the lesser short-nosed fruit bat ( cynopterus brachyotis ) is a species of megabat within the family pteropodidae .

it is a small bat that lives in south and southeast asia and indonesia ( borneo ) .

it weighs between 21 and 32 grams ( 0.74 and 1.13 oz ) .

it occurs in many types of habitat , but most frequently in disturbed forest , including lower montane forest and tropical lowland rainforest , plus gardens , mangroves , and vegetation on beaches .

lesser short - nosed fruit bat

the lifespan of the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is approximately 20 to 30 years .
the greater short - nosed fruit bat is similar to the lesser short - nosed fruit bat but has generally longer forearms , longer ears and a much longer skull .
there are nine subspecies of lesser short - nosed fruit bat . corbet and hill listed 19 alternate names of
a lesser short - faced fruit bat in flight , with reference markers used for aerodynamic modeling .
cyndy parr changed the thumbnail image of
short - nosed fruit bat ( cynopterus brachyotis )
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elangovan v , priya eys , marimuthu g . olfactory discrinimation ability in the short - nosed fruit bat
elangovan v , marimuthu g , kunz th . nectar - feeding behavior in the short - nosed fruit bat
that ' s right ! bat [ a ] is the lesser dog - faced fruit bat .
the lesser short - nosed fruit bat occurs in many different habitats , from pristine primary rainforests , to oil palm plantations , gardens and mangroves ( 5 ) .
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the lesser short - nosed fruit bat type specimens were collected from the dewei river in borneo on september 12 , 1836 , and at naga cave near jammut on the teweh river , borneo .
katja schulz set
short - nosed fruit bat ( cynopterus brachyotis )
as an exemplar on
cynopterus brachyotis ( müller , 1838 )
.
balasingh , j . , j . koilraj , and t . h . kunz . 1995 . tent construction by the short - nosed fruit bat ,
lesser dog - faced fruit bat on palm tree . image by morten strange , under creative commons
elangovan , v . , g . marimuthu , and t . h . kunz . 2000 . nectar feeding behavior of the short - nosed fruit bat ,
lesser short - nosed fruit bats are frugivorous . they prefer aromatic fruit , especially mangoes . the bats feed mainly on small fruits by sucking out the juices and soft pulp . they also eat nectar and pollen .
lesser dog - faced fruit bat on nick baker ' s ecologyasia website : fact sheet with photos .
elangovan , v , g . marimuthu , and t . h . kunz . 2001 . temporal patterns of resource use by the short - nosed fruit bat ,
elangovan , v , g . marimuthu , and t . h . kunz . 1999 . temporal patterns of individual and group foraging behavior in the short - nosed fruit bat ,
is a key component in the diet of the lesser dog - faced fruit bat . so , the seeds of the
phua , p . b . & corlett , r . t . , 1989 . seed dispersal by the lesser short - nosed fruit bat ( cynopterus brachyotis , pteropodidae , megachiroptera ) . malayan nature journal , 42 : 251 - 256 .
cynopterus brachyotis ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) lesser dog - faced fruit bat by tan xiao rui joanna , 2013 on taxo4254 .
a lesser short - nosed fruitbat ( cynopterus pteropodidae ) eating a guava fruit . taken at around past 9 o ' clock in the morning at pueblo de panay forest reserve area , brgy . dinginan , roxas city , philippines .
tan , k . h . , a . zubaid , and t . h . kunz . 2000 . fruit dispersal by the lesser dog - faced fruit bat ,
lesser dog - faced fruit bats can be found mainly in southeast asia and india . areas include :
ruby , j . , p . t . nathan , j . balasingh , and t . h . kunz . 2000 . chemical composition of leaves and fruits eaten by the short - nosed fruit bat ,
fleming th . nectar corridors : migration and the annual cycle of lesser long - nosed bats . in : nabhan gp , editor .
are mainly dispersed by the lesser dog - faced fruit bat with high percentage of germination ( 96 to 100 % depending on the condition of seed after feeding ) ( hodgkison et al , 2003 ) . hence there is a mutualistic relationship between the lesser dog - faced fruit bat and the
the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is an uncommon species in that it constructs roost tents out of the flower clusters and leaves of palms , bananas and other large leaf plants . by chewing the stems and veins the leaves collapse and form well engineered roosting shelters protecting the bats from the elements and predators .
tan k . h , a . zubaid , t . h . kunz . 2000 . fruit dispersal by lesser dog - faced fruit bat . malayan natural journal , 54 : 1 , 57 - 62 .
storz , j . f . , j . balasingh , p . t . nathan , k . emmanuel , and t . h . kunz . 2000 . dispersion and site fidelity in a tent - roosting population of the short - nosed fruit bat ,
kunz , t . h . 1991 . the short - tailed fruit bat ( by t . h . fleming ) . the american scientist , 79 : 176 - 177 .
the current decline in many populations of the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is due to deforestation of primary and secondary forests for timber and palm oil plantations . loss of habitat is a threat to the vast majority of southeast asian bat species , as even protected areas of forest are felled to create land for crops , plantations , and villages . fruit bats are also commonly persecuted by fruit farmers for the damage they do to their yield , although the importance of fruit bats in pollinating crops is often underestimated ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .
the short - nosed fruit bats , of which there are nine species , are quite common throughout their range of southeast asia . the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is very small – having a wingspan of only 12 in ( 330 mm ) and weighing approximately 1 . 5 oz ( 40 g ) . their upper parts are typically bright orange with paler under parts , but there is much variation . females have a gestation of 60 - 80 days and produce a single pup . they reach maturity at 6 months of age ( males cannot reproduce till they are one year old ) .
