the spring salamander ( gyrinophilus porphyriticus ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .

the generic name , gyrinophilus , means " tadpole lover " and refers to the long period of time it spends as a gilled larva before maturing .

the specific name , porphyriticus , is latin from greek , meaning the color of porphyry , a purple stone , and this salamander has also been called the purple salamander .

it is found in canada and the united states .

its natural habitats are temperate forests , rivers , swamps , freshwater marshes , freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves .

in addition to insects , worms , and other small invertebrates , the fairly large spring salamander may also consume smaller stream dwelling salamanders such as two-lined and dusky salamanders .

although deforestation is a potential threat , the spring salamander occurs in many protected areas and is not listed as threatened in the iucn red list .

spring salamander

the spring salamander is protected by connecticut ' s threatened and endangered species act . collection of individuals is strictly prohibited .
lehigh earth observatory , 2000 .
spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed february 22 , 2001 at urltoken .
wildportraits . com , 2000 .
spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed january 19 , 2001 at urltoken .
conservation status : the spring salamander is not protected in georgia and is common in its preferred habitat , but alteration of stream habitat , particularly sedimentation , has had detrimental effects on the habitat of this salamander .
enviroment canada , august 15 , 2000 .
spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed february 22 , 2001 at urltoken .
tennessee aquarium , 1998 .
amphibians : northern spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed january 19 , 2001 at urltoken .
a northern ( top ) and kentucky ( bottom ) spring salamander . note that color variation is more likely due to age than subspecies .
leary , c . feb . 22 , 2000 .
northern spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed march 11 , 2001 at urltoken .
the spring salamander requires well - oxygenated , cold , clear streams or springs . on rainy nights they often feed on land in the vicinity of the steam .
connecticut dept . of env . protection , jan . 2000 .
northern spring salamander
( on - line ) . accessed february 22 , 2001 at urltoken .
because it requires pristine water conditions , the northern spring salamander is easily threatened by land use , including water and thermal pollution . it is listed as threatened in connecticut .
habitat : springs , seeps , spring - fed headwater streams , caves , and other cool , clear waters free of predaceous fish . in these areas the spring salamander is found under rocks , logs , and within burrows in the water and at its edge .
background and range : the northern spring salamander is a brightly - colored member of the lungless salamander family ( plethodontidae ) . true to its name , it resides in cool water springs and streams , making it an excellent indicator of a clean , well - oxygenated water source .
in north america , the spring salamander occurs from extreme southeastern canada south through new england , west to ohio , and south down the appalachians as far as northern georgia and alabama .
eggs are laid in early spring . larvae may take several years to complete metamorphosis .
distribution in ohio : there are two subspecies in ohio . the kentucky spring salamander ( gyrinophilus p . duryi ) is limited to an area west of the scioto river in adams , scioto , highland , and pike counties . the northern spring salamander ( gyrinophilus p . porphyriticus ) is found in eastern hamilton county and in eastern ohio , south of the wisconsin glacial boundary .
the spring salamander is listed as a threatened species in the state of connecticut ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) . threats to the spring salamander include pollution in the streams due to deforestation , agriculture , and the introduction of predatory fish such as trout ( environment canada , 2000 ) . habitat modification and sedimentation in streams , because of stream bed and shore band alteration during road construction and canalization , is also a problem . in order to help save the habitat of the spring salamander , people can become involved in projects to restore shade trees and shrubs along stream banks that will help maintain water temperatures that are suitable for the salamander ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) .
petranka ( 1998 ) notes that deforestation is a threat to many populations of spring salamanders .
spring salamanders lay 16 - 160 eggs attached to the underside of rocks in the water .
a . food . larvae feed at night . spring salamander larvae feed on a variety of prey , including the following invertebrates : oligochaetes , arachnids , isopods , centipedes , crayfish , and insects including mayflies , odonates , stoneflies , and dipterans . spring salamanders also will feed on vertebrates including salamander eggs , two - lined salamander ( eurycea bislineata complex ) adults and larvae , and adult ocoee salamanders ( desmognathus ocoee ; bruce , 1979 ; resetarits , 1991 ; beachy , 1994 ; gustafson , 1994 ) . spring salamanders are cannibalistic and will feed on smaller conspecific larvae ( burton , 1976 ; bruce , 1979 ) .
the purple color of young spring salamanders led to its former name , the purple salamander ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) . spring salamanders are occasionally eaten by northern water snakes ( nerodia sipedon ) and common garter snakes ( thamnophis sirta ) ( l . e . o . , 2000 ) .
the barton springs salamander occurs only at the spring outflows of barton springs . these are often found under rocks or in gravel in water several inches to 15 feet deep . they can also be found hiding in aquatic plants and algae . they rely on a clear , clean , continuous flow of spring water . the barton springs salamander is clearly capable of living underground , but also inhabits surface environments . although not known for certain , some scientists believe the salamander is primarily a surface - dweller that is adapted for life underground when surface conditions become unsuitable . salamanders
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . spring salamanders are voracious predators of other salamanders ( see
feeding behavior
below ) . although there is no evidence that the presence of spring salamanders excludes other species , spring salamanders restrict two - lined salamander nocturnal feeding activity , causing slower growth rates and increased mortality in two - lined salamander larvae in regions where they co - occur ( resetarits , 1991 ; beachy , 1994 ; gustafson , 1994 ) . larger spring salamanders can also reduce the growth rates of smaller conspecifics ( gustafson , 1994 ; see also petranka , 1998 ) . where spring salamanders co - exist with black - bellied salamanders ( d . quadramaculatus ) , there is no evidence that they compete for food ( beachy , 1994 ) .
finally , you can support the city ' s efforts to protect the salamander by being tolerant of changes that are occurring at barton springs pool . swimmers can continue to enjoy a more natural barton springs pool and the ecosystem of plants and animals , including the salamander that it supports . visit zilker park in austin to learn more about the barton springs salamander .
spring salamander adults are recognizable by their pinkish , brownish , or reddish skin . this is typically mottled with a darker overtone and flecked with dark markings . they are different from red or mud salamanders , in that spring salamanders have a distinct light line , possibly bordered by a darker one , running from the eyes to the nose . spring salamanders typically have flesh - or salmon - colored ventrals , and those of this particular subspecies are unmarked . spring salamanders have four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs .
habits : spring salamanders are most frequently encountered under rocks , logs , and other cover objects near streams or seeps . although they take cover under such objects by day they are active at night when they search for invertebrate and small vertebrate prey . in some regions the bulk of spring salamander diets consist of other salamanders . adults are frequently found crossing roads on rainy nights . breeding occurs during the fall and spring and females lay up to 100 eggs in the summer . relatively few spring salamander nests have been found suggesting that this species often lays its eggs in underground sections of streams . larvae are aquatic and have one of the longest larval periods of any salamander in our region , lasting 3 - 4 years . consequently , larvae are very large at metamorphosis , nearly reaching adult size . larvae of this species can be very difficult to differentiate from those of mud and red salamander ( pseudotriton sp . )
awareness and education of this salamander ' s life history and habitats are invaluable tools for conservation . consider the preservation of important spring and seepage habitat types . not only are salamanders important , but their presence indicates a healthy wetland .
spring salamanders are semi - aquatic , spending a majority of their time in springs , wet caves , and cool , clear mountain brooks ( tenn . aquarium , 1998 ) . spring salamanders can also be found under stones and logs near stream edges ( wild portraits , 2000 ) . because they are lungless , and must obtain oxygen through their skin , spring salamanders are limited to areas where there is adequate oxygen and moisture . the northern spring salamander is not confined to the water , however , and has been noted to , in a nighttime downpour , leave their aquatic habitats and venture onto land in search of food ( tenn . aquarium , 1998 ) . during the winter , spring salamanders spend their time in wet soil close to a source of water where they remain somewhat active in burrows . the spring salamander can also be found among leaf litter in forests surrounding a brook or stream ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) .
