the alpine swift ( tachymarptis melba ) formerly apus melba , is a species of swift .

the genus name is from the ancient greek takhus , " fast " , and marptis , " seizer " .

the specific melba has no known explanation .

alpine swifts breed in mountains from southern europe to the himalaya .

like common swifts , they are strongly migratory , and winter much further south in southern africa .

swifts have very short legs which are used for clinging to vertical surfaces .

they never settle voluntarily on the ground , spending most of their lives in the air living on the insects they catch in their beaks .

alpine swift are able to stay aloft in the air for up to seven months at a time , even drinking water " on the wing " .

alpine swift

bill oddie presents the alpine swift . alpine swifts are impressive anchor - shaped birds , the colour
there are currently no known conservation plans targeting the alpine swift ( 3 ) .
the alpine swift is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
their nearest rival is the alpine swift , which flies non - stop for up to six months a year .
new sensing technology reveals that the alpine swift , a small migratory bird , can remain aloft for more than 200 days without touching down .
by feeding exclusively on insects , the alpine swift reduces the number of these pests that are irritating or harmful to humans . ( bologna 1978 )
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migration routes and non - breeding range of three alpine swifts breeding in switzerland . credit :
the common swift spends 10 months of the year airborne , according to new research .
a migratory species , during the northern hemisphere summer months the alpine swift resides in and around the mediterranean and the northern middle east , including the united arab emirates , through to western asia and india . before the onset of winter , the alpine swift migrates southwards to southern and eastern africa , where there is a seasonal abundance of insects ( 3 ) .
the alpine swift is less agile and performs slower wingbeats than the common swift . however , it looks more powerful and performs prolonged glides on slightly drooped wings , recalling sometimes the eurasian hobby . the flight is powerful and elegant , reaching speeds of up to 110km / hour .
researchers believe the common swift’s extreme energy efficiency is down to aerodynamic wings and thin body .
criscuolo f , zahn s , bize p ( 2017 ) data from : offspring telomere length in the long lived alpine swift is negatively related to the age of their biological father and foster mother .
the alpine swift usually resides in high , rocky , mountainous areas , but the rocky regions of sea cliffs are also an acceptable habitat for the swift . it can also be found living among the old buildings of a town or city . ( bologna 1978 , peterson et al . 1993 )
across its very large range , the alpine swift may have benefited from human development , as it often chooses tall buildings for nesting over natural sites . however , habitat destruction continues to reduce the amount of foraging habitat available to the species . the increasing use of pesticides in the farming industry also threatens the alpine swift by reducing both the numbers and the variety of insect prey in its foraging habitat ( 3 ) .
the alpine swift is sometimes taken by the sooty falcon while foraging . it may feed at lower level during bad weather conditions , and at night around the lights that attract numerous insects , and sometimes in total darkness .
criscuolo f , zahn s , bize p ( 2017 ) offspring telomere length in the long lived alpine swift is negatively related to the age of their biological father and foster mother . biology letters 13 ( 9 ) : 20170188 . urltoken
up till now the species capable of the longest continued flight was believed to be the alpine swift , with a six - month flight recorded , while a frigate bird has been recorded non - stop in the air for two months .
protection / threats / status : the alpine swift is locally fairly common to common throughout the range and even locally abundant in some regions . some colonies can be lost due to severe weather or strong winds , but the nests are usually located in inaccessible sites . a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1 , 000 , 000 / 4 , 000 , 000 individuals . this population is stable and currently , the alpine swift is evaluated as least concern .
the alpine swift typically builds its nest on cliff faces , but will also nest in urban areas , choosing places that are inaccessible to predators , such as roof spaces and underneath bridges ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .
encyclopedia britannica , 1999 .
swift
( on - line ) . accessed 1 - 20 - 01 at urltoken .
large , robust swift differing from all other fork - tailed west palearctic swifts in underpart pattern . plumage mainly umber - brown , distinctly paler above than all apus except pallid swift , sharply relieved below by brown breast - band and white central underbody and throat .
