caenopedina cubensis is a species of sea urchins of the family pedinidae .

their armour is covered with spines .

caenopedina cubensis was first scientifically described in 1869 by alexander emanuel agassiz .

caenopedina cubensis

worms - world register of marine species - caenopedina cubensis a . agassiz , 1869
remark type species : caenopedina cubensis a . agassiz , 1869 by original designation ( rowe & gates , 1995 ) . [ details ]
species caenopedina pulchella ( a . agassiz & h . l . clark , 1907 )
very similar to hemipedina from which it differs in having larger primary tubercles with confluent areoles at the ambitus and adorally . it seems highly probable that caenopedina is a direct descendent from hemipedina .
to biodiversity heritage library ( 16 publications ) ( from synonym hemipedina cubensis ( a . agassiz , 1869 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 3 nucleotides ; 0 proteins ) to pesi to the echinoderms of panama lifedesks to usnm invertebrate zoology echinodermata collection ( 12 records ) to itis
( of hemipedina cubensis ( a . agassiz , 1869 ) ) mortensen , t . ( 1940b ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 1 . aulodonta , with additions to vol . ii ( lepidocentroida and stirodonta ) . 370 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 96 - 99 [ details ]
agassiz a . ( 1869 ) . preliminary report on the echini and star - fishes dredged in deep water between cuba and the florida reef , by l . f . de pourtalès , assist . u . s . coast survey . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoölogy at harvard college . 1 ( 9 ) : 253 - 308 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 256 - 257 [ details ]
kroh , a . & mooi , r . ( 2018 ) . world echinoidea database .
hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
pawson , d . l . , d . j . vance , c . g . messing , f . a . solis - marin & c . l . mah . ( 2009 ) . echinodermata of the gulf of mexico . pp . 1177–1204 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college s . [ details ]
mortensen , t . ( 1940b ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 1 . aulodonta , with additions to vol . ii ( lepidocentroida and stirodonta ) . 370 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 96 - 99 [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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agassiz a . ( 1869 ) . preliminary report on the echini and star - fishes dredged in deep water between cuba and the florida reef , by l . f . de pourtalès , assist . u . s . coast survey . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoölogy at harvard college . 1 ( 9 ) : 253 - 308 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 256 [ details ]
rowe , f . w . e & gates , j . ( 1995 ) . echinodermata . in ‘zoological catalogue of australia’ . 33 ( ed a . wells . ) pp xiii + 510 ( csiro australia , melbourne . ) [ details ]
mortensen , t . ( 1940b ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 1 . aulodonta , with additions to vol . ii ( lepidocentroida and stirodonta ) . 370 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 93 [ details ]
( of coenopedina ) clark , h . l . 1925a . a catalogue of the recent sea - urchins ( echinoidea ) in the collection of the british museum ( natural history ) . oxford university press , london , 250 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 52 [ details ]
( of coenodiadema ) smith , a . b . & kroh , a . ( eds . ) . ( 2011 ) . the echinoid directory . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of miopedina pomel , 1883 ) smith , a . b . & kroh , a . ( eds . ) . ( 2011 ) . the echinoid directory . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of stereopedina de loriol , 1903 † ) smith , a . b . & kroh , a . ( eds . ) . ( 2011 ) . the echinoid directory . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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[ = coenopedina pomel , 1883 , p . 99 ( nomen vanum ) ; = coenodiadema bather , 1900 , p . 86 ( objective ) ; = miopedina pomel , 1883 , p . 97 , type species hemipedina tuberculata wright , 1860 ; = stereopedina de loriol , 1902 , p . 11 , type species stereopedina ameghinoi de loriol , 1902 ]
apical disc large , with large subcircular periproct . apical disc plating dicyclic . periproctal membrane covered in small uniform platelets .
pore - pairs in weakly offset triads . ambulacral plating compound in triads with all three elements extending to the perradial suture . large primary tubercle to each compound plate and with a narrow zone of granules perradially at most .
interambulacral plates a little wider than tall ; dominated by large primary tubercle with a large areole and small mamelon . all tubercles perforate and non - crenulate . rest of plate covered with heterogeneous granulation , including small interradial secondary tubercles .
spines long and slender , without cortex ; primary spines solid with medulla in cross - section ; secondary spines with a hollow lumen .
middle jurassic to recent , caribbean , indo - pacific and atlantic ; mostly deep - water .
there are numerous fossil taxa currently assigned to hemipedina that probably belong here ; but a revision of that genus is needed . this taxon is present by the middle jurassic ( hemipedina chalmasi cotteau ) of europe .
c . capensis h . l . clark , 1923 ; recent , south africa .
c . pulchella ( agassiz & clark , 1907 ) ; recent , pacific , including new zealand .
c . superba h . l . clark , 1925 ; recent , indian ocean .
c . chalmasi ( cotteau , 1882 ) ; bajocian and bathonian , france .
agassiz , a . 1869 . preliminary report on the echini and starfishes dredged in deep water between cuba and florida reef by l . f . de pourtalès , assist . u . s . coast survey .
mortensen , t . 1940 . a monograph of the echinoidea . volume iii . 1 , aulodonta . c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . kroh , a . 2014 . echinoids from the chlamys ledge member ( polonez cove formation , oligocene ) of king george island , west antarctica . polish polar research , 35 , 455 - 467 .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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chrysichthys is a genus of claroteid catfishes native to africa .

two fossil species are known .

chrysichthys macrotis , van neer , 1994 , is known from the miocene-pliocene of the albertine rift in uganda and chrysichthys mahengeensis , murray & budney , 2003 , is known from the eocene of mahenge , tanzania .