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat usually cluster in small groups and forage with their keen sense of smell and sight . unlike microchiroptera bats , megachiroptera bats are not capable of laryngeal echolocation as such a mechanism is too energetically expensive to retain . so , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat has its distinctive large eyes for smooth navigation at night .
lift and thrust are both complex forces , especially for a very complex wing like a bat ' s . you have to measure how they act on the whole wing . tafti and his team looked at measurements taken from a lesser short - nosed fruit bat while it was flying in a straight line at a roughly 21 - degree angle . it was climbing , so it was generating greater lift , tafti says .
lesser short - nosed fruit bats are free of terrestrial predation because of their ability to fly . some human cultures consume them as a delicacy . they play important roles in plant pollination . plants such as bananas , avocados , dates , mangoes , peaches , and agave tequilana depend on them for seed dispersal . the bats are considered to be crop pests since they consume and damage fruit .
gopukumar , n . , p . t . nathan , p . s . doss , a . prakash , k . emmanuel , j . balasingh , g . , marimuthu , and t . h . kunz . 2003 . early ontogeny of foraging behavior in the short - nosed fruit bat
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is frugivorous , meaning they feed on fruits . some of their preferred fruits include ripe guava , banana , chikus , dates , and lychees . they also feed on nectar . however , in captivity , these bats are fed a variety of fruits , fruit juice , nectar , and lubee’s fruit bat supplement .
lesser short - nosed fruit bats are designated a least - concern species by the international commission on zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) because the population is widely distributed , stable and still abundant . possible threats may be habitat loss due to development , dams , and deforestation . the animals are being hunted for medical purposes , as reported in iczn 2006 .
other than hanging upside - down in a tree , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat may make their own homes , known as roost tents , by chewing and collapsing leaves , stems and flower clusters . in singapore and malaysia , folded leaves of palms are used . to date , there are 4 known types of tents constructed by the furry lesser dog - faced fruit bat .
tan , k . h . , zubaid , a . and kunz , t . h . ( 1999 ) fruit dispersal by the lesser dog - faced fruit bat , cynopterus brachyotis . malayan nature journal , 53 ( 4 ) : 57 - 62 .
with an appearance typical of a fruit bat , the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is a beautiful example . its dog - like face with large , appealing eyes and white edging on the ears give this bat a magical quality . when roosting , the bat wraps its black wings tightly around its body like a cloak , leaving only the head visible . the white finger bones stand out against the black wing membranes , adding to the striking effect . the fur is short and greyish brown to yellowish brown on the back and paler on the underside . adult males have a dark orange - red collar and females a more yellow - orange collar . juveniles lack this collar and tend to be uniformly grey ( 2 ) .
with an appearance typical of a fruit bat , the lesser short - nosed fruit bat is a beautiful example . its dog - like face with large , appealing eyes and white edging on the ears give this bat a magical quality . when roosting , the bat wraps its black wings tightly around its body like a cloak , leaving only the head visible . the white finger bones stand out against the black wing membranes , adding to the striking effect . the fur is short and greyish brown to yellowish brown on the back and paler on the underside . adult males have a dark orange - red collar and females a more yellow - orange collar . juveniles lack this collar and tend to be uniformly grey ( 2 ) .
rajamani , a . aminah , a . zubaid , k . h . tan , and t . h . kunz . 1999 . chemical composition of leaves consumed by the lesser dog - faced fruit bat ,
in the picture on the left , you can see the huge eye sockets in comparison to the skull for positioning the large eyes that allow the lesser dog - faced fruit bat to see well in the dark .
has a fox - like face , large dark eyes , short brown hair , and dark , spotted wings .
horsfield’s fruit bats rely on their eyesight to navigate through the forest at night , along with their sense of smell to detect fruit .
kunz , t . h . , s . k . robson , and k . a . nagy . 1998 . economy of harem maintenance in the greater spear - nosed bat ,
common name : lesser short - nosed fruit bat scientific name : cynopterus brachyotis distribution : sri lanka , india , nepal , burma , thailand , cambodia , vietnam , s china , malaysia , nicobar and andaman isls , borneo , sumatra , sulawesi , magnole , sanana , sanghihe isla , talaud isls and adjacent small island . perhaps present in the palawan region of the philippines ( l . heaney , pers . comm . ) status : iucn ( 2008 ) – least concern ( lc ) .
gardens and mangroves ( 5 ) . more > > species found in a similar habitatghost bat ( macroderma gigas ) sacred kingfisher ( todiramphus sanctus ) straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum )
although there are no reported adverse effects of horsfield’s fruit bats on humans , due to their frugivory , they are likely a pest to commercial fruit crops .
stern , a . a . , t . h . kunz , and s . bhatt . 1997 . seasonal wing loading and the ontogeny of flight in the greater spear - nosed bat ,
ammerman , l . k . , m . mcdonough , n . i . hristov , and t . h . kunz . 2009 . census of the endangered mexican long - nosed bat (
bonaccorso f , winkelmann jr , byrnes dgp . home range , territoriality , and flight time budgets in the black - bellied fruit bat ,
hair varies in thickness ; generally short and fuzzy ; front part of head , outer parts of limbs and wing membrane are generally bald .
the bone of the reproductive organ of male bats , namely baculum , can be used to determine different species of bats . in this instance , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat has a triangular shaped baculum located in glans dorsal to urethra ( krutzsch 1959 ) .
