the banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) is a galaxiid of the genus galaxias , found only in new zealand , including the chatham and stewart/rakiura islands .

it commonly grows to 20 – 25 cm , but has been recorded growing to around 30 cm .

juvenile banded kokopu are good climbers and can climb up waterfalls and other vertical surfaces by moving into the splash zone and wriggling up the surface , using the water surface tension and their large downturned fins for grip .

banded kokopu

banded kokopu chasing a moth . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae new zealand .
just like shortjaw kokopu , banded kokopu have the same distinctive dark patch behind the gill openings and above the pectoral fin .
banded kokopu stalking a moth . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , new zealand .
the five whitebait galaxiids , banded kokopu , giant kokopu , shortjaw kokopu , inanga and koaro are amphidromous , a particular form of diadromy relating to breeding in freshwater .
what do they look like ? • banded kokopu are decorated with thin , pale bands on the back of the fish . • banded kokopu commonly grow to over 200 mm .
department of conservation . 2005 . new zealand large galaxiid recovery plan , 2003–13 , shortjaw kokopu , giant kokopu , banded kokopu , and koaro . threatened species recovery plan 55 .
our study investigated the possibility that bile acids may play a similar role in banded kokopu migration . to do this we had to determine what bile acids are produced by adult banded kokopu , what bile acids the fish release into the water , and which of these banded kokopu can detect .
their discovery could account for previously unexplained differences between banded kokopu stomach contents and their expected diets .
the banded kokopu is a most exceptional climber , with the ability to ascend through very steep falls .
foraging out of the water allows banded kokopu to access sources of energy other than those in the water .
kokopu are small native freshwater fish . their numbers have dwindled greatly in recent decades . three species are highlighted here , the banded , giant and shortjaw kokopu .
department of conservation . ( 2005 ) new zealand large galaxiid recovery plan , 2003–13 : shortjaw kokopu , giant kokopu , banded kokopu , and koaro . threatened species recovery plan 55 . department of conservation , wellington .
banded kokopu are primarily a coastal species but will penetrate 180 km inland , up to an elevation of 550m .
where do they live ? • banded kokopu usually live in very small streams with thick overhead vegetation . • this vegetation does not have to be native bush , however , and banded kokopu happily live in urban streams and exotic pine plantations where shade is present . • banded kokopu are common around cities such as auckland and wellington . • juvenile banded kokopu are very sensitive to suspended sediments and are rare in areas with intensive land development such as along the east coast . • although juvenile banded kokopu are good climbers , they do not penetrate very far inland and are primarily a coastal species
this banded kokopu with a small moth it has just caught . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , new zealand .
banded kokopu leaping out of the water to catch a moth . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , new zealand .
a young adult banded kokopu galaxias fasciatus with well defined bands along its ' entire body . photo copyright © stephen moore .
adults are very distinctive with many golden markings on their bodies , but smaller fish can be difficult to distinguish from banded kokopu .
each of the galaxiid whitebait species has different habitat requirements . laboratory studies have demonstrated that juvenile banded kokopu are attracted to adult pheromones from their own species . juveniles can discriminate and are attracted to water conditioned by adult banded kokopu over that of other galaxiid species .
banded kokopu has a similar distribution to the other kokopu , giant and shortjaw , with the difference that banded are concentrated in northland , auckland and the coromandel peninsula , and shortjaw are absent from the banks peninsula , southland , stewart island and the chatham islands .
they observed banded kokopu leaping from the water to grab the bait confirming suspicions that a fish out of water was in fact hunting .
juvenile banded kokopu . by this age the fish will have found their way to their preferred habitat . ( photo : s . moore )
the banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) is one of the five species supporting new zealand’s nationwide whitebait fishery . like inanga , the banded kokopu is diadromous , migrating between fresh and salt water during its life cycle . adult banded kokopu live and breed in freshwater ; the larvae migrate to the sea when they hatch and return to freshwater as juveniles or ' whitebait ' , in search of habitat to grow to adulthood .
lab studies with bile acids found that they are probably not the key ingredient for banded kokopu , but three unidentified compounds may hold the answer .
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young banded kokopu . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae new zealand . these fish make up a small portion of the whitebait runs in new zealand rivers .
the banded kokopu galaxias fasciatus belongs to the galaxiidae family of the osmeriformes order . it is endemic to new zealand , but is not listed as threatened .
the tiny , almost transparent new zealand whitebait , caught in a net or screen , are primarily the migratory juveniles of inanga , koaro , and banded kokopu .
unlike shortjaw kokopu which prefer native forest cover , the banded species is not so fussy , and will occupy streams in radiata pine forest and other non - native vegetation .
figure 1 : a giant kokopu ( galaxias argenteus ) . [ paul franklin ]
banded kokopu are cryptic and nocturnal , feeding on terrestrial ants , weta , spiders and beetles that end up in the water course , and invertebrate lavae of caddisflies and mayflies .
banded kokopu are a native new zealand fresh water fish often found in small fresh water streams flowing through bush or scrub land . nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , new zealand .
baker , c . f . 2003 . effects of adult pheromones on the avoidance of suspended sediment by migratory banded kokopu juveniles . journal of fish biology 62 : 386 - 394 .
banded kōkopu prefer stream temperatures of 12 - 18°c . when dissolved oxygen levels in the water decrease , it is likely that juvenile banded kōkopu will leave the water body if possible in search of a more ideal habitat .
baker c . f . , smith , j . p . 2007 . habitat use by banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) and giant kokopu ( g . argenteus ) co - occurring in streams draining the hakarimata range , new zealand . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 41 : 25—33 .
banded kokopu are the smallest whitebait , but will often mature to a length of 20 cm , and sometimes reach 26 cm . whitebaiters call them
golden bait
because of their golden colour as whitebait .
baker , c . , carton , g . , fine , j . , sorensen , p . 2005 . banded kokopu : sniffing out a good home . water and atmosphere 13 : 14 - 15 .