chrysichthys

condition factor and diet of chrysichthys nigrodigitatus and chrysichthys auratus ( siluriformes : bagridae ) from aiba reservoir , iwo , nigeria .
according to the phd thesis of risch ( 1968 , unpublished ) , gephyroglanis longipinnis is a partial synonym of chrysichthys longipinnis and chrysichthys longibarbis .
condition factor and diet of chrysichthys nigrodigitatus and chrysichthys auratus ( siluriformes : bagridae ) from aiba reservoir , iwo , nigeria . - pubmed - ncbi
diet , size and reproductive biology of the silver catfish , chrysichthys nigrodigitatus ( siluformes : bagridae ) in the cross river , nigeria .
diet , size and reproductive biology of the silver catfish , chrysichthys nigrodigitatus ( siluformes : bagridae ) in the cross river , nigeria . - pubmed - ncbi
aphiaid : 1026005 has been deleted - reason : duplicate . please replace it by aphiaid : 581699 ( chrysichthys nigrodigitatus ( lacepède , 1803 ) ) [ new search ]
chrysichthys : from the greek chrysos , meaning golden and ichthys , meaning fish ; in reference to the golden - yellow color ( of the type species , c . auratus ) .
( 1 ) jippo ( k : 2 ) , who also notes :
these are chrysichthys cf . nigrodigitatus
, ( 2 ) bristlenose 94 , ( 3 ) tanganyikafreak ( k : 2 ) . click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all
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data for this species .
chrysichthys nigrodigitatus is a demersal , potamodromous species . it occurs in shallow waters of lakes ( less than 4 m ) , over mud and fine sand bottom , in rivers and in swamps . it is an omnivorous fish that feeds on seeds , insects , bivalves and detritus ( reed et al . 1967 ) . feeding becomes specialized with age and size , larger fish may feed on decapods and fish ( laleye 1995 ) .
in those parts where chrysichthys maurus and chrysichthys auratus overlap ( from liberia to ghana , to the east of the volta ) , c . auratus does not enter rivers , but remains in estuaries and lagoons , where both species are sympatric ; in the coastal region , c . auratus has been reported as c . filamentosus ( ref . 57126 ) . found in lakes and coastal rivers ( ref . 3236 ) and appears to tolerate a certain amount of salt ( ref . 78218 ) . occurs usually over soft , slightly muddy substrates or substrates with heavy layers of leafy detritus in deep , relatively quiet waters ( ref . 6868 ) . feeds on mollusks and small crustaceans ( branchiopods , copepods , ostracoda ) which it digs from the substrate ( ref . 27935 ) , and also on insects ( ref . 28714 ) and fish ( ref . 28714 , 78218 ) .
africa : known from most of the west african hydrographic basins , except in the coastal areas between gambia and liberia , where it is replaced by chrysichthys maurus ( ref . 7324 , 57126 ) . present from southern liberia to cabinda ( angola ) ( ref . 57126 ) , and widespread throughout lower guinea ( ref . 81642 ) . also reported from the chad ( ref . 3236 , 57126 ) and nile ( ref . 3236 , 2988 , 28663 , 78586 ) basins .
chrysichthys nigrodigitatus is known from mauritania to angola ( risch 1986 ) . central africa : it occurs in the estuary of the congo river , but not far inland . northern africa : it has been recorded from mauritania ( mohamed fall 2005 ) . southern africa : in angola , the species occurs in the bengo river ( at cabiri ) and kwanza river systems , and in cabinda province rivers ( povo grande ) . western africa : this species is widely distributed and known from most basins within western africa . full distribution can ' t be mapped , more information is needed .
the study of fishery biology of chrysichthys auratus from damietta branch , egypt showed that the population has sl range of 7–20 cm , l ′ = 11 . 85 cm . males represent 45 . 90 % and females 53 . 98 % of the population . length–length and length–weight relationships were analyzed for males , females and combined sexes . it was : sl = −0 . 6231 + 0 . 8402 tl and log w = −1 . 6253 + 2 . 9832 log sl for combined sexes , respectively . the highest values of condition factor were obtained in july , august and september for both sexes . the mean value of ( k ) for males was higher than those of females in all different lengths . age was assessed by bhattacharya’s ( 1967 ) method from length frequency data to estimate the von bertalanffy growth parameters ( l ∞ = 26 . 53 cm , k = 0 . 214 and t o = −1 . 569 ) . the individuals of this species live for about 4 years and the first age dominates the population . the growth performance index in length ( ф l ) and weight ( ф wt ) was estimated as 2 . 18 and 1 . 11 , respectively . the mortalities were computed as : z = 1 . 44 , m = 0 . 60 and f = 0 . 84 . the exploitation rate was estimated as e cur = 0 . 58 . length at first capture ( l c ) was 9 . 66 cm at age 0 . 54 years . length at recruitment ( l r ) was 8 . 49 cm and age 0 . 35 years . it was found that the stock of chrysichthys auratus in damietta branch was rationally exploited .
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cfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013
greek , chrysos = golden + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )
africa : endemic to the pra basin in ghana ; other reports from west africa unconfirmed ( ref . 7324 , 57126 ) . identifications of c . walkeri in lower guinea appear to be misidentifications of mature male of c . auratus , or of c . aluuensis or c . thysi ( ref . 81642 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 57126 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 2 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 ; anal spines : 0 . diagnosis : nasal barbell long , reaching to anterior margin of orbit ; first branched dorsal - fin ray longest , but never filamentous ; adipose fin long , its base longer than that of dorsal fin ; 9 branched rays in pectoral fin ; 12 - 13 ( 15 ) gill rakers on lower limb of first gill arch ( ref . 57126 ) .
risch , l . m . , 2003 . claroteidae . p . 60 - 96 in c . lévêque , d . paugy and g . g . teugels ( eds . ) faune des poissons d ' eaux douce et saumâtres de l ' afrique de l ' ouest , tome 2 . coll . faune et flore tropicales 40 . musée royal de l ' afrique centrale , tervuren , belgique , museum national d ' histoire naturalle , paris , france and institut de recherche pour le développement , paris , france . 815 p . ( ref . 57126 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00482 - 0 . 01573 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 40 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 72 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .
freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 26°c - 31°c ( ref . 27935 ) ; 36°n - 2°n , 16°w - 34°e ( ref . 7324 )
maturity : l m 9 . 7 , range 8 - 19 cm max length : 57 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 41031 ) ; 35 . 0 cm sl ( female ) ; max . published weight : 0 . 00 g
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00977 ( 0 . 00625 - 0 . 01527 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 13 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 ±0 . 55 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 16 ; fec > 1 , 000 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .
freshwater ; demersal ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 3 - ? m ( ref . 13851 ) . tropical ; 22°c - 28°c ( ref . 12468 ) ; 15°n - 13°s , 16°w - 30°e
africa : senegal to cabinda , angola ( ref . 3236 , 81642 ) . reported from mauritania ( ref . 55783 ) . also present in the lower congo river ( ref . 1879 ) .
maturity : l m ? , range 14 - ? cm max length : 65 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 81642 )
adults occur in shallow waters of lakes ( less than 4 m ) , over mud and fine sand bottom . omnivorous , feed on seeds , insects , bivalves and detritus ( ref . 13851 ) . feeding becomes specialized with age and size , larger fish may feed on decapods and fish ( ref . 27935 ) .
risch , l . and e . j . vreven , 2007 . claroteinae . p . 607 - 629 . in m . l . j . stiassny , g . g . teugels and c . d . hopkins ( eds . ) the fresh and brackish water fishes of lower guinea , west - central africa . volume i . collection faune et flore tropicales 42 . institut de recherche pour le développement , paris , france , muséum national d’histoire naturelle , paris , france , and musée royal de l’afrique centrale , tervuren , belgium . 800 pp . ( ref . 74659 )
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00717 - 0 . 01161 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 08 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 41 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 12 - 0 . 65 ; fec = 3 , 086 - 28 , 086 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 60 of 100 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
azeroual , a . , da costa , l . , lalèyè , p . & moelants , t .
snoeks , j . , tweddle , d . , getahun , a . , lalèyè , p . , paugy , d . , zaiss , r . , fishar , m . r . a & brooks , e .
justification : this species has a wide distribution , with no known major widespread threats . it is therefore listed as least concern . it has also been assessed regionally as least concern for central , southern and western africa . for the north african assessment , it has been reported from mauritania , but more information is needed about the species status and distribution within the region , so it has been categorised as data deficient .
no information available . more research is needed into this species population numbers and range , biology and ecology , habitat status and threats , as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures .
azeroual , a . , da costa , l . , lalèyè , p . & moelants , t . 2010 .
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eschmeyer , w . n . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 3 january 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 jan 2014 ) .
brummett , r . , mbe tawe , a . n . , dening touokong , c . , reid , g . m . , snoeks , j . staissny , m . , moelants , t . , mamonekene , v . , ndodet , b . , ifuta , s . n . b . , chilala , a . , monsembula , r . , ibala zamba , a . , opoye itoua , o . , pouomogne , v . , darwall , w . & smith , k .
justification : the species is widespread or without major threats throughout the central africa assessment region and is assessed as least concern .
gephyroglanis longipinnis is known from the lower congo river basin to just above the wagenia falls ( stanley falls ) . it is not known from the kwango and kasai river systems .
gephyroglanis longipinnis is a demersal species . only the young are popular in the aquarium trade ( clarke 1988 ) . it mainly feeds on worms ( burgess 1989 ) .
although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions , due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture and forestry , obubra campus , cross river state , nigeria . benbeff06 @ urltoken
650mm or 25 . 6
sl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .
omnivorous , feeds on seeds , insects , bivalves and detritus . feeding becomes specialized with age and size , larger fish may feed on decapods and fish .
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smallest 55mm , largest 1500mm , average 420mm , most commonly 700mm . all sl .
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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department of biological sciences , bowen university , p . m . b . 284 , iwo , osun , nigeria . tosine _ ben @ urltoken


