the common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the european starling , or in the british isles just the starling , is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family , sturnidae .

it is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen , which is speckled with white at some times of year .

the legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have browner plumage than the adults .

it is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an unmusical but varied song .

its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the mabinogion and the works of pliny the elder and william shakespeare .

the common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate europe and western asia , and it has been introduced to australia , new zealand , canada , united states , mexico , peru , argentina , the falkland islands , brazil , chile , uruguay , south africa and fiji .

this bird is resident in southern and western europe and southwestern asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to iberia and north africa .

the common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid .

these take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks .

there are normally one or two breeding attempts each year .

this species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit .

it is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .

large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops .

common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts .

introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of western australia .

the species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks .

despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the international union for conservation of nature .

common starling

english : common starling , northern starling , english starling , purple - winged starling , starling ; french : étourneau sansonnet ; german : star ; spanish : estornino pinto .
click here for common starling . mp3 file ( mp3 1 . 4 mb )
common starling , strandfontein sewage works , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker © ]
the starling is one of the most abundant and most common birds in the world .
common starling , sturnus vulgaris , also known as the european starling or simply as the starling , photographed in sandbach , cheshire , england ( uk ) .
common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) ; adult . toulouse , france . february , 2012 .
the most similar species to the european starling are the other blackbirds . the common grackle (
common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the european starling singing . on the island of texel in the netherlands .
european starling males : 2 points . european starling fledgelings : 3 points . european starling females : 11 points !
that survived in an iberian refugium during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling . there is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling . although common starling remains are known from the middle pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the sturnidae is the paucity of the fossil record for the family as a whole .
common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) ; juvenile . kensington gardens , london , england . june , 2008 .
common starling feeding on ants , cape town , western cape , south africa . [ photo duncan robertson © ]
seregély d odúnál énekel / singing common starling at nest box , budapest ( 2013 . 04 . 14 . )
in australia , the common starling has become a familiar sight around human habitation throughout the east and south - east .
the common starling is a prominent bird in open cultivated areas , and is a well - known pest of orchards .
the latest sighting details and map for common starling are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .
common starling . adult male singing . south auckland , august 2014 . image © marie - louise myburgh by marie - louise myburgh
a majority of starling predators are avian . the typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns . their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey . adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the
common starlings feeding among stock in eastern australia ( photo by tina bentz ) .
in australia , the common starling has become a familiar sight around human habitation throughout the east and south east . once a common bird of european deciduous woodlands ( now in more rural and urban areas ) , the common starling was introduced into australia in the late 1850s through to 1870 . it has become well established and is expanding its range .
the song of the common starling is an unmusical collection of wheezy whistles , clicks , scratching notes and some mimicry of other bird calls .
common starling introduction in north america has resulted in population declines of other cavity nesters species , with their increasing numbers and their aggressive behaviour .
foods eaten include seeds , insects , small vertebrates , invertebrates , plants , and fruits . the most common animals eaten by the starling are
common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) a flock of birds feeding on a lawn beside the beach . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive
worldwide range of the common starling with natural populations in blue and introduced populations in red ( map by win kirkpatrick using climate software ) .
pet starlings - a section devoted to pet starling owners . webpages filled with info about pet starling care , visually sexing a starling , cages , helpful tips from pet starling owners , a story about
kuro
, the oldest captive starling , and mozart ' s starling . you can also watch videos of starlings talking . some neat starling items you can purchase can be found here .
first record of metacestodes of mesocestoides sp . in the common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) in europe , with an 18s rdna characterisation of the isolate
) are the most common eastern blackbirds . all three of these species have dark bills and legs , which distinguishes them from the european starling (
a common starling – sturnus vulgaris lducz - y1547 . … the star of the show or in this case the specimen of the week blog .
once a common bird of european deciduous woodlands ( now in more rural and urban areas ) , the common starling was introduced into australia in the late 1850s through to 1870 . it has become well established and is expanding its range .
a common starling foraging in a lawn in a city in the netherlands . it found an insect larve , probably the larve of a crane fly .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . common to very common , and locally abundant . considered one of the most abundant bird species in the world . recent population . . .
) is the most common flea in their nests . the small , pale house - sparrow flea
a ﬂock of common starlings in ﬂight ( photo by sabine jensen / natuvision . com ) .
 a team is a small number of people with complementary skills committed to a common goal .
folia parasitologica : first record of metacestodes of mesocestoides sp . in the common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) in europe , with an 18s rdna characterisation of the isolate
distribution of common starling in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .
the starling family , sturnidae , is an entirely old world group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in southeast asia and sub - saharan africa . the genus sturnus is polyphyletic and relationships between its members are not fully resolved . the closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling . the non - migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral
flux , j . e . c . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . common starling . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
a number of starlings have recently been detected along the state ' s south coast . this article provides information on the identification , biology , impact and management of the common starling .
the european — or common — starling has flourished in the u . s . since 60 of them were released in central park in 1860 . ( photo : pierreselim / wikimedia commons )
habitat : common starling lives in very varied habitats , open woodlands , forest edges , gardens , towns , coastal cliffs , semi - desert and farmlands . it is a bird of lowlands .
another psychedelically - colored starling is the cape glossy starling . this species is the most widespread starling in southern africa but is endemic to the region . these birds can often be seen foraging on foot through grasslands and people’s yards .
starling invadors : common starlings introduced to north america have been a factor in reducing native cavity nesting bird populations ( such as bluebirds and red - headed woodpeckers ) by competing aggressively for nesting cavities .
flight : common starling performs direct and straight flight , with rapid wing beats , alternating with short glides . large flocks move as a single unit , with great precision , to avoid avian predators .
behaviour : mostly insectivorous , but opportunistically omnivorous , common starlings feed on both insects and small invertebrates including earwigs , beetles , bees , dragonflies , ants , spiders , small amphibians and lizards , as well as fruits , grains , seeds and food waste . three types of foraging behaviour are observed in the common starling :
feare , c . 1984 . the starling . oxford university press , oxford .
starling : the story so far . new zealand garden bird survey 2007 - 2015
the starling that dared to be different : krulwich wonders . . . : npr
a common starling of wetter areas is the black - bellied starling . this species exhibits the glossy coloration shown by most southern african starlings . i have recently been seeing flocks of these birds feeding on berries alongside african green - pigeons here in the cwebe nature reserve where i live .
common starling may live close to humans in urban areas . it is another notable aspect of their social behaviour , but it may become a real nuisance due to the noise and droppings in roost places .
the common starling was introduced to jamaica in 1903 , and the bahamas and cuba were colonised naturally from the us . this bird is fairly common but local in jamaica , grand bahama and bimini , and is rare in the rest of the bahamas , eastern cuba , the cayman islands , puerto rico and st . croix .
willet , g . 1930 . the common mynah breeding in los angeles . - the condor 32 : 301 - 302 .
common starlings need large amounts of protein to live and breed successfully , so insects make up over half their daily diet .
the common starling was introduced to australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax , a major agricultural product . nest - boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . the common starling was introduced to melbourne in 1857 and sydney two decades later . by the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees . by the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout victoria , queensland and new south wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . although common starlings were first sighted in albany , western australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state . the wide and arid nullarbor plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 , 000 birds over three decades . the common starling has also colonised lord howe island and norfolk island .
the european starling was introduced into north america in 1880 , by an acclimatization society , headed by eugene schieffelin and sadly , the european starling is here to stay .