a previous study showed that terrestrial insects make up a large proportion of the banded kokopu ' s diet and a comparison of the fish ' s stomach contents and stream drift samples didn ' t match up .
giant kokopu what do they look like ? • as its name implies , the giant kokopu is the largest member of the galaxiidae fish . • giant kokopu longer than 450 mm have been reported , but most are 200–300 mm . • the giant kokopu has very distinctive yellow markings like egyptian hieroglyphics – golden lines , spots , crescents , and rings . • these fish also have large fleshy lips . • giant kokopu are aggressive and territorial and are not found in schools .
adult banded kokopu can be distinguished from the other galaxiid species by the presence of the thin , pale , vertical bands along the sides and over the back of the fish . these bands begin to develop quite early , but similar bands also appear on juvenile giant kokopu , and it is easy to confuse young fish of these species . it is probably best to send small specimens to a fish biologist for identification . banded kokopu commonly grow to over 200 mm , and fish of this size should be no problem to identify correctly .
to determine the bile acids produced and released by banded kokopu , we used high - performance liquid chromatography ( hplc ) and mass spectrometry ( ms ) to analyse the gallbladder and liver of the fish and ' release water ' from a tank in which the fish had been held . then we made electrophysiological recordings from the noses of banded kokopu to determine which bile acids they could smell . these recordings are called electro - olfactograms , or eogs .
banded kōkopu juveniles are very good climbers and will try to escape from buckets by clinging to and wriggling up the sides .
where do they live ? • all kokopu are unique to new zealand . • giant kokopu are mainly found by the coast and are rare in inland areas . • giant kokopu prefer slow flowing or still waters such as lakes , wetlands , and streams with overhanging vegetation , undercut banks , logs , or debris clusters .
while measuring banded kokopu numbers in a stream in le roy ' s bush in january , auckland teacher kit hustler and his northcote college students ben whittington and zac martin noticed the fish jumping out of the water and onto the bank .
our findings suggest the two known bile acids produced and released by adult banded kokopu – tca and tcd – are unlikely to function as a specific migratory pheromone for juvenile banded kokopu . this is because both tca and tcd are common among fish and are not species - specific . they are the main bile acids found in bile , faeces , and urine of many fish species and are probably common in the environment . although the olfactory system of banded kokopu was highly responsive to 5α - cs , it is produced in very low quantities by fish and was not found in the fish holding water . therefore , it is also unlikely to be functioning as a migratory cue . however , we did find three novel compounds in the release water of adult fish that have not been identified in other fish species . the next step in our investigation will be to isolate these novel compounds and determine if they function as a migratory cue for juvenile banded kokopu .
the banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) is endemic to new zealand including north and south islands , stewart , chatham and many offshore islands around the main islands , but not the sub - antarctic islands ( mcdowall 1990 , nzffd 2011 ) .
shortjaw kokopu what do they look like ? • as its name implies , the shortjaw kokopu has an undercut jaw , with the lower jaw being shorter than the upper jaw as in the koaro . • however , shortjaw kokopu are rather drab in colour unlike the sparkly koaro . • sometimes the fins of the shortjaw kokopu appear reddish but the body is generally coloured brown with faint bands and blotches and a dark patch behind the gills .
our hplc analysis indicated that the liver and gallbladder extracts from banded kokopu contained two main bile acids : tca and tcd ( see table below for the full names ) . a third bile acid , 5α - cs , was found in very small quantities , but only in one sample . the release water of adult banded kokopu also contained tca and tcd , but did not have any detectable 5α - cs . in addition , we found three peaks in the hplc analysis that were unknown chemical compounds .
banded kōkopu are the second most important whitebait species and occur at mid to high altitudes in aotearoa streams . adult fish have thin stripes or bands across their backs , explaining why they are called banded kōkopu . these fish prefer to reside in waterways with lots of shade provided by overhanging vegetation such as trees and grasses . as with giant kōkopu , banded kōkopu are usually found in pools or under undercut banks .
figure 2 : figure 2 . giant kokopu eggs hidden within the riparian vegetation ( tradescantia fluminensis ) . [ josh smith ]
although the juveniles are good climbers , banded kokopu do not penetrate very far inland and are primarily a coastal species . they are found on chatham and stewart island , but occur only in new zealand . banded kokopu are rare along the east coast of the north island south of east cape and down the east coast of the south island , but common elsewhere . this distribution is probably a result of intensive land development and the sensitivity of the juveniles to suspended sediments . rivers containing glacial flour or eroding sedimentary catchments are not attractive to the whitebait of this species .
what do they eat ? • giant kokopu are fast swimmers which lurk quietly behind vegetation waiting for their prey to swim passed or fall into the water before ambushing them . • kokopu eat a range of animals from koura to insects such as spiders and cicadas .
some banded kokopu ( one of new zealand ' s native fresh water fish species ) they are living in a creek in eve ' s valley . this is a small pool with an undercut bank and plenty of wood debris to hide in . this is what many whitebait grow into .
rowe , d . k . , hicks , m . , richardson , j . 2000 . reduced abundance of banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) and other native fish in turbid rivers of the north island of new zealand . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 34 : 545 - 556 .
adult banded kokopu usually live in the pools of very small tributaries where there is virtually a complete overhead canopy of vegetation . this vegetation does not have to be native bush , however , and banded kokopu happily live in urban streams and streams under exotic pine plantations so long as overhead shade is present . they only occur in pools where there is instream cover such as an undercut bank , large rocks or wood debris . they depend on terrestrial insects for a large proportion of their diet and can detect the small ripples made by moths and flies that become stuck on the water surface of the pool .
who can it be now ? • kokopu fish are mostly nocturnal but can be observed feeding at night with a red cellophane covered torch . • many people are surprised to learn that giant kokopu are one of the whitebait species . however , they are uncommon in the whitebait catch .
some indigenous fish species are widespread but in low numbers and declining , e . g . longfin eel , giant kokopu , koaro and inanga .
