving females with and without eggs . the same holds also at a local scale .
counts of the different population fractions of c . abyssorum in the samples collected on 26 july 2000 06 : 30 h within the section investigated in lake piediluco ( substation a ) , pearson’s coefficient of correlation and significance of the chi - square test of homogeneity between pairs of integrated counts
the mean residence indices [ equations ( 3 a ) , ( 3 b ) , ( 4 a ) and ( 4 b ) ] are useful for displaying in what the localizations of population members differ from one another ( fig . 7 ) . the following aspects emerge .
mean residence position ( mrpx and mrpy ) of the population fractions of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco at the four sampling hours ( 06 : 30 h , 11 : 00 h , 16 : 30 h , 22 : 30 h ) , labelled in sequence by increasing the symbol size . the indices are calculated by integrating the samples collected in a same hour on the two sampling dates . numbers in brackets represent the spatial dispersion along the horizontal and vertical direction , respectively ( sdx and sdy ) .
with the exception of those of females with and without eggs , the mean residence positions of the different population fractions appear clearly distinct . the separation takes place in the horizontal and / or vertical directions , depending on the pairs of fractions being compared : males and nauplii are separated mainly by mrpy , nauplii and females by mrpx , males and females by both mrpx and mrpy . females and nauplii tend to reside toward deeper areas of the lake , whereas males show a preference for a more superficial layer ;
looking at the values of the sdx and sdy [ equations ( 3 b ) and ( 4b ) ] , one can see that the horizontal dispersion of individuals increases with age , whereas the vertical one does not seem to be related to development stage or sex .
overall , the pattern that emerges shows that the various population fractions considered have a quite synchronized diel displacement , and also very different localization within the lake section , thereby showing that a weak cohesiveness does exists among population members . the cohesion among population members , as measured by the average separation distance between the different fractions , shows a daily fluctuation ( table iii ) . however , horizontal and vertical patterns are not phased one with the other : individuals are mostly spaced along the water column during daytime ( 11 : 00 h , 16 : 30 h ) , whereas the highest separation distance along the horizontal direction is realized during night ( 22 : 30 h ) .
in the following sections , we will try to identify the driving forces able to produce the observed spatio - temporal patterns of distribution of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco , paying a particular attention to the relative importance of abiotic and biotic factors in determining their emergence .
a sort of “relaxation” process seems to take place during night over the whole section of the lake , both along the horizontal and the vertical direction . this phenomenon is not phased with the hydrodynamic cycle of the lake and is hardly explained by system - scale processes . it seems to deal , rather , with the change of the aggregation state of individuals occurring at a small scale , which will be treated in the next section .
trend of the sex ratio in the population of c . abyssorum in lake piediluco in relation to depth , separately for sampling hour . the vertical trend is obtained by exponential interpolation of the integrated set of data collected on 26 and 27 july 2000 .
the authors are very grateful to the provincia of terni for the financial support to a monitoring program on lake piediluco , which inspired the present study .
we thank v . paroli for participating in the collection and analysis of the plankton samples during the preparatory work for her thesis , and l . mantilacci for kindly making her unpublished data available to us .
multiscale sources of spatial variation in soil . i—the application of fractal concepts to nested levels of soil vegetation
habitat selection and patchiness in scapholeberis : horizontal distribution and migration of s . mucronata in a small pond
temporal and spatial scales in phytoplankton ecology . mechanisms , methods , models and management
differential prey vulnerability and predator selectivity : effects of evasive prey on bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) and pumpkinseed ( l . gibbosus ) predation
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citation : bielecki j , høeg jt , garm a ( 2013 ) fixational eye movements in the earliest stage of metazoan evolution . plos one 8 ( 6 ) : e66442 . urltoken
copyright : © 2013 bielecki et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : ag acknowledges the financial support from the villum foundation ( grant # vkr022166 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
due to morphological specializations bell contractions in the box jellyfish tripedalia cystophora make the rhopalia swing between the relaxed state ( a ) and the contracted state ( b ) . the corresponding angular change is depicted in c and d . video analysis of free swimming animals determined the average swing amplitude of 18–19° to occur within 80–100 ms regardless of the swimming direction ( see also table 1 ) . here a vertical swimming animal is shown but the results were the same for horizontal and 45° upwards swimming . these values match the known spatio - temporal resolution of the upper lens eye ( d ) suggesting a connection between the biomechanics of the locomotion and refreshing the retinal image . ule , upper lens eye and lle , lower lens eye .