residents and visitors to austin will be happy to know that swimming in barton springs pool does not pose a threat to the salamander or its habitat . with proper management , the pool will continue to provide refreshing enjoyment for people and habitat for the barton springs salamander .
the spring salamander consumes a wide variety of food consisting of insects , crustaceans , centipedes , millipedes , earthworms , snails , spiders , and occasionally small frogs and salamanders , including those of their own species ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) .
northern spring salamanders exhibit strong fidelity to itheir breeding ponds . they have suffered from degraded water quality in these ponds . our expanding network of roads has negatively impacted this species by impeding salamander movements into breeding ponds and increasing the incidence of roadside mortality .
insects , worms , spiders , crustaceans , small invertebrates , and other salamanders make up the diet of spring salamanders .
northern spring salamander locales , including breeding ponds and terrestrial habitats , should be protected from development , habitat degradation , and the reduction of water quality . in addition , mosquito control efforts , including insecticide spraying , should be restricted in the areas these salamanders occur .
spring salamanders will co - occur in streams with fishes , but reach their highest densities in the absence of fishes ( petranka , 1998 ) . resetarits ( 1995 ) demonstrates that in the presence of trout fingerlings , spring salamanders use shallower habitats .
the population level of the barton springs salamander will be routinely monitored to assess the effects of new pool maintenance practices and other factors impacting the habitat . austin ' s parks and recreation department has established an advisory team to review and coordinate all pool maintenance procedures that could affect the barton springs salamander .
j . torpor ( hibernation ) . spring salamanders in the southern appalachians remain active throughout the year . less is known about these animals in the northern part of their range . despite ice cover , it is likely that spring salamanders remain active below ground .
spring salamanders are notoriously secretive creatures which rarely emerge in the daytime . the larvae , being especially secretive , are rarely seen .
unlike many of the other larger salamander species that breed in the spring , the spring salamander breeds from mid - october through the winter months . during this time of courtship , the male and female push each other and roll around in the water . the male deposits sperm which is then picked up and stored by the female until the eggs are laid in the spring of the following year ( conn . dept . , 2000 ) . the female salamander lays 11 - 100 eggs and attaches each one individually under stones in cool , clear water . the 19 mm long aquatic larvae hatch during the late summer and are often found in the water carefully hidden among the rocks . the larvae can grow to be 10 . 2 cm long before it transforms into an adult , which may take two to three years ( behler , 1996 ) .
interesting facts : some spring salamanders can be cannibalistic , eating the young of their own species . predators include northern watersnakes and gartersnakes .
if you happen to find a spring salamander , admire it from a distance and then let it be . this species is sensitive to disturbances . if you lift any rocks while searching through springs and seepages , remember to place them back exactly how they were . salamanders should never be collected from the wild . report any observations of spring salamanders to the deep wildlife division at 860 - 424 - 3011 or deep . ctwildlife @ urltoken .
porphyros is greek for
reddish - brown or purple
icus is a latin suffix that calls attention to the color . referring to dorsal color of the salamander .
2 . historical versus current abundance . spring salamanders are well - known for being difficult to find . repeated trips to classic salamander localities usually results in finding one or two spring salamanders and often none at all ( bruce , 1972a , 1978a ; beachy , 1996 ) . the habitat ( see
adult habitat
below ) simply proves difficult to penetrate , and the salamanders that are obtained seem to be the occasional animals that are active on the surface . current densities seem in line with historical densities . this means that in most of their range , spring salamanders have always been difficult to obtain .
due to its strict habitat and clean water requirements , it is only found in a handful of locations within connecticut . the central connecticut lowlands divide this amphibian ' s range into distinct populations . litchfield and hartford counties support the greatest populations of spring salamanders . this salamander is listed as a threatened species in connecticut .
the spring salamander has an extensive range . it is found in and around the applachian mountains in eastern north america and north into the adirondacks and just into canada . although it has the potential to be found anywhere within this range , its specific habitat requirements mean that actual distribution is spotty ( conant & collins 1998 ) .
description : this large , robust salamander ranges in color from salmon to reddish - brown to purplish - brown , with a translucent white underbelly . the snout appears “square” when viewed from above and the salamander has well - defined grooves near its eyes to its snout . the tail is laterally flattened with a fin - like tip . young spring salamanders are lighter in color and have small gills . their coloration does not have deeper reddish tints until adulthood . total length ranges from 5 to 7 . 5 inches .
the city of austin is conducting monthly surveys to assess the population status of the salamander at each of the four springs where the salamander is known to occur . finally , research is underway to better understand the life history and habitat needs of this species . the city of austin is currently working to acquire land in the barton springs contributing and recharge zones through purchases and conservation easements . over 15 , 000 acres of open space have already been protected . these acquisitions will protect the salamander through the preservation of open space , and therefore , protection of water quality . the austin nature and science center has developed an outreach program that involves activities designed to educate the public about the barton springs salamander and its habitat . the center also directs the splash ! exhibit to raise public awareness about the edwards aquifer . finally , city of austin biologists are currently working to develop methods to increase the accuracy of salamander population estimates .
the spring salamander is one of the larger salamanders in vermont ; it can grow to 8 inches long . it is salmon - pink to reddish with black mottling . white lines outlined in black run from their eyes to their nostrils . their tails are laterally compressed ( like a fish ) and all of their legs are thick and strong .
as larvae , the spring salamander is 19 mm long when it hatches , and has the potential to grow to be 10 . 2 cm long , before it transforms into an adult . larvae have a broad , elongated snout that is slightly upturned at the tip ( leary , 2001 ) . the spring salamander has a stout body and a broad nose that ends abruptly . its back and tail are light brownish - orange or salmon - red with small dark spots . the belly is a faded peach color , and the throat may be flecked with black . a light line , bordered below by a dark line , begins at the eye and extends to the nostril . as an adult , the spring salamander ' s tail has a prominent , knife - like keel on the top that enables it to swim in swift - moving water ( conn . dep . , 2000 ) . adults also have toxic , cutaneous secretions and red coloration that mimics more toxic species , for protection from terrestrial predators ( environment canada , 2000 ) .
4 . conservation . with the caveat that spring salamanders are difficult to find , current densities appear to be in line with historical densities . petranka ( 1998 ) notes that deforestation is a threat to many populations of spring salamanders . spring salamanders are considered endangered in mississippi , threatened in connecticut ( http : / / dep . state . ct . us ) , of special concern in massachusetts ( www . state . ma . us ) , and of concern in rhode island .
northern spring salamanders are large salmon - colored salamanders that are found in or near streams and brooks . this individual was captured during a stream survey . ©mike marchand photo
875 - bruce , r . c . , 1972 , variation in the life cycle of the salamander gyrinophilus porphyriticus , herpetology , vol . 28 , num . 3 , pg . 230 - 245
b . cover . larvae are found most frequently beneath stones and logs or in gravel beds in springs , seeps , or spring - fed streams . spring salamanders occasionally are found in lakes ( bishop , 1941b ) . larvae are nocturnal ; they are secretive during the day , where they can be found in subterranean cracks and crevices , sometimes far below the surface ( bruce , 1980 ; 2003 ) . at night , individuals emerge to forage ( resetarits , 1991 ) . spring salamander larvae generally do not occur in large numbers ( bruce , 1972a , 1978a ) , but densities can reach as high as 5–10 / m2 in streambeds in virginia ( resetarits , 1991 , 1995 ; see also petranka , 1998 ) .