a nesting starling in southend - on - sea , essex . by jans canon – starling feeding young . uploaded by snowmanradio , cc by 2 . 0 , urltoken
the fungus that causes histoplasmosis in humans . all of these examples indicate that the spread of disease by starlings to humans and livestock is a potential threat . spread of disease among wildlife is another facet of this problem . the common myna , a relative of the common starling , was implicated in the spread of avian malaria in hawaii .
diet : common starling feeds on seeds , insects , small vertebrates , spiders , earthworms and fruits . coastal birds feed on molluscs and crustaceans . food varies from a place to other , depending of food resources .
european starling shows off fresh plumage on cornell hawks cam – oct . 10 , 2017
the starling has a large local repertoire and can mimic the sounds of other birds .
native to europe , asia and north africa , sturnus vulgaris ( the european starling ) has been introduced globally , save in neotropical regions . the european starling prefers lowland habitats
eggs incubate in the nest for up to 15 days . the juvenile european starling (
feare c . j . , 1984 . the starling . oxford university press . oxford
whitehead sc , wright j , cotton pa . winter field use by the european starling
voice : sounds by xeno - canto common starling utters harsh , buzzing , descending “tcheerr” while taking off . alarm call is a hard “kyik” and a harsh “schaarh” , both repeated . common starling’s song is a highly varied medley of chirps , clicks , creaks , warbles and gurgles , alternating with clear whistles often descending “wheeeeeeoooooo” . they are able to mimic the sounds of other birds , or even mechanical sounds included into their songs .
behaviour : common starling is often seen in large flocks , except during the breeding season . large groups protect them from predators . they are very gregarious , breeding and feeding in small flocks , and migrating in masses .
differences to look for between the common starling and three similarly sized native species . ( source : handbook of western australian birds – volumes 1 and 2 , johnstone and storr , 1998 ; 2004 western australian museum ) .
baby starling and house sparrow links see photos to help you identify a baby european starling or house sparrow . read information about keeping a starling or sparrow nestling warm , what to feed it , how often to handfeed it , weaning , and raising for release .
although common starlings are distinctive , especially in the western australian landscape , there are a few birds that people may confuse them with .
intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests . female
floaters
( unpaired females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair ' s nest . fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . the average life span is about 2–3 years , with a longevity record of 22 yr 11 m .
struggling songsters : the european starling has been adversely affected by intensive agriculture , and in countries like the uk it has been red - listed since its numbers are falling , although it remains a widespread and very common species .
the common starling was first described by linnaeus in his systema naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name . sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the latin for
starling
and
common
respectively . the old english staer , later stare , and the latin sturnus are both derived from an unknown indo - european root dating back to the second millennium bc .
starling
was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely supplanted
stare
to refer to birds of all ages . the older name is referenced in william butler yeats ' poem
the stare ' s nest by my window
. the international ornithological congress ' preferred english vernacular name is common starling .
the birdhouse network 2001 . ( 2 oct . 2001 ) .
european starling .
humans , via control programs in agricultural areas , are probably responsible for most starling mortality .
a starling couple can build a nest in 1 - 3 days . both sexes incubate .
click the range map to learn more about the distribution of the european starling in washington .
department of agriculture and food , western australia ( wa ) , 2007 . starling updates urltoken
links a webpage containing links to pet starling webpages and other helpful bird - related websites .
the starling has the reputation for being one of the noisiest and most gregarious garden birds .
jeremy rice changed the thumbnail image of
file : starling chicks clarinbridge . jpg
.
jeremy rice changed the thumbnail image of
file : starling rochford 1 . jpg
.
starling : the story so far . new zealand garden bird survey 2007 - 2015 - youtube
there are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary clinally in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage . the gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities .
in kazakhstan the common starling lives in the northern forest - steppe areas and on steppes and foothills of south and east kazakhstan from syrdaria river to altai . the detailed distribution in kazakhstan please see in the chapter
races
.
range : common starlings are abundant and widespread . they are found in europe , western asia , introduced in 1890 in north america ( 100 birds ) , south africa , southern australia and new zeeland . common starling is native to northern half of eurasia . it is resident or partially migratory in most part of its range , with some populations moving southwards to winter .
please note that the google map for common species will load slowly as there is a lot of data to show . please be patient .
common yellowthroat ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ bh bu : feb cu cy : feb dr : feb , mar , apr , dec jm : mar , apr pr : mar geothlypis t . trichas a male common yellowthroat ( photo by kim steininger )
the common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other arthropods . the food range includes spiders , crane flies , moths , mayflies , dragonflies , damsel flies , grasshoppers , earwigs , lacewings , caddisflies , flies , beetles , sawflies , bees , wasps and ants . prey are consumed in both adult and larvae stages of development , and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards . while the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises . the sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily metabolise foods containing high levels of sucrose , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries . the isolated azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered roseate tern . measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the terns return to their breeding colonies in spring .
i hope you will read this recently published article in the new york times . it is a heartwarming story about raising a baby starling in ny city . click here : the starling chronicles
in iberia , the western mediterranean and northwest africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour . at close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings .
sturnus vulgaris ( european or common starling ) . its feathers are in transition to first - winter plumage . part of a large flock of mixed blackbirds / starlings at crissy field , san francisco , california , usa . august , 2009 .
the common starling , also known as the “european starling” or just the “starling” is an invasive species which was deliberately introduced to north america . their arrival can be traced back to the late 1890s when the american acclimatization society imported and released dozens of starlings in new york city’s central park . the goal was to bring all the species of birds mentioned in shakespeare’s plays into north america . by 1950 , starlings had spread across the continent and reached the pacific coast . today they are one of the most common and widespread birds in north america with a population exceeding 200 million .
the european starling , also known as the common starling , is a small bird native to eurasia , but introduced in south africa , north america , australia and new zealand . prior to 1850 there were two attempts to introduce the starling in north america , in the northeast and on the west coast . both of these initial attempts failed . however , in 1890 , sixty birds were released in central park and began to flourish .
fumigation is generally not practical for starling control , and no fumigants are registered for this purpose .
a common invasive starling found throughout the western and eastern cape provinces . it favours urban gardens and parks as well as agricultural regions where they feed on a variety of insects , fruits and seeds . this starling is very distinctive as breeding adults have a white - flecked appearance with bright yellow bill and glossy purple plumage around the head and shoulders .
. this worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate . in britain , the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . other recorded internal parasites include the spiny - headed worm prosthorhynchus transverses .
pranty , b . 2007 . status and distribution of common myna ( acridotheres tristis ) in florida . - north american birds 61 : 658 - 665 .
starling subspecies : there are two subspecies of the european starling . the shetland starling , s . vulgaris subsp . zetlandicus is slightly larger than the nominate s . vulgaris subsp . vulgaris , and is found in shetland , fair isle and the western isles . the faroese starling , s . vulgaris subsp . faroeensis is the largest ( european ) variant of the starling . the winter adult is black with blue shades , which become green in the summer . this subspecies is only found in the faroe islands .
the starling ' s plumage is mainly blackish with buff edged wing feathers and reddish - brown legs .
feare , c . j . 1984c . the starling . oxford : oxford univ . press . close
starlings are protected under the wildlife and countryside act 1981 which means it is illegal to intentionally kill or harm a starling or damage an active nest or its contents . common starlings are a red list species and their numbers in the uk have been declining since the 1980s . these tenacious and adaptable birds are have historically benefitted from the creation of buildings and open farmland . in return , starlings feed on invertebrates such as wireworms which are crop pests and therefore many people have encouraged starling nests through building nest boxes . however , such encouragement is believed to have caused the decline of other local species and has resulted in common starling inclusion on the iucn’s list of the world’s 100 worst invasive species . such examples just hint towards the intertwinned and contested relationship between common starlings and humans .
) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host . starlings are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest eviction however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers . nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as
common starling is omnivorous , and it may adapt to all kinds of food . if some foods’ items are protected by skin , or shell , the bird insert its bill into the food , pries it open by widening with its bill , exposing the interior .
the common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in new zealand , australia , south africa , north america , fiji and several caribbean islands . as a result , it has also been able to migrate to thailand , southeast asia and new guinea .