capable of migrating large distances , the alpine swift ( tachymarptis melba ) is an extraordinary bird , spending much of its life on the wing . despite being twice as big as other swifts , the alpine swift is an extremely agile bird and a fast , efficient flier due to a wide wingspan and streamlined body ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the beak is short and wide , forming a large , gaping mouth that is perfectly adapted for snatching insects whilst in flight . the alpine swift is largely dark brown in colour , with white patches underneath the beak and on the breast that are separated by a dark brown streak ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the juvenile is similar to the adult , but the feathers are pale edged ( 3 ) .
larger and longer winged than swift a . apus , with greater bulk as evident in powerful flight . silhouette thick - set , and tail relatively shorter than in swift . flight impressive , much more vigorous and powerful than smaller species . plumage mainly umber - brown , distinctly paler above than all apus except pallid swift a . pallidus , sharply relieved below by brown breast - band and white central underbody .
the alpine swift will sometimes nest in the eaves of houses . this can create an annoyance for most homeowners , and it could cause some damage to the house as well . these nests can also be viewed by some people as an eyesore to the neighborhood . ( bologna 1978 )
the common swift , apus apus , spends 10 months of the year aloft , according to research published thursday in the journal current biology .
the nest site is defended by the adults , and threat displays are performed with raised wings to expose the strong feet and claws . fighting occurs only after the threat displays . aggression is often the result of competition for nest sites , and conflicts occur between the alpine swift and feral pigeons .
' screaming party ' of 20 + over the escarpment as air warmed up 1 hr after dawn with much larger numbers of african black swift .
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the alpine swift’s typical call is a loud , metallic trill rising and falling in pitch , and accelerating , then slowing down “trihihihihihihihihi…” or “trrr - titititititi…” other loud calls “kee - kee - kee - kee” and “peee - hu” can sound like small falcon’s calls .
a common swift ( apus apus ) remains airborne for the animal ' s entire 10 - month non - breeding period , according to new research .
the alpine swift feeds exclusively on insects that it catches while in flight . while feeding , it courses back and forth with its huge mouth open , collecting the insects in its path . it will feed indiscriminately on any flying insects that it can get into its mouth . ( bologna 1978 , encyclopedia britannica 1999 )
introduction : the alpine swift is almost twice as large as other swifts . in flight , it is often similar to a small falcon . ten subspecies share the wide range in southern europe from portugal to bulgaria , to sub - saharan africa , madagascar and india . the alpine swift spends most of its life flying in the air . it feeds , drinks , sleeps and mates while in the air . it nests on rocky cliffs and mountains , but also on tall buildings . it usually returns to the same nesting site every year . this species is not globally threatened , but the nesting birds are vulnerable to severe weather .
this new study makes the bird a record - setter . previous research had pointed to the alpine swift , tachymarptis melba , as being able to fly non - stop for some 200 days , 100 days less than the common swift . so this new research
extends the range that we know birds can fly ,
niels rattenborg , a researcher at the max planck institute for ornithology in germany who was not involved in the study , tells the christian science monitor .
behaviour in the wild : the alpine swift feeds exclusively on insects and spiders . the diet includes various species such as hemiptera , hymenoptera , coleoptera , diptera and spiders . it forages in flight , between 30 and 40 metres above the ground . the bird catches insects while flying with wide open bill and large gape .
the long life of the common swift means that the accumulated flight distance of a single bird equals seven round - trip journeys to the moon , ” he added .