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is categorised as of
least concern
because of its extensive presence in southeast asia and india , its ability to thrive in a diverse range of habitats ( even in people ' s houses ! ) and its presumed large population . also , its population numbers are not declining rapidly enough to qualify as being threatened . the slow decline in population numbers is primarily due to habitat loss from deforestation for timber and oil palm plantations . even worse , conservation efforts for the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is poor as it is often seen as crop pests due to damage to fruit crops .
in addition , the combination of sound and sight is required for the navigation of the lesser dog - face fruit bat . in a study ( heffner et al . 2008 ) , it was shown that hearing is used to direct eyes to source of sound for sound localization .
marshall ag . bats , flowers and fruit : evolutionary relatonships in the old world .
stern , a . a . , and t . h . kunz . 1998 . intraspecific variation in postnatal growth in the greater spear - nosed bat . journal of mammalogy , 79 : 755 - 763 . pdf
in the wild malayan flying fox are strictly frugivorous , feeding on fruits , flowers , nectar , pollen and leaves . they help dispersing fruit seeds to distant places such as oceanic islands . dispersing fruit seeds also enhances reforestation . in captivity , they are fed a variety of fruits and vegetables mixed with lubee’s fruit bat supplement .
stern , a . a . , t . h . kunz , e . h . studier , and o . t . oftedal . 1997 . milk composition and lactational output in the greater spear - nosed bat ,
although megachiroptera refers to megabats , they are not necessarily huge in size and can range from as small as 6 cm to as large as having a wingspan of 1 . 7m and weighing up to 1 . 6kg . of the megachiroptera , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is considered relatively small .
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat fruit bat is an uncommon species because it creates roost tents out of the flower clusters and leaves of palms , bananas and other large leaf plants . these bats chew on the stems and veins of these plants and the leaves then collapse and form well engineered roosting shelters . these shelters can be found in a variety of caves , rock crevices , and trees , and they protect the bats from predators and the natural elements of nature .
lesser dog - faced fruit bats roost in various caves , rock crevices , trees , and even man - made structures . these little roosts are usually found in rainforests , islands , oil palm plantations , gardens , and mangroves around southwest india .
lesser short - nosed fruit bats typically range from being 2 . 8 to 5 in ( ~ 7 . 1 - 12 . 7cm ) in head - to - body length . tail length ranges from 0 . 6 to 1 . 6 cm ( 6 - 16mm ) . forearm length can range from 2 . 2 to 3 . 6 in ( 55 - 92 mm ) . this length allows for a wingspan ranging from 12 to 18 in ( 305 - 457mm ) . as for weight , adults can range from 1 to 3 . 5 oz ( 28 - 100 g ) .
schultes , d . 2003 .
the malaysian fruit bat
( on - line ) . animals at the fort worth zoo . accessed december 15 , 2001 at urltoken .
· short - nosed fruit bats are at lr / lc , assessed by the red list of threatened species ( iucn , 2006 ) . they are widely distributed and common in some areas of southern asia . they are not listed in the law of the people ' s republic of china on the protection of wildlife in 1989 . status in china is rl - vu b1ab ( i , ii , iii ) ( smith & xie 2008 ) .
lesser short - nosed fruit bats are generally brown to yellowish brown with a brighter collar . adult males have dark orange collars whereas adult females have yellowish collars . an indistinct collar is observed in some immature bats . the edges of the ears and the wing bones are usually white . individuals have two pairs of lower incisors , a fox - like face and large dark eyes . the forearm length is 55–65 mm ( 2 . 1–2 . 6 in ) , tail length is 8–10 mm ( 0 . 3–0 . 4 in ) , and ear length is 14–16 mm ( 0 . 5–0 . 6 in ) .
however , there are conservation programmes present for fruit bats around the world . they include scientific and charitable groups which help for bat monitoring , and local educational programmes . one example is
kunz , t . h . , a . allgaier , j . seyjagat , and r . caligiuri . 1994 . alloparental care : helper - assisted birth in the rodrigues fruit bat
hodgkison , r . , m . ayasse , e . k . v . kalko , c . haberlein , s . schulz , wa . w . mustapha , a . zubaid , and t . h . kunz . 2008 . the chemical ecology of fruit bat foraging behavior , in relation to the fruit odors of two species of bat - dispersed figs (
muñoz - romo , m . , e . a . herrera , and t . h . kunz . 2008 . roosting behavior and group stability of the big fruit - eating bat
lesser short - nosed fruit bats prefer to roost in small groups in trees , under leaves , and in caves . young males may roost alone . it is common for one male to roost with up to four females . females may gather in groups of up to 20 . to feed , the bats bite off the center part of palm fruit clusters , leaving a hollow for hanging , which is also the method they use to construct a shelter . males may spend more than two months chewing the veins of leaves and palm fronds until they fall to form a shelter . individuals use tactile , visual , and acoustic stimuli to communicate . they forage with their acute sense of smell and navigate with their keen vision .
all animals need to rest after a long day of feeding - bats are no different ! as you may have seen on television or in movies , bats have very peculiar resting ( roosting ) behaviour . in the day , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat finds shelter in shaded trees , tree - ferns and near entrances of caves .
is frugivorous . these bats feed on fruit , mostly mangoes , but also any fruit that is aromatic and available . they are thought to consume mainly the juices of the fruits and to expel the pulp .