adeney , jennifer marion . 2001 . introduced species summary project : european starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) . urltoken
a medium - sized ( 7 ½ - 8 ½ inches ) songbird , the european starling . . .
to achieve their extraordinary coordination , starling flocks in flight behave mathematically like metals becoming magnetized , researchers say .
native to eurasia , the common starling was introduced by idiot humans into many places throughout the world where their populations have exploded and where they aggressively out - compete native birds for nest cavities . basically , common starlings live where ever people live in north and south america , hawaii and new zealand , australia , thailand , southeast asia , new guinea , fiji , and a number of caribbean islands , where they are generally reviled as pests and are considered to be invasive species . they also are common where ever there are grassy areas , such as farmland , pastures , playing fields , golf courses , and airfields .
by far the most common species of starling that i have seen here during my trip here in south africa is the red - winged starling . this species can be seen in virtually any habitat ; towns , grassland , savannah , forests , wetlands , on the beach ; you name it , i have seen it there . the red - winged starling is a fairly large starling and is unlike any other species in southern africa as far as its plumage coloration goes : males are pitch black with bright red - brown wings ; females are the same as males except their heads and necks are blue - gray .
they sometimes flock with other birds like grackles , red - winged blackbirds , and brown - headed cowbirds and may feed with rock doves , house sparrows and common crows .
understanding and interpreting impacts of woodpecker cavity usurpation must include consideration of past woodpecker and common starling population fluctuations , breadth of habitats used by woodpecker species , and habitat limitations of common starlings . conservation efforts for woodpeckers and other primary and secondary cavity - nesting species must focus on changes in tree , forest and ecosystem management to encourage maintenance of dead wood , large contiguous tracts that include diverse tree species and old growth , and forested linkages among such areas .
the common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter . although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts . these dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as
reproduction : common starling nests in cavities or nest - boxes . the nest is made with sticks , dried grasses and plant fibres , papers , feathers and includes the same materials as in natural or artificial cavities . the nest is situated between 3 and 5 metres above the ground .
, all human bacterial pathogens . the study concluded however , that starling droppings were not a significant source of human infection ( gautsch et al . 2000 ) . in the united states , starling droppings provide a growth medium for
polder , e . 1963 . starling and woodpecker interactions . - iowa bird life 33 : 42 - 43 .
georgia wildlife web . 2000 . perching birds : european starling , sturnus vulgaris . accessed august 11 , 2004 .
hamilton wj , gilbert wm . starling dispersal from a winter roost . ecology . 1969 ; 50 : 886–898 .
an increasingly common vagrant from eastern europe is the rose - coloured starling . in the summer , the adults have distinctive and unmistakable black and pink plumage - the breast , belly and back being pink . many visitors , however , are juveniles and these can be easily overlooked as they look similar to juvenile common starlings , except that the bill is yellowish , legs are pale pink , and the plumage is a drab pale grey - brown with darker wings .
for farmers , the common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) has been a useful introduction . it helps control unwanted insects , including ticks on cattle and sheep , and crop pests such as caterpillars and grasshoppers . some farmers encourage starlings to prey on grass grubs by placing nest boxes around fields .
the european starling belongs to the family sturnidae , order passeriformes . sturnidae , are perching birds that number more than 111 species , including the mynah . the european starling can be described as a stocky , medium - sized black bird with a short tail . the tip of the tail just barely extends beyond the tips of the closed wings . in flight , the starling has a distinctly triangular shape . the european starling is about the same size as a robin . the total length of the european starling is about 8 . 5 inches ( 21 . 6 cm ) .
conclusion : identify and try to knock out the european starling females first . the european starling females are the ones that lay the eggs . no females , no eggs , no european starlings . it ' s just that simple .
the european starling or common starling , sturnus vulgaris , is a passerine bird in the family sturnidae . this starling is native to most of eurasia , but has been introduced to south africa , north america , australia and new zealand . it is resident in southern and western europe , but northern and eastern populations migrate in winter to these regions , and also further south to areas where it does not breed in iberia and north africa . european starlings will eat almost anything , including farmland invertebrates and berries , and garbage .
i give the european starling fledgelings one point more that the european starling males , because you may thump a female fledgeling , but you would never really know as these are immature birds . no matter how you look at the european starling males , they are just pests , so thump them hard , but they are still only worth 2 points .
the widespread common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) consumes large numbers of insects but also feeds on grain and small fruits , competing severely with other desirable songbirds . since their introduction into north america in 1890 ( central park , new york ) , they have grown to such large numbers that they are…
feare , c . j . 1984 . the starling . oxford univ . press , new york . 315 pp .
precautions need to be taken when working around large concentrations of starling droppings . contact the department of health for recommendations .
turner , e . l . 1908 . green woodpecker versus starling . - british birds 2 : 141 - 146 .
you have identified your wild baby bird as a starling , or house sparrow , and you realize it needs help .
although starlings are distinctive in appearance they can sometimes be confused with similar - sized native species that use similar rural habitats . following is a guide to identifying common starlings that summarises key differences to look for between the starling and the dusky woodswallow , yellow - throated miner and purple - crowned lorikeet .
this species often comes to bird feeders . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .
probably the most common bird in the united states is the european starling , there are billions of them . unfortunately , it is the only species of starling we have ( with the exception of mynas that have been introduced in some areas ) . but here in south africa , there are an astonishing 15 species ! most of them are beautifully iridescent and glossy in coloration and others lack the glossy - ness but make up for it in strange looks . so far i have been able to photograph five species of starling here in africa .
you may recognise this week’s sociable and rowdy specimen of the week : the common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) . starlings are familiar to many brits , and sotw blog readers from europe , asia , africa and even those in northern australia may also recognise this tenacious bird . despite declining numbers in recent years they remain one of the uk’s most common garden birds . starlings are especially profuse in southern england , often being sighted in towns and city centres as well as more rural areas .
feare , c . 1984 . the starling . - oxford university press , new york feare , c . 1989 . the changing fortunes of an agricultural bird pest : the european starling . - agricultural zoology reviews 3 : 317 - 342 .
another similar species , the common blackbird ( turdus merula ) , is also invasive in some parts of its range ( john tracey , pers . comm . , sept . 2004 ) .
when feeding protein supplements with other rations , such as silage , mix them well to limit starling access to the supplements .
the starling gets its name from the tiny white stars that gleam , only in summer , against its glistening dark feathers .
forbush , e . h . 1915 . the starling . - massachusetts state board of agriculture , circular , no . 45 .
moore , g . e . 1937 . probable effects of starling . - bluebird [ missouri audubon society ] april : 34 .
one shakespeare character thought to use a starling to drive his adversary mad . ( photo : spinus nature photography / wikimedia commons )
lets start with european starling identification , and you will need a good pair of binoculars for the methods described on this page .
like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping . their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular - shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight . when in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in unison , form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion . common starling on migration can fly at 60–80 km / h ( 37–50 mph ) and cover up to 1 , 000–1 , 500 km ( 620–930 mi ) .
european starling facts , 2000 .
ohio history central
( on - line ) . accessed july 05 , 2000 at urltoken .
starling , 2000 .
world book online americas edition
( on - line ) . accessed july 04 , 2000 at urltoken .
[ until then , there ' s always time to train a starling to irritate someone you ' re not very fond of . ]
the common starling is a medium - sized bird with a pointed beak , short , triangular wings and a short tail . its blackish plumage varies with the season — it has a noticeably iridescent green - and - purple sheen to its feathers during the breeding season , and numerous white , ‘v’ - shaped markings at other times of the year .
starling , 2000 .
. microsoft , encarta online encyclopedia
( on - line ) . accessed july 05 , 2000 at urltoken .
procaccini a , orlandi a , cavagna a , giardina i , zoratto f , santucci d , et al . propagating waves in starling ,
are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings . protozoan blood parasites of the genus haemoproteus have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode
description : common starling in breeding plumage has iridescent black feathers . we can see glossy purplish and greenish feathers in all parts of its body . it appears as a blackbird , but it has short , square - tipped tail , and triangular pointed wings . wings and tail are dark . bill is yellow with blue base in male , pinkish in female .
there are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling .
probing
involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole . this behaviour , first described by konrad lorenz and given the german term zirkeln , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . it takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects .
hawking
is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and
lunging
is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . earthworms are caught by pulling from soil . common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .
common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and retrovirus - induced lymphomas . captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea - leaves to the food .