“it’s a great confirmation of what has been long expected for common swifts , ” says felix liechti of the swiss ornithological institute in sempach , switzerland , who found that alpine swifts can stay aloft for six months at a time . “they fly for even longer than alpine swifts , but this is mainly due to the shorter breeding period of common swifts . ”
other scientists have found similar results . in 2013 , felix liechti from the swiss ornithological institute used similar data loggers to show that three alpine swifts probably flew nonstop for 200 days , on their long migration from switzerland to africa and back again . that was especially surprising because alpine swifts are twice the size of common swifts , with wingspans of up to 22 inches .
the alpine swift can be found throughout southern europe , from portugal to bulgaria , and throughout all of africa . in europe , its main breeding area extends northward from greece , ending just short of germany . it is also vagrant to the british isles and some parts of central and northern europe . ( peterson et al . 1993 , harrison and greensmith 1993 )
the alpine swift rears its young in a cup - shaped nest . this nest is usually built of feathers , fibers , sticks , plant down , and moss . the swift ' s saliva is used as the glue that holds the nest together . the nest is usually glued to the vertical surfaces of rock cracks and the eaves of houses , with the saliva once again serving as the glue . the swift will lay a single clutch of one to four eggs , though three is the usual number . both parents incubate the eggs for eighteen to thirty - three days . the nestlings are hatched naked , and they are reared for another six to ten weeks , not leaving the nest until they have acquired adult plumage .
the alpine swift rears its young in a cup - shaped nest . this nest is usually built of feathers , fibers , sticks , plant down , and moss . the swift ' s saliva is used as the glue that holds the nest together . the nest is usually glued to the vertical surfaces of rock cracks and the eaves of houses , with the saliva once again serving as the glue . the swift will lay a single clutch of one to four eggs , though three is the usual number . both parents incubate the eggs for eighteen to thirty - three days . the nestlings are hatched naked , and they are reared for another six to ten weeks , not leaving the nest until they have acquired adult plumage . ( bologna 1978 , encyclopedia britannica 1999 , gilliard 1967 )
of coffee above and milk - white below . in the uk alpine swifts are annual visitors , appearing in spring , but they don ' t breed here . they spend the winter in africa and on their journey north in spring some birds overshoot their breeding areas . alpine swifts can be seen as they arc through the skies and because they travel so fast they can turn up almost anywhere from central london to shetland .
the alpine swift is migratory and usually flies at high altitude , but these movements can be observed only when wet or windy weather force the birds down . they cover long distances of about 1000km / day . the palearctic breeding birds leave the breeding grounds in september / mid - october , and return from mid - february . they migrate in single - species groups and in smaller flocks than the common swift . some races of africa and india do not disperse after breeding . some vagrants are recorded in british islands , c and n europe , barbados ( caribbean ) and there is a single record in french guiana .
no one has ever doubted that alpine swifts spend most of their lives aloft—some have even suggested they spend their whole lives flying . but until now , no one has proven just how long they are able to fly without stopping .
abstract being airborne is considered to be energetically more costly as compared with being on the ground or in water . birds migrating or foraging while airborne are thought to spend some time resting on the ground or water to recover from these energetically demanding activities . however , for several decades ornithologists have claimed that some swifts may stay airborne for almost their whole lifetime . here we present the first unequivocal evidence that an individual bird of the alpine swift ( tachymarptis melba ) can stay airborne for migration , foraging and roosting over a period of more than 6 months . to date , such long - lasting locomotive activities had been reported only for animals living in the sea . even for an aerodynamically optimized bird , like the alpine swift , flying requires a considerable amount of energy for continuous locomotive control . our data imply that all vital physiological processes , including sleep , can be perpetuated during flight .
alpine swifts are very social animals , building their nests in colonies . they will usually be found in large groups as they fly around the colony ' s nesting region . they are also very skilled fliers , and in fact have very weak legs . they beat their wings slowly , at a rate of four to eight beats per second , but powerfully . the wing - beats are audible to a person if they are close to the bird as it flies . the outline of its flight is also rather bulky , similar to that of a small falcon . swifts in general are the fastest of the small birds , reaching speeds of 110 kilometers per hour , and the alpine swift is the fastest known swift . some larger falcons tend to prey upon them regularly , but that is its only known avian predator . ( bologna 1978 , encyclopedia britannica 1999 , peterson et al . 1993 )
alpine swift breeds on low mountains and coastal steeps in southern part of kazakhstan , north up to mangyshlak , and south - western spurs of dzhungarskiy alatau . in said areas occurs on migration too . vagrants recorded in lower reaches of ural river 3 september 1974 , near orenburg , and large flock 16 april 1911 near kapal village at foothills of dzhungarskiy alatau . at 26 may 2004 about 100 birds observed on charyn river 5 km up from aktogay .