. seasonal feeding is also present for the lesser dog - faced fruit bats in malaysia . it feeds mainly on fruits in months of march to june , which coincides with local fruiting seasons . on the remaining parts of the year , it feeds on floral parts .
under favourable conditions , female lesser short - nosed fruit bats give birth to one pup twice each year , once between mid january and mid april , and again between mid june and early october . pregnancy lasts between five and six months and the birth of the pups does not necessarily occur in time with flowering or fruiting ( 6 ) . females carry their pup in flight for the first few months of life , until it has learnt to fly with confidence ( 2 ) . the young become sexually mature at seven months , and females will give birth to their first pup at just over 12 months old ( 6 ) .
yovel and postdoctoral fellow arjan boonman got their first hint about the fruit bats from a friendly man on a bus in indonesia who told them about a species of bat that clicked with its wings . as further confirmation , boonman found a single old paper about a fruit bat with wings that clicked , but it wasn ' t clear whether those clicks were good for anything .
storz , j . f . , h . r . bhat , and t . h . kunz . 2001 . genetic consequences of polygyny and social structure in an indian fruit bat ,
they selected a total of 19 wild individuals representing three species of fruit bat and different parts of the evolutionary family tree to find that all of them did produce audible clicks with their wings .
each lesser dog - faced fruit bat has , of course , a dog - like face . they have large dark eyes and white - edged ear . their white finger bones stand out against their black wings . they have short & dark grey - brown to yellow - brown fur on their back while their underside is a bit paler . adult males typically have a dark orange - red collar while the females have a yellow - orange collar . the young bats of this species lack the collar the adults have , and they tend to be all grey .
· it causes little damage to orchards . probably important for seed dispersal . may be persecuted by fruit farmers .
hodgkison , r . , s . t . balding , z . akbar , and t . h . kunz . 2003 . roosting ecology and social organization of the spotted - winged fruit bat ,
lesser short - nosed fruit bats become active shortly after sunset and fly directly to fruiting trees up to 2 km away ( 7 ) to feed on small fruits , including mangoes ( 6 ) and figs , as well as on nectar ( 8 ) . they fly around the trees several times before settling on the fruit ( 7 ) , where they use claws on the first and second digits of the hands , as well as their strong feet , to cling on to bunches of fruit whilst feeding . as fruit bats do not echolocate , they must find their food using their large eyes and strong sense of smell . during the day , they return to their roosts under shaded trees , tree - ferns and near the entrances of caves ( 8 ) . this species is a particularly important seed - disperser ; it is a seasonal specialist , and over an annual fruiting cycle can consume the fruits of 54 species , the leaves of 14 species and the flower parts of four species ( 9 ) .
the bat is known as හීන් තල වවුලා ( heen thala wawula ) in sinhala .
bat flying in a wind tunnel with smoke from jose iriarte - diaz on vimeo .
muchhala n , potts md . character displacement among bat - pollinated flowers of the genus
winter y , lopez j , von helversen o . ultraviolet vision in a bat .
the evolution of bat pollination has made a modest contribution to the overall species and generic diversity of angiosperms . what contribution has bat pollination made at higher taxonomic levels ? how many tribes , subfamilies and families are exclusively bat - pollinated , or nearly so ? table
the fruit bat ' s taste is much like that of humans ; they prefer sweet , aromatic , juicy fruits . once they find their meal they will either eat it right of the vine or tree or take elsewhere to enjoy . it is not uncommon for the bat to crush the fruit and simply drink the juices , while leaving the remaining pulp to fall to the ground and rot . some fruit bats will pollinate flowers , gaining nourishment from the nectar ; thus creating a symbiotic relationship . however , many will chew the
meaty
petals right off of the flower , killing the blossom . large fruit bats must eat a lot to become sated . these bats have large , expandable stomachs which increase on one side forming a sac - like form . this trait belongs to the fruit bat alone . the insectivorous bats have larger intestinal tracts , instead .
muñoz - romo , m . j . f . burgos , and t . h . kunz . 2011 . the dorsal patch of males of the curaçaoan long - nosed bat , leptonycteris curasoae ( phyllostomidae : glossophaginae ) as a visual signal . acta chiropterologica , 13 : 207 - 215 .
geiselman ck , mori sa , blanchard f . database of neotropical bat / plant interactions .
von helversen d , von helversen o . acoustic guide in a bat - pollinated flower .
winkelmann jr , bonaccorso fj , strickler tl . home range of the southern blossom bat ,
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is polygynous , meaning that one male mates with more than one female partner . similar to humans , both the male and female take care of their young . females will reach sexual maturation at about 6 to 8 months , while males mature sexually later at about one - year old . the gestation period lasts approximately 14 to 16 weeks , after which nursing of young takes a surprisingly short 6 to 8 weeks . mammals such as humans have gestation period of about 38 to 42 weeks , after which nursing of young takes years typically ranging from 16 to 21 years depending on culture .
as a frugivore , the lesser dog - faced fruit bat usually eats fruits , figs , nectar and pollen from flowers . leaves are high in protein while fruits are high in energy content to allow it to fly through the air . as it has a tiny mouth , smaller fruits are swallowed while larger fruits are chewed . sometimes it will just drink the juice after chewing and spit out the dehydrated pulp .
these bats are frugivorous , and locate their preferred food items by sight and scent . they have been described as voracious feeders , eating more than their body weight in food in one sitting . some preferred fruits include ripe guava , banana , chikus ( a popular indian fruit crop ) , dates and lychees . in the wild , they feed on fruits and nectar . in captivity they are fed a variety of fruits , nectar , fruit juice and lubee’s fruit bat supplement .
project leaders : lubee bat conservancy , ruth utzurram , phd student at boston university in 1998 .