the compression of the 180° horizon above water ( green broken line ) into a 97° subsurface cone ( blue broken line ) ( a ) enable the box jelly to long distance navigate back under the mangrove canopy . b , the contrast line between the canopy and the open sky as seen through snell ' s window ( without photoadaptation ) . c , the effect of a swim contraction on the retinal image where activated photoreceptors will light up on a background of inactive receptors .
we hypothesize the presence of an alternative mechanism to oculomotor capabilities where the bell contractions during swimming will cause the entire eye bearing rhopalium to swing and thereby refresh the retinal image . the bell contractions are likely to cause the rhopalium to swing in a pendular fashion and if this swinging is of a magnitude comparable to the receptive angles of the photoreceptors , the locomotion of the animal could be used as an indirect mechanism to prevent adaptation in the upper lens eye .
to test our hypothesis we did macro video recordings of freely swimming animals and they revealed that the swim contractions did indeed cause the rhopalia to swing . the detailed analysis of the swim mechanics showed the average angular shift of the rhopalium ( δra ) induced by the bell contraction ( figure 1 ) to be 18 . 5°±0 . 5° . the full amplitude of the swing was completed within a timeframe ( δt ) of 86 ms±5 ms . interestingly , δra and δt remained constant irrespective of the swimming direction of the animal and variations in the swing pattern ( figures 3 and 4 ) . the values of δra were 19° , 18 . 1° and 18 . 5° for horizontal , vertical and 45° upward swimming respectively and δt values 80 ms , 89 ms and 89 ms for horizontal , vertical and 45° upward swimming respectively ( table 1 ) .
tracking the rhopalial angle through a single bell contraction show variations in the swing pattern , but the swing amplitude and swing time remain relatively constant ( see table 1 ) . the tracings are synchronized in relation to the onset of the bell contraction , and a contraction of each of the swimming directions is shown . red trace is the average bell diameter for the three contractions .
tracking the amplitude of the rhopalial swing , δra , and the swing time , δt , in a series of swim contractions ( a ) showed deviation from the hypothesized sinusoidal swing pattern but most contractions induced a rhopalial swing which matches the spatio - temporal resolution of the upper lens eye ( c ) . it is evident that the bell contraction ( a , red trace ) induced the rhopalial swing ( a , black trace ) . the pictograms in b represent the orientation of the animal and , red arrows , the swimming direction for each of the tracked contractions . the contraction parameters ( duration , degree of contraction , δra and δt ) remained relatively constant ( c ) .
light area in the circles represents the amount of open sky in the visual field . the upper lens eye was exposed to a changing area mimicking the effect of a swim contraction ( red trace ) . blue trace depicts a typical erg response to the change in light area of the fiber optic image bundle .
for the swim contractions to function efficiently as fixational eye movements they must induce a change to the retinal image of a magnitude that shifts the visual scene one half width of the photoreceptor acceptance angle within a single integration time . we observed large variations in the pattern of the rhopalial swing ( figure 3 ) in response to a rather invariable bell contraction , yet they resulted in relatively constant swing amplitudes and durations regardless of the orientation of the animal itself ( table 1 ) . these consistencies suggest a functional significance and since swing amplitudes are much larger during bell contractions than in the inactive periods between bell contractions where the animal glides through the water ( figure 4 ) only the contractions could potentially refresh the retinal image .