numerous tiny black or red dot - sized bugs crawling in nest / on babies , especially in tree swallow nests . adults may act alarmed . birds fledge prematurely ( esp . martins ) . not common on bluebirds .
response : these are common starlings , sturnus vulgaris , in flight . they are recognizable in this image from their silhouette ; short , blunt - ended tail , sharply pointed wings , and a long , thin bill .
these birds pose enough of a threat to songbirds that it is legal to kill starlings at any time in the u . s . and canada , and a bounty may be paid . it is also a common practice where possible to set up nest boxes in backyards and wooded areas for native species to give them a chance , and to destroy starling nests .
the _ confusion _ effect _ when _ attacking _ simulated _ three _ dimensional _ starling _ flocks . pdf ( 677 . 84 kb )
one wild european starling lived for 15 years and 3 months . captive birds may be expected to have maximum lifespans of slightly longer than this .
hicks , l . e . 1934 . individual and sexual variations in the european starling . - bird - banding 5 : 103 - 118 .
reported starling murmurations : ( a ) = international distribution ( ; ( b ) uk basic distribution ; ( c ) = uk distribution showing number of records ; ( d ) = uk distribution showing mean size of murmuration . all base maps from natural earth ( freely available in the public domain ) ; all starling data from starling survey run by authors and freely available–see data availability statement . maps created using qgis under cc by .
though federal law allows you to remove starling and house sparrow eggs , it is illegal to remove the nests or eggs of all other birds .
if you don’t have the time , resources or expertise to solve your starling problem , a number of wildlife and pest control companies offer bird control as a service . these professionals can install bird control products and offer other services such as clean - up and humane trap and starling removal .
under legislation administered by dafwa , the common starling is a declared pest in wa . the western australian organism list ( waol ) contains information on the area ( s ) in which this pest is declared and the control and keeping categories to which it has been assigned in western australia ( wa ) . use the links on this page to reach starlings in waol .
for a proven european starling bait that the european starlings cannot resist , click here . you will see how to mix the european starling bait ( this bait also works for v - traps along with popcorn during the winter months ) and there are some seed mixtures to lure european starlings too .
probably my favorite of the starlings i have seen in southern africa is the pied starling ( pictured above ) . this species is dark - brown in coloration but if the sun hits it right , can appear purple - green . the pied starling is a common and endemic species to south africa . i think the characteristic of this bird that really makes me like it , is the constant expression of a hyperactive clown . another interesting trait of this bird is that it nests colonially in burrows in dongas and riverbeds .
common starlings are most often seen searching for seeds and insects on lawns and in paddocks . other food includes spiders , worms , human scraps and fruit crops . birds feed mainly on the ground and often in vast flocks .
africa has another seven or so genera with divergent species ( plus there is madagascar starling saroglossa aurata on that island ) , and one of those is the lovely violet - backed starling ( below ) . sometimes called
amethyst starling ,
it has a wide range in african woodlands . unlike most african starlings , there is strong sexual dimorphism . this one ( below ) is a male in miombo woodlands in the caprivi strip , namibia .
maccarone , a . d . 1987 . effect of snow cover on starling activity and foraging patterns . wilson bull . 99 : 94 - 97 .
the global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the international union for conservation of nature as being of least concern . it had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . in about 1830 ,
habitat : the red - winged starling is very common in numerous urban areas , but its original habitat is quite different . this bird frequents the mountainous areas with rocky outcrops and gorges , with access to vegetated feeding grounds . this species occurs up to 2500 metres in ethiopia , and can be seen up to 4000 metres or more in uganda . in south africa , this starling is present from sea - level up to 3000 metres of elevation . however , it usually avoids the arid regions and the lowlands of the east coast .
the european starling has been introduced to southern africa but is currently restricted to the lower half of south africa . of the five starling species mentioned , it is the smallest . i don’t think i have to say much about this species because its habits here are exactly like its habits in the states .
for every european starling female that you take out of breeding circulation , you have effectively removed 11 birds that year , as european starling females generally lay 2 clutches each year and each clutch generally consists of 5 eggs each . taking the female out removes 2 clutches so you have effectively scored 11 points .
after two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into new york ' s central park by eugene schieffelin . he was president of the american acclimatization society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of william shakespeare into north america . about the same date , the portland song bird club released 35 pairs of common starlings in portland , oregon . these birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . common starlings reappeared in the pacific northwest in the mid - 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 central park introduction . the original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern canada and alaska to central america .
) mosquito activity season . these two periods were selected in order to test whether mosquito feeding habits are affected by the seasonal changes in the behaviour of some avian species . for instance , frugivorous birds , such as the common blackbird (
though flocks of common starlings — murmurations of sturnus vulgaris vulgaris , in technical and taxonomical parlance — can be found across north america and western europe , rome’s flocks are renowned for their size , making them natural subjects for giardina’s team .
young starlings leave the nest covered with light brown feathers . as starling moulting is a gradual process , young starlings are often seen with a hybrid combination of light brown heads and new black feathers with bright white tips . furthermore , during autumn and winter the white spots on common starlings are particularly pronounced which has resulted in the rspb getting numerous calls about mysterious birds in peoples gardens . this starling specimen with its very sheeny dappled feathers of green and purple and it’s much less pronounced white spots is likely to have been collected during breeding season .
fig . 2 . starling wintering areas , 1972 . map by j . w . rosahn , based on the national audubon society’s annual christmas bird count .
allard , h . a . 1940 . the starling’s family life and behaviors . - journal of the washington academy of sciences 30 : 34 - 46 .
kohler , l . s . 1912 . status of the european starling in essex county , new jersey . - wilson bulletin 24 : 44 - 46 .
) play an active role in the control of insect populations . many people also consider the starling to be aesthetically pleasing , and keep them as pets (
also in open woodlands , grasslands , irrigated pasture , coastal plains , reed - beds around wetlands , swamps , parks , towns and cities . it is particularly common near water but avoids dense woodlands , forests , rainforest and arid regions .
johnson r . and glahn j . 1998 . ( 2 oct . 2001 ) .
starling management in agriculture .
nebraska cooperative extension , ncr 451 .
cooke , m . t . 1925 . spread of the european starling in north america . - u . s . department of agriculture , department circular 336 .
mazgajski , t . d . 2007a nest hole age decreases nest site attractiveness for the european starling sturnus vulgaris . - ornis fennica 84 : 32 - 38 .
the starling is a significant economic pest overseas and in australia , causing severe damage to high - value fruit crops , especially cherries and all varieties of grape .
though any european starling kill is acceptable and allowed by law ( there are no fish and game laws that protect european starlings ) , so you can use any means at your disposal to eliminate them from your area . this page is primarily dedicated to thumping european starling breeders and you should thump them all year long .
summer plumage is a glossy black with iridescencent purple and green feathers that are tipped in white . the legs are a reddish color . the bill is tapered and conical , and is yellow - colored in the summer . except for possible escaped exotic mynah birds ( common , crested , and hill mynahs ) , the starling is the only black - colored bird with a yellow bill found in the united states .
according to the british trust for ornithology ( bto ) , common starlings have steeply declined by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 in most parts of the uk . in england , their numbers have declined even more dramatically [ read more ] .
weitzel , n . h . 1988 . nest - site competition between the european starling and native breeding birds in northwestern nevada . condor 90 : 515 - 517 .
bounty hunters : in western australia , which is starling - free , the government pays full - time hunters to patrol the border and shoot starlings as they arrive .
ferguson , m . s . 1938 . notes on the relation of the european starling to other species of birds . - the auk 53 : 87 - 88 .
gromadzki , m . 1980 . reproduction of the starling sturnus vulgaris in żulawy wiślane , north poland . - acta ornithologica 17 ( 16 ) : 195 - 224 .
kalmbach , e . r . 1928 . the european starling in the united states . - u . s . department of agriculture farmers’ bulletin , no . 1571 .
snyder , j . s . 2003 . patent us6513454 b1 . martin house starling excluder . - u . s . patent office , washington , d . c .
now what ? you need to learn baby starling care such as how to keep a nestling warm , what type of formula to feed it , how to handfeed it and how often to do so . this page will assist you in helping your baby starling thrive . baby starlings and house sparrows require the same care and food .
the same group previously described aspects of starling flocking with equations used to describe avalanches . the birds’ aerial formations don’t just transcend biology , but span multiple physical phenomena .
the following guest post is by drew starling , a phd candidate in history at the university of pennsylvania , and sean nadel , a jd candidate at columbia university .
feed contamination from starling excreta may not be an economic loss for cattle or pig operations . in 2 years of testing at western kentucky university , neither pigs nor cattle were adversely affected by long - term exposure to feed heavily contaminated with starling excreta . as compared to controls , no significant differences were observed in weight gain or feed efficiency ( ratio of weight gain to weight of feed offered ) . in addition , there were no observed differences in feed rejection or disease incidence . these results indicate that there is no economic justification for starling control based solely on feed contamination . however , the effects of livestock water contamination from starling excreta have not been well studied .