, a new vespertilionid bat recorded from peninsular malaysia . malayan nature journal , 50 : 363 .
horsfield’s fruit bats , along with other fruit bat species , play a crucial role in seed dispersal and pollination of a wide array of plant species . their role in seed dispersal and pollination has several effects on the plant community including promoting increased biodiversity , increased germination , forest regeneration , protection from seed predators , forest gap development and alteration of successional development .
richards gc . a review of ecological interactions of fruit bats in australian ecosystems . in : racey pa , swift s , editors .
campbell p , schneider cj , adnan am , zubaid a , kunz th . 2004 . phylogeny and phylogeography of old world fruit bats in
jayaraj v . k . , charlie j . laman and mohd t . abdullah . 2012 . a predictive model to differentiate the fruit bats
, or more commonly known as the lesser dog - faced fruit bat , was first discovered near the serene dewei river in lush borneo by muller on 12 september 1836 . it belongs to the megachiroptera ( megabats ! ) suborder within the pteropodidae family of the order chiroptera ( bats ) . although it is a species of megabat , this majestic creature is small , cuddly and cute but cannot and should not be brought home and domesticated . still , you can
horner ma , fleming th , sahley ct . foraging behaviour and energetics of a nectar - feeding bat ,
nelson , s . l . , d . v . masters , s . r . humphrey , and t . h . kunz . 2005 . fruit choice and calcium block use by tongan fruit bats in american samoa . journal of mammalogy , 86 : 1205 - 1209 . pdf
) are found throughout peninsular malaysia , cambodia , southern thailand and several islands in the malay archipelago including the greater sunda islands ( sumatra , java and borneo ) and the lesser sunda islands ( lombok and sumbawa ) .
reference : straight - line climbing flight aerodynamics of a fruit bat . k . viswanath , k . nagendra , j . cotter , m . frauenthal and d . k . tafti . phys . fluids 26 , 021901 ( 2014 ) doi : urltoken
in the picture on the right , you can see the flat quadrate teeth adapted for biting through hard fruit skins and crushing fruits to bits .
much research has been conducted to detail the mechanisms of flight in bats , especially for the lesser dog - faced fruit bats . in this species , change in flight direction due to changes in body orientation during up - stroke has been observed . on the other hand , changes in flight direction is restricted during the down - stroke portion of the wing - beat cycle .
in south - east asian islands , cactaceae in the west indies ) . exceptions include bat - pollinated species of
. another distinguishing characteristic of this species is the presence of peg - like cusps in their lower 3rd premolar and their 1st molar . horsfield ' s fruit bats are described as having the heaviest dentition in their genus ; they have 30 teeth , with a dental formula of 2 / 2 , 1 / 1 , 3 / 3 , 1 / 2 . these bats have a muzzle that is both short and broad , with tubular nostrils . they have relatively large eyes and oval shaped ears that measure 17 to 22 mm and lack a tragus . their ears , as well as their wings , have a distinctive white colored margin . horsfield ' s fruit bats also have a short tail , with lengths ranging from 7 to 16 mm . their wings have a low aspect ( 6 . 08 ) and high wing loading ( 15 . 98 nm - 2 ) ratio . their wingspan is 465 mm and their wing area is 36 , 000 mm2 . their pelage is short and varies in color from dark or light , gray or brown . a study of malaysian
hands have a small claw on the second fingers which are useful in ripping open fruits ; this is a distinguishing factor between fruit and insectivorous bats .
, the average birth mass of horsfield ' s fruit bats may be near 11 grams ; this assumption is based on their comparable adult body masses .
in particular , it will be easier to spot it during the period when the moon is waxing from crescent to full moon . this is because there is sufficient moonlight for the bat’s vision and for your vision to spot the bat ; the moon also rises above the horizon earlier during this period and this coincides with bat’s more active time .
) . together , flower placement away from foliage and nocturnal anthesis are the unifying features of the bat pollination syndrome while all other characteristics discussed above , which provide cues and incentives to entice visitation , vary among bat - pollinated species .
we dedicate this review to the memory of otto von helversen for his substantial contributions to our knowledge of bat pollination .