the mascarene parrot or mascarin ( mascarinus mascarin ) is an extinct species of parrot that was endemic to the mascarene island of réunion in the western indian ocean .

the taxonomic relationships of this species have been subject to debate ; it has historically been grouped with either the psittaculini parrots or the vasa parrots , with the latest genetic study favouring the former group .

the mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length with a large red bill and long , rounded tail feathers .

it had a black facial mask and partially white tail feathers , but the colouration of the body , wings and head is unclear .

descriptions from life indicate the body and head were ash grey , and the white part of the tail had two dark central feathers .

in contrast , descriptions based on stuffed specimens state that the body was brown and the head bluish but do not mention the dark central tail feathers .

this may be due to the specimens having changed colour as a result of aging and exposure to light , as well as other forms of damage .

very little is known about the bird in life .

the mascarene parrot was first mentioned in 1674 , and live specimens were later brought to europe , where they lived in captivity .

the species was scientifically described in 1771 .

the date and cause of extinction for the mascarene parrot is unclear .

the latest account from 1834 is considered dubious , so it is probable that the species became extinct prior to 1800 , and may have become extinct in the wild even earlier .

mascarene parrot

caption below print : ' 1 . le perroquet vert [ green parrot ] ; 2 . le mascarin [ mascarene parrot ] '
the mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) is an extinct species of parrot known from bones , specimens and descriptions to have occurred in the mascarene island of réunion , and possibly mauritius .
based on subfossils , the mascarene grey parakeet was smaller than the broad - billed parrot and the rodrigues parrot , but similar in size to the mascarene parrot , though with a wider beak . the mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) was
birds . perroquet vert ( green parrot ) ; mascarin ( mascarene parrot ) . buffon - 1837 - old print - antique print - vintage print - birds art prints
mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) . extinct . | extinction is forever | pinterest | extinct , bird and extinct animals
we ' re sorry ; this specific copy is no longer available . here are our closest matches for mascarene parrot .
genus : scientific : mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenenpapegaaien . . . german : mascarenen - papageien . . . french : perroquet de mascarene
revising the phylogenetic position of the extinct mascarene parrot mascarinus mascarin ( linnaeus 1771 ) ( aves : psittaciformes : psittacidae ) .
urltoken birds . perroquet vert ( green parrot ) ; mascarin ( mascarene parrot ) . buffon - 1837 - old print - antique print - vintage print - birds art prints : posters & prints
species : scientific : mascarinus mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenpapegaai . . . german : mascarenen papagei . . . french : perroquet de mascarene . . . cites status : extinct
revising the phylogenetic position of the extinct mascarene parrot mascarinus mascarin ( linnaeus 1771 ) ( aves : psittaciformes : psittacidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
the mascarene grey parakeet or thirioux’s grey parrot ( psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the mascarene islands of mauritius and réunion in the western indian ocean . it has been classified as a member of the tribe psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands .
► adaptive radiation of old - world parrots . ► indian ocean islands “seeded” continental africa and asia . ► changes in sea - level influenced the pattern of adaptive radiation . ► extinct mascarene parrot resolved as a coracopsis genus parrot rather than psittacula . ► extinct seychelles parakeet resolved as an alexandrine parrot .
contemporary accounts describe the mascarene grey parakeet as a grey , long - tailed parrot . subfossils show that its beak was about 30 % longer than that of the
mascarin parrot is part of the psittacula radiation , not related to vasa parrots .
symes ct , perrin mr . feeding biology of the grey - headed parrot ,
symes ct , perrin mr . breeding biology of the grey - headed parrot (
downs ct , pfeiffer m , hart la . fifteen years of annual cape parrot
the moluccan king parrot inhabits rainforests , but sometimes enters nearby plantations and gardens .
^ buru king parrot . zootierliste . de . accessed 19 - 06 - 2009
^ salawati king parrot . zootierliste . de . accessed 19 - 06 - 2009
↑ buru king parrot . zootierliste . de . accessed 19 - 06 - 2009
↑ salawati king parrot . zootierliste . de . accessed 19 - 06 - 2009
. they were placed in the zoology museum by 1908 . apart from their size and robustness , holyoak did not find the bones to be distinct from those of the mascarene parrot
cytb was sequenced from one of only two museum specimens of the extinct mascarin parrot .
symes ct , perrin mr . behaviour and some vocalisations of the grey - headed parrot
in 1973 , english ornithologist daniel t . holyoak described some small parrot bones that he had discovered among a collection of broad - billed parrot ( lophopsittacus mauritianus ) subfossils in the zoology museum of cambridge university . these remains had been collected by louis etienne thirioux in the early 20th century , who had found them in a cave on le pouce mountain , on the mascarene island of mauritius . they were placed in the zoology museum by 1908 . apart from their size and robustness , holyoak did not find the bones to be distinct from those of the mascarene parrot genera lophopsittacus , mascarinus ( the mascarene parrot ) , necropsittacus ( the rodrigues parrot ) , and psittacula ( which had two or three other species inhabiting the mascarene islands ) . because of their similarities , holyoak considered all these genera to be closely related . [ 2 ]
errol fuller says : “in all probability , the very last living mascarene parrot was kept , far from its natural home , in the zoological gardens of the king of bavaria in munich . ”
podsiadlowski l , gamauf a , töpfer t ( 2017 ) : revising the phylogenetic position of the extinct mascarene parrot , mascarinus mascarinus ( linnaeus 1771 ) . mol phyl evol 107 : 499 - 502
this is surprising , due to its anatomical similarities with other mascarene parrots that are believed to be psittaculines .
the mascarene parrot had a large red bill and long , rounded tail feathers . its legs were red , and it had naked red skin around the eyes and nostrils . it was native to the mascarene island of réunion in the western indian ocean . only two stuffed specimens exist today , in paris and vienna . the date and cause of extinction for the mascarene parrot is unclear , but it is probable that the species became extinct prior to 1800 , and may have become extinct in the wild even earlier .
the genus poicephalus ( psittaciformes ) is the most species rich and widely distributed parrot genus in africa . poicephalus consists of nine species which are divided into two clades [ 7 , 8 ] . these are the p . robustus clade , including the cape parrot ( p . robustus ) and the red - fronted parrot ( p . gulielmi ) ; and the p . meyeri clade , consisting of the yellow - faced parrot ( p . flavifrons ) , the senegal parrot ( p . senegalus ) , the red - bellied parrot ( p . rufiventrisi ) , the niam - niam parrot ( p . crassus ) , the brown - headed parrot ( p . cryptoxanthus ) , meyer’s parrot ( p . meyeri ) and ruppell’s parrot ( p . rueppellii ) [ 9 ] . several of the species ( p . robustus , p . gulielmi , p . senegalus , p . flavifrons and p . meyeri ) are further divided into subspecies . this study will focus on poicephalus robustus which is currently divided into three recognised subspecies , namely the cape parrot ( p . r . robustus ) , the grey - headed parrot ( p . r . suahelicus ) and the brown - necked parrot ( p . r . fuscicollis ) .