before the study it was thought the nocturnal poor - sighted , kokopu were opportunistic hunters which would wait for insects to fall into the stream .
juvenile banded kōkopu ( along with kōaro ) are able to climb the near vertical rock faces of falls so long as a film of water wets the rock surface . unlike īnanga , which has no climbing ability , banded kōkopu can penetrate well inland to small first order streams , some of which may be above falls as high as 20 m .
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main , m . r . 1988 . factors influencing the distribution of kokopu and koaro ( pices : galaxiidae ) . university of canterbury , msc thesis .
figure 4 : a close - up of a giant kokopu egg at 25 days old clearly showing the fish larvae inside the egg . [ rimu wharakura ]
the climbing whitebait species , including banded kōkopu , cannot climb the dry walls of dams and in places have been adversely affected by dams which now prevent migrations to and from the sea .
trout are stronger competitors for food , and prey upon the smaller galaxiids . however , kokopu maintain stronger populations in smaller streams and swamps that cannot support trout .
this member of the galaxiidae family is one of the five species that occur in the whitebait runs that enter our rivers each spring . banded kokopu are generally the smallest of the five species when they are whitebait and have an overall golden colour . the juveniles are very good climbers and will often escape from buckets by clinging to and wriggling up the sides .
kokopu suffer from the introduction of larger trout introduced to new zealand for sport fishing . the native fish are unlikely to be found where trout have become well established .
figure 3 : timing of giant kokopu spawning in relation to water levels in bankwood ( kukutaruhe ) stream , hamilton , in 2014 . the circles indicate high flows when spawning occurred . the question mark indicates the timing of a suspected spawning event . the horizontal dashed lines indicate the elevation of the giant kokopu spawning sites . [ niwa ]
hicks , b . j . , mccullough , c . d . , and bell , d . g . 2002 . estimating the abundance of banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus gray ) in small streams by nocturnal counts under spotlight illumination . cber contract report 19 . centre for biodiversity and ecology research , department of biological sciences , school of science and technology , the university of waikato , hamilton .
an opportunistic feeder , the giant kokopu appears to take a wide range of prey items . in some parts of its range , terrestrial insects have been recorded as forming the bulk of its diet , while in other areas , aquatic prey are much more important . landlocked adults appear to be particularly indiscriminate when it comes to food , even taking juvenile giant kokopu ( 2 ) .
banded kōkopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) are found mostly in the small pools within boulder streams that flow through native forests . they are widespread , moving well inland ( between 550 and 180 kilometres from the coast ) . they are very strong climbers and can ascend obstacles such as waterfalls . these three adults are probably around 20 centimetres long . as juveniles , when they are caught as whitebait , banded kōkopu are about a quarter of this length and have a golden tinge .
bonnett , m . l . , lambert , p . w . 2002 . diet of giant kokopu , galaxias argenteus . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 36 : 361 - 369 .
these results provide an initial indication of the characteristics of the flow regime that are important for supporting reproduction in our galaxiid fish species . in the future we plan to extend this work to further sites and some of the other main galaxiid species , e . g . banded kokopu ( galaxias fasciatus ) , in order to try and understand how generally applicable these observations are and therefore how they can be translated in to water quantity rules .
bonnett , m . l . , sykes , j . r . e . 2002 . habitat preferences of giant kokopu , galaxias argenteus . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 36 : 13 - 24 .
to determine how banded kokopu detect bile acids , we first tested 30 bile acids in six groups . when a group of acids produced significant responses in the electro - olfactograms , we tested those bile acids individually . this gave 15 bile acids that were tested alone ( see table ) . after standardising the fish responses to account for individual differences , we found that only 5 bile acids gave significant responses . these were 5α - cs p , ps , aca , and tca .
although some populations occur in landlocked lakes and ponds , the giant kokopu is most often found in coastal habitats , such as estuaries , lagoons and swamps , as well as gently flowing streams and rivers ( 2 ) .
although early colonial settlers in new zealand documented the ready availability of giant kokopu as a source of food , today this species is encountered much more sporadically . a number of factors have contributed to its decline , but the principal cause has been the widespread loss of suitable habitat , arising from the varied impacts of agricultural and urban development . in particular , much of the aquatic habitat favoured by the giant kokopu has been severely degraded through deforestation , pollution , water extraction and eutrophication . despite giant kokopu forming a relatively minor component of the whitebait harvest , this fishery has also been attributed to the species decline . however , since a ban was imposed in the mid - 1990s on the whitebait fishery in western parts of new zealand , data has shown that giant kokopu continue migrating for some time after the whitebait fishery normally closes . the implication of this being that capture of this species during the fishing season is probably of little concern . other factors under consideration include the negative impact of giant kokopu caught as bycatch by the commercial eel fishery and the predatory and competitive impacts of introduced species ( 2 ) .
recent work suggests that migratory banded kokopu juveniles may use chemical cues released by resident adults to select rivers and streams containing suitable adult habitat . such cues are commonly known as pheromones and are used by many species of fish as well as other vertebrates , including humans . pheromones are renowned for being specific and potent , and offer the advantage that they can safely be added to waters to attract juveniles and enhance native fisheries . the trick is to identify the pheromones that work for a species .
studies conducted on juvenile banded kōkopu show that young fish are attracted to the odor of adult fish , implying that they can sniff out good habitat based on the presence of adult fish . they feed on insects at night ( especially those that drop into pools ) , which they detect by their vibrations .
david , b . o . , stoffels , r . j . 2003 . spatial organisation and behavioural interaction of giant kokopu ( galaxias argenteus ) in two stream pools differing in fish density . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 37 : 315 - 322