hoffmann 's two-toed sloth ( choloepus hoffmanni ) is a species of sloth from central and south america .

it is a solitary , largely nocturnal and arboreal animal , found in mature and secondary rainforests and deciduous forests .

the common name commemorates the german naturalist karl hoffmann .

hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth

hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth . - picture of thebirdingexperience , monteverde - tripadvisor
sloth distribution . black box represents approximate range of hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth ; red box represents linnaeus ' two - toed sloth . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheets for hoffman ' s two - toed and linnaeus ' two - toed sloths . see iucn fact sheets for detailed distributions .
south america is home for the hoffmann’s two toed sloth . here they can be found in honduras , ecuador , peru , brazil and bolivia .
hoffmann’s two - toed sloth ( c . hoffmanni ) is found in central and south america from nicaragua to peru and western brazil . the two species can be distinguished by the colour of the fur on the throat . hoffmann’s has a conspicuously pale throat , whereas linnaeus’s is dark .
30 . wallace c & oppenheim yc ( 1996 ) . hematology and serum chemistry profiles of captive hoffmann ' s two - toed sloths (
the two - toed sloth is currently not threatened with extinction . both , linnaeus ' s and hoffmann ' s two toed sloth are relatively frequently kept by zoos because they are of major educational interest and are good ambassador species for its habitat , the threatened neotropical rainforests .
home range sizes of hoffman’s two - toed sloths range from 2 to 3 ha .
modern sloths are divided into two families based on the number of toes on their front feet . linnaeus ' s two - toed sloth and
nico , a male two - toed sloth , can be seen in the zoo ' s elephant odyssey exhibit area .
hoffmann’s two toed sloth is a herbivore . most of their diet is tree leaves with the occasional fruit or flower also eaten . on very rare occasions they may eat an insect .
predators of the hoffmann’s two toed sloth include jaguars , ocelots , large snakes such as the anaconda and birds of prey like the harpy eagle . humans hunt them for meat and pets .
closer detail of the term placenta from a hoffmann ' s sloth ( courtesy dr . d . a . meritt , chicago ) .
only three mammals do not have seven cervical vertebrae . hoffmann’s two toed sloth is one of them . their vertebrae vary between five and eight which allows their head to turn 180 degrees in either direction .
peery , m . z . and pauli , j . n . 2012 . the mating system of a ' lazy ' mammal , hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth . animal behavior 84 : 555 - 562 .
linnaeus ' s two - toed sloth ( choloepus didactylus ) , also known as the southern two - toed sloth or unau , is a species of sloth from south america , found in venezuela , the guyanas , colombia , ecuador , peru and brazil north of the amazon river .
54 . eisenberg jf & maliniak e ( 1985 ) . maintenance and reproduction of the two - toed sloth
becher ( 1921 ) considered the earlier publication on the placenta of hoffmann ' s sloth by turner . the findings were essentially identical to those that he found in a specimen of
two - toed sloths are slightly larger than their three - toed relatives . they are able to survive in captivity , while three - toed sloths are not .
50 . mccrane mp ( 1966 ) . birth , behaviour and development of a hand - reared two - toed sloth .
two - toed sloth in colombia ( plese , pers . comm . ) are expected to shed light on these issues .
as arboreal mammals , hoffman’s two - toed sloths eat , sleep , mate , and give birth suspended from tree limbs . individuals of
when frightened , young sloth ' s hair
puffs out
, almost doubling its size .
(
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
, 2009 ; taube , et al . , 2001 )
we exhibited two - toed sloths in our early years , but without much success .
hoffman’s two - toed sloths inhabit lowland forests as well as higher altitude rain forests . habitat is limited primarily to areas of continuous canopy . habitat selection is correlated with social inheritance of the mother’s home range and tree preference . plant composition and availability change seasonally and also play a role in habitat selection . in areas where hoffman’s two - toed sloths coexist with three - toed sloths (
two - toed sloths are a valuable food source and are often hunted for their meat .
bottom by geoff gallice from gainesville , fl , usa ( two - toed sloth ) [ cc by 2 . 0 urltoken via wikimedia commons
two - toed and three - toed sloths were formerly placed in the same family but the two genera have profound behavioral and anatomical differences and are believed to come from two different fossil lineages . they are now placed in separate families .
two - toed sloths are more aggressive than their three - toed cousins . they can bite and will defend themselves by slashing with the foreclaws .
46 . meritt da ( 1973 ) . edentate diets . ii . two - toed sloths .
the hoffman ' s two - toed sloth is one of the world ' s slowest mammalsâ€”so sedentary that algae grows on its furry coat . the plant gives it a greenish tint that is useful camouflage in the trees of its central and south american rain forest home .
the sloth ' s scientific name is bradypus tridactylus . here is its taxonomy according to the national history museum :
(
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
, 2009 ; gilmore , et al . , 2001 ; nowak , 1999 )
(
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
, 2009 ; gilmore , et al . , 2001 ; mendel , 1981 )
two - toed sloths live 10 to 15 years in the wild and over 30 years in zoos .
the hoffmann’s two toed sloth can be found inhabiting tropical forests ranging from sea level up to 3000 meters . there are two separate populations of c . hoffmanni , separated by the andes . the most northern population ranges from eastern honduras to western ecuador , and the southern population ranges from eastern peru to western brazil and northern bolivia . these two populations are thought to have diverged up to 7 million years ago . there are 5 suggested subspecies .
43 . mendel fc , piggins d & fish dr ( 1985 ) . vision of two - toed sloths
, have three claws on the forelimb . hoffman’s two - toed sloths have head and body lengths ranging from 58 to 70 cm , mass varies from 4 to 8 kg .
sloths are identified by the number of long , prominent claws that they have on each front foot . there are both two - toed and three - toed sloths .
today , a linné’s two - toed sloth serves as an animal ambassador for her species . born at the zoo in 2013 , she was named xena in an online naming poll . xena meets zoo guests up close during special animal presentations .
meritt , d . a . : the natural history , behavior , nutrition , physiology , reproduction , development and management of hoffmann ' s sloth , choloepus hoffmanni ( peters ) . m . a . thesis , northeastern illinois university , 124 pp . , 1977 . ( kindly supplied by author ) . meritt , d . a . : the two - toed hoffmann ' s sloth , choloepus hoffmanni peters . in , the evolution and ecology of armadillos , sloths , and vermilinguas . g . g . montgomery , ed . smithsonian institute press , washington , d . c . , pp . 333 - 341 , 1985 .
(
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
, 2009 ; gardner , 2007 ; gilmore , et al . , 2001 ; macdonald , 2006 )
(
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
, 2009 ; mckenzie , et al . , 2005 ; taube , et al . , 2001 )
53 . montgomery gg & sunquist me ( 1978 ) . habitat selection and use by two - toed and three - toed sloths . in : montgomery gg ( editor ) ,
a three - toed sloth can rotate its head nearly 90 degrees or more , and its mouth is shaped in a way that makes the animal appear as if it ' s always smiling .
murata , k . and masuda , r . : gender determination of the linné ' s two - toed sloth ( choloepus didactylus ) using sry amplified from hair . j . vet . med . sci . 58 : 1157 - 1159 , 1996 .
two - toed sloths have been called the slowest animals on earth . ranging in length from 21 to 29 inches ,
there are two categories of sloths . the two - toed sloth is slightly bigger than the three - toed sloth , though they share many of the same features . they are about the size of a medium - sized dog at around 23 to 27 inches ( 58 to 68 cm ) and 17 . 5 to 18 . 75 pounds ( about 8 kilograms ) .
hoffman’s two - toed sloth is found in south and central american countries including : bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , guyana , nicaragua , panama , peru , and venezuela . they are most prevalent in the amazon rainforest basin of central brazil and peru .
8 . bush m & gilroy ba ( 1979 ) . a bleeding technique from nonpalpable vessels in anesthetized two - toed sloths
as strictly arboreal mammals that move little and are cryptically colored , hoffman’s two - toed sloths are relatively protected from predation . their predators are are large , arboreal or avian predators , especially harpy eagles (
like many other mammals , sloths only have one baby at a time . baby sloths have a gestation of five to six months for some types sloths and as much as 11 . 5 months for others , such as the hoffman ' s two - toed sloth .
16 . cabral ams , da costa cp & huggins se ( 1980 ) . cardiac output in the three - toed sloth ,
moss , w . e . , pauli , j . n . , gutiérrez , g . a . , young , a . m . , vaughan , c . , herrera , g . and peery , m . z . , 2011 . development and characterization of 16 microsatellites for hoffmann’s two - toed sloth , choloepus hoffmanni . conservation genetics resources , 3 ( 4 ) , pp . 625 - 627 .
42 . andrade - da - costa bls , pessoa vf , bousfield jd & clarke rj ( 1989 ) . ganglion cell size and distribution in the retina of the two - toed sloth (
2009 .
two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus & choloepus hoffmanni
( on - line ) . fact sheets - san diego zoo library . accessed november 03 , 2009 at urltoken .
the teeth of the two - toed sloth are small , simple molars that are continously growing but constantly ground down by the mastication of food . to compensate for a lack of sharp teeth ,
21 . valentinuzzi me , ruiz edv & da costa cp ( 1984 ) . ventricular fibrillation threshold in the three - toed sloth (
49 . richard - hansen c & tauber e ( 1997 ) . note on the reproductive behavior of the three - toed sloth ,
meritt , d . a . : edentates . the ark ( lincoln park chicago ) 2 : 2 - 14 , 1975 . meritt , d . a . : a simplified technique for diagnosing parturition in hoffmann ' s sloth . intern . zoo ybk . 16 : 152 - 153 , 1976 .
top by derivative work : stevenj ( talk ) original photo by leyo . ( two - toed sloth costa rica . jpg ) [ cc by 2 . 5 urltoken or gfdl urltoken via wikimedia commons
sonta s . - i . , hayata , i . , sasaki , m . and kondo , n . : the karyotypes and sex - determining mechanism in the two - toed sloth , choloepus didactylus . chromos . inf . serv . 28 : 15 - 17 , 1980 .
there are 2 living species of two - fingered sloth , thought to have diverged 6 - 7 million years ago . these include :
17 . duarte dpf , huggins se , da costa cp & leal am ( 1989 ) . responses of the three - toed sloth ,
23 . duarte dpf , huggins se , da costa cp & leal am ( 1987 ) . responses of the three - toed sloth ,
35 . kleinschmidt l , marz j & braunitzer g ( 1989 ) . the primary structure of pale - throated three - toed sloth (
the sloth got its name from its slow movement , it is not lazy , just slow - moving . the sloth is the slowest mammal on earth . in total , there are six species of sloth .