perrin mr . parrots of africa , madagascar and the mascarene islands . johannesburg : wits university press ; 2012 .
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wirminghaus jo , downs ct , symes ct , perrin mr . diet of the cape parrot ,
to the sailors who visited the mascarene islands from 1598 onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint .
holyoak , d . t . ( 1973 ) .
an undescribed extinct parrot from mauritius
.
listen to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .
clancey pa . the cape parrot : an additional valid species . honeyguide . 1997 ; 43 : 61–2 .
wenner tj , russello ma , wright tf . cryptic species in a neotropical parrot : genetic variation within the
old , vague accounts of several different now - extinct mascarene parrots have created much confusion for the scientists who subsequently examined them .
further study of contemporary accounts indicates that the broad - billed parrot was not grey , but had multiple colours .
wirminghaus jo , downs ct , perrin mr , symes ct . taxonomic relationships of the subspecies of the cape parrot
according to anthony s . cheke and julian hume , the anatomy of the mascarene grey parakeet suggests that its habits were largely terrestrial .
at least 4 parrot species once inhabited réunion , but only one is certainly known from skin and fossil material . two preserved skin specimens of mascarene parrot mascarinus mascarinus survive , both collected during the 18 th century , and a few fossil elements have been collected . dubois in 1674 gave a good description of this species and a few live birds made it to france .
parrots are known to have been introduced to that island in the 1700s , a population did not become established . while no live or dead mascarene grey parakeets are known with certainty to have been exported , hume has suggested that a brown parrot specimen—once housed in
the woods are full of parrots , either completely grey [ mascarene grey parrot ] or completely green [ réunion parakeet ] . they were eaten a lot formerly , the grey especially , but both are always lean and very tough whatever sauce one puts on them .
according to anthony s . cheke and julian hume , the anatomy of the mascarene grey parakeet suggests that its habits were largely terrestrial . [ 12 ] like the extinct mauritian duck and the mascarene coot , it appears that the mascarene grey parakeet inhabited both mauritius and réunion . both populations were said to be easy to hunt by capturing one individual and making it call out , which would summon an entire flock . [ 7 ]
at least 3 species inhabited mauritius . the broad - billed parrot lophopsittacus mauritianus survived until at least 1673 - 4 and had developed huge jaws for cracking palm and other forest tree nuts . despite suggestions to the contrary , there is no evidence to suggest that this species was flightless ; however , the broad - billed parrot exhibited the greatest sexual dimorphism known in any parrot . a second grey , long - tailed species , thirioux’s grey parrot psittacula bensoni , a derivative of the psittacula ‘ eupatria ’ group disappeared by c . 1760 and is only known from the fossil record . the third species , psittacula echo , once described as the world’s rarest parrot , has now recovered to some 150 individuals and is the only surviving parrot in the mascarenes .
the woods are full of parrots , either completely grey [ mascarene grey parrot ] or completely green [ réunion parakeet ] . they were eaten a lot formerly , the grey especially , but both are always lean and very tough whatever sauce one puts on them . [ 7 ]
wirminghaus jo , downs ct , symes ct , perrin mr , dempster er . vocalisations , and some behaviours of the cape parrot
based on subfossils , the mascarene grey parakeet was smaller than the broad - billed parrot and the rodrigues parrot , but similar in size to the mascarene parrot , though with a wider beak . the mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) was 2 . 7–2 . 9 mm ( 0 . 11–0 . 11 in ) thick along the mid - line , the palatine ( part of the palate ) was 31 . 1 mm ( 1 . 22 in ) , and the tarsometatarsus ( bone in the lower leg ) was 22–22 . 5 mm ( 0 . 87–0 . 89 in ) . [ 2 ] the grey parrots from réunion were described as being larger than the sympatric réunion parakeet . [ 7 ]
( which had two or three other species inhabiting the mascarene islands ) . because of their similarities , holyoak considered all these genera to be closely related .
, and parrots on mauritius in 1602 ; the depicted method of catching parrots matches that used on mascarene grey parakeets according to contemporary accounts . hume coined the new
there are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ réunion parakeet ] . there are great quantities , especially in the sainte - suzanne area and on the mountainsides . they are very good to eat , especially when they are fat , which is from the month of june until the month of september , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .
the moluccan king parrot is generally uncommon due to habitat loss and capture for the parrot trade , [ 6 ] but remains locally common at least on the sula islands , halmahera and buru . [ 8 ] overall the species is not believed to be in immediate danger , and consequently is listed as least concern by birdlife international and iucn . [ 1 ] as most parrots , the moluccan king parrot is listed in appendix ii of cites .
there are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ réunion parakeet ] . there are great quantities , especially in the sainte - suzanne area and on the mountainsides . they are very good to eat , especially when they are fat , which is from the month of june until the month of september , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat . [ 7 ]
the mascarene parrot was a medium - sized bird , about as large as an eclectus parrot and of a similar shape , although less heavyset and with a longer tail . it was dark greyish brown on the upperside , lighter on the underside . the bases of the tail feathers were white , and the head was colored a medium lavender grey . a ring of velvet - like short black feathers surrounded the bill , which was brilliant red . the feet were reddish brown .
subfossil bones of the mascarene grey parakeet found on mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad - billed parrot in the genus lophopsittacus . apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other mascarene parrots . the subfossils were later connected with 17th - and 18th - century descriptions of small grey parrots on mauritius and réunion , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus psittacula .
, so it was possible for species to
island hop
to the isolated islands . of the about eight endemic mascarene parrot species , all but one , the echo parakeet , have gone extinct . in spite of many of them being poorly known , fossil remains show that they shared features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced
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speculated that 17th - and 18th - century reports of then - unidentified grey parrots on mauritius referred to the broad - billed parrot . in 1987 , english
s2 table . genbank accession numbers for poicephalus sequences generated in the present study and accession numbers for the 27 additional parrot sequences used for molecular clock analysis .
cheke , a . s . ( 1987 ) .
an ecological history of the mascarene islands , with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates
. in diamond , a . w . studies of mascarene island birds . cambridge : cambridge university press . pp . 5–89 . doi : 10 . 1017 / cbo9780511735769 . 003 . isbn 978 - 0521113311 .