the eye bearing rhopalium is a rigid structure , which implies that all the eye types experience the same swing amplitude . this work focused on the ule since the visual ecology of the other eyes is less established . it is known that the lower lens eye is involved in obstacle avoidance behavior [ 18 ] but it is not clear whether swim contractions are necessary for detecting the prop roots under water or if the swimming speed itself is sufficient for detecting nearby structures .
the experiments were performed on adult medusae ( approx . 10 mm in bell diameter ) of tripedalia cystophora conant 1897 obtained from our cultures at the university of copenhagen , denmark . in the cultures the medusae were kept in a 200 l tank with circulating seawater at 28‰ and about 28°c and fed selco ( inve technologies , dendermonde , belgium ) - enriched artemia daily . they reached adult size in 2–3 months .
video recording of the rhopalial swing . the rhopalial angle ( yellow interrupted line ) were tracked through a bell contraction and compared to the angle at the relaxed , or t 0 , position ( red interrupted line ) . the video was slowed to 2 frames per second .
we profoundly thank finn west , bispebjerg hospital , for supplying endoscope equipment as well as palle hansen and kurt empacher , olympus denmark , for technical assistance .
conceived and designed the experiments : jb ag . performed the experiments : jb . analyzed the data : jb . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : jb jth ag . wrote the paper : jb ag .


the meramec saddled darter ( etheostoma erythrozonum ) is a species of darter endemic to the eastern united states , where it occurs in the larger streams of the meramec river drainage of missouri .

it inhabits fast gravel and rubble riffles of small to medium rivers .

this species can reach a length of 7.1 cm ( 2.8 in ) .

meramec saddled darter

nice ! only meramec river endemic fish . replaced by missouri saddled darter to the west and arkansas saddled darter to the south . # ozarks
michael wolfe on twitter :
meramec saddled darter from the @ nanfa _ org convention . …
citation : fishmap . org . 2018 . meramec saddled darter - etheostoma erythrozonum . available online at urltoken ; last accessed july 9 , 2018 .
u . s . researchers john f . switzer * and robert m . wood * * have described a new species of darter from the meramec river drainage of missouri , usa . the new species has been named etheostoma erythrozonum and is the first known fish species endemic to the meramec river drainage . its common name is meramec saddled darter .
etheostoma erythrozonum is a sister species of the missouri saddled darter , etheostoma tetrazonum , an inhabitant of the gasconade river , osage river , and moreau river drainages . the missouri saddled darter is one of several darter species endemic to the northern ozark region of missouri . when e . tetrazonum was first described , it was only known to exist in the
switzer , j . f . and wood , r . m . 2009 . etheostoma erythrozonum , a new species of darter ( teleostei : percidae ) from the meramec river drainage , missouri . zootaxa 2095 : 1 - 7 .
switzer , j . f . , and r . m . wood . 2009 . etheostoma erythrozonum , a new species of darter ( teleostei : percidae ) from the meramec river drainage , missouri . zootaxa 2095 : 1 - 7 .
north america : usa . etheostoma erythrozonum is restricted to the meramec river drainage of missouri . it is widely distributed within the meramec river drainage , known from the main channel of the meramec river in st . louis county and upstream into larger tributaries . it is generally absent from small headwater streams ( ref . 80465 ) .
north america : usa . etheostoma erythrozonum is restricted to the meramec river drainage of missouri . it is widely distributed within the meramec river drainage , known from the main channel of the meramec river in st . louis county and upstream into larger tributaries . it is generally absent from small headwater streams ( ref . 80465 ) .
switzer , j . f . and r . m . wood , 2009 . etheostoma erythrozonum , a new species of darter ( teleostei : percidae ) from the meramec river drainage , missouri . zootaxa 2095 : 1 : 7 . ( ref . 80865 )
range includes the meramec river drainage of missouri ( switzer and wood 2009 , page and burr 2011 ) . this species is widely distributed within the meramec river drainage , known from the main channel of the meramec river in st . louis county and upstream into larger tributaries ; it is generally absent from small headwater streams ( switzer and wood 2009 ) .
( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) range includes the meramec river drainage of missouri ( switzer and wood 2009 , page and burr 2011 ) . this species is widely distributed within the meramec river drainage , known from the main channel of the meramec river in st . louis county and upstream into larger tributaries ; it is generally absent from small headwater streams ( switzer and wood 2009 ) .
global range : ( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) range includes the meramec river drainage of missouri ( switzer and wood 2009 , page and burr 2011 ) . this species is widely distributed within the meramec river drainage , known from the main channel of the meramec river in st . louis county and upstream into larger tributaries ; it is generally absent from small headwater streams ( switzer and wood 2009 ) .
osage and gasconade river systems . however , within a year of its description , individuals of e . tetrazonum were identified from the meramec river system , a tributary of the mississippi river . since then the distribution of e . tetrazonum has been considered to include the meramec , gasconade , osage , and moreauriver systems .
as a result , the specimens living in the meramec river drainage have now been recognized as a separate species and the name e . tetrazonum will from now on only pertain to the specimens native to the moreau , osage , and gasconade river drainages . as mentioned above , the meramec river drainage species has been given the name etheostoma erythrozonum .
in 1984 , the first sign of e . tetrazonum actually being more than one species was found when an electrophoretic analysis unveiled considerable genetic divergence between populations of e . tetrazonum from the meramec and osage river drainages . this notion has now been supported by a recent molecular phylogenetic analysis of 13 populations of e . tetrazonum ,
male e . erythrozonum darters sport a horizontal red - orange stripe that runs along the lower sides of the body from the pelvic fins to the anal fin with an irregular dorsal margin , while the male e . tetrazonum darter has a dorsal stripe with a well - defined dorsal margin in . another notable difference between the two species is how e . erythrozonum has a series of irregularly shaped red - orange blotches instead of the well defined vertical bars seen on male e . tetrazonum darters .
data on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . though larvae of some species may drift with the current , turner ( 2001 ) found no significant relationship between a larval transport index and gene flow among several different darter species . separation distances are arbitrary but reflect the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 10 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied generally represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species has a somewhat small extent of occurrence , but it is listed as least concern in view of the fairly large number of subpopulations , lack of evidence of a substantial decline , and apparent lack of major threats .
this species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) and locations ( as defined by iucn ) . total adult population size is unknown but large . this is one of the most abundant darters within its range ( switzer and wood 2009 ) . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely has been relatively stable ( warren et al . 2000 , switzer and wood 2009 ) .
habitat includes fast gravel and rubble riffles of small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) .
currently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research actions .
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greek , etheo = to strain + greek , stoma = mouth ; rafinesque said
various mouths
, but jordan and evermann suggest the name might have been intended as
heterostoma ( ref . 45335 )
the name erythrozonum is derived from greek : erythros , red , and zona , zone . this name is in reference to the red - orange stripe and lateral red - orange blotches characteristic of this species , and the name is in keeping with the names
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 7 . 1 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 80865 )
etheostoma erythrozonum is a relatively large , stout - bodied species of etheostoma . dorsal - fin spines ( 11–14 , modally 13 ) , dorsal - fin rays ( 12–14 , modally 13 ) , anal - fin rays ( 8–10 , modally 9 ) , principal caudal rays ( 16–18 , modally 17 ) , pectoral - fin rays ( 15–17 , modally 16 ) , lateral - line scales ( 39–55 , modally 50 ) , cheek scales absent , opercle partially scaled ( 0–9 scales , modally 5 ) , breast partially to completely scaled , nape completely scaled . both males and females of this species have four prominent dark saddles on the back and dorsal sides , with the sides angled obliquely forward . the background color is dusky in the dorsal region , lighter in the sublateral region and white on the belly . along the sides is a series of sub - lateral dark blotches . there is a dark preorbital bar extending forward and a dark suborbital bar extending down the cheek . this species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism in nuptial color patterns .
etheostoma erythrozonum is one of the most abundant darters within its range ; its conservation status is currently considered stable ( ref . 49982 and ref . 80865 ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00501 ( 0 . 00201 - 0 . 01253 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .
etheostoma erythrozonum is one of the most abundant darters within its range ; its conservation status is currently considered stable ( ref . 49982 and ref . 80865 ) .