little is known of the alpine swift’s biology , but , in general , swifts mate in the air , and typically lay between one and six eggs that are then incubated for some 17 to 28 days . as swifts are poorly adapted for moving on the ground , the choice of a nest site that is inaccessible to mammalian predators protects both the young and the adults ( 3 ) . whilst nesting , swifts can be exposed to sustained periods of cold weather , but a layer of fat that insulates the body and a slow metabolism may help the birds survive these conditions . even more remarkable , swift chicks can survive long periods of cold weather and starvation by entering a state of torpor ( 3 ) .
alpine swift is rare breeding migrant . it inhabits chinks , caves , rocky gorges of low mountains , and rare villages ( taushik on mangyshlak ) . it appears in early march - april , singly or in small flocks . nests are built in cracks from pieces of grass , hair and feathers , pasted together by saliva . clutches of 2 - 4 eggs in mid - may - early june . both parents build nest and feed juveniles . autumn migration passes from end august to late october .
while very little is known about the diet of the alpine swift , most swifts feed on a variety of insects , with the most common prey items being bees , wasps , flies and beetles . it is this dependency on insects that explains why swifts must migrate , as during the winter insects become scarce at higher latitudes but are in abundance at this same time in the tropics . whilst migrating , these extraordinary birds have been known to fly up to 1000 miles in three days ( 3 ) .
so is the common swift’s airborne record ever going to be broken ? hedenström doubts whether any other species could challenge it . although some birds like albatrosses and arctic terns migrate over huge distances , they often touch down on land or water to feed and rest .
during the breeding season , it performs aerial displays . the pairs often break from the groups and fly together . another sequence involves two males chasing a female between some physical obstructions , while constantly calling loudly . these flights may last more than five minutes , and the birds may reach up to 150 metres above the ground at flight peak . the males rarely fight during these displays . the alpine swift is monogamous with long - term pair bonds of more than 10 years . the copulation occurs at nest or in the air , after the aerial displays .
in 2011 , felix liechti and his colleagues at the swiss ornithological institute attached electronic tags that log movement to six alpine swifts . the small birds—each weighs less than a quarter of a pound—spend the summer breeding in europe , then migrate to africa for the winter , thousands of miles away .
there’s no brain sensor small enough to record their mental activity of a flying swift , but they surely must be taking midair naps too . maybe they do what dolphins do , sending one half of their brains to sleep at a time so they can stay continuously alert .
habitat : for most of swifts , the habitat is a site where prey are taken . the alpine swift avoids areas with numerous obstructions such as trees and buildings ( except for nesting ) . it breeds on cliffs in hills and mountains , gorges , coastal cliffs , occasionally in tree holes . it nests in caves and rock crevices in cliffs . it is also found in tall buildings in towns and cities . it usually breeds below 1500 metres , occasionally to 2300 metres or higher according to the range . in himalayas , it forages up to 3700 metres of elevation .
is the largest known swift . it is thick - set with a short , forked tail . the plumage on its back is umber - brown , while its throat and belly are white . a dark pectoral band is also visible . ( peterson et al . 1993 , bologna 1978 )
apus melba is a widespread summer visitor to southern europe , which accounts for less than half of its global breeding range . its european breeding population is large ( > 140 , 000 pairs ) , and was stable between 1970 - 1990 . the stronghold population in turkey underwent a slight increase during 1990 - 2000 , and trends were stable or increasing across most of the rest of its european range . the alpine swift can be found throughout southern europe , from portugal to bulgaria , and throughout all of africa . in europe , its main breeding area extends northward from greece , ending just short of germany . it is also vagrant to the british isles and some parts of central and northern europe .