many other endemic species of mauritius and réunion were lost after the arrival of humans , so that the ecosystems of these islands are severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . before humans arrived , the islands were entirely covered in forests , very little of which remains today , because of deforestation . [ 14 ] the surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . [ 15 ] on mauritius , the mascarene grey parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the broad - billed parrot , the mauritius blue pigeon , the mauritius owl , the mascarene coot , the mauritian shelduck , the mauritian duck , and the mauritius night heron . on réunion , it lived alongside the réunion ibis , the hoopoe starling , the mascarene parrot , the réunion parakeet , the réunion swamphen , the réunion owl , the réunion night heron , and the réunion pink pigeon . [ 12 ]
the phylogenetic position of the extinct mascarene parrot mascarinus mascarin from la réunion has been unresolved for centuries . a recent molecular study unexpectedly placed m . mascarin within the clade of phenotypically very different vasa parrots coracopsis . based on dna extracted from the only other preserved mascarinus specimen , we show that the previously obtained cytb sequence is probably an artificial composite of partial sequences from two other parrot species and that m . mascarin is indeed a part of the psittacula diversification , placed close to p . eupatria and p . wardi .
the phylogenetic position of the extinct mascarene parrot mascarinus mascarin from la réunion has been unresolved for centuries . a recent molecular study unexpectedly placed m . mascarin within the clade of phenotypically very different vasa parrots coracopsis . based on dna extracted from the only other preserved mascarinus specimen , we show that the previously obtained cytb sequence is probably an artificial composite of partial sequences from two other parrot species and that m . mascarin is indeed a part of the psittacula diversification , placed close to p . eupatria and p . wardi .
henkel , f . m . , and w . schmidt . 2000 . amphibians and reptiles of madagascar and the mascarene , seychelles , and comoro islands . krieger publishing co . , florida .
technique for deforestation in the 1730s , which in itself would have had a large effect on the parrot population and on the other animals that nest in tree cavities .
the moluccan king parrot , alisterus amboinensis , is a parrot that is endemic to peleng island , maluku and west papua in indonesia . it is sometimes referred to as the ambon king parrot or amboina king parrot , [ 2 ] but this is potentially misleading , as it is found on numerous other islands than ambon . the male and female are similar in appearance , with a predominantly red head and underparts , green wings ( blue in one subspecies ) , and blue back and tail . six subspecies are recognised , but only a few of these are regular in aviculture . in the wild , it inhabits rainforests and feeds on fruits , berries , seeds and buds .
are most often their own microcosms . when islands are geographically close to each other , some parrot species have evolved into several subspecies . if islands are far from other land
cheke , a . s . ( 1987 ) .
an ecological history of the mascarene islands , with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates
. in diamond , a . w .
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wirminghaus jo , downs ct , perrin mr , symes ct . breeding biology of the cape parrot , poicephalus robustus . ostrich . 2001 ; 72 ( 3–4 ) : 159–64 .
antique print : birds : perroquet vert ( green parrot ) ; mascarin ( mascarene parrot ) . buffon . caption below print : ' 1 . le perroquet vert [ green parrot ] ; 2 . le mascarin [ mascarene parrot ] ' . type : antique steel engraved print with original hand colouring . date of printing : 1837 . size : 23 . 0 x 13 . 5cm , 9 x 5 . 25 inches ( medium ) , 319 sq cm . artist , cartographer or engraver : engraved by me . thorel sc ; drawn by travies , del . ' original ' means that the item was printed at the date of the first publication run or edition ; it does not imply that the item is unique . condition : good ; suitable for framing . however , please note : light spotting . please check the scan for any blemishes prior to making your purchase . verso : there is nothing printed on the reverse side , which is plain . provenance :
oeuvres completes de buffon
, nouvelle edition revue par m . richard , published by pourrat frères , paris porrat freres . subject categories : birds birds .
other synonyms catalan : lloro de l ' illa de la reunió czech : papoušek běloskvrnný danish : mascarenerpapegøje german : maskarenenpapagei , maskarenen - papagei english : mascarene parrot , mascarine parrot spanish : loro de las mascareñas , loro mascarín estonian : réunioni pruunpapagoi finnish : madagaskarinkaija , maskareenienkaija french : mascarin de la réunion , mascarin malgache hungarian : maszkarénai papagáj italian : pappagallo delle mascarene japanese : masukarininko , masukarin ' inko japanese : マスカリンインコ latin : mascarinus mascarin , mascarinus mascarinus , mascarinus mascarius , psittacus mascarin . dutch : mascarenenpapegaai , maskaranenpapegaai , maskarenenpapegaai norwegian : maskarenepapegøye polish : papuga maskarenska , papuga maskareńska , papuzica maskareńska portuguese : papagaio - das - mascarenas russian : маскаренский попугай slovak : krkavčík kráľovský , ladniak kráľovský swedish : réunionpapegoja chinese : 馬斯卡林鸚鵡 chinese ( traditional ) : 馬斯卡拉鸚鵡 , 馬斯卡拉鸚鵡1834滅絕
pillay k , dawson da , horsburgh gj , perrin mr , burke t , taylor td . twenty - two polymorphic microsatellite loci aimed at detecting illegal trade in the cape parrot ,
hume , julian pender ( 2007 ) : reappraisal of the parrots ( aves : psittacidae ) from the mascarene islands , with comments on their ecology , morphology , and affinities . zootaxa 1513 : 1–76 pdf abstract .
, it appears that the mascarene grey parakeet inhabited both mauritius and réunion . both populations were said to be easy to hunt by capturing one individual and making it call out , which would summon an entire flock .
among the extant mammals the only true endemic is the greater mascarene flying fox ( pteropus niger , vu ) . this species is now severely endangered due to deforestation , hunting , introduced species , and cyclones . another similar species of bat , the lesser mascarene flying fox ( pteropus subniger , ex ) , is already extinct . another rare mammal on these islands is the rare rodrigues flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis , cr ) .
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wirminghaus jo , downs ct , symes ct , perrin mr . conservation of the cape parrot in southern africa . s afr j wlildl res . 1999 ; 29 ( 4 ) : 118–29 .
manegold a . two new parrot species ( psittaciformes ) from the early pliocene of langebaanweg , south africa , and their palaeoecological implications . ibis . 2013 ; 155 ( 1 ) : 127–39 .
it is very difficult to determine how many species of parrot once inhabited the mascarenes . almost every early account mentions them . they were depicted by a number of artists and travelers and they have been described from skins and fossil remains . however , the descriptions and fossil material are generally poor and only two extinct species are known from skins . all mascarene parrots are now extinct bar the echo parakeet psittacula echo of mauritius .
russello ma , stahala c , lalonde d , schmidt kl , amato g . cryptic diversity and conservation units in the bahama parrot . conserv genet . 2010 ; 11 ( 5 ) : 1809–21 .
of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . the others likely all vanished due to a combination of extensive hunting and deforestation . due to being easily caught , the mascarene grey parakeet was often hunted in abundance by early visitors to mauritius and réunion . as they fattened themselves from june to september , they were particularly sought after at this time of the year . an account by admiral
to the sailors who visited the mascarene islands from 1598 onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . [ 4 ] of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . the others likely all vanished due to a combination of extensive hunting and deforestation . due to being easily caught , the mascarene grey parakeet was often hunted in abundance by early visitors to mauritius and réunion . as they fattened themselves from june to september , they were particularly sought after at this time of the year . an account by admiral steven van der hagen from 1606 even suggests that the grey parrots of mauritius were sometimes killed for amusement . [ 7 ]