r . parasites . ranik ( 1937 ) studied the parasites of blue ridge spring salamanders and found two protozoans , hexamastix batrachorum and prowazekella longifilis , and one nematode , omeia papillocauda .
conservation : spring salamander populations rely on clear , cool springs , seeps , and headwater streams . their permeable skin makes them especially susceptible to pollution , such as pesticides , herbicides , runoff , and acid mine drainage . removal of trees around springs , seeps , and headwater streams may negatively impact populations by increasing temperatures and evaporation . forested areas around these water sources are also important for foraging .
n . feeding behavior . while spring salamander adults are feeding generalists , according to petranka ( 1998 ) , food habit tendencies vary regionally . adults in northern populations tend to feed on invertebrates , including annelids , snails , centipedes , millipedes , arachnids ( spiders and mites ) , and insects . insect prey includes mayflies , caddisflies , stoneflies , dipterans , hymenopterans , and hemipterans ( bishop , 1941b ; culver , 1973 ) . in northern populations , cannibalism and preying on other salamander species such as northern dusky salamanders ( desmognathus fuscus ) is known , but thought to be uncommon ( hamilton , 1932 ) .
in southern populations , spring salamander adults are voracious consumers of salamanders ( wright and haber , 1922 ; king , 1939 ; bishop , 1941b ; martof , 1955 ; huheey and stupka , 1967 ; bruce , 1972a , 1979 ) . they are known to feed on the following salamander species : pygmy salamanders ( desmognathus wrighti ) , adult and larval northern two - lined salamanders ( eurycea bislineata ) , ocoee salamanders , jordan ' s salamanders ( plethodon jordani ) , southern red - backed salamanders ( p . serratus ) , southern appalachian salamanders ( p . oconoluftee ) , and red salamanders ( pseudotriton ruber ) . they also are known to be cannibalistic . invertebrate prey include annelids , centipedes , and insects such as coleopteran larvae . adult spring salamanders have a higher tendency than larvae to feed on other salamanders .
4 1 / 4” - 8 5 / 8” . the northern spring salamander has a reddish coloration – typically either pink / orange or light brown with a reddish tinge . darker markings form a faintly mottled or netlike pattern , but this mottling is not always obvious . older individuals are darker . a faint light line bordered by a faint gray line runs from eye to tip of snout . the tail is keeled .
adults breed during the winter and spring along streams . females lay 40 - 60 eggs under rocks in small streams during the summer . females remain with embryos until they hatch in late summer or fall .
a slender , long - limbed salamander , about 2 . 5 inches in total length , with a small narrow head and greatly reduced eyes . they vary in color , and can be dark gray , gray , purplishgray , gray - brown , or yellowish - brown . most individuals have a dark
salt - and - pepper
mottling on their back . these salamanders have external gills which are red in color . the barton springs salamander is entirely aquatic throughout its life .
adult salamanders are generalists , consuming snails , annelids , centipedes , millipedes , arachnids , insects , and other salamanders . they have also been shown to be cannibalistic . larvae generally consume small invertebrates and the eggs of other salamanders . spring salamanders’ chief threats come from garter snakes , water snakes , and conspecifics . while one of this salamander’s main defenses consists of mimicking more toxic species , adult salamanders can also produce noxious skin secretions to deter potential predators .
thick - bodied amphibians with short snouts , sturdy legs , and long tails , tigers are the largest land - dwelling salamander on earth . they can grow to 14 inches in length , but the average size is more like 6 to 8 inches .
p . anti - predator mechanisms . spring salamanders use defensive postures . adults produce noxious skin secretions that are known to repel shrews ( brodie et al . , 1979 ) . spring salamanders are thought to be part of the batesian mimicry complex that also involves red salamanders ( pseudotriton ruber ) and the red eft stage of eastern newts ( notophthalmus viridescens ; howard and brodie , 1973 ; brandon and huheey , 1975 , 1981 ) .
life history : eggs are laid in the summer , attached singly to the underside of a rock within a spring . they hatch later that summer or in the fall . the aquatic larval period lasts 3 - 4 years .
pertinent reference : lowe , w . h . , k . h . nislow , and d . t . bolger . 2004 . stage - specific and interactive effects of sedimentation and trout on a headwater stream salamander . ecological applications 14 ( 1 ) : 164 - 172 .
description : a large 5 - 8 inch salamander that may be red , salmon , yellowish , or brownish in color . there is a dark net - like molting on the sides , back , and tail . has a white line running from the eye to the nostril .
o . predators . northern water snakes ( nerodia sipedon ) and common garter snakes ( thamnophis sirtalis ) prey on spring salamanders ( uhler et al . , 1939 ) . smaller individuals are cannibalized by larger individuals ( burton , 1976 ) .
prior to 1989 , aquatic plants were abundant in barton springs pool . surveys in the early 1970s showed that the barton springs salamander was quite abundant , and many could be found by searching through submerged leaves in eliza springs . from 1970 to 1992 the population of this species dropped sharply . we now know that certain pool maintenance practices , such as the use of high - pressure hoses , hot water , and chemicals were harmful to the salamanders and the aquatic plants in the pool and nearby spring outlets that provide their habitat . today , the pool is maintained in ways that minimize damage to the salamander and its habitat . the city of austin ' s environmental and conservation services department also has planted aquatic vegetation in the deep end of the pool to restore habitat and more plant restoration is planned for this area . since the new pool maintenance practices began , the habitat in the pool and nearby springs has rapidly improved . although the salamander has expanded into its former range in the barton springs pool , scientists believe it probably has not reached the extent of its pre - 1970 distribution .
habitat and diet : spring salamanders require very clean , cool , and well - oxygenated water . they can be found in streams , brooks , and seepage areas . preferred habitat lies within steep , rocky hemlock forests . this species is intolerant to disturbances .
their population is healthy throughout their range , but deforestation , pollution , and rising acidity levels in their breeding pools is affecting their distribution . many are even killed by cars as they cross roads in the spring en route to or from their breeding sites .
the primary threats facing northern spring salamanders in new jersey are the loss , alteration , and degradation of quality habitat . specialized habitat requirements and strong fidelity to breeding ponds render these salamanders vulnerable to habitat loss . in addition , restricted range and isolated populations hinder their ability to recover from localized extirpations or declines . an expanding network of roads fragmenting forests may impede salamander movements to breeding ponds or result in road mortality of migrating adults and dispersing juveniles . these salamanders are sensitive to water quality and may therefore be negatively affected by runoff , insecticide spraying , and other pollutants .
adult spring salamanders generally inhabit springs , wet caves , and cool mountain streams . they have also been known to follow underground springs some distance from their breeding grounds . they belong to the family plethodontidae , meaning that they are lungless and must absorb oxygen through their skin . they are semi - aquatic , and when the adults spend time out of the water it is usually in very moist places , such as under rocks or logs . in the wintertime , spring salamanders inhabit shallow burrows in the moist soil near a water source .
conservation concerns : conserving the spring salamander relies heavily upon protecting its habitat and preventing encroachment . habitats that may seem “ideal” could lack populations entirely due to their sensitivity . groundwater pollution from fertilizer runoff , pesticides , road salt , and industrial chemicals can degrade the preferred cool , clean water . damming of streams can lead to increased water temperatures and reduced oxygen levels . intensive logging removes the forest canopy , thus increasing water temperature . construction , agriculture , and poorly performed clear - cutting are all activities that can degrade high quality streams , produce thermal pollution , and reduce oxygen in the water .
the barton springs salamander is dependent on vegetation to provide food and cover . do not pull up or otherwise damage aquatic plants at barton springs . also , exotic species often pose significant threats to native wildlife and plants , including listed species . do not release aquatic animals or plants into waters they did not come from originally .