44 . galvão de moura filho a , huggins se & lines sg ( 1983 ) . sleep and waking in the three - toed sloth ,
veselovsky , z . : a contribution to the knowledge of the reproduction and growth of the two - toed sloth choloepus didactylus at prague zoo . int . zoo ybk . 6 : 147 - 153 , 1966 .
hoffman’s two - toed sloths host a variety of organisms , including gastrointestinal parasites , ectoparasites , and commensal arthropods ( mosquitoes , sand flies , triatomine bugs , lice , ticks , and mites ) . algae grows on the fur of
( hoffman’s two - toed sloth ) is a native south american mammal whose distribution also reaches central america . the distribution extends from southern nicaragua to brazil and bolivia and is composed of two disjunct populations . the northern population extends from central america to northern and western colombia , western ecuador , and westernmost venezuela . the southern population spans the area east of the andes in ecuador , peru , bolivia , and western brazil . the two species of
the hoffman’s two - toed sloth is mainly an herbivore that eats mostly leaves , but can also consume animal matter such as bird eggs , nestlings , lizards , and insects . at the como zoo , the sloths are on a diet consisting of lettuce and carrots . the sloths have large , multi - chambered stomachs similar to a cow’s that are tolerant of the toxic chemicals contained in the foliage that they eat . having an extremely slow metabolism , hoffman’s two - toed sloths can take up to a week to digest a meal ; they only need to descend from the trees once every 5 - 7 days to urinate and defecate .
37 . saraiva pes & magalhães - castro b ( 1975 ) . sensory and motor representation in the cerebral cortex of the three - toed sloth (
40 . piggins d & muntz wra ( 1985 ) . the eye of the three - toed sloth . in : montgomery gg ( editor ) ,
55 . toyama y , calderon fu & quesada r ( 1990 ) . ultrastructural study of crystalloids in sertoli cells of the three - toed sloth (
it is a solitary , nocturnal and arboreal animal , found in rainforests . it is able to swim , making it possible to cross rivers and creeks . the two - toed sloth ' s main enemies are man , large birds of prey like the harpy eagle and crested eagle , and cats like the ocelot .
a sloth’s voice sounds like the hiss of a deflating balloon , but the animal can also squeal and grunt as needed . a low bleat signals distress—sloth ears are most tuned to low - frequency sounds . the sloth has an excellent sense of smell . males scent mark on tree branches from a gland on the rump .
34 . bozzini ce , henriques jap & ladosky w ( 1978 ) . characterization of the blood volume and iron kinetics in the three - toed sloth ,
. master ' s thesis , universidade federal de pernambuco , recife , pe , brazil . [
. species in this genus are easily identified by the presence of two claws on the forelimb . the other extant genus of sloths , three - toed sloths
7 . britton sw ( 1941 ) . form and function in the sloth .
47 . gilmore dp & da costa cp ( 1995 ) . the three - toed sloth in biomedical research : an update on the endocrine and reproductive systems .
after around nine hours of sleep , the sloth still doesn ' t make an attempt at getting friendly with others . they live solo lives . the closest a sloth gets to social time is sleeping in the same tree with another sloth .
both two - toed sloth species live in zoos . yet identifying the two has always been problematic—they look alike ! based on the genetic information , a senior research associate in our genetics division designed a low - cost , easy - to - use genetic tool to identify two - toed sloths and improve management of the captive population . this tool allows visualizing dna differences between species in a polymer matrix , a procedure that uses non - sophisticated tools in simple laboratory settings .
although commonly referred to as two - toed sloths , this description is somewhat misleading as all sloths have three toes on the hind - limb . the true difference in digits lies in the forelimb , with sloths in the choloepus genus having two fingers . for this reason , the correct terminology should be two - fingered sloth , a term which has now been recognised in several scientific publications .
the linnaeus’s two - toed sloth is of similar appearance to c . hoffmanni , but has much darker colouration on the snout , hands and feet . this species ranges from venezuela , the guyanas and colombia to ecuador , peru and brazil north of the amazon river . there is some evidence to suggest that they also extend into bolivia .
several authors have studied the chromosomes of hoffmann ' s sloths and found initially 2n = 49 , with the y - chromosome translocated to a small autosome . females , however , also have only 49 chromosomes , with a single x - chromosome . two animals ( perhaps representing subspecific hybrids ) were supplied to us for study by meritt ( 1977 ) . both , one male and one female , had 50 chromosomes . jorge et al . ( 1985 ) found further variations , and identified animals with chromosome numbers between 2n = 49 and 51 for hoffmann ' s sloths . the animals that they studied were from specified regions in south america .
18 . duarte dpf , da costa cp & huggins se ( 1982 ) . the effects of posture on blood pressure and heart rate in the three - toed sloth ,
three - toed sloths may have quite small or absent canine - like upper teeth .
three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) do not survive out of their natural habitat .
31 . vogel i , de thoisy b & vie jc ( 1998 ) . comparison of injectable anaesthetic combinations in free - ranging two - toed sloths in french guiana .
the sloth ' s shaggy coat is made up of two types of fur . the short underfur is covered by long , thick guard hairs . the hairs vary in colour from brown to yellow , although the fur also has green tinges produced by bacteria living on the hairs .
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limited to central and south america . the 2 species are partially sympatric ( overlap ) in the andean regions and western amazonia . both overlap with the 3 - toed sloth .
did you know ? that the two - toed sloth has a very unusual symbiotic relationship with algae ? it has specialized hair that encourages algae growth , which aids in camouflaging the animal . it is also believed that the sloth will eat some of the algae and , interestingly , it will absorb some of the nutrients from the algae through its skin .
given the two front digits and the lack of a brown line under . . .
figure 1 - distribution of two - and three - toed sloths throughout central and south america ( a , b ) ( for further details see wetzel ( 3 ) ) .
at the san diego zoo , our two - toed sloths eat low - starch , high - fiber biscuits , fresh fruits and veggies , and a variety of fresh browse .
maturation in the sloth is a rather slow process . it has been stated ( 52 ) that the three - toed sloth may take up to six years to reach maturity . however , in contrast , it has also been reported ( 54 ) that although male specimens of choloepus didactylus in captivity are not sexually mature till four and a half years , females will breed at three years . meritt ( 6 ) reported a case of sexual maturity in a female two - toed sloth ( choloepus hoffmanni ) at two years of age ; this animal died when 30 months old , with a well - formed fetus in utero .
19 . duarte dpf , da costa cp & huggins se ( 1983 ) . the autonomic component in blood pressure and heart rate effects of tilting in the three - toed sloth .
an examination ( 36 ) of the hemostatic profiles in five specimens of bradypus variegatus found clotting time to be 6 min 21 ± 64 s , partial activated thromboplastin time 45 . 5 ± 8 . 52 s and prothrombin time 7 min 2 ± 39 s . platelets numbered 324 ± 24 x 10 3 mm 3 . bleeding time was 1 min 9 ± 42 s . animals which had a higher platelet count showed a shorter bleeding time .
salazar bravo , j . a . , redford , k . h . and stearman , a . m . 1990 . hoffman ' s two - fingered sloth ( choloepus hoffmanni peters , 1859 ; megalonychidae ) in bolivia . museo nacional de historia natural ( bolivia ) 9 : 18–21 .
distribution : c . america and northern s . america . there are two distinct populations : the first extends from nicaragua to venezuela , the second ranges from peru to southwestern brazil and central bolivia .
hoffmann’s two toed sloths have a coat of long , coarse fur which can range from a dark brown to pale yellow in colour with the face being lighter . algae growing on their fur can make them appear green . this provides good camouflage . this coat is formed of a long coarse outer coat and dense smooth undercoat that helps provide insulation . these sloths have two fingers with sharp claws on each foot that allow them to latch onto tree branches . these claws can be up to 6 . 5cm ( 2 . 6in ) long . their forelimbs are longer than their hind limbs .
its scientific name , bradypus , is greek for
slow feet ,
which makes sense since it is the world ' s slowest animal . it is so slow , in fact , that algae grows on its fur , according to national geographic . the algae works to the sloth ' s advantage , though . the green of the algae helps the sloth blend into the trees , hiding it from predators .
the sloths also conserve energy by having incredibly low muscle mass . only 25 % of a sloth’s body is made of muscle , which is especially interesting when compared to other mammals that have twice that amount .
for the most part , a sloth ' s life revolves around sleeping and eating in their tree homes . the only times these mammals leave their tree is to use the bathroom and to take a swim .
41 . andrade - da - costa bls , pessoa vf , bousfield jd & clarke rj ( 1987 ) . unusual distribution of ganglion cells in the retina of the three - toed sloth (
48 . gilmore dp , da costa cp , cabral a , duarte dpf , montgomery i & wilson ca ( 1994 ) . further studies on reproductive function in the three - toed sloth ,
nice ' n ' slow : a three - toed sloth climbs a liana to the forest canopy . lianas provide critical connections among trees to allow arboreal animals to move from tree to tree .
orm and function in the sloth . the quarterly review of biology 16 : 13 - 34 .
2008 . sloth ecology : an overview of eld studies . pp . 269 - 280 , in
milk is higher in fat ( 6 . 9 % ) and protein ( 61 % ) than cow ' s milk
eisenberg , j . f . and maliniak , e . : reproduction of the two - toed sloth choloepus hoffmanni in captivity . amer . soc . mamm . abstr . techn . pap . 58th ann . meet . 41 - 42 , 1978 ( cited by nowak , 1999 ) .
the pygmy three - toed slothis on the iucn species survival commission ' s top 100 list of most threatened species . these tiny sloths can only be found on escudo island , which is found off the coast of panama .
by defecating at the base of their host cecropia tree , the sloth provides the tree with fertilizer .
moreno , s . , t . plese . 2006 . the illegal traffic in sloths and threats to their survival in colombia .
these animals live in the rainforests of northern s . america as far south as brazil and bolivia , and into central america as far north as nicaragua . unlike their three - toed cousins , they have only two digits on each forefoot . like other sloths , this species lives a slow , nocturnal life , hanging from high branches .
hoffman’s two - toed sloths range in body length from 21 to 29 inches , and range in weight from 9 to 20 pounds . they get their name from having two large claws on their forelimbs that can measure up to 3 inches in length . two - toed sloths also have the lowest and most variable body temperature and the lowest muscle mass relative to overall body weight of any mammal . their fur is brown in color , ranging from light tan to dark brown , with lighter fur around their face and head . their average lifespan is 10 - 12 years in the wild , but they can live up to 31 years in captivity .