reproduction of this species : the breeding season is closely related to prey abundance . it takes place in spring , from march to august in northern hemisphere , and from september to january in south africa . the alpine swift breeds in colonies established on cliff ledges and in crevices , and also on tall buildings . the same nesting site is reused in several following years by the same pair . a colony may contain up to 170 pairs . the nest is a cup - shaped structure made with feathers , sticks , plant fibers and down , and moss . all these materials are held together with saliva . in the same way , the nest is glued to the vertical surface , once again with saliva .
for birds that spend the most time in the air during their lives , the record goes to the alpine swift . this incredible species spends over 200 consecutive days a year in the air during its migration from breeding grounds in switzerland to wintering grounds in western africa , where it stays in flight the entire season then returns . to discover the flight durations , researchers put special tags on six birds to measure their speed , and found that they were flapping or gliding the entire migration time . the only time these birds
rest
is during the breeding period in switzerland . for the full remainder of the year , they feed , drink and sleep while on the wing . until this research , only marine animals were thought to have such a high level of continuous movement .
subspecies and range : the alpine swift has ten subspecies . t . m . bakeri is found in sri lanka . t . m . nubifugus is in the himalayas . t . m . willsi is on madagascar . t . m . marjoriae occurs in nc namibia and nw south africa . t . m . africanus is found in ethiopia to south africa and sw angola . t . m . maximus occurs in rwenzori mts ( dr congo and uganda ) t . m . archeri is found in n somalia and sw arabia to jordan and israel . t . m . tuneti is in morocco , middle east and e to w pakistan . t . m . melba is found in southern europe , turkey to nw iran . t . m . dorabtatai occurs in w india .
ornithologists had previously speculated that a closely related common swift was capable of staying in flight for extremely long periods of time , but this is the first time anyone has collected hard data . the new finding was , in part , enabled by developments in technology—this was the first time that this particular kind of sensor , developed by at bern university , was attached to birds for research .
( phys . org ) —a combined team of researchers from bern university and the swiss ornithological institute has found that alpine swifts are able to fly for up to 200 days at a time , without landing . the team learned of the bird ' s unique abilities to fly for such long stretches by attaching tiny sensors to several migrating specimens . they have published the results of their findings in the journal nature communications .
the alpine swift of nominate race has olive - brown head and upperparts , breast band , underwing , flanks and undertail - coverts . chin , throat and belly are white , the latter forming a large oval white patch conspicuous in flight . the long , scythe - like wings favour gliding action and is advantageous during flapping flight . the tail is slightly forked and used as support when the bird clings to a steep , vertical rock face . the short , tiny bill is black , with very large gape allowing easier aerial capture of insects . the eyes are dark brown , protected by coarse , bristle - like feathers located in front of the eye . the short legs and the tiny feet are black . the feet have sharp , curved claws , very useful to help the bird to perch on vertical surfaces . both adults are similar . the juvenile resembles adult but it has pale - edged feathers .
to find out , the researchers attached very tiny sensors to six of the birds —the sensors measured light and acceleration . though only three of the sensors were recovered when the birds returned , there was enough data to allow researchers to retrace the routes the birds took , to determine when they were in different parts of the world , and whether they were flapping their wings or gliding . the birds in the study were captured in switzerland and then released . alpine swifts migrate to africa and back every year .
adult alpine swift is dark - brownish above ; chin , throat and belly are white ; dark color of under - neck cross white underparts by broad dark collar . undertail and underwings are brownish . in fresh plumage dark coverts have pale edges which formed scaly pattern . wings are narrow and long , in non - flying positions wings are longer than tail . wing form is 2 > 1 > 3 . outer tail feather are longer than central one on 15 - 25 mm , therefore tail is deep cut . tarsus is slight but toes are strong and have sharp curved claws . eyes , bill and legs are dark . juveniles in first plumage are slightly paler , whitish edges of its feathers are more extended . sizes : male wing 203 - 219 . 5 , female wing 208 - 221 , male tail 91 - 100 , female tail 81 - 101 , male bill 8 . 5 - 9 , female bill 7 - 10 , tarsus 15 - 18 mm . male weight 71 - 100 , female weight 81 . 5 - 115 gr . generally females are larger than males .