the northern hemisphere sea lamprey is the best understood example of how pheromones assist migration in a fish , and may shed light on banded kokopu migrations . migratory adult sea lamprey , living in the great lakes of north america , are known to select spawning streams based on the presence of a pheromone released by larvae in the stream . the pheromonal cue is composed of many compounds , including the bile acid petromyzonol sulphate ( named after the lamprey ) . the olfactory system of an adult lamprey can detect this bile acid at picomolar concentrations , which is less than 1 g in about 10 billion litres of water .
bonnett , m . l . , mcdowall , r . m . and sykes , j . r . e . ( 2002 ) critical habitats for the conservation of giant kokopu , galaxias argenteus ( gmelin , 1789 ) . science for conservation , 206 : 1 - 50 .
of six juvenile native fish species tested , banded kōkopu were found to be the most sensitive species to suspended sediment , showing strong avoidance . however , when suspended sediment was mixed with adult odours the level of avoidance decreased . they are less abundant in turbid rivers than in clear rivers , confirming the effect of turbidity on adult stocks .
the giant kokopu normally migrates between the sea and freshwater as part of its lifecycle . it is still not known exactly where spawning takes place , but adult males have been observed migrating downstream in large numbers at the end of autumn ( 2 ) . the females produce thousands of tiny eggs which upon hatching are carried out to sea ( 4 ) . in the spring , the developing juveniles migrate back into the rivers in mixed - species shoals as part of the whitebait run ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . unlike some whitebait species , the giant kokopu does not migrate far inland , but instead remains in the slower - moving waters downstream , favouring areas where it can hide below overhanging vegetation and undercut banks ( 4 ) . maturity is reached after around three years , but giant kokopu may live for many years , with some individuals estimated to reach almost 30 years old ( 2 ) .
we have undertaken a study of spawning behaviour in the largest of our galaxiid fish species , the giant kokopu ( galaxias argenteus ) ( figure 1 ) , in a stream located in hamilton . the objective was to identify their spawning habitat and begin to characterise the flows required for successful spawning and reproduction .
the three kokopu species are sparse south of the east cape of the north island , and rare along the east coast of the south island , possibly because of extensive land development of the canterbury plains , and the sensitivity of whitebait to suspended sediments , and glacial flour in river catchments extending back to the southern alps .
the most distinguishing feature , and the reason behind the name , is the early development of well defined vertical bands on their sides and over the back . the bands become less prominent towards the front , but remain in the tail area of large adults . similar bands are also on young giant kokopu but disappear in adults .
franklin , p . a . , smith , j . , baker , c . f . , bartels , b . & reeve , k . ( 2015 ) first observations on the timing and location of giant kokopu ( galaxias argenteus ) spawning . new zealand journal of marine & freshwater research . 49 ( 3 ) : 419 - 426 .
reminiscent of stars in a night sky , the gold spots patterning the dark - olive body of the giant kokupu inspired an 18th century biologist to give this fish the scientific name galaxias ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . this distinctive fish is the largest species within the galaxiidae , a family mostly comprised of small , tubular fish with blunt heads , smooth leathery skin and a single dorsal fin , set well back towards the tail over the anal fin ( 3 ) . however , the giant kokopu’s large size , stocky build , striking colouration and gaping mouth readily distinguish it from other galaxids . in remarkable contrast with the vivid colouration and bulky body of the adult kokopu , juveniles are slim and almost transparent ( 2 ) .
where do they live ? • the shortjaw kokopu is the rarest of the galaxiids , although recent discoveries of several new populations suggest it is more common than previously thought . • shortjaw are usually found in streams with large boulders , making it difficult to catch . • although they penetrate well inland in many catchments , shortjaw appear to be restricted to streams with native forest vegetation .
natural pollutants such as ammonia , which occurs in livestock waste and poorly treated wastewater , can adversely affect fish populations through displacement and , at high concentrations , death . in laboratory experiments banded kōkopu were found to be the second most sensitive species to ammonia toxicity . as with giant kōkopu , these fish have a preference for slightly acidic waters with a ph of < 6 . 5 . this explains why this species can be found in brown peat - stained waters .
the current focus of conservation efforts is to identify , manage and protect habitat suitable for giant kokopu . this includes purchasing land , ensuring planning policy prohibits negative impacts on suitable habitat , and raising public awareness of the threats to this species . at the same time research is ongoing to evaluate the magnitude of the various impacts on this species and to establish the most appropriate means of managing them ( 5 ) .
we successfully discovered the spawning sites of giant kokopu for the first time in autumn 2013 , with further nest sites identified alongside the stream margins in subsequent years ( 2014 - 16 ) . eggs were discovered in bankside vegetation at around 0 . 6 m above base flow water levels . in the study stream , spawning has occurred as early as april and as late as july , with timing appearing to vary in response to both the availability of suitable flows to inundate the spawning sites and water temperature ( figure 2 and 3 ) .
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west , d , crow , s . , david , b . , ling , n . , allibone , r & hitchmough , r .
new zealand ( chatham is . , north is . , south is . )
historically , the population of this species has undergone substantial declines in range and abundance , particularly in developed areas such as the manawatu and canterbury plains ( with loss of habitat through forest clearance ) and with the introduction of invasive predatory fish species ( such as brown trout ( salmo trutta ) ) . currently , there is a gap in the distribution of this species , between banks peninsula and otago peninsula on the east coast , but this is probably due to a lack of typical habitat . however , it is widespread and locally abundant throughout the rest of its range and the population is now considered relatively stable ( mcdowall 2000 , allibone et al . 2010 , niwa 2013 ) .
is a large , amphidromous galaxiid ( with females reaching up to 300 mm in length ) , which also readily forms land - locked populations in lakes . it is typically found at low - mid elevations in pools of small forested streams where there is good cover from overhanging vegetation , banks , boulders and woody debris ( mcdowall 1990 ) . males mature at 2 years of age while females mature at 4 years ( hopkins 1979a , b ) . specimens are commonly found up to 200 mm ( mcdowall 1990 ) , which are likely to be about 7 years of age based on average growth rates ( hopkins 1979a ) . this is likely to be the typical intergeneration time of this species , assuming this is the common adult length and growth rate .