kunz , t . h . 1966 . evening bat in iowa . journal of mammalogy , 47 : 341 . pdf
) . the number of independent origins of bat pollination in each group at the ordinal and family levels was analysed with the character analysis by parsimony module . by ‘independent origin’ we mean that the sister - taxon of a bat - pollinated family contained no bat - pollinated species . the converse of ‘independent origin’ ( i . e . non - independent origin ) reflects phylogenetic clustering , or the tendency of related groups to contain bat - pollinated taxa . at the ordinal level , bat pollination has originated independently in about half of the orders in which it occurs ( 14 of 28 orders ; table
horsfield ' s fruit bats can be found in several differing habitats ranging from primary and secondary forests , rainforests , agricultural lands , parks , mangroves , limestone caves and gardens . they are commonly found within ecotonal areas , the transitional areas between forests and cultivated land . a study in malaysia looked at the vertical stratification of fruit bats based on wing morphology , horsfield ' s fruit bats were commonly captured in mist nets from 1 to 28 m . researchers in this study predicted that horsfield ' s fruit bats are more prevalent in the mid - storey airspace , which is classified as 10 to 20 m from the forest floor . a comparative study of roosting ecology found that horsfield ' s fruit bats have the second highest roosting diversity of their genus . their roosting sites are less than 5 m above ground and within 0 . 25 km of the forest . these bats are commonly found utilizing both unmodified and modified roosting sites and show no preference between the two , with harems found in both . a study examining coexistence in malaysian fruit bats found horsfield ' s fruit bats have a 71 . 2 % habitat overlap with
campbell p , schneider cj , zubaid a , adnan am , kunz th . morphological and ecological correlates of coexistence in malaysian fruit bats ( chiroptera : pteropodidae )
about 85 % of the cases of bat pollination appear to have evolved independently at the level of angiosperm family . a particularly striking example of this pattern is the occurrence of bat - pollinated flowers in only one hemisphere or the other in many pantropically distributed plant families . an exception to this pattern occurs in the monocot order zingiberales in which bat pollination is widespread among related families . the common occurrence of bat pollination in the monocots , and especially the zingiberales , may be due to the concentration of many of these taxa in the tropics , particularly the large succulent and / or arborescent species in which bat pollination almost exclusively occurs . of the seven families of monocots in which more than a single species is bat - pollinated ( table
the distribution of bat - pollinated taxa visited by phyllostomids and pteropodids differs at both the ordinal and the family level . of the 28 orders containing bat families , only eight ( 29 % ) contain taxa pollinated by both groups of bats ( table
bestmann hj , winkler l , von helversen o . headspace analysis of volatile flower scent constituents of bat - pollinated plants .
winkelmann jr . , bonaccorso fj , goedeke ee , ballock lj . home range and territoriality in the least blossom bat ,
kunz , t . h . 1984 . bat facts and folklore . american biology teacher , 46 : 394 - 399 .
horsfield’s fruit bats are predominately frugivorous , but also consume leaves , flowers and pollen . a study in peninsular malaysia showed these bats feed on the following plant species :
is the most common fruit bat to be found in singapore . it belongs to the megachiroptera suborder which are frugivores with long heads , long jaws , and large eyes for excellent vision . as a result , they do not require to use echolocation for navigation in the twilight and in caves .
lesser dog - faced fruit bats can live either solitarily or in colonies . ( colonies range in size , but it’s possible for them to contain over a hundred individuals . ) social bats that live in colonies have complex social behaviors . this can include polygamy and various vocal communication signals . this particular type of bat doesn’t really echolocate though , since they have no need to do so with the way they are and the particular food the eat . on a side note , they become active a little after sunset and simply fly directly to their food .
( 4 ) information gathered from the database of neotropical bat / plant interactions ( geiselman et al . , 2004 onwards ) .
fleming th , muchhala n . nectar - feeding bird and bat niches in two worlds : pantropical comparisons of vertebrate pollination systems .
this review focuses on the evolution of bat pollination in tropical and subtropical angiosperms . this is to address two fundamental evolutionary questions : what are the causes and what are the consequences of the evolution of this pollination method ? ancillary questions include : ( 1 ) how many times during angiosperm history and in what places has bat pollination evolved ? ( 2 ) what are the phylogenetic consequences of bat pollination ? how many higher level taxa ( genera , tribes , subfamilies , families , etc . ) have evolved in association with bat pollination ? and ( 3 ) by what phylogenetic routes has bat pollination evolved ? how often have bat - pollinated flowers evolved from insect - , bird - , or non - volant mammal - pollinated flowers ? before examining these questions , we provide a brief overview of flower - visiting bats and the basic characteristics of bat pollination . we then examine this pollination mode from a phylogenetic and biogeographical perspective for both plants and bats . finally , we discuss the various evolutionary routes that have resulted in bat pollination .
when we study extant species of echolocating bats , we see a developed sensory system that has been adapted and improved over millions of years of evolution ,
yovel says .
the rudimentary echolocation of the fruit bat is one example of how the first types of echolocation may have evolved .
there is limited data available on the longevity of this species , but a mark - recapture study of horsfield’s fruit bats estimated an average lifespan of at least 31 months .
cladogram showing the evolutionary relationships of orders of angiosperms and the distribution of families containing bat - pollinated taxa among them . five types of bat pollination are highlighted : pollination only by new world phyllostomids , pollination only by old world pteropodids , pollination by both bat families , and single species pollinated either by new world or old world bats . cladogram based on soltis et al . ( 2005 ) .
the lesser dog - faced fruit bat is an important seed disperser and also a plant pollinator . it is able to retain viable seeds in gut for more than 12 hours , allowing long - distance seed disperser ( shilton et al . 1999 ) . the mode of seed dispersal includes defecating or dropping seeds in flight , dispersing seeds over large areas ( tan et al , 1998 ) . one study showed that this species of bats were able to disperse half of tree ' s original seed within a range of approximately 20 to 30m ( reiter et al . 2006 ) .
rex , k . , r . h . michener , t . h . kunz , and c . c . voigt . 2011 . vertical stratification of neotropical leaf - nosed bats ( phyllostomidae : chiroptera ) revealed by stable carbon isotopes . journal of tropical ecology , 27 : 211 - 222 .