7 . 1 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 80865 ) )
etheostoma erythrozonum is a relatively large , stout - bodied species of etheostoma . dorsal - fin spines ( 1114 , modally 13 ) , dorsal - fin rays ( 1214 , modally 13 ) , anal - fin rays ( 810 , modally 9 ) , principal caudal rays ( 1618 , modally 17 ) , pectoral - fin rays ( 1517 , modally 16 ) , lateral - line scales ( 3955 , modally 50 ) , cheek scales absent , opercle partially scaled ( 09 scales , modally 5 ) , breast partially to completely scaled , nape completely scaled . both males and females of this species have four prominent dark saddles on the back and dorsal sides , with the sides angled obliquely forward . the background color is dusky in the dorsal region , lighter in the sublateral region and white on the belly . along the sides is a series of sub - lateral dark blotches . there is a darkpreorbital bar extending forward and a dark suborbital bar extending down the cheek . this species exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism in nuptial color patterns .
holotype for etheostoma erythrozonum catalog number : usnm 391646 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : j . switzer & j . ray year collected : 2003 locality : huzzah creek at the reis biological station , 6 . 2 km upstream from the route 8 bridge , crawford county , missouri , crawford county , missouri , united states , north america
holotype : switzer , j . f . & wood , r . m . 2009 . zootaxa . 2095 : 2 , fig . 1 .
paratype for etheostoma erythrozonum catalog number : usnm 391647 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : j . switzer & j . ray year collected : 2003 locality : huzzah creek at the reis biological station , 6 . 2 km upstream from the route 8 bridge , crawford county , missouri , crawford county , missouri , united states , north america
paratype : switzer , j . f . & wood , r . m . 2009 . zootaxa . 2095 : 2 , fig . 1 .
comments : habitat includes fast gravel and rubble riffles of small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) .
non - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .
this species has a somewhat small extent of occurrence , but it is listed as least concern in view of the fairly large number of subpopulations , lack of evidence of a substantial decline , and apparent lack of major threats .
comments : trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely has been relatively stable ( warren et al . 2000 , switzer and wood 2009 ) .
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data provided by natureserve . database built from natureserve ' s digital distribution maps of the freshwater fishes of the conterminous united states , version 3 . 0 . nonindigenous data provided by usgs nonidigenous aquatic species database and nas web services api . collection occurence data provided by fishnet 2 api services .
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due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
this species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) and locations ( as defined by iucn ) .
total adult population size is unknown but large . this is one of the most abundant darters within its range ( switzer and wood 2009 ) .
trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely has been relatively stable ( warren et al . 2000 , switzer and wood 2009 ) .
occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
page , l . m . , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .
page , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .
pflieger , w . l . 1997a . the fishes of missouri . revised edition . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city . vi + 372 pp .
warren , m . l . , jr . , b . m . burr , s . j . walsh , h . l . bart , jr . , r . c . cashner , d . a . etnier , b . j . freeman , b . r . kuhajda , r . l . mayden , h . w . robison , s . t . ross , and w . c . starnes . 2000 . diversity , distribution , and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern united states . fisheries 25 ( 10 ) : 7 - 31 .
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note : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .
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e . erythrozonum is very similar to e . tetrazonum but without the prominent blue - green colouration . some male e . erythrozonum darters do have a blue spinous dorsal fin base , but the blue colour is inconspicuous and never as outstanding as in e . tetrazon . ( the anal fin of e . erythrozonum is also blue - green . )
the paper has been published here in the journal zootaxa . picture is available in the online publication .
* * robert m . wood , department of biology , saint louis university , st . louis , missouri
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