last two decades on this species in colombia , analyzing their respective contributions to its knowledge . the r
choloepus didactylus at san diego zoo . the two forefoot digits and three leg digits are well visible .
. thus , there may be marked differences in reproduction of these two species that need further attention .
sloths mate and give birth while hanging in the trees . young two - toed sloths are often seen clinging to their mothers ; they travel by hanging onto them for the first five weeks of their lives .
though not uncommon in the wild , deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction remain threats for the sloth .
a sloth’s fur has special grooves specially made to house algae . the moist air of their habitat , as well as their lack of movement and specialized fur that allows algae to grow within the hair shaft , are perfect conditions to form a symbiotic relationship between the two - toed sloths and the algae . the greenish color given off by the algae provides camouflage for the sloth , and the sloth provides a home for the algae . the way their hair falls is also an adaptation . because they spend the majority of their lives hanging upside down in trees , their hair is parted along their stomachs and flows from belly to back so that rainwater will run off .
is found in tropical moist lowland and montane forest . two - toed sloths have nocturnal and solitary habits . gestation length seems to be approximately 10 months ( eisenberg and maliniak 1985 ) but estimates are quite variable .
15 . oliveira lha , da costa cp & huggins se ( 1980 ) . cardiac mass , blood temperature and ventricular fibrillation : a study of the comparative physiology of the three - toed sloth and the domestic cat .
, a mutual commensalism . the algae obtain a protected habitat growing inside the hair and the sloth becomes camouflaged alongside the foliage . the algae take up residence in the longitudinal grooves of the pelage . the algae , in addition to providing camouflage , may also contribute nutritional or trace element value to the sloths . hoffman’s two - toed sloths also provide trees with fertilizer by defecating ( accounting for 30 % of their body weight ) at the base of trees .
eisenberg , j . f . and maliniak , e . : maintenance and reproduction of the two - toed sloth choloepus didactylus in captivity . pp . 327 - 331 , in , the evolution and ecology of armadillos , sloths , and vermilinguas . g . g . montgomery , ed . smithsonian institution , washington , 1985 .
with a muscle mass of only 25 percent ( most mammals have twice as much ) , sloths can’t shiver when it’s cold . but they weigh much less than other animals their size , which is helpful for life in the trees . sloths can grab the leaves and shoots on high , narrow branches that other animals can’t reach . two - toed sloths have two toes with claws on the front feet and three toes on the back feet , used to hang upside down from branches . ( three - toed sloths have three toes on their front and back feet . )
the distribution of two - and three - toed sloths in south america is illustrated in figures 1 a and b . bradypus variegatus , the brown - throated three - toed sloth , is one of the most common medium - sized mammals in the tropical forests of central and south america . previously many workers have referred to the species as bradypus tridactylus but this , the pale - throated three - toed sloth , is now regarded as the one found only in southern venezuela , the guianas and northern brazil south to the rio amazonas . throughout this review an attempt has been made to distinguish between the misnamed bradypus tridactylus = variegatus and the rightful bearer of the title .
gilmore , d . , duarte , d . f . and peres da costa , c . 2008 . the physiology of two - and three - toed sloths . in : s . f . vizcaíno and w . j . loughry ( eds ) , the biology of the xenarthra , pp . 130 - 142 . university press of florida , gainesville .
greenwood , a . d . , castresana , j . , feldmaier - fuchs , g . and paabö , s . : a molecular phylogeny of two extinct sloths . mol . phylogenet . evol . 18 : 94 - 103 , 2001 .
anderson , s . 1997 . mammals of bolivia : taxonomy and distribution . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 231 : 1–652 .
mccrane , m . p . : birth , behavior and development of a hand - reared two - toed sloth . int . zoo ybk . 6 : 153 - 163 , 1966 . meritt , d . a . : edentate immobilisation at lincoln park zoo , chicago . intern . zoo ybk . 12 : 218 - 220 , 1972 .
body temperature fluctuates with the temperature of the environment . hoffman’s two - toed sloths maintain a low body temperature of 24 to 33˚ c . they are unable to shiver to keep warm due to their low metabolic rate and decreased muscle mass . although their fur offers some means of insulation , they further regulate their body temperature by moving in and out of the sun .
25 . duarte df , da - costa cp & huggins se ( 1986 ) . hypotensive bout in the sloth ,
the two - toed sloth has a head - body length of 46 to 86 cm , and its body weight ranges from 4 . 1 to 9 kgs . the fur is long , coarse , and wavy , the hairs are brown with cream tips , looking variegated . the face has often the same colour as the body , the legs are often darker brown . there are two long claws on the fore feet , and three on the hind feet .
lopes , m . , s . ferrari . 2000 . effects of human colonization on the abundance and diversity of mammals in eastern brazilian amazonia .
nowak , r . m . : walker ' s mammals of the world . 6th ed . the johns hopkins press , baltimore , 1999 .
[ 0455 ] virginia hayssen et al . ( 1993 ) , asdell ' s patterns of mammalian reproduction : a compendium of species - specific data
almost entirely arboreal ( tree - dwelling ) creatures , two - toed sloths live high in the forest canopy of tropical rainforests . they can be found resting in the crowns of trees or the lianas ( woody climbing vines ) that are interwoven throughout the canopy treetops . although nearly all of their normal activity occurs hanging upside down , two - toed sloths will descend to the ground for urination and defecation , or to change trees to find a new food source .
figure 3 - distribution of ganglion cell densities in the right retina of a three - toed sloth bradypus variegatus ( a ) and of a two - toed sloth choloepus didactylus ( b ) . numbers next to each isodensity line represent cells / mm 2 divided by 1000 . the cross marks the position of the optic disc . note the different position of the region of maximum cell density ( area centralis ) between the sloth species . in both instances the presence of a visual streak in the retina is indicated by the elongated contours of the isodensity lines representing intermediate densities around the area centralis , this being 0 . 8 x 10 3 in bradypus variegatus and 0 . 4 x 10 3 in choloepus didactylus .
the karyotype of these two species has been confusing and it is very different from , and more complex than that of three - toed sloths . especially the sex - determining chromosomes have been a problem in their clear delineation . because it is difficult to determine the gender of two - toed sloths externally , murata & masuda ( 1996 ) developed a technique that employs dna from hair for sex assignment . they amplified the sry region and were able to determine maleness in newborns .
although strictly arboreal , hoffman’s two - toed sloths make their way to the base of trees once a week in order to defecate . this is usually done at habitual defecation sites . other instances in which they travel to the ground are to change tree location and , on rare occasions , to give birth and mate . in order to make it to the ground , they descend head first . once on the ground they use crawling locomotion . if forced to defend themselves , they use their sharp claws or sharp caniniform teeth . in periods of stress or to demonstrate aggressive behavior , hoffman’s two - toed sloths may take on a pop - eyed appearance . they are capable of partially retracting the eyes when the eyelids are closed tightly , manifesting the pop - eyed appearance .
the tough leaves in a sloth ' s diet are difficult to digest . sloths have a four - part stomach that slowly digests the leaves with bacteria . it can take up to a month for a sloth to digest one meal . their leafy diet isn ' t very nutritious though , so they don ' t get much energy from it . this may be why sloths are so slow .
they have a four chambered stomach like a cow . inside these stomachs are bacteria which break down the plant matter which they ingest . it may take a month for one meal to be digested . up to a third of their weight may be in the sloth’s digestive system .
after they are born , the babies aren ' t in a hurry to leave their mother . they ride around clinging to their mother ' s belly for several weeks after birth . even after they stop dangling from their mother , little sloths stay by their mother ' s side for up to four years .
28 . rappaport ab & hochman h ( 1988 ) . cystic calculi as a cause of recurrent rectal prolapse in a sloth (
vaughan , c . , ramirez , o . , herrera , g . and guries , r . 2007 . spatial ecology and conservation of two sloth species in a cacao landscape in limón , costa rica . biodiversity and conservation 16 : 2293 - 2310 .
bush , m . and gilroy , b . a . : a bleeding technique from nonpalpable vessels in anesthetized two - toed sloths ( choloepus didactylus ) - plus hematologic data . j . zoo anim . med . 10 : 26 - 27 , 1979 .
two - toed sloths are in serious danger of losing their habitat due to logging of rain forests . aside from captive animals , this is the only area in the world in which this species lives . several organizations are currently working to protect these areas .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
38 . murphy mg & o ' leary jl ( 1973 ) . hanging and climbing functions in racoon and sloth after total cerebellectomy .
the youngster must grab onto its mother ' s hair at birth and find its way to her nipples to nurse . the mother ' s body position looks like a comfortable hammock of sorts as baby rests on her chest . the baby begins sampling solid foods at about 10 days but still nurses for about a month . after that , the youngster continues to cling to its mother’s belly but eats whatever she eats . it first hangs upside down on its own at 20 to 25 days .
moreno , s . and plese , t . 2006 . the illegal traffic in sloths and threats to their survival in colombia . edentata 6 : 10 - 18 .
chiarello , a . g . 2008 . sloth ecology : an overview of field studies . in : s . f . vizcaíno and w . l . loughry ( eds ) , the biology of the xenarthra , pp . 269 - 280 . university of florida press , gainesville , fl , usa .
hoffman’s two - toed sloths are nocturnal herbivores . activity usually begins about an hour after sunset and ceases by sunrise . during the day their location is mostly at mid - canopy and evening hours are marked by movement towards the upper canopy . they traverse tree tops in a hand - over - hand motion , traveling no more than 36 . 58 m in any one day . length traveled by each step averages 30 cm . locomotion characteristics of
at least three genera of giant ground sloths lived in southern california during the pleistocene . a shasta ' s ground sloth skeleton was recently excavated in carlsbad ( thought to be about 2 . 1 m ( 7 ft ) long and weighing about 136 - 181 kg ( 300 - 400 lbs ) — bear sized .