however , the broad - billed parrot was in all likelihood flightless and thus it seems that the above - mentioned reports are more consistent with mascarinus mascarinus . hoffman states that the birds flew only
with difficulty
, though , whereas the wing bones of the mascarene parrot does not suggest a reduction in flying ability . the sternum of the bird is only insufficiently known and thus it may be that the species flew badly . this , on the other hand , is in disagreement with the theory that the same taxon occurred on both islands , although hoffman may have referred to a general unwillingness to fly until pressed , which was common for the unwary birds of the mascarenes . most strongly against the former existence of this species on mauritius , however , weighs the fact that no skeletal material has turned up in the extensive collections of subfossil bones recovered to date ; the fossil record of mauritius is the most complete of the mascarene islands .
old , vague accounts of several different now - extinct mascarene parrots have created much confusion for the scientists who subsequently examined them . [ 4 ] in 1967 , american ornithologist james greenway speculated that 17th - and 18th - century reports of then - unidentified grey parrots on mauritius referred to the broad - billed parrot . in 1987 , english ecologist anthony s . cheke correlated the l . bensoni subfossils with the grey parrots reported from mauritius and réunion , which had previously been ignored , or considered references to broad - billed parrots . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] further study of contemporary accounts indicates that the broad - billed parrot was not grey , but had multiple colours . [ 7 ]
rheindt fe , christidis l , kuhn s , de kloet s , norman ja , fidler a . the timing of diversification within the most divergent parrot clade . j avian biol . 2014 ; 45 ( 2 ) : 140–8 .
in the islands of the caribbean , hurricanes have played a significant role in the decrease in parrot populations . as we know from recent hurricane seasons , these islands have been in the path of many devastating hurricanes over the years .
wikipedia says : the mascarene islands ( or mascarenhas archipelago ) is a group of islands in the indian ocean east of madagascar comprising mauritius , réunion , rodrigues , agaléga , cargados carajos shoals , plus the former islands of the saya de malha , nazareth and soudan banks .
mourer - chauviré , c . , r . bour , s . ribes , and f . moutou . 1999 . the avifauna of réunion island ( mascarene islands ) at the time of the arrival of the first europeans . smithsonian contributions to paleobiology 89 : 1 - 38 .
fig . 1 . the distribution of old - world parrots in the indian ocean ( [ forshaw , 1989 ] and [ juniper and parr , 1998 ] ) . ( a ) shows the distribution of a number of psittaculini ( asian ) and psittacini ( african ) parrot genera . several important regions are highlighted in colour . ( b and c ) highlight the distribution of these parrots on two major indian ocean regions , the mascarene and seychelles island groups , and the indonesian archipelago ( b and c respectively ) .
citation : coetzer wg , downs ct , perrin mr , willows - munro s ( 2015 ) molecular systematics of the cape parrot ( poicephalus robustus ) : implications for taxonomy and conservation . plos one 10 ( 8 ) : e0133376 . urltoken
described by linnaeus in 1766 , [ 3 ] the moluccan king parrot is one of three species collectively known as king parrots found in australia , papua new guinea , and indonesia . [ 4 ] it has six subspecies : [ 3 ]
in the nineteenth century a great deal of work was done in searching out old manuscripts relevant to the mascarenes , and interesting material is still turning up . many of these records have been published in the compilations listed below . also during the past century many of the published accounts of early voyagers , now very rare and available only in a few libraries , have been reprinted ; sometimes in full , but often only selectively in anthologies of mascarene literature . in general i have used this secondary literature , including several works missed by previous students of mascarene natural history .
the
evidence
for this bird ' s former existence on mauritius rests on the testimony of peter mundy , who saw
russett parratts
in 1638 , and johann christian hoffmann , who saw
red crows with recurved beaks and blue heads
called indiaensche ravens (
indian crows
) in the early 1670s . an illustration in the report on van neck ' s 1598 voyage refers to
indian crows
twice the size of parakeets and being two - or three - colored , but the animal depicted does not agree well with the mascarene parrot . all these reports are often taken to argue that the broad - billed parrot was multicolored and that lophopsittacus bensoni was a valid species that was the
grey parrots
also mentioned by the early travellers .
the population of grey parrots described from the island of réunion ( referred to as psittacula cf . bensoni by hume ) is thought to have been conspecific with that on mauritius . [ 7 ] until subfossils of p . bensoni are found on réunion , it cannot be confirmed whether the grey parrots of the two islands belonged to the same species . [ 10 ] in the 1860s , french naturalists charles coquerel and auguste vinson suggested these could have been parrots of the genus coracopsis , but fossils of neither that genus nor psittacula have ever been found on réunion . whilst coracopsis parrots are known to have been introduced to that island in the 1700s , a population did not become established . while no live or dead mascarene grey parakeets are known with certainty to have been exported , hume has suggested that a brown parrot specimen—once housed in cabinet du roi but now lost—may have been a discoloured old mascarene grey parakeet , or perhaps a lesser vasa parrot ( coracopsis nigra ) . this specimen was described by comte de buffon in 1779 . [ 7 ] [ 11 ]
holyoak , d . t . ( 1973 ) .
an undescribed extinct parrot from mauritius
. ibis . 115 ( 3 ) : 417–419 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 1973 . tb01980 . x .
for food the seamen hunt the flesh of feathered fowl , they tap the palms , and round - rumped dodos they destroy , the parrot ' s life they spare that he may peep and howl , and thus his fellows to imprisonment decoy . [ 1 ]
for food the seamen hunt the flesh of feathered fowl , they tap the palms , and round - rumped dodos they destroy , the parrot ' s life they spare that he may peep and howl , and thus his fellows to imprisonment decoy . [ 16 ]
high quality content by wikipedia articles ! the mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus or coracopsis mascarinus ) is an extinct species of parrot known from bones , specimens and descriptions to have occurred in the mascarene island of rã©union , and possibly mauritius . the bird was first described by dubois in 1674 . during the latter half of the 18th century , a number of birds were exported alive to france and kept in captivity ; the species was described after these examples came to the attention of the taxonomists of that time , like brisson , linnaeus and buffon . three stuffed specimens were preserved at that time . today , two remain , accompanied by a number of bones found later . one , the sole remaining of the three extant around 1800 , is in the musã©um national d ' histoire naturelle in paris , the other , dated 1806 and of unknown provenance , in the naturhistorisches museum in vienna . the affinity of this species to other indian ocean island species has been debated for a long time but was recently resolved using ancient dna - techniques that placed the species within the genus coracopsis . this book was created using print - on - demand technology .