1 . historical versus current distribution . spring salamanders ( gyrinophilus porphyriticus ) range from the middle of maine southwest along the appalachian spine ( dunn , 1926 ; brandon , 1967c ; french , 1976 ; petranka , 1998 ) . brandon ( 1966c ) recognized four subspecies . northern spring salamanders ( g . p . porphyriticus ) are found throughout most of new england , new york , and pennsylvania , and in portions of ohio , west virginia , virginia , tennessee , north carolina , georgia , alabama , and extreme northwestern mississippi ( engelhardt , 1919 ; warfel , 1937 ; fowler and sutcliffe , 1952 ; thurow , 1954 ; brandon , 1966c ; graham , 1981 ; graham and stevens , 1982 ; lazell and raithel , 1986 ; petranka , 1998 ) . a disjunct population occurs near cincinnati in southwestern ohio . kentucky spring salamanders ( g . p . duryi ) are found in western west virginia , northeastern kentucky , and south - central ohio ( brandon , 1967c ; petranka , 1998 ) , with a single record documented in tazewell county , virginia ( newman , 1954a ) . carolina spring salamanders ( g . p . dunni ) are found in southwestern north carolina , northwestern south carolina , northern georgia , and northeastern alabama ( brandon , 1966c , 1967c ) . blue ridge spring salamanders ( g . p . danielsi ) occur in extreme western north carolina ( brandon , 1966c , 1967c ) .
i . breeding migrations . do not occur . courtship occurs during the winter from december–february ( bruce , 1972a ; beachy , 1996 , 1997b ) . oviposition occurs during the late spring and summer ( green , 1925 ; bishop , 1941b ; organ , 1961c ; bruce , 1972a , 1980 ) .
a large ( 8 inches ; 20 cm ) , stout salamander with a blunt snout . the tail is compressed laterally and thick at the base . coloration of adults is reddish orange or rusty brown , occasionally with a purple hue and usually with some darker brown marbling . belly is white . a dark line extends from the eye to the nostril .
unusually among salamanders , which mostly breed in spring , the spring salamander breeds from october throughout the winter months . during courtship , the male and the female push each other and roll around in the water . the male will then deposit sperm into the water , which are collected by the female and stored until the springtime , when she begins to produce her eggs . a female can make as many as 100 eggs , attaching them individually to the underside of submerged stones . when the larvae hatch in late summer , they are no longer than a penny . it will take them 2 - 4 years before they reach the length of 10 . 2 cm ( 4 in ) and transform into an adult , and they will not become sexually mature for 4 - 6 years . larvae can have different colorations than the adults , but are most notable for their gills , which confine them to aquatic environments . recently transformed salamanders are a much brighter salmon - red color than their elders , and may lack the darker mottling , as is present in this specimen . it is thought that this is used to protect the young by mimicking other , more toxic salamanders , such as the red eft stage of the eastern red - spotted newt . while this salamander still possesses gills , it is assuming the coloration of a transforming or adult specimen , leading one to believe that it is several years old .
life history : these salamanders may remain active in springs and seepage areas year round . breeding occurs in spring , and larvae can hatch from april through june . larvae and young salamanders share the same habitats as adults . the larval stage is estimated to last 4 years , with sexual maturity occurring after 4 to 6 years .
they are also the most wide - ranging salamander species in north america , living throughout most of the united states , southern canada , and eastern mexico . they live in deep burrows , up to two feet below the surface , near ponds , lakes , or slow - moving streams and are one of few salamanders able to survive in the arid climate of the north america interior .
range and habitat : spring salamanders throughout the appalachian mountains and northeastern u . s . in our region they are restricted to mountainous areas of northern georgia and northwestern south carolina . this species is found in and around clear , cool mountain springs , creeks , and seeps . they are occasionally found fairly far from water in moist forests .
description : a large ( up to 9” ) stout - bodied salamander with a ground color ranging from salmon to pinkish orange . black spots , flecks , or mottling are present on the body , but may be obscured in older , darker animals . the belly is usually clear . a light line runs from the eye to the nostril , then to the upper lip . this line is usually bordered by darker pigment .
although relatively little is known about the biology of the barton springs salamander , new information is rapidly becoming available . recently hatched young have been found in november , march , and april , and females with well - developed eggs have been found in september through january . they are known to eat amphipods ( tiny aquatic crustaceans ) and other small , aquatic animals . captive specimens feed on amphipods , earthworms , white worms , and brine shrimp .
because the barton springs salamander relies on the clear , pure water of the barton springs aquifer , protection of the quality and quantity of water flowing from barton springs is essential for its survival . threats to water quality such as urban runoff , increased development in the barton creek watershed , and the risks of a toxic chemical spill or sewer line breakage in the urban zone surrounding barton springs remain a concern . also of concern are reduced groundwater supplies due to increased urban water use .
the range of the species apparently is the same currently ( petranka , 1998 ) as when dunn ( 1926 ) first summarized the range of spring salamanders . it is probable that g . porphyriticus consists of several cryptic species . southern appalachian populations exhibit significant life history variation , morphometric differentiation , and ethological isolation among parapatric populations ( bruce , 1972 , 1978 ; beachy , 1996 ; adams and beachy , 2001 ) .
spring salamanders have a state natural heritage rank of s4 ( relatively common ) . please report sightings of this species in vermont if you have not reported them within the last five years from a given location . any natural history observations ( feeding , migrations , road crossing areas , early or late season appearance , abnormalities , etc . ) are appreciated . photographs are always helpful , particularly if your report is the first report of this species from a town .
description : spring salamanders are one of the largest stream salamanders in our region ( 5 - 7 . 5 in ; 12 - 19 cm ) . they have a fairly slender build and a light - colored ridge running from the eye to the tip of the snout . coloration varies from salmon to yellowish brown with hints of red , and quite often there is a mottled or cloudy appearance with small dark spots . the venter is flesh colored with small black spots on the belly and throat . this species ' elongate build and nasal ridge distinguish it from the similar mud and red salamanders ( pseudotriton sp . )
e . adult habitat . adults are most abundant in the headwater sections of small tributaries and small streams that lack fishes , in seepages and caves , and can sometimes be found in roadside ditches ( petranka , 1998 ) . bruce ( 1972a ) notes that in the piedmont of south carolina , populations are associated with springs and small streams in deep ravines covered with mature hardwood forest ( see also petranka , 1998 ) . citing cooper and cooper ( 1968 ) , besharse and holsinger ( 1977 ) note that while spring salamanders are found in springs and cave streams in the south - central appalachians , they are more common in caves than in springs in limestone areas .
behavior : this species frequents cool springs and streams . it occupies natural or excavated cavities beneath logs or stones at the margin of streams . the adults are frequently found some distance from water but usually in damp situations * 867 * . on rainy nights adults leave the stream and forage along its banks * 879 * . the eggs are attended by the female until hatching . the eggs are attached to the lower surface of submerged rocks * 1014 * . the larvae shelter under rubbish , stones , and other debris on the bottom of the stream or spring . the juveniles may forage in beds of submerged plants in springs or streams . they are found beneath stones , logs , and boards on the water ' s edge or among roots and stones embedded in banks and bottoms of streams and springs * 865 * . they prefer flat stones at the water ' s edge * 1008 * . they inhabit wet depres - sions beneath logs , stones , or leaves in the surrounding forest * 883 * . they will not survive in warm , muddy , or polluted water . they may dig deep into the bed of a stream or spring in winter and during low - water periods in the summer * 865 * . the adults are nocturnal and the aquatic juveniles are more active in the day than adults . this species is dorment in the summer * 865 * .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 7 july 2014 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
some authors include gyrinophilus subterraneus in this species ( blaney and blaney 1978 ) . bonett et al . ( 2013 ) phylogenetic hypothesis has been interpreted as either gyrinophilus porphyriticus being conspecific with g . palleucus and g . gulolineatus or gyrinophilus porphyriticus being a species complex ( frost 2014 and references therein ) .