can often reach up to 260 mm ( mcdowall 1990 ) , which are likely to be around 10 years old . individuals are however likely to reach older ages given that west
( 2005 ) found one specimen that may have been up to 15 years of age . this is the oldest known specimen and is likely to be close to the maximum lifespan of this species . spawning occurs from autumn / early winter close to typical adult habitats . eggs have been observed to be deposited terrestrially during high water events , hatching after re - inundation (
. larvae rear in estuaries or at sea and return to freshwater after 4 - 6 months as whitebait . this species is a skilled climber at whitebait stage and is able to migrate up substantial waterfalls ( niwa 2013 ,
this species is one of five species that occur in the whitebait runs each spring and is a significant component of the national whitebait fishery ( niwa 2013 , department of conservation 2005 , mcdowall , 1984 ) .
several common causes of decline have been implicated in the general range contraction and decrease in abundance of large galaxiids . these include overharvesting of the juvenile whitebait stage , artificial barriers to migration , habitat destruction , pollution of waterways , changes in catchment land use and the impacts of introduced species ( department of conservation 2005 ) . the primary threat to this species is thought to be the loss and degradation of adult habitat through deforestation and other land use changes , which have impacted their preferred native forest stream habitats . loss of wetlands is also likely to have negatively affected the distribution of this species . it is considered that partial obstruction and / or complete loss of fish passage due to artificial barriers ( particularly undercut culverts and hydro dams that disrupt river connectivity and access to adult habitats ) , in many regions has also negatively affected the distribution of this species . there is a potential threat of predation and competition by introduced salmonids , primarily brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . furthermore , the loss of riparian vegetation impacts on spawning success , is likely to change water temperatures and reduce the availability of terrestrial food supply ( department of conservation 2005 , mcdowall 2000 ) .
this species was covered within the new zealand department of conservation ' s large galaxiid recovery plan 2003 - 2013 ( department of conservation 2005 ) , however it is listed as nationally not threatened according to the new zealand department of conservation ' s threat classification system ( goodman et al . 2014 ) and is considered of low conservation priority , with no species specific actions required .
west , d , crow , s . , david , b . , ling , n . , allibone , r & hitchmough , r . 2014 .
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greek , galaxias , ou = a kind of fish ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; amphidromous ( ref . 51243 ) . subtropical ; 34°s - 47°s
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 3 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35449 )
spawning occurs from late april to middle of june , with the most occurrence of breeding activity in may ( ref . 33843 ) .
mcdowall , r . m . , 1990 . freshwater fishes and fisheries of new zealand - the angler ' s el dorado . aquat . sci . 2 ( 2 ) : 281 - 341 . ( ref . 11115 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 3 , 800 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 29 of 100 ) .
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our 2018 concert will feature an afternoon of light classics and jazz courtesy of the auckland ph . .
for the social on 19 march the speaker will be ben goodwin of auckland zoo , who will talk about t . .
thankfully doc staff andre de graaf and polly hall and their assistants have trapped the rat whic . .
aka - the grand christmas shopping expedition to tiritiri matangi island shop dreading . .
the 2018 photo competition is now open for entries . click here ( / 2018 - photo - competition - tiritiri - mat . .
two new reports have been added to the website . the first gives details of a summer students . .
our latest calendar , beautifully illustrated with images taken on the island , is now available fo . .
for a wonderful day of wildlife photography please join us on tiritiri matangi island for a ph . .
tiritiri matangi island , the perfect winter ' s day trip . the birds are at their best , warm up w . .
in 1993 and 1995 , sixteen little spotted kiwi were released on tiritiri matangi island . the ma . .
kopu are slender tube - shaped fish with the dorsal fin set far to the rear , near the tail . they are between 20 and 28 cms in length . their colour is olive brown with a row of brownish vertical bands along the flanks . they don ' t have scales and their leathery skin is covered with a layer of mucus . they feed on the surface , mostly at night , on larvae of aquatic insects , like mosquito , and small invertebrates . on tiritiri matangi they have been found in the shallow pools of the forest stream at the base of the kawerau track ( where the boardwalk starts ) .
kopu were counted , but in recent years , possibly due to dry conditions , they have not been seen . a comprehensive freshwater survey is planned under the island ' s biodiversity plan 2013 - 2023 , which should confirm their presence or absence .
information on galaxias fasciatus is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
david cooper special projects manager mahurangi technical institute new zealand tel : + 64 ( 9 ) 425 8493 fax : + 64 ( 9 ) 425 8934 david @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken /
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small school of inanga . inanga is the adult form of the fish that makes up most of the whitebait runs in new zealand rivers .
female freshwater crayfish with young just visible on the underside of her tail in an aquarium at nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , nz .
female freshwater crayfish with young on the underside of her tail , in an aquarium at nga manu nature reserve , waikanae , nz .
the nz mud snail ( amphibola crenata ) is an estuarine grazer that lives off the microorganisms and organic debris that it sieves from the nutrient rich mudflats at low tide . oct 2012 , manawatu estuary
* * open the image in ' download ' for a better view . * * the nz mud snail ( amphibola crenata ) is an estuarine grazer that lives off the microorganisms and organic debris that it sieves from the nutrient rich mudflats at low tide . oct 2012 , manawatu estuary
class maximum value : 0 . 5 label : not probable description : symbol : style : esrislssolid color : [ 190 , 255 , 232 , 255 ] width : 1
spawning occurs from late april to middle of june , with the most occurrence of breeding activity in may ( ref . 33843 ) .
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
ncbi taxonomy
as preferred for
galaxias fasciatus gray , 1842
.
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possum and rat face off over a song thrush nest . horowhenua , new zealand
black or bush rat checking out an old fantail nest . horowhenua region , new zealand
pied shag with a freshly caught blue cod . many of these shags in the marlborough sounds have learnt that undersized cod , when returned to the water after being caught , are easy pickings . nz .