in 2007 , the english palaeontologist julian p . hume reclassified l . bensoni as a member of the genus psittacula , as he found it to be generically distinct from lophopsittacus , but morphologically similar to the alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) . hume also pointed out that an engraving accompanying the 1648 published version of dutch captain willem van west - zanen ' s journal may be the only definite depiction of this species . the engraving shows the killing of dodos ( depicted as penguin - like ) , a dugong , and parrots on mauritius in 1602 ; the depicted method of catching parrots matches that used on mascarene grey parakeets according to contemporary accounts . hume coined the new common name
thirioux ' s grey parrot
in honour of the original collector . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] the ioc world bird list instead used the common name
mascarene grey parakeet
. [ 9 ]
like the preceding species , just two specimens of this striking , middle - sized parrot exist . one is in paris , the other in vienna . both probably date from the last years of the eighteenth century or the early years of the nineteenth . a record of an individual surviving in a european aviary until 1834 ( see hahn , 1841 ) is now considered to be false . very little is known of the species other than the fact that its home was the mascarene island of reunion . why it vanished and when is not known but it can be assumed that it became extinct during the first decades of the nineteenth century .
the moluccan king parrot inhabits rainforests , but sometimes enters nearby plantations and gardens . [ 6 ] exceptionally , it occurs at altitude up to 2100 m , [ 6 ] but more commonly below 1200 m ( new guinea ) [ 10 ] or 1600 m ( maluku ) . [ 8 ]
contemporary accounts describe the mascarene grey parakeet as a grey , long - tailed parrot . subfossils show that its beak was about 30 % longer than that of the sympatric echo parakeet , and that it had a comparatively broad beak . members of the psittacula commonly have large , red beaks , and long tail feathers , with the central ones being the longest . it also differed from its congeners in other osteological details . it was skeletally similar to the alexandrine parakeet , but some of its bones were larger and more robust . its colouration also separated it from all other members of psittacula , the majority of which are green or partially green . [ 7 ]
species on indian ocean islands , with new populations settling during the species ' s southwards colonisation from its native south asia . features of that species gradually disappear in species further away from its range . many endemic mascarene birds , including the dodo , are descended from south asian ancestors , and hume has proposed that this may also be the case for all the parrots there .
justification of ecoregion delineation the mascarene islands are composed of three main islands : réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues , and some islets . although each island contains distinct flora and fauna , they were included in a single ecoregion due to their possession of some shared endemic species , their similar volcanic history and geophysical characteristics , and their wide separation by sea from other land masses .
parrots ' colour and charisma , coupled with the fact that they mimic human speech , make them fascinating to many people . they are ancient birds with unique bill and foot structures that enable them to forage on fruits in the canopy of forest trees as well as on seeds in grasslands . because they depend on fruits and seeds all year round , most species are confined to the tropics or sub - tropics , where the world ' s biodiversity is at its greatest . there are over three hundred species of parrots , of which more than one hundred are recognised as rare , endangered , vulnerable or threatened with extinction . parrots are largely distributed in tropical areas of developing countries where economies are weak and uncertain , and where there is great dependence on the exploitation of natural resources , particularly hard wood evergreen forests , which are preferred parrot habitats . unfortunately , high levels of corruption are common to these regions , with much illegal trade in animals and little or no law enforcement . collectors of parrots in the first world pay huge sums for rare parrots . however , research , education and conservation actions are greatly reducing illegal trade in african parrots . parrots of africa , madagascar and the mascarene islands provides complete coverage of all aspects of the biology of extant african , malagasy and mascarene parrots , and reviews our knowledge of extinct and fossil parrots from the region . particular themes include the behavioural and ecological characteristics of parrots , their species characteristics and conservation biology . current concepts in avian and conservation biology are also discussed . parrots of africa , madagascar and the mascarene islands is aimed at ornithologists , conservation biologists , avian ecologists , academics , bird watchers and parrot fans alike . it is well illustrated , with high quality original photographs , and includes distribution maps , figures and tables .
there are several parrots teetering on the brink — the spix and lears macaws , the echo parakeet , the puerto rican amazon and others whose populations are in serious decline . there is hope with some species because of the dedicated ornithologists and conservationists working throughout the world to help the threatened and endangered birds of the parrot family .
masello jf , quillfeldt p , munimanda gk , klauke n , segelbacher g , schaefer hm , et al . the high andes , gene flow and a stable hybrid zone shape the genetic structure of a wide - ranging south american parrot . front zool . 2011 ; 8 : 16 . pmid : 21672266 . pubmed central pmcid : 3142489 .
the fact that they were said to damage crops probably contributed to them being hunted . the french settlers began to clear forests using the slash - and - burn technique for deforestation in the 1730s , which in itself would have had a large effect on the parrot population and on the other animals that nest in tree cavities . [ 7 ]
long ' s ( 1981 ) comprehensive review of bird introductions world - wide was compiled from easily accessible sources , and new material in this chapter alters the picture for the mascarenes , as it does for extinctions , where king ( 1980 ) listed the cause as ' unknown ' in 65 % of taxa ( mostly mascarene ) on indian ocean islands . recent research ( arnold 1979 , bour 1980 , 1981 ) has rendered useless the section on mascarene tortoises in honegger ' s review ( 1981 ) of reptile extinctions . most currently endangered taxa are treated in the red duta books ( king 1978—9 , honeg - ger 1975 , thornback 1978 , collar & stuart 1985 ) . collar & stuart ( ibid . ) also list recent small - circulation conservation reports not all of which are cited in this book .
the mascarene islands of réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues are situated in a line along a submerged ridge , the seychelles - mauritius plateau , located 640 to 800 km east of madagascar in the western indian ocean . these islands are unique in their isolation , speciation processes and assemblages , and possess many endemic species . when these islands were first visited in the 16th century , passing ships hunted the native fauna , causing the extinction of the ground dwelling dodo and the related rodriguez solitaire . the ships also introduced european species such as rabbits and goats . later , people permanently settled these islands . the combination of hunting , species introductions , deforestation and farming has dramatically changed the habitats of these islands and caused the extinction of species on these islands . many of the surviving endemic mascarene species are seriously threatened with extinction .