justification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of sub - populations and localities , and presumed large population size .
this species can be found in eastern north america from southern quebec and southern maine to northern georgia , alabama and northeastern mississippi ( conant and collins 1991 ) . this range is restricted to the appalachian mountains .
the total adult population size is unknown but it is considered to exceed 10 , 000 , and the population appears to be stable .
it can be found in small , clear upland streams , clear springs , caves and shaded seepages . it is occasionally found in swamps and lake margins . sometimes it is also encountered in forested wet areas away from streams , especially during rainy periods . individuals are often found under rocks , logs , leaves or moss in or near water . eggs usually are attached to undersides of rocks in running water .
deforestation for commercial and residential development , and its impacts on stream conditions are the primary potential threats , but in general this species is secure throughout most of its range .
conservation actions it occurs in many protected areas . no conservation measures are needed .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
the following account is modified from amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species , edited by michael lannoo ( ©2005 by the regents of the university of california ) , used with permission of university of california press . the book is available from uc press .
a . breeding . courtship is in streamside conditions with oviposition being in headwater seeps ( beachy , 1996 , 1997b ) .
ii . breeding habitat . same as adult habitats . most females lay their eggs during the summer ; embryos hatch in late summer or autumn ( green , 1925 ; organ , 1961c ; bruce , 1972a , 1978a , 1980 ) .
i . egg deposition sites . few egg masses have been found . females likely lay their eggs deep in underground recesses in streams and seeps . females attach their eggs to the undersides of rocks or other cover objects ( noble and richards , 1932 ) . eggs are 3 . 5–4 . 0 mm in diameter ( bishop , 1941b ; bruce , 1969 , 1972a ) .
ii . clutch sizes . ova numbers range from 39–63 ; clutch sizes vary from 16–106 and are related to female body size . females brood ( bishop , 1924 ; organ , 1961c ; bruce , 1978a ) . hatchlings range in size from 18–22 mm tl in the southern appalachians ( bruce , 1978a ) , and to 26 mm tl in new york ( bishop , 1924 ; see also petranka , 1998 ) .
i . length of larval stage . bruce ( 1980 ) estimates a modal larval length of 4 yr , with some individuals metamorphosing after 3–5 yr . weber ( 1928 ) and bishop ( 1941b ) suggest a 3 yr larval length . estimates of larval period are difficult because large samples of larvae are difficult to obtain .
larvae have been found in caves in kentucky , virginia , and west virginia ( green and brant , 1966 ; cooper and cooper , 1968 ; see also petranka , 1998 ) .
iv . features of metamorphosis . metamorphosis occurs at about 55–65 mm svl in populations below 1 , 200 m , and 61–70 mm in montane populations . metamorphosis generally occurs from july–august , but has been reported from march–october ( bishop , 1941b ) . bruce ( 1979 ) hypothesized that time to metamorphosis reflects an evolutionary response to food resources available to larvae and adults .
d . juvenile habitat . the juvenile habitat is the same as for adults .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . males become reproductively mature at about 55 mm svl , with no obvious sexual dimorphism ( bruce , 1972a ; see also petranka , 1998 ) . males at low to intermediate elevations become sexually mature shortly after metamorphosing ( 3–4 yr , see above ) ; males in high elevation populations require up to 1 yr longer ( bruce , 1972a ) , at as large as 81 mm svl .
females in low elevation populations can mature shortly after metamorphosing ( 3–4 yr ) , as small as 61 mm svl . females at higher elevations mature when they are older and larger ( bruce , 1972a ; see also petranka , 1998 ) .
m . longevity . unknown . assuming a median larval period of 4 yr , most animals attain sexual maturity at anywhere from 4–6 yr ( bruce , 1972a , 1978a , 1980 ) .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
gyrinos is greek for
tadpole
, philos is greek for
loving
or
fond of
. referring to the multi - year larval stage .
physical description : the back is strongly mottled , light yellowish - brown , with reddish tinges to light salmon . the sides have darker reticulations enclosing pale spots . there is a light line from the eye to nares bordered below with a darker band . the entire venter flesh sometimes has a few small scattered dark dots on the belly and more numerous spots on the throat and margin of the lower jaw . the length is up to 193 mm * 867 * .
reproduction : this species will lay eggs from july to august . the clutch size is from 20 - 60 and they hatch in about 3 months . the females mature at 5 years * 1014 * .
aquatic / terrestrial associations : aquatic associations include pseudotriton r . ruber , desmognathus f . fuscus , eurycea b . bislineata , diptera sp . , trichoptera sp . , chara sp . and nasturtium sp . terrestial associations include d . f . fuscus p . r . ruber . e . b . bislineata , quercus sp . , carya sp . , fagus grandifolia and acer saccharum * 879 , 865 * .
865 - bishop , s . c . , 1941 , the salamanders of new york , new york state mus . bull . , vol . 324 , pg . 1 - 365
867 - bishop , s . c . , 1947 , handbook of salamanders , 555 pgs . , comstock publ . co . , ithaca , n . y
879 - burton , t . m . , 1976 , an analysis of the feeding ecology of the salamanders ( amphibia urodela ) of the hubbard brook experimental forest , new hampshire , j . herpetol . , vol . 10 , num . 3 , pg . 187 - 204
883 - conant , r . , 1975 , a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america , 429 pgs . , houghton mifflin co . , boston , ma
1008 - barbour , r . w . , 1971 , amphibians and reptiles of kentucky , 334 pgs . , univ . of kentucky press , lexington , ky
albemarle county alleghany county amherst county augusta county bath county bedford city bedford county bland county botetourt county buena vista city campbell county carroll county clarke county craig county floyd county franklin county frederick county giles county grayson county greene county henry county highland county lee county madison county montgomery county nelson county page county patrick county pittsylvania county pulaski county rappahannock county roanoke county rockbridge county rockingham county russell county scott county shenandoah county smyth county tazewell county warren county washington county wise county wythe county verified in 43 counties / cities .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en
account author : matt slafkosky , university of georgia - revised by j . d . willson
lungless salamanders ( tenn . aquarium , 1998 ) , and can grow up to 21 cm in
length ( watkins - colwell , 2001 ) . the males often grow to be about 12 - 19 cm in length , and the females grow to be slightly smaller ( tenn . aquarium , 1998 ) .
stephanie jahnke ( author ) , milford high school , george campbell ( editor ) , milford high school .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,
incomplete metamorphosis
is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and
complete metamorphosis
is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
to cite this page : jahnke , s . 2001 .
gyrinophilus porphyriticus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
avoid the use of fertilizers , herbicides , and insecticides in your yard . if you need to use these products , purchase ones that are natural and organic .
state of connecticut disclaimer , privacy policy , and web site accessibility policy . copyright © 2002 - 2018 state of connecticut .
urltoken needs javascript to function properly and provide you with a fast , stable experience . please enable javascript or check your browser ' s settings .
le site urltoken exige javascript pour fonctionner comme il faut , avec rapidité et stabilité . veuillez activer javascript ou vérifier les paramètres de votre navigateur .
you are using an outdated browser that is no longer supported by ontario . ca . outdated browsers lack safety features that keep your information secure , and they can also be slow . learn about the browsers we support .
vous utilisez un navigateur désuet qui n’est plus accepté par ontario . ca . les navigateurs désuets ne disposent pas de caractéristiques sécuritaires permettant d’assurer la sécurité de vos renseignements . en savoir plus sur les navigateurs que nous supportons .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en
a field guide to reptiles and amphibians : eastern and central north america . 3rd edition . boston : houghton mifflin company , 1998 .