this is a very rare photo of both a possum and rat taking chicks from a thrush nest at the same time . possums rarely prey on small birds but we have records of them doing it several times . what is unusual about this photo is the rat turning up and takin
bush ( or black ) rat ( rattus rattus ) eating an egg from a blackbird nest . rats are one of the major predators of birds in new zealand forests . horowhenua , new zealand
bush ( or black ) rat ( rattus rattus ) eating an egg at a thrush nest . rats , especially the bush rat are one of the major predators of birds in new zealand forests . horowhenua , nz .
bush ( or black ) rat ( rattus rattus ) preying on a fantail while it sits on it ' s nest . horowhenua , new zealand .
the largest galaxiid with individuals of over 450 mm in length recorded . however , adults are usually 200–300 mm .
are primarily a coastal species and are found throughout new zealand and the main offshore islands .
they prefer slow flowing or still waters such as lakes , streams and wetlands , with plenty of overhanging vegetation , logs , or other debris .
they have a varied diet including koura and terrestrial insects such as spiders and cicadas .
galaxiids are fish lacking scales ; the dorsal fin is located very close to the tail .
this species migrates to estuaries or near the sea to spawn in autumn and juveniles return as whitebait during spring , usually late in the season .
they can also form landlocked populations in inland lakes , and so not migrate to the sea .
requires good riparian cover , streamside shade and logs and / or boulders instream .
all indigenous fish can occur in , or move through , plantation forestry areas .
artificial barriers to upstream migration ( e . g . culverts , fords with large lips creating a drop off ) .
maintain corridors of riparian vegetation along banks . corridors should be as extensive as possible ( refer to buxton 1991 ) .
provide adequate fish passage through any artificial barriers within streams , e . g . building up downstream side of culverts with gabion baskets of boulders or using other designs ( refer buxton 1991 , jowett 1999 ) .
prevent introductions of aquatic weeds . educate local users of weed threats and how to prevent spread .
consider repeating fish surveys every few years to ascertain whether key species are still present .
periodic checks of banks to ensure compliance with best forest operational management practices , pest and weed levels and siltation .
buxton 1991 . new zealand’s wetlands : a management guide . wellington , department of conservation .
jowett i . et al . 1999 . fish passage at culverts : a review with possible solutions for new zealand indigenous species .
niwa website , atlas of new zealand freshwater fishes . contains detailed identification guides and location maps . urltoken
cindy baker , guy carton , jared fine , and peter sorensen are investigating whether bile acids serve as chemical cues for whitebait looking for suitable habitat .
bile acids are chemical compounds produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder . they are released to aid digestion and are excreted in urine and faeces . bile acids are potent olfactory stimuli in fish , and recent findings show they ( and related products ) function as both sex and migratory pheromones in the sea lamprey petromyzon marinus .
pheromones are the chemical cues that can guide migrating fish to find their own kind .
studies with sea lamprey have shown that bile acids are a key pheromone for that species .
dr cindy baker is a member of the freshwater fish team , based at niwa in hamilton . dr guy carton is in the school of biological sciences at the university of auckland , and dr jared fine and dr peter sorensen are with the department of fisheries , wildlife , and conservation biology at the university of minnesota .
the experiments were approved by the institutional animal care and use committee of the university of minnesota , where the study was conducted .
teachers’ resource for ncea as : biology 90462 ( 2 . 6 ) , 90717 ( 3 . 5 ) , 90718 ( 3 . 6 ) . see
juveniles are good climbers , quite able to move upstream to small tributaries that have a good cover of forest canopy . this provides shade and hiding protection the fish require during the day , and protects their invertebrate food source .
landlocked populations have established at some locations , including the kaihoka lakes close to the west coast of northwest nelson , lake hochstetter in westland , lake okataina at rotorua , and lake ototoa on the west side of kaipara harbour .
as with all galaxiids it does not have scales , but has a leathery , thick skin covered with mucus . a large rounded single dorsal and anal fin are set back close to the large square caudal fin .
new zealand ' s freshwater fish fauna is sparse with 41 native species in 9 families , but unique with the predominance of 24 species of galaxias and neochanna genera in the galaxiidae family .
more than half of the freshwater fish fauna is diadromous , moving between fresh and salt water during their life cycle .
adult galaxiids make their way downstream to rivermouths in the autumn to spawn . thousands of eggs are laid amongst vegetation on river and stream banks flooded by a spring ( very high ) tide .
males fertilize the eggs with such large amounts of sperm ( milt ) that the water turns milky .
when the tide recedes the eggs sit out of water for two weeks or more remaining moist in the vegetation until the next spring tide , when they hatch and larvae are washed out to sea .
after spending four to five months of winter in the ocean , large shoals of juvenile fish ( whitebait ) , up to 5 cm long and 3 to 4 mm wide , swim into river and stream estuaries on the incoming tide in spring .
they make their way upstream in the final stage of an incredible journey for such a small fish , to develop into adult freshwater fish .
inanga make up the bulk of the whitebait catch in new zealand , but are not present in sufficient quantities in australia and south america .
the regulated whitebait season is from mid - august until the end of november throughout most of new zealand except westland . any whitebait catch outside this period is prohibited . there are restrictions on the size of fishing gear , but there is no catch limit .
at different times and in some parts of the country , whitebait runs also include juvenile and adult retropinna ( smelt ) and neochanna ( mudfish ) ; juvenile gobiomorphus ( bullies ) , and anguilla ( eel ) species . the whitebait of grayling prototroctes oxyrhynchus were also in the runs before it became extinct .
only two of new zealand ' s 19 galaxias species are not endemic . inanga g . maculatus is widespread throughout the southern oceans in tasmania , southeastern and southwestern australia , south america , and some pacific islands . koaro g . brevipinnis is found in south eastern australia and tasmania .
this is the first indication of a gondwanan ancestry of galaxiids . the question remains , whether the distribution of galaxiids around the southern pacific ocean was by dispersal following the breakup of the gondwana continent , and separation of the zealandia continent 80 million years ago ; or by vicariance within gondwana through antarctica before continental separation .