dunphy bk , hamrick jl , schwager j . a comparison of direct and indirect measures of gene flow in the bat - pollinated tree
giannini np , simmons nb . conflict and congruence in a combined dna–morphology analysis of megachiropteran bat relationships ( mammalia : chiroptera : pteropodidae )
pettersson s , ervik f , knudsen jt . floral scent of bat - pollinated species : west africa vs . the new world .
because evolution mostly acts over millions of years , the intermediate steps leading to a functional sensory system remain enigmatic . accordingly , there is an ongoing debate regarding the evolution of bat echolocation . in search of the origin of bat echolocation , we studied how old world fruit bats , which have always been classified as nonecholocating , orient in complete darkness . we found that two of these nonecholocating species used click - like sounds to detect and discriminate objects in complete darkness . however , we discovered that this click - based echo sensing is rudimentary and does not allow these bats to estimate distance accurately as all other echolocating bats can . moreover , unlike all other echolocating bats , which generate pulses using the larynx or the tongue , these bats generated clicks with their wings . we provide evidence suggesting that all old world fruit bats can click with their wings . although this click - based echo sensing used by old world fruit bats may not represent the ancestral form of current ( laryngeal ) bat echolocation , we argue that clicking fruit bats could be considered behavioral fossils , opening a window to study the evolution of echolocation .
the mating system of lesser short - nosed fruit bats is polygynous . in the philippines , most populations give birth twice a year and pregnant females have been found in almost all months . the period of gestation is approximately 3 . 5 to 4 months . the mother nurses the young with milk for about six to eight weeks . it takes about a year for the male to become sexually mature , and most females become pregnant at approximately six to eight months of age . medway observed that breeding was non - seasonal in peninsular malaysia and that a single young was produced and carried by the female during the early stage of its life . breeding is also non - seasonal in thailand . most pregnancies occur from march to june with peaks in january and september . lactation corresponds with the peak of the rainy season as well as the fruiting season . both sexes take care of the young . males play an active role in lactation and feeding the young . they have mammary glands that are same size as the those of the female and exceed 8 % of their overall body mass .
storz , j . f . , j . balasingh , h . r . bhat , p . t . nathan , d . p . s . doss , a . a . prakash , and t . h . kunz . 2001 . clinal variation in body size and sexual dimorphism in an indian fruit bat ,
bat - pollinated p . trisecta is nested within a lowland clade of bee - pollinated species , not within an andean hummingbird - pollinated clade
simmons nb , seymour kl , habersetzer j , gunnell gf . primitive early eocene bat from wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation .
. studies have noted that their diet and food preference is based on seasonal availability . during the dry season , when fruit abundance is low , these bats shift their diet to an increased utilization of pollen . horsfield’s fruit bats have also been observed feeding on fruits from orchards and gardens . these bats have been observed removing fruit from trees and moving to a feeding roost to consume them . they extract fruit juices by pushing them against their palate with their tongue , the pulp and seeds are spit out and fall to the ground . smaller seeds are ingested and dispersed later in their feces . body size plays an important role in resource partitioning within their genus . for instance , horsfield’s fruit bats have a large body size and have been documented carrying heavy figs and producing heavy regurgitated pellets . there are also descriptions of these bats becoming intoxicated and lying at the base of trees after drinking palm juice collected in pots .
it is important to note that analyses conducted at the ordinal and family levels are very ‘coarse’ and should not be interpreted to imply that bat pollination is ancestral in any order or family of angiosperms . as discussed below , the most insightful level of independence in the evolution of bat pollination is at the generic or species level . bat pollination has seldom evolved at the tribal , subfamily or family level . phylogenetic clustering ( non - independence ) at the ordinal and family levels simply indicates that bat pollination shows a tendency to occur in related higher - level taxa . the fact that bat pollination has rarely evolved at higher taxonomic levels ( see below ) emphasizes the relative recency of this mode of pollination .
all this helps explain how the complex , twisty motions of a bat hand - wing generate both lift and thrust . the next step is to break up this particular bat’s experimental flight into individual , tiny motions , to see which small wing flexes or certain shapes are the most energetic .
are equivocal ( i . e . the immediate ancestor of bat - pollinated taxa is not clear ) , there is strong evidence of the evolution of bat flowers from bee , moth and hummingbird flowers in the other six families . it is likely that bat - pollinated taxa have evolved frequently from hummingbird - pollinated taxa in certain new world families of epiphytes ( e . g . bromeliaceae , gesneriaceae ) , but strong evidence for this awaits phylogenetic studies , as is the case in the agavaceae and cactaceae , in which hummingbird pollination is not likely to be ancestral to bat pollination .
lubee bat conservancy has supported fruit bat conservation in the philippines since 1992 . lubee’s in situ partnership began with support of the fruit bat component of the threatened endemic mammals project , initiated by william oliver of fauna and fauna international , through a joint agreement between the lubee bat conservancy and several philippine groups , including the department of environment & natural resources , silliman university , and the center for tropical conservation studies . the project focused on initiating a captive breeding program for primarily pteropus leucopterus , acerodon jubatus , and pteropus pumilus . in addition , a local education campaign was started to heighten environmental awareness and conservation in the region , and field surveys and ecological studies were undertaken to better understand the status of fruit bats in the philippines . logistical problems related to the remoteness of the original captive breeding facility site and the need to refurbish bat enclosures led to the transfer of all bats in 2000 to enclosures at the a . y . reyes zoological and botanical garden run by silliman university in dumaguete city . here , acerdon jubatus have bred successfully and the bats are maintained in exhibit enclosure viewed by 5 , 000 visitors a year . apolinaro carina , a student from silliman university , received training at lubee . breeding patterns observed indicate that a . jubatus may breed only once every two years , raising concerns over its precarious population status .