485 mccormick road 064 gilmer hall po box 400327 charlottesville , va 22904 - 4327 u . s . a . 37 . 375654° - 80 . 522140°
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
aquatic larvae , which are less stocky than adults and often pale in color . the dorsal pattern is more marbled than adults ( see klemens 1992 ) . the larvae have well - developed gills .
as the common name implies , this is a species of freshwater springs and streams . flowing water that is clean and cold is preferred . klemens ( 1992 ) indicates that they are often found in forested hemlock ravines .
the general range of the species is rather large , extending from canada to northern georgia . however , its specific habitat requirements mean that the actual distribution is spotty throughout its range . in connecticut it is limited to a handful of sites in litchfield , hartford and tolland counties ( klemens 1992 ) .


euhadra peliomphala is a species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family bradybaenidae .

this species is endemic to japan .

the species exhibits exceptional geographical variation in its mitochondrial dna .

euhadra peliomphala

intraspecific diversity of mitochondrial dna in the land snail euhadra peliomphala ( bradybaenidae ) .
no one has contributed data records for euhadra peliomphala tsurugensis yet . learn how to contribute .
hormonal control of head - wart development in the snail , euhadra peliomphala . - pubmed - ncbi
intraspecific diversity of mitochondrial dna in the land snail euhadra peliomphala ( bradybaenidae ) . : urltoken m hayashi : books
samples of euhadra peliomphala were collected from 62 localities from the kanto district of honsyu and from 34 localities from four ( niijima , kozu , shikine and ohshima ) of the izu islands ( fig . 1 ) . these sampling localities mostly cover the distribution range of e . peliomphala . although populations collected from locations 50 , 51 , and the middle parts of izu peninsula may include e . brandtii ( or e . kunoensis ) as designated by shimizu & ueshima ( 2000 ) , these populations were also examined in the present examination because they were morphologically indistinguishable from e . peliomphala .
a neighbour - joining tree for 96 populations of euhadra peliomphala based on mitochondrial 16srrna sequences . the numbers x / y above selected nodes indicate the percentage of times in 500 bootstrap replications that the populations occurred in these clades in the nj tree and mp tree , respectively . a minus sign ( – ) indicates a bootstrap value lower than 50 % . an absence of both numbers indicates bootstrap values were lower than 50 % in both trees . the numbers in parentheses indicate the populations in which each haplotype is found .
the group b haplotypes are closer to e . branditii than other members of e . peliomphala . because these populations are morphologically indistinguishable from other populations , it is unclear whether these populations are reproductively isolated or have occurred by hybridization . regardless , this does not affect the estimation of the source of the island populations , because the group b haplotypes are not found in the southernmost parts of the izu peninsula .
variations in visible genetic polymorphisms are assumed to decrease in populations on small islands because of intense founder effects , genetic drift and inbreeding . however , we have found evidence of a marked enhancement of colour polymorphisms within populations on small oceanic islands that were colonized from the mainland . the source populations on the mainland of the land snail euhadra peliomphala in four oceanic islands were estimated by phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial dna sequences . diversity of shell colour was higher in the island populations than in the source populations on the mainland . in addition , the shell colour morphs differed not only among populations from different islands but also between the island populations and the source populations on the mainland . by contrast , no mtdna variations were found in any of the island populations , even though the source populations possessed high mtdna diversity . thus , components of colour morphs changed in the island populations after their colonization , and colour polymorphisms are enhanced in these islands despite the loss of genetic variation . the above findings suggest that ecological mechanisms such as morphological release owing to a release from competition may overcome the tendency toward reduced genetic variation in islands to enhance the colour polymorphism .
sequences for the 16srrna locus examined in this study were deposited in genbank ( accession numbers ay253454–ay253528 ) . in total , 71 haplotypes were found in the 96 populations of e . peliomphala ( fig . 2 ) . phylogenetic analysis using neighbour - joining and maximum parsimony resulted in mostly identical topologies . the topology of the nj tree did not differ between the k2 and gtr models . the mt16srrna haplotypes detected in this study were phylogenetically separated into four groups , groups n , s , k and b ( fig . 2 ) . the monophyletic relationship of the haplotypes of each group was supported by high bootstrap values for both the mp and nj trees . the phylogenetic relationship among these groups was also consistent with that based on the ml tree ( fig . 3 ) .
the localities of the samples and the number of snails used to examine the colour morphs are shown in figure 3 . heterozygosity is a preferable measure for the variability of colour morphs , but the genetic basis of the colour patterns of euhadra is unknown . thus , evenness and richness of colour morphs within populations were used as diversity indexes of colour morphs . evenness of colour morphs was estimated using pielou ' s evenness index ( pielou , 1966 ) . because this index cannot be calculated for the samples with only one colour morph , these samples were neglected from the analysis of evenness . morph richness within each population was also estimated at a constant population size ( n = 15 ) using a rarefaction method ( simberloff , 1972 ) . total richness of colour morphs from each island and mainland was estimated using jackknife estimates ( heltshe & forrester , 1983 ) . the evenness and richness of colour morphs were compared statistically among island populations and the source populations using the kruskal–wallis test with dwass–steel post hoc multiple comparisons procedures ( hollander & wolfe , 1973 ) .
another possible mechanism of increasing diversity of colour morphs is release from predation . if only a few morphs are effective in preventing predation , and if predation pressure is low , the morphs that have a higher predation pressure may not disappear from the population . in addition , reduced predation may result in expansion of habitat use of the prey species that may enhance polymorphism . the main predators of euhadra are mammals ( e . g . rat , wild boar ) , birds ( turdinae ) , carabid beetles ( damaster ) and predatory flatworms . no mammals were previously present in the islands until the recent introduction of rats and weasels . damaster is not distributed in the izu islands except on ohshma , and no flatworms are found in these islands . however , turdinae birds are resident on both the mainland and the islands . in addition , if many different morphs are equally effective in preventing predation ( e . g . by acting as camouflage ) , an increase of birds that hunt by sight may enhance colour polymorphisms by frequency - dependent predation ( clarke , 1969 , 1979 ; allen , 1988 ) . this process may not enhance polymorphism when predation pressure by birds decreases . thus , the effect of predation on colour polymorphism of the island populations is unclear .
copyright © 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved
enter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
shell gallery view « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . » conchological megadatabase on mollusks
the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
we want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .
enter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .
e - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .
click on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .
© 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 2 . 864 seconds . )
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
this listing was ended by the seller because the item is no longer available .
this amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab
this amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab
you’ll see an estimated delivery date - opens in a new window or tab based on the seller’s dispatch time and delivery service . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods and will depend on when your payment clears - opens in a new window or tab .
this item will be sent through the global shipping programme and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab
items delivered internationally may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .
sellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .
a brand - new , unused , unopened and undamaged item . see the seller ' s listing for full details .
copyright © 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice
we use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .
differences in the diversity of colour morphs within populations are also caused by differences in the level of gene flow among genetically divergent populations ( davison , 2000 ; davison & clarke , 2000 ) . genetic drift and inbreeding are other important factors that affect the levels of polymorphisms . loss of variation as a result of strong founder effects have been observed in land snail populations introduced from europe to north america ( brussard , 1975 ) .
thus , a comparison between island and mainland is useful in understanding variation . it is important to estimate source populations on the mainland of the populations in an oceanic island , and to clarify whether island populations are morphologically more variable than their mainland relatives . except for very few examples ( johnson , murray & clarke , 1993 ; parmakelis et al . , 2003 ) , however , quantitative studies of this sort are surprisingly scarce , at least with respect to patterns at a low taxonomic level ( schluter , 2000 ) .
map of the izu islands and the mainland ( honsyu ) and sample localities . geographical locations of individuals with sequences from groups b , n and s are encircled . the populations that are not enclosed all belonged to group k .
once the source of an island population was estimated , colour polymorphisms of the source population and the island population could be compared . the banding pattern on the shells was described by the method used to describe the colour pattern of cepaea nemoralis ( cain & curry , 1963 ) . the banding pattern on the shell is described as 1234 ( a string of four numbers in which the numbers refer to the presence or absence of a band starting at the top of the body whorl ) . band 1 is the uppermost band , band 2 is the band above the periphery , band 3 is the subperipheral band and band 4 is the band around an umbilicus . if a band is absent , its position is recorded as 0 . when a specimen has four bands , it is recorded as 1234 . if two or more bands merge and become one wide band , these positions are enclosed in parentheses ( e . g . 1 ( 23 ) 4 ) . the shade of the ground colour ( ground colour pigment density ) was classified into three categories , bright yellow ( y ) , brown ( r ) and black ( b ) . the ground colour is described as a superscript at the end of the string of numbers for colour bands , e . g . 1234 r .
a result of a maximum likelihood analysis performed by taking a subset of sequences from each of the terminal clades . the numbers above selected nodes indicate the percentage of times in 500 bootstrap replications that the populations occurred in these clades in the tree . the numbers in parentheses indicate the populations in which each haplotype is found .
the group s haplotypes were found in the southernmost parts of the izu peninsula . the group b haplotypes were found in the middle part of izu peninsula , the areas in the west of the izu peninsula and the boso peninsula . the group n haplotypes were found in northern and south - eastern parts of the izu peninsula . the group k haplotypes were found as remnant populations in kanto district . a haplotype found in the island populations ( is1 ) was closely related to the group s haplotypes . no other haplotypes were found in the island populations . thus , it is likely that the populations of the izu islands were derived from the southern parts of the izu peninsula .
in total , 18 haplotypes were found in the source populations from the southern parts of the izu peninsula . a high genetic variability exists within these source populations . five different haplotypes ( si1 , si8 , si9 , si10 , si11 ) were found within the population from location 5 . more than two different haplotypes coexisted in 11 populations of the 15 source populations examined in this study ( fig . 2 ) . by contrast , no mtdna polymorphisms were found within the populations of the izu islands , and all individuals from these islands were identified as a single haplotype ( is1 ) ( fig . 2 ) .
island populations possessed colour morphs on the shell that were not found in the source populations . in addition , populations in different islands possessed different colour morphs . for example , the dominant morphs of the populations in niijima and shikine , 0000 b , 1234 b and 0234 b , were not found in the source populations or in the populations of the other islands ( fig . 4 ) . the colour morph , 0234 y , found in ohshima and kozu in high frequency , was not found in the source populations and in the populations of niijima and shikine ( fig . 4 ) . the evenness of colour morphs was significantly higher in the populations of all islands than in the source population ( fig . 5 ) . the richness of colour morphs was also significantly higher in the populations from niijima and shikine than in the source populations . the niijima populations in particular possessed a markedly high richness of colour morphs . although no significant difference was found , the richness of colour morphs tended to be higher in the populations from ohshima and kozu than in the source populations . although the total richness of colour morphs estimated by jackknife estimates was lower in kozu ( 6 . 8 ) and ohshima ( 3 . 0 ) than in the southern parts of the izu peninsula ( 7 . 9 ) , the total richness was markedly higher in niijima ( 11 . 7 ) and shikine ( 8 . 75 ) than in the southern parts of the izu peninsula .
geographical variations in colour morphs on the shell . the number near each pie chart indicates the locality of each sample . numbers in parentheses indicate sample sizes used for the analysis .
average evenness and richness of colour morphs on the shell in the populations of each island and in the source populations . bars indicate standard deviation . islands in which the evenness or richness of a colour morph significantly differs from those of the source population are indicated by asterisks ( * p < 0 . 05 , * * p < 0 . 01 ) .
the phylogenetic relationship among mtdna haplotypes suggests that the populations in the izu islands migrated from the southernmost parts of the izu peninsula . assuming neutrality , the minimum sequence divergence between the haplotype of the island populations and those of their mainland relatives ( 0 . 2 % ) and the age of the izu islands ( not older than 0 . 1 million years ago ) suggests that the different groups of e . peliomhala established themselves on this part of honsyu less than 2–4 million years ago . this does not contradict with the geological history of the kanto area , because tectonic movement and volcanic activity became active after 4 million years ago in this area .
colonization may have occurred by the stepping - stone mode of dispersal from one island to another , or by independent migrations from the mainland to each of the islands . however , the latter mode seems unlikely because the mtdna haplotype found in all of these islands is the same . in any case , colonization certainly seems to have resulted in a reduction of variation in mitochondrial dna . despite the scarcity of mtdna variations in the island populations , the island populations possessed a higher diversity of colour morphs on shells than the source population . this suggests that colour polymorphisms are enhanced in the islands despite the genetic loss resulting from genetic drift or inbreeding .
although the exact mechanisms are unknown , a higher evenness of colour morphs in the islands than on the mainland suggests that the diversity of colour morphs in the islands is more likely to be maintained by diversifying selection rather than by an absence of selection . the above findings suggest that ecological factors peculiar to islands may contribute to increased colour polymorphism . differences in the relative importance of different factors among different sites can result in complex spatial patterns of colour polymorphisms ( cain & currey , 1963 ; cook & pettitt , 1998 ; cowie & jones , 1998 ) . in the populations of the izu islands , ecological mechanisms may overcome the tendency toward reduced genetic variation in islands to enhance the colour polymorphism . the present findings strongly suggest that morphological variations are greater in islands than on the mainland . they also suggest that ecological factors may have an important role in maintaining colour polymorphisms within populations in depauperate environments such as islands .
we would like to thank a . davison and y . watanabe for helpful advice and assistance . this study was supported by grants from the japan society for the promotion of science .
oxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide
for full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .
instantly receive a £10 urltoken gift card if you’re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .
credit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .
enter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .
prime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .
after viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .
note : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .
message body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the development web site .
development is excited to launch a series of articles that argue for the historical impact , continuing importance and tremendous promise of developmental biology . an editorial co - written with the bsdb’s communications officer andreas prokop introduces the series , and also provides advice for how researchers can better advocate their field .
the articles in the series will answer two questions : firstly , ‘what has developmental biology ever done for us ? ’ in their primer , katrin e . wiese , roel nusse and renée van amerongen explore how research in multiple model organisms helped illuminate the complexity of the wnt signalling pathway and set the stage for therapeutic interventions .
addressing the second question – ‘what are the big open questions in the field ? ’ – miki ebisuya and james briscoe explore what time means in development , focusing on how developmental systems control the tempo , order and sequence of events both within and between species .
together , the articles will provide a collection of case studies looking backwards to the field ' s achievements and forwards to its potential , and a resource for students , educators , advocates and researchers alike .
a new research article investigates the signals that regulate collective migration in xenopus leading edge mesendoderm cells to address the question of how contact inhibition is overcome when cells migrate collectively as a sheet . the node caught up with the paper’s two authors , martina nagel and rudolf winklbauer , to find out more about the story .