there are no fossil calibration points available within the genus poicephalus . molecular clock analysis was performed using secondary calibration dates from two other studies [ 61 , 62 ] to estimate divergence times of poicephalus species . schweizer et al . [ 61 ] , using three nuclear genes , used three avian fossil records outside psittaciformes as calibration points to estimate diversification times . these authors estimated that the separation of strigopidae from the rest of the parrot taxa occurred ~ 58 . 6 million years ago ( mya ) . white et al . [ 62 ] used full mitochondrial genomes and six avian fossil records as calibration points to study the evolutionary history of the cacatuidae and estimated strigopidae and the other parrot taxa split ~ 47 . 4 mya .
there is rarely one reason . when a parrot species becomes endangered and then extinct , it is usually a combination of many factors . however , most of the contributing factors are related to the the profound changes that man makes to the environment . of course , the order of significance of these factors can vary a great deal according to the endangered or extinct species and its environment
the taxonomic position of the cape parrot ( poicephalus robustus robustus ) has been the focus of much debate . a number of authors suggest that the cape parrot should be viewed as a distinct species separate from the other two p . robustus subspecies ( p . r . fuscicollis and p . r . suahelicus ) . these recommendations were based on morphological , ecological , and behavioural assessments . in this study we investigated the validity of these recommendations using multilocus dna analyses . we genotyped 138 specimens from five poicephalus species ( p . cryptoxanthus , p . gulielmi , p . meyeri , p . robustus , and p . rueppellii ) using 11 microsatellite loci . additionally , two mitochondrial ( cytochrome oxidase i gene and 16s ribosomal rna ) and one nuclear intron ( intron 7 of the β - fibrinogen gene ) markers were amplified and sequenced . bayesian clustering analysis and pairwise f st analysis of microsatellite data identified p . r . robustus as genetically distinct from the other p . robustus subspecies . phylogenetic and molecular clock analyses on sequence data also supported the microsatellite analyses , placing p . r . robustus in a distinct clade separate from the other p . robustus subspecies . molecular clock analysis places the most recent common ancestor between p . r . robustus and p . r . fuscicollis / p . r . suahelicus at 2 . 13 to 2 . 67 million years ago . our results all support previous recommendations to elevate the cape parrot to species level . this will facilitate better planning and implementation of international and local conservation management strategies for the cape parrot .
the manuscripts of philibert commerson from the early 1770s , preserved in paris and recently catalogued by laissus ( 1978 ) , would repay further study . i have examined a microfilm of ms 2127 ( ibid . : 156 , no . 57 ) which contains , according to the catalogue , descriptions of mammals , birds and plants of ( by implication ) mauritius , but the animals covered are specimens or captives originating elsewhere . the pièce de resistance is ms 282 ( ibid . : 161 , no . 73 ) , the substantial collection of drawings ( 259 vertebrates ) by jossigny and sonnerat annotated by commerson . the birds were studied by oustalet ( 1897 ) and the tortoises by vaillant ( 1898 ) , but no one seems to have been through them for mascarene mammals or other reptiles . also , reading between the lines , oustalet may not have picked up all the birds of mascarene interest ( cheke 1983b ) .
of the 16 endemic birds found on these islands , seven are confined to mauritius , four to réunion , and two , the rodgrigues warbler ( acrocephalus rodericanus , en ) and the rodrigues fody ( foudia flavicans vu ) , to rodrigues island ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . the bird species confined to réunion are the réunion cuckoo - shrike ( coracina newtoni , en ) , réunion stonechat ( saxicola tectes ) , réunion olive white - eye ( zosterops olivaceus ) , and réunion bulbul ( hypsipetes borbonicus ) . the birds confined to mauritius are : mauritius cuckoo - shrike ( coracina typical , vu ) , mauritius kestrel ( falco punctatus , vu ) , mauritius fody ( foudia rubra , cr ) , mauritius bulbul ( hypsipetes olivaceus , vu ) , mauritius parakeet ( psittacula eques , cr ) , mauritius olive white - eye ( zosterops chloronothus ) , and pink pigeon ( columba mayeri , en ) . three mascarene endemic birds occur on more than one island , the mascarene paradise - flycatcher ( terpsiphone bourbonnensis ) , mascarene grey white - eye ( zosterops borbonicus ) , and mascarene swiftlet ( collocalia francica ) . patterns of bird diversity and endemism here are similar to those on pacific islands , except that elevation is more important in explaining variations in endemism here than elsewhere ( sinclair and langrand 1998 , adler 1994 ) . the endemic species are principally confined to the remaining forest patches , although some have started to colonize plantations ( barre 1988 , louette 1988 ) . there are also some rare seabirds breeding on these islands , some of which are believed to be endemic races . fossil records indicate that before the arrival of early european explorers there were many other bird species present that have since gone extinct ( mourer - chauviré et al . 1999 ) . among these are a night heron , an ibis , a teal , parrots , pigeons , and a falcon .
description location and general description this ecoregion covers the three main islands , réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues , and a number of smaller islets of the mascarene islands . the largest islands are the french dependent territory of réunion ( 2 , 500 km2 ) , and the island of mauritius ( 1 , 900 km2 ) , which together with rodrigues ( 110 km2 ) forms the single independent nation of mauritius . the nearest landmass is madagascar , 680 km northwest of réunion .
a grey parrot was also mentioned and presumably , a conspecific species once populated both islands . a third enigmatic species has caused much taxonomic confusion . dubois in 1674 described a green parrot with head , wings and tail the colour of fire . a psittacula ‘eupatria’ derivative psittacula wardi once occured on the seychelles , and p . ‘eupatria’ may have also occurred on mauritius and rodrigues . it is therefore possible that dubois was describing an endemic psittacula ‘eupatria ’ species on réunion . the colouration , apart from the red tail , is typical of p . eupatria . the fourth species psittacula eques is clearly related to or conspecific with psittacula echo of mauritius . it is known only from a number of paintings and perhaps a unique skin ; this awaits dna confirmation . all réunion psittaciforms had disappeared by the end of the 19 th century .
the other curious aspect is that many of the island species are listed as hypothetical . perhaps early ornithologists saw a parrot and eager to gain fame for their new discovery , they marked it as a new species . with no other records , it has to be presumed that the the bird was either not a true endemic species or it is now extinct . in most cases , we will never really know .
while the mascarenes still support many endemic species , they are as well known for the large number of species that have become extinct since 1600 . these extinctions include the dodo ( raphus cucullatus ) of mauritius , rodrigues solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria ) , rodgrigues parakeet ( psittacula excul ) , mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) , réunion starling ( fregilupus varius ) , and the mauritius blue - pigeon ( alectroenas nitidissima ) ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there have also been a number of extinctions of endemic plants , possibly totaling as many as 100 species ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) . the remaining 500 - 600 endemic plant species are threatened from the considerable loss of habitat and invasion by more vigorous introduced species . some of these are reduced to handfuls of individuals , or even a single remaining plant . examples of plant species on the verge of extinction include : drypetes caustica , tetrataxis salicifolia , and xanthophyllum paniculatun .