and the musaceae ) contain genera or species that are primarily bat - pollinated . all four of these families contain species exclusively pollinated by specialized bats in addition to others visited by both specialized and opportunistic nectar - feeders . another eight families contain either subfamilies or tribes whose species rely heavily on bats for pollination . of these families , bat pollination is especially common in agavaceae and cactaceae in the new world and pandanaceae in the old world . among the pantropical families , bat pollination is more common in the new world than in the old world in terms of number of bat - pollinated genera in bombacaceae
chaverri , g . , c . j . schneider , and t . h . kunz . 2008 . mating system of the tent - making bat
tests of the animals ' ability to find their way in the dark showed that the fruit bats do have echolocation abilities , although they are poorer than those of other echolocating species . the fruit bats constantly crashed into thick cables , but they could readily learn to discriminate between larger objects : an acoustically reflective black board versus a similar - looking sheet of cloth . even with large objects , however , the fruit bats didn ' t exactly come in for a smooth landing , suggesting that their ability is rather rudimentary in comparison to that of bats that rely on clicks produced from their larynxes .
the end goal : a simplified bat - flight model , which engineers could use to make a robobat that flies like a real one .
you can call them the essential pieces of the full bat - motion , ” tafti says . “we are trying to separate the meat from the bones . ”
kofron , c . p . ( 1997 ) reproduction of two species of congeneric fruit bats ( cynopterus ) in brunei , borneo . journal of zoology , 243 ( 3 ) : 485 - 506 .
tafti’s team recently did the latter , using recorded measurements completed by a brown university group . they modeled the flow field that a bat’s wing produces , something that is very difficult to measure in experiments — imagine watching a bat flap around in a wind tunnel , and trying to make sense of the physics .
powers , l . v . , s . kandarian , and t . h . kunz . 1991 . ontogeny of flight in the little brown bat ,
horsfield’s fruit bats are a gregarious species with a harem - based social structure . roosts typically consist of no more than one mature harem male , two to three mature females and their associated offspring . roost fidelity in this species is relatively low , with males and females frequently changing roosts . roost modification is present in horsfield’s fruit bats , with modified roosts described as inverted v - shape tents formed from severing a leaf halfway between its base and tip . a study examining the behavioral and reproductive ecology of horsfield’s fruit bats found that they were most active 2 to 4 hours after sunset and 3 hours prior to sunrise .
there is limited data available on the predation of this species , but in general , fruit bats , especially those on islands , have few natural predators , limited to mammals , birds of prey and reptiles .
hodgkison r , balding st , zubaid a , kunz th . temporal variation in the number of fruit bats ( megachiroptera : pteropodidae ) in relation to the availability of food in a lowland malyasian rain forest .


malacoctenus tetranemus , the throatspotted blenny , is a species of labrisomid blenny native to the pacific coast of the americas from the gulf of california to peru as well as around the galapagos islands .

it inhabits rocky areas where it lives in tide pools and shallows generally at depths of from 6 to 23 metres ( 20 to 75 ft ) .

this species can reach a length of 7.5 centimetres ( 3.0 in ) tl .

malacoctenus tetranemus

springer ( 1958 ) recognized the populations from baja california / the gulf and the remainder of the range as a separate subspecies , malacoctenus tetranemus multipunctatus and m . tetranemus tetranemus respectively .
( of blennius tetranemus cope , 1877 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of malacoctenus afuerae ( hildebrand , 1946 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .
justification : this species is widespread in the eastern pacific , and is common throughout its range . there are no known major threats to this species , and no current indication of population decline . it is listed as least concern .
this species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from southern baja california and the central gulf of california to peru , including the galapagos islands .
this species is considered to be common . the overall mean abundance for this species in galapagos island was 0 . 10 per 500 m 2 ( edgar et al . 2004 ) .
this reef - associated species lives in rocky and rubble substrata to depths of 25m . it can also be found in rocky and coral reefs .
there are no known conservation measures for this species . however , this species distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region ( wdpa 2006 ) .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of labrisomus afuerae hildebrand , 1946 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .
full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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head slender , snout pointed ; a close - set pair of heavily branched nape cirri , a branched cirrus over eye ; 4 - 8 ( 3 - 13 ) pores behind chin , between bases of operculae ; upper part of rear end of top jaw covered by bone under eye ; no small teeth behind outer row of large teeth on upper jaw ; no teeth on sides of roof of mouth ; gill rakers 11 - 13 ( 11 - 15 ) ; dorsal fin xix , 11 , ( xviii - xx , 9 - 12 ) , notch between spines and rays ; anal ii , 19 ( 18 - 20 ) ; pectoral 14 ( 13 - 15 ) ; 3 pelvic soft rays ; 53 - 61 lateral line scales ; belly scales smaller than flank scales ; scales absent on midline in front of dorsal fin , present on breast of males only , and sometimes present on the prepectoral area .
a double row of dark greenish - brown blotches on side ; lower half of body with numerous dark spots ; lower half of head densely covered with small dark spots ; a black pupil sized spot just behind eye .
southern baja and the gulf of california to peru , including the galapagos islands .
occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
abundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .
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lives in rocky , boulder strewn areas and walls . prefers tide pools and shallow water habitats ( ref . 5227 ) .
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