the bsdb’s autumn meeting , to be held in oxford this september , is the third in a series of international workshops on the extraembryonic - embryonic interface , bringing together researchers that address this topic through a wide array of approaches in diverse research organisms . the early - bird registration deadline is 16 july 2018 , with travel grants available . find out more here .
development is pleased to welcome submissions for an upcoming special issue on ‘ development at the single cell level ’ , guest - edited by allon klein and barbara treutlein . this special issue aims to showcase the best research in stem cell and developmental biology , building on the rapidly evolving tools of single cell analysis . submission deadline : 31 october 2018 .
positioning of the limb field was long suspected to be dependent on hox activity . wouter masselink highlights a preprint from jerome gros and colleagues , showing for the first time that in avian species limb field positioning is dependent on hox collinear activation during early gastrulation .
septin - dependent remodeling of cortical microtubule drives cell reshaping during epithelial wound healing asako shindo , anastasia audrey , maki takagishi , masahide takahashi , john b . wallingford , makoto kinoshita . j . cell sci . 2018 131 : jcs212647 .
increased fgf8 signaling promotes chondrogenic rather than osteogenic development in the embryonic skull linnea schmidt , aftab taiyab , vida senkus melvin , kenneth l . jones , trevor williams . dis . model . mech . 2018 11 : dmm031526
results obtained with castration and gonad implantation verify that a factor ( s ) from the gonad is required for development of the female accessory sex organs ( aso ) in limax maximus . in addition , they show that a gonadal factor promotes rapid gonadal growth and sperm production , and gradual or incomplete development of the penis . although an immature slug that is castrated and then switched to inductive photoperiods fails to exhibit reproductive tract maturation , in two differently designed experimental tests , the brains of such animals were able to promote sexual maturation when subsequently paired with an immature gonad . we interpret the results of these experiments as evidence for photoperiodic induction of secretion of maturation - inducing factor ( mh ) by the brain in the absence of the gonad . one or more gonadal hormones appear to be both necessary and sufficient for production of sperm and for development of aso , but they are not required for the photoperiodic stimulation of mh release .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
beck sd ( 1980 ) insect photoperiodism , 2nd edn . academic press , new york
bünning e ( 1973 ) the physiological clock ; circadian rhythms and biological chronometry , 3rd edn . springer , new york
conover wj ( 1980 ) practical nonparametric statistics , 2nd edn . john wiley , new york
, with observations on the effects of castration on its growth and histology . int j inv reprod 1 : 41–56
farner ds , wingfield jc ( 1980 ) reproductive endocrinology of birds . annu rev physiol 42 : 457–472
follett bk , follett de ( eds ) ( 1981 ) biological clocks in seasonal reproductive cycles . john wiley , new york
gomot l ( 1982 ) endocrinologie de la sexualité et de la reproduction chez les pulmonés stylommatophores . malacologia 22 : 115–119
joosse j , geraerts wpm ( 1983 ) endocrinology . in : saleuddin asm , wilbur km ( eds ) the mollusca , vol 4 , physiology , part 1 . academic press , new york , pp 317–406
eaviolette p ( 1954a ) rôle de la gonade dans le déterminisme humoral de la maturité glandulaire du tractus génital chez quelques gastéropodes arionidae et limacidae . bull biol fr belg 88 : 310–332
lever j , boer hh ( eds ) ( 1983 ) molluscan neuro - endocrinology . north holland , amsterdam
mccrone ej , minnen j van , sokolove pg ( 1981 ) slug reproductive maturation hormone : in vivo evidence for long - day stimulation of secretion from brains and cerebral ganglia . j comp physiol 143 : 311–315
porter r , collins gm ( eds ) ( 1984 ) photoperiodic regulation of insect and molluscan hormones . pittman , london ( ciba foundation symposium 104 )
saunders ds ( 1981 ) insect photoperiodism — the clock and the counter : a review . physiol entomol 6 : 99–116
sokolove pg , mccrone ej , minnen j van , duncan wc ( 1984 ) reproductive endocrinology and photoperiodism in a terrestrial slug . in : porter r , collins gm ( eds ) photoperiodic regulation of insect and molluscan hormones . pittman , london ( ciba foundation symposium 104 ) , pp 189–199
stamler jf , kater sb , murphy ad , bulloch agm ( 1982 ) neuritic growth and neuroma formation by an isolated molluscan ganglion . j neurobiol 13 : 85–89
. in : lever j , boer hh ( eds ) molluscan neuro - endocrinology . north holland , amsterdam , pp 106–111
turek fw , campbell cs ( 1979 ) photoperiodic regulation of neuroendocrine - gonadal activity . biol reprod 20 : 32–50
article public
- / / nlm / / dtd jats ( z39 . 96 ) journal publishing dtd v1 . 1d3 20150301 / / en
urltoken
the reproductive behaviors of terrestrial gastropods are often complex and vary substantially between species . any similarities in these behaviors may indicate a degree of evolutionary relatedness between taxa and thus have the potential to be used as an auxiliary tool when attempting to classify species . 45 adult members of the species polygyra cereolus were collected to study the reproductive behavior of this species and to compare it to p . septemvolva , a species whose reproductive behavior has already been described . during this process , a small protuberance of tissue appearing on the forehead between the optic tentacles was noted . this structure visually appears homologous to what has previously been described in other terrestrial gastropods as “head - wart” , “frontal organ” , and “cephalic accessory organ” . in this paper , it will simply be referred to as “head - wart” .
figure 1 . ( a–d ) polygyra cereolus displaying head - wart in various stages of erection . a shows the structure a little under half way erect , b shows it almost completely erect , and c shows it fully erect . in d , the structure is beginning to retract . swollen , spaced - out papillae are visible in this photo . ( e–f ) two different angles of two separate individuals , both lacking the erect structure for comparison . supplementary figure . the panel on the left is a frontal angle of p . cereolus with a fully erect head - wart . the black arrow points to the convex shape of the structure . the panel on the right shows a different individual lacking an erect wart for comparison .
we aim to describe the head - wart found in polygyra cereolus and observe the behavior associated with its eversion .
this study does not examine the histology of the head - wart . until that is done , it cannot be soundly confirmed that this structure is physically related to the wart described prior in other terrestrial gastropods . this study also has a small sample size . a larger sample needs to be observed to accurately determine what role the wart plays in the life of p . cereolus and if this structure is related to reproductive behavior like it is in other species .
the southern flatcoil is native to the eastern united states [ 10 ] , but has since been exported to many other locations around the globe ranging from hawaii [ 11 ] to the united arab emirates [ 12 ] , likely via the international horticulture trade [ 13 ] . it has also made its way to southern california [ 14 ] . the specimens for this study were obtained in oceanside , california in san diego county . this species is primarily herbivorous ; its diet consists of vegetation such as clover and alfalfa [ 15 ] .
the snails were placed in a 38 l glass - walled terrarium that contained 2 in of moistened coconut - fiber substrate . a mesh screen was placed over the top of the enclosure to allow for ventilation , and a cloth was placed over the screen to keep gnats and other pests out . the snails were given various fresh vegetables to eat , such as carrot , cucumber , and lettuce . crushed eggshells were also provided to serve as a form of calcium . the snails were also misted with water twice daily to keep the humidity levels up so that they would remain active . the tank was kept at around 21°c . after initial collection and placement into the terrarium , the snails were not interfered with .
pritpal soorae , salim javed , shaikha al dhaheri , majid al qassimi , maher kabshawi , anitha saji , shahid khan , sabitha sakkir , rashed al zaabi , shakeel ahmed , junid n . shah , ahmed ali