coleophora rectilineella is a moth of the coleophoridae family .

it is found from france and italy to romania .

the larvae feed on alchemilla alpina , anemone , anthyllis vulneraria alpestris , aster amellus , centaurea jaceak , cerastium , globularia cordifolia , leucanthemopsis alpine , leucanthemum , primula elatior , primula farinosa , ranunculus acris and salix reticulata .

the youth case is cigar-shaped and hairy .

the adult case is a bivalved , black , silken sheath case .

the case is thickest around the middle , clearly tapering towards the rear end .

the length is 13 – 15 mm and the mouth angle is about 50 ° .

larvae can be found from august to may .

coleophora rectilineella

bonsoir , pourquoi pas . as tu regardé ici ? urltoken . . . coleophora
donc , pour le moment je le garde en coleophora sp . cordialement , jean - laurent
il est quand même assez marqué , ce qui permet d ' éliminer pas mal d ' espèces , mais il en reste encore suffisament , rien que parmis celle qui sont illustrées sur le forum allemand pour qu ' il reste sp . ( me post reste interessant malgré tout ) par exemple : coleophora albicostella coleophora saturatella coleophora bilineatella
merci pour cette piste . du coup je tenterai bien coleophora albella , vu aussi ici urltoken . jean - laurent
j ' ai soumis l ' image à l ' équipe de pathpiva qui me confirment l ' idée de coleophora albella . je vous en fait donc part . bien cordialement , jean - laurent
bonsoir , un nouveau groupe pour moi : je pense aux coleophoridae et même plus au genre coleophora . pas trop illustré sur le net . . . jean - laurent hentz : france : saint - gilles : 30 : 12 5 2010 altitude : nr - taille : 1 cm réf : 57206 avez - vous des idées plus précises ? cordialement , jean - laurent hentz
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austria , hochschwab , 1400 – 1700 m , 23 . – 24 . 6 . 2007 , leg . & coll . srnka , det . richter ig . , gp 14883 igr
austria , hochschwab , 1400 – 1700 m , 23 . – 24 . 2007 , leg . & coll . srnka , det . richter ig . , gp 22744 igr
je ne saurais que trop vous conseiller l’ouvrage du groupe d’etude des invertébrés armoricains sur les pyrales de la manche . a retrouver sur le site pour le commander .
4a pinacula colourless ( only the base of the setae black ) : c . incertana
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the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all . . .
barcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 1 specimens . . .
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participez à l ' amélioration des connaissances naturalistes sur le site de l ' observatoire du patrimoine naturel du gard .
. . . ne vous empressez pas de capturer et de tuer les insectes , mais consacrez le plus de temps possible à observer leur comportement .
fallait pas le prendre mal . . . dans les images vues il semble y avoir peu d ' espèces avec des bandes blanches bien marquées , mais bon , après , il faudrait les avoir réellement sous les yeux . cordialement , jean - laurent
↳ tout ce qu ' il faut savoir : le b . a . - ba du membre
qu ' est - ce que c ' est ? aucune idée . . .


it is endemic to guatemala .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

baja verapaz salamander

baja verapaz salamander ( cryptotriton veraepacis ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is endemic to guatemala .
information on the baja verapaz salamander is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
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this once - common salamander was thought to have become rare ( c . vásquez and s . rovito pers . comm . 2007 ) , but since 2008 surveys within biotopo del quetzal have recorded many individuals , particularly in nights with rain ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) . nevertheless , land conversion and forest degradation throughout its small range suggest that overall the population is likely to be declining . the effects of climate change are unclear , but large numbers of individuals are only found in years with unusually high rainfall , and the species cannot be found at all in the dry conditions which are increasingly frequent in this region ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) . this arboreal salamander occurs as a severely fragmented population , as suitable habitat exists only as islands of forest surrounded by cleared land ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) .
this salamander ' s cloud forest habitat within the biotopo del quetzal is well protected , but enforcement is needed to preserve forest close to the edge of the reserve and to limit collection of ferns within the protected area . more research is needed into this species ' distribution and population status as well as into the impacts of climate change , and the identity of the finca vulcán taxon ( which might not represent the same species and which is not considered in this assessment ) needs to be clarified .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
populations from sierra de las minas formerly included in cryptotriton veraepacis represent a separate species , c . sierraminensis ( vásquez almazán et al . 2009 ) . the status of a population from finca vulcán which may represent this species is currently under investigation ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) .
justification : this species is listed as critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 65 km² , it occurs as a severely fragmented population , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in guatemala .
this species is restricted to the municipality of purulhá , guatemala , where it occurs in the biotopo del quetzal ( garcía - parís and wake 2000 ; vásquez almazán et al . 2009 ) . there is a single record from a site 4 . 5 km outside this protected area ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) . it is found above 1 , 200 m asl . ( frost 2010 ) ; a 2010 record of this species from 1 , 859 m asl . appears to represent its highest known elevation ( c . vásquez almazán pers . comm . march 2011 ) . the species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 65 km² .
this species lives in humid cloud forest and lower montane wet forest , and does not survive in degraded habitats . it is typically found in arboreal bromeliads . breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water . uncommonly for plethodontid salamanders , adults do not exhibit parental care ( garcía - parís and wake 2000 ) .
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classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
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team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planetâ€™s species and habitats from destruction .
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sometimes taxonomists create new names for groups that already have a name . they may do this because they are unaware of the original name , or they may think the organism before them belongs to a different group when in fact it does not . if two or more names are found to apply to the same group , they are considered synonyms . in most cases , the first name takes priority and is considered to be the valid or accepted name . however , there can be exceptions , and it ' s not always easy to determine which of a series of synonyms should be considered valid or accepted . here we list the synonyms provided to eol by our classification partners . we also include other versions of the name that most likely refer to the same group , for example , misspellings in the literature or different variations of the authorship associated with the name .
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attributes / relations provided by ♦ 1 oliveira , brunno freire ; são - pedro , vinícius avelar ; santos - barrera , georgina ; penone , caterina ; c . costa , gabriel . ( 2017 ) amphibio , a global database for amphibian ecological traits . sci . data .
protected areas provided by le saout , s . , hoffmann , m . , shi , y . , hughes , a . , bernard , c . , brooks , t . m . , bertzky , b . , butchart , s . h . m . , stuart , s . n . , badman , t . & rodrigues , a . s . l . ( 2013 ) protected areas and effective biodiversity conservation . science , 342 , 803–805
its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .


argyrotaenia juglandana , the hickory leafroller moth , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alabama , arkansas , florida , illinois , indiana , kentucky , louisiana , maryland , mississippi , missouri , new hampshire , new york , north carolina , ohio , ontario , pennsylvania , quebec , tennessee , texas , west virginia and wisconsin .

the habitat consists of deciduous woodlands and parks where hickory grows .

the wingspan is about 18 – 20 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is brown with two darker brown diagonal lines and a pale spot at the base .

the hindwings are pale grey to dirty white .

adults have been recorded on wing from april to august .

the larvae feed on the leaves of corylus species , viburnum species ( including viburnum acerifolium ) , carya species ( including carya cordiformis , carya ovata ) , juglans species ( including juglans nigra ) and prunus species .