after six months mum begins to move the infant on they may continue to associate for up to two years . he makes his home in part of his mother’s home range . at three years of age females become sexually mature while males have to wait till four or five years old for this to happen .
males and females are monomorphic . hoffman’s two - toed sloths have rounded heads and flattened faces . the small snout is naked and protrudes from the flattened face . ears are round and thickened , almost always covered with hair . the coloration of body hair in adults is a mosaic of tan , blonde , and light brown . shading of the hair over the head and back is often darker than the rest of the body . a good way to distinguish
to assess some of the habitat characteristics that are important for the survival of two - and three - toed sloths ( choloepus hoffmanni and bradypus variegatus ) , a floristic characterization was done in two fragments of the tropical dry forest in arboletes , antioquia , colombia . the study was performed during the dry season of february – march 2007 in an area intervened by cattle farming activity . . . [ show full abstract ]
45 . nagy ka & montgomery gg ( 1980 ) . field metabolic rate , water flux , and food consumption in three - toed sloths (
in a similar manner to the three - fingered sloths , their hair is specially adapted to facilitate the growth of symbiotic algae and fungi . each hair has a unique groove running along the length of the shaft which traps moisture . the algae and fungi that grow make the sloth appear green which facilitates camouflage in the rainforest canopy . some species of fungi living in sloth fur have even been found to be active against certain strains of bacteria , cancer and parasites ! alongside hosting algae and fungi , sloth hair also provides home to an entire ecosystem of invertebrates – some species of which are found nowhere else on earth ! a single sloth can host up to 950 moths and beetles within its fur . these colonies of invertebrates don’t appear to bother the sloth : they merely lay their eggs in sloth faeces and feed on the algae and fungi found within the hair .
one young is produced after a pregnancy that lasts up to 11 . 5 months in hoffmann ' s sloth ( eisenberg & maliniak , 1978 ) . these authors were forceful in their interpretation of the gestational length and cited all previous records . some of those pregnancies cited were also very long . but , they dismissed suggestions of sperm storage and delayed implantation to account for the long gestation . neonates weigh 350 - 454 g . other observers have suggested that pregnancy is shorter for c . didactylus . veselovsky ( 1966 ) , who recorded birth weights of 376 , 408 and 309 g , observed a birth 5 months and 20 days after mating in
the prague zoo received one male and two females ( c . didactylus ) in 1949 . the national zoo received four animals in 1952 .
sloths are famous for their unusual and bizarre bathroom habits – two - fingered sloths will only relieve themselves once every 5 days and they will only do it on the ground . sloths have been known to lose up to a third of their body weight in one sitting ! this weird weekly routine remains one of the biggest mysteries surrounding sloth behaviour and one that scientists have struggled to explain for decades . the likely explanation is that it’s all about communication and reproduction .
a sloth only has its claws for defense against predators . however , its very low level of movement and the camouflage make it difficult to notice .
it has been suggested that the sloth may also gain nutrients from the algae , obtained either by absorption through the skin or by licking the hair .
this two - toed sloth is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , its occurrence in a number of protected areas , its tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . however , because of ongoing deforestation , the northern population ( nominate subspecies ) of this species could potentially be assessed as near threatened .
blood gases measured ( 8 ) at 37 o c in anesthetized two - toed sloths ( choloepus didactylus ) were as follows : pco 2 33 . 2 ± 2 . 0 , po 2 89 . 9 ± 18 . 8 . the ph was 7 . 40 ± 0 . 03 .
gilmore , d . p . , da - costa , c . p . and duarte , d . p . : an update on the physiology of two - and three - toed sloths . brazil . j . med . biol . res . 33 : 129 - 146 , 2000 .
2 - toed is larger , faster , and nocturnal . diet is more varied - eats leaves and fruit . 6 or 7 neck vertebrae and vestigial tail
alvarez , s . j . 2004 . densidad y preferencia de hábitat del perezoso de dos dedos choloepus hoffmanni , en un bosque andino ( boyacá , cundinamarca ) . universidad nacional de colombia .
meritt , d . a . : edentate diets . ii . two - toed sloths . lab . an . sci . 23 : 543 - 543 , 1973 . meritt , d . a . : a further note on the immobilisation of sloths . intern . zoo ybk . 14 : 160 - 61 , 1974 .
although unable to survive outside the tropical rainforests of south and central america , within that environment sloths are outstandingly successful creatures . they can account for as much as half the total energy consumption and two - thirds of the total terrestrial mammalian biomass in some areas . of the six species , only one , the maned three - toed sloth , has a classification of ‘endangered’ at present . the ongoing destruction of south americas forests , however , may soon prove a threat to the others .
) are larger than their three - toed cousins . they also have longer hair , bigger eyes , and their back and front legs are more equal in length .
although virtually all mammals possess 7 cervical ( neck ) vertebrae as standard , sloths are one of the few mammals to break this rule . two - fingered sloths and manatee’s retain only 5 , while three - fingered sloths have 9 . two - fingered sloths also have constantly growing teeth , but with no incisors or true canines . the first tooth is a pseudo - canine which , although looks similar to a typical canine , is actually referred to as a caniniform . the teeth lack enamel , consisting only of dentin .
compared to most mammals , a sloth moves very slowly . sloths can climb only 6 to 8 feet ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 meters ) per minute .
sloths belong to the families ‘megalonychidae’ and ‘bradypodidae’ , part of the order ‘pilosa’ . most scientists call these two families the ‘folivora’ suborder , while some call it ‘phyllophaga’ .
males become sexually mature at an age of about 4 . 5 years , females one year earlier . after a gestation period of 5 - 6 month the female gives birth to one single offspring . in the wild , two - toed sloths may reach an age of 15 to 20 years , in zoos more than 30 years are possible .
sloths are included , along with the armadillos and anteaters , in the order xenarthra ( edentata ) . analysis of amino acid sequences of the eye lens proteins ( 2 ) has confirmed earlier anatomical evidence indicating that the xenarthrans are an old offshoot of the eutherian stem that arose at least 75 - 80 million years ago . initially all present - day sloths were considered to belong to the family bradypodidae with two genera , bradypus and choloepus . however , a new classification has been proposed ( 3 ) , which places the two - toed sloths in the family megalonychidae and the three - toed sloths in the family bradypodidae . it is thus now generally believed that the two living families of sloths have quite different phylogenetic origins and that bradypus is derived from megatheroid and choloepus from megalonychid sloths , their separate evolution beginning about 35 million years ago in the late oligocene .
infant is born alert and strong , eyes open teeth present , claws fully formed . gripping reflex enables it to climb to mother ' s abdomen . nuzzling and suckling by newborn stimulates release of milk — usually within 48 hours
mutual grooming observed only during infant / mother relationship — mother vigorously licks head , face and ano - genital region for first few weeks of infant ' s life . stimulates young to pass urine and feces . ( meritt 1985 )
the sloth youngster stays with its mother for six months to two years , depending on the subspecies . it then “branches off” to live on its own . the young inherits a part of the home range left vacant by the mother , as well as her taste for certain leaves . several sloths can live in a similar home range without competing for food or space .
heymann , e . w . , flores amasifuén , c . , shahuano tello , n . , tirado herrera , e . t . & stojan - dolar , m ( 2010 ) .
disgusting appetite : two - toed sloths feeding in human latrines
. mammalian biology . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . mambio . 2010 . 03 . 003 .
females of this species of sloth reach sexual maturity at 3 years of age , males reach sexual maturity between 4 and 5 . after a gestation period of six months , females give birth to one offspring each year . when the young are born they are 10 inches in length and weigh 12 ounces . they cling to their mother ' s belly for 5 weeks until they have the strength to move on their own .
gilmore , d . , c . da costa , d . duarte . 2001 . sloth biology : an update on their physiological ecology , behavior and role as vectors of arthropods and arboviruses .
sloths have a powerful grip : their long claws curve around tree branches like a safety harness . even after a sloth dies , it sometimes remains hanging in the trees with its death grip .
is present in many protected areas . it is included in cites appendix iii for costa rica . further research is needed to establish whether there are taxonomic differences between the two disjunct populations .
of the four bradypus species , two are listed at lc ( b . variegates and b . tridactylus ; b . torquatus is endangered en ( restricted to atlantic coastal forests of brazil )
diniz , l . s . and oliveira , p . m . : clinical problems of sloths ( bradypus sp . and choloepus sp . ) in captivity . j . zoo wildl . med . 30 : 76 - 80 , 1999 .
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
two large , blade like teeth in front for biting . ( although they look like canines , they are actually derived from other teeth ) . they are sharpened by rubbing against lower teeth .
3 - toed is smaller , slower and both diurnal and nocturnal . highly specialized browsers - eat only leaves . 8 or 9 neck vertebrae . stout tail is 68 mm ( 2 . 7 in ) long
moreno , s . 2003 . estado de la distribución , hábitat y estimación de estado de conservación del perezoso de dos uñas ( choloepus hoffmanni ) en el área de jurisdicción de corantioquia . in : fundación unau ( ed . ) . corantioquia , medellín .
a sloths main forms of protection are its camouflage ( greatly increased by the coating of algae growing on its fur ) and its very slow movement . these adaptations make the sloth virtually disappear in the rainforest canopy .
two - fingered sloths are thought to have a gestation period of 6 - 12 months , although the exact duration is still unknown . females give birth to a single young , usually weighing between 300 - 500 grams . the baby is born ready to face the world , with fully formed teeth , eyes open and a strong instinct to cling onto the mother’s fur . they do sometimes fall , but sloths are incredibly resilient and have been known to survive a drop of over 90 feet ! a baby sloth is thought to stay with the mother for a full 12 months , during which time it learns all of the essential skills required to survive in the wild . as well as drinking milk , the baby will begin to sample leaves from around the mother’s mouth from as early as 1 week old . this process teaches the offspring exactly which tree species are safe to eat . following the weaning process , the mother leaves her territory to her young and establishes herself elsewhere .