argyrotaenia juglandana

photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
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by j . w . brown 1 , g . robinson 2 , and j . a . powell 3
the food plant database consists of approximately 12 , 000 records . it is currently available as a pdf document , which may be downloaded by clicking on
food plant database
and searched using adobe reader . in the future , this data will be fully searchable via this website and records will be linked to the t @ rts catalogue . literature supporting records in the database is listed under
food plant references .
the common name
leafrollers
has been applied to the family tortricidae owing to the larval habit of shelter - building by folding or rolling leaves of the food plant . however , the larvae of tortricids employ a wide range of feeding strategies , many fairly divergent from the typical leaf - rolling habit ( horak & brown 1991 , powell et al . 1998 ) . there are gall - makers , root - borers , fruit - borers , seed - predators , flower - feeders , and tip - tiers . horak and brown ( 1991 ) postulate that detritus or mycelium - feeding by a free - living larva may have been the ancestral condition . some of the more unusual feeding modes in the family include leaf litter - feeding , feeding as inquilines in cynipid galls , and preying on coccids .
in general , members of the subfamily tortricinae tend to be polyphagous , while most olethreutinae have narrower host ranges . hosts for the subfamily chlidanotinae are poorly known . dicotyledons are the most widely used hosts , but there are species groups and genera throughout the family that specialize on gymnosperms , particularly conifers . the use of monocotyledons as host plants is rare . few large taxonomic groups within tortricidae exhibit true host specialization , but the following are examples that appear to be fairly well defined : the tribe phricanthini may be restricted to the primitive plant family dilleniaceae ; the indo - australian tribe epitymbiini may be restricted to feeding in the leaf litter of myrtaceae ; members of the australian genus arotrophora are associated primarily with the plant family proteaceae ; members of the genus bactra appear to specialize on the monocotyledon genera cyperus , scirpus , and typha ; and a majority of the members of the worldwide tribe cochylini are associated with the plant family asteraceae .
although tortricids are known primarily as pests of agricultural , forest , and ornamental plants , several tortricids have been used as biological control agents against invasive weeds , and many others have varying potential to inflict major damage on their respective weedy hosts . the literature is replete with records of host plants of tortricidae , and the purpose of this document is to begin to compile and organize this rich literature into a database that may be useful to those involved in pest management , quarantine , biological control , and other studies that involve larval host utilization .
this database represents the amalgamation of three independent efforts : a database on all lepidoptera compiled by gaeden robinson at the natural history museum , london ; a database on tortricidae compiled by john brown at the usda systematic entomology laboratory , national museum of natural history , washington , d . c . ; and database of rearing records compiled by jerry powell at the university of california , berkeley . whereas the first two are based primarily on published literature , the last is comprised
original data
based on field work conducted by powell and students over the last four decades . the combined database also includes data from a variety of
card files
of host plants compiled by various workers at museums worldwide , and from rearing data that accompany identified specimens deposited in major collections . the latter still represents a huge untapped source of food plant information . there has been no attempt to verify records published in the literature ; hence , it is up to the user of this database to conclude whether or not these are valid . we merely compile and report this information . in a very few instances we have noted possible errors . plant names and tortricid names have been modified to reflect modern taxonomy of the groups . tortricid names follow the world catalog of the family ( brown 2005 ) . in many cases , we have included the name ( s ) to which the tortricid species was referred in the original literature citation . botanical names of north america plants follow brako et al . ( 1995 ) and hickman ( 1993 ) for the most part ; others follow the usda - ars grin plant taxonomy database ( wiersema 2001 ) .
the database consists of seven fields . ( 1 ) host . hosts are arranged alphabetically by genus ( and species within genera ) using the most current available taxonomy . in some instances , we were unable to find current names for plant species or even genera ; likewise , in several instances we could not scientific names for some common names . ( 2 ) host family . the plant family for each recorded host is provided . ( 3 ) feeding niche . these data have not been captured for most species ; we hope to populate this field in the future . ( 4 ) tortricid species . the species are arranged alphabetically by genus ( and species within genera ) . as mentioned above , taxonomy follows a world checklist of the family currently in development . ( 5 ) tortricid subfamily . because most tortricid larvae can be identified at least to subfamily , we have included this category as an aid to identification . ( 6 ) references . literature citations are in abbreviated form ;
et al .
is use for more than two authors ; references are in chronological sequence except for cases where the data are from collections or indices with no year . ( 7 ) geographic region . we condensed the data into 7 geographic regions : north america ( including the central american and the caribbean ) , south america , europe , asia , australia ( including new guinea and new zealand ) , africa , and pacific islands . ( 8 ) location . we list more specific information geographic information ( e . g . , country or state ) where relevant or available .
we hope that users of this document will bring to our attention errors in the taxonomy of both the plants and animals , errors in spelling , and especially errors of omission . it is likely that this product only scratches the surface of the huge body of published literature available on the food plants of tortricidae .
we thank the following for providing input on various drafts of this document : amy rossman , usda , ars , beltsville , maryland ; natalia vandenberg and david smith , systematic entomology laboratory , usda , ars , national museum of natural history , washington , d . c . ; and william miller , university of minnesota , st . paul , minnesota .
brako , l . , a . y . rossman & d . f . farr . 1995 . scientific and common names of 7 , 000 vascular plants in the united states . aps press , st . paul , mn .
hickman , j . c . ( ed ) . 1993 . the jepson manual . higher plants of california . university of california press , berkeley , los angeles , london . 1400 pp .
horak , m . & r . l . brown . 1991 . chapter 1 . 1 . 2 . taxonomy and phylogeny , pp . 23 - 50 . in : van der geest & evenhuis ( eds . ) , tortricoid pests , their biology , natural enemies and control . elsevier science publ . , amsterdam .
powell , j . a . , c . mitter & b . farrell . 1998 . evolution of larval food preference in lepidoptera , pp . 403 - 422 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) . handbook of zoology , volume iv arthropoda : insects , part 35 lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . walter de gruyter , berlin .
wiersema , j . h . 2001 . usda , ars , national genetic resources program . germplasm resources information network - ( grin ) . [ online database ] national germplasm resources laboratory , beltsville , maryland . available : http : / / www . ars - grin / npgs / tax / .
brown , j . w . , g . robinson & j . a . powell . 2008 . food plant database of the leafrollers of the world ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ( version 1 . 0 ) . urltoken
1 systematic entomology laboratory - usda , smithsonian institution , p . o . box 37012 , national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa 2 department of entomology , the natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk 3 essig museum of entomology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa
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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .
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these common moth caterpillars hide in rolled up hickory leaves as they munch away . touch one with a blade of grass and they struggle to avoid you .