the species occurs over a wide range of habitats and forages over vast areas . it is found in temperate and mediterranean zones , typically in mountains but occasionally in lowlands . it breeds from march to june . it typically lays three eggs . it uses ledges or holes in cliff - faces or tall man - made structures with the pairs using the same nest - site in successive years . the nest is saucer - shaped , consisting of downy feathers from many species , and swift primaries , tightly bound with dried plant matter and saliva ( chantler et al . 2014 ) . the species is migratory , with west palearctic populations probably wintering all across the northern tropics of africa ( snow and perrins 1998 ) .
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cramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the european population is estimated at 151 , 000 - 327 , 000 pairs , which equates to 302 , 000 - 653 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms c . 30 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1 , 000 , 000 - 2 , 100 , 000 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . the population is therefore placed in the band 1 , 000 , 000 - 2 , 499 , 999 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats . the european population trend is also estimated to be stable ( birdlife international 2015 ) .
foraging habitats are lost to human development across its range . in addition , the increasing use of pesticides reduces both the numbers and variety of insects available for it to feed on . ( perrins 2009 ) .
conservation actions underway bern convention appendix ii . there are no known current conservation measures for this species within its european range . conservation actions proposed key foraging areas should be identified and protected from development and the use of pesticides should be reduced .
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“we wanted to learn about energy demands during migration . we expected to see how often they fly , how often they stop , that sort of thing , ” he said .
but a year later , when three of the birds returned to the same breeding site and the scientists removed their tags to collect the data , the electronic tags revealed something unexpected . “when we looked at the data , we were totally blown away , ” liechti said . “during their non - breeding period in africa , they were always in the air . ”
for more than 200 straight days straight , as revealed by his team’s study published today in nature communications , the birds stayed aloft over west africa . the tags only collect data every four minutes , so it’s impossible to rule out the chance that they touched down occasionally in between these intervals—but every single one of the data points collected for more than six months in a row indicated that , at the time , they were either actively flying or at least gliding in the air .
the tiny sensor records acceleration , the bird’s pitch and the timing of sunrise and sunset . image via swiss ornithological institute
its tiny size allowed the researchers to attach it to relatively small birds without interfering with their free movement . the tags solely collected data on acceleration , the pitch of the bird’s body ( the angle of its body relative to the ground ) and light hitting the bird at any given time . from the latter , scientists were able to infer latitude , due to the timing of sunrise and sunset .
by comparing the acceleration and pitch data to that of birds under observation , liechti and the others could match particular data patterns with different types of movement—flying ( with flapping wings ) , passively gliding in the air and resting on the ground . “they stayed in the air for all time they spent south of the sahara , day and night , ” he said . “sometimes they just glide for a few minutes , so there’s no movement , but the pitch of the body indicates that they’re still gliding in the air . ”
it’s still a mystery how the birds are able to physiologically accomplish this feat . the diet aspect is relatively straightforward—they largely feed on airborne insects—but until now , opinions differed over the question of whether birds could sleep while aloft . sleep patterns in birds are fundamentally different than in mammals , and the difficulty of studying the brainwaves of migrating birds makes it very hard to fully understand how they rest while in motion . but the fact that these swifts never touch down for such a long time indicates that they’re able to rest in midair .
there’s also the deeper ( and perhaps more confounding ) question of why the birds would bother staying aloft for their entire time in africa . at this point , it’s pure speculation , but liechti suggests that diet could play a role . “we observed that the further north they go , the more they stay on the ground at night , ” he said . “additionally , the further north you go , the less insects there are in the air—so it might be related . ” he also proposes that staying in air could reduce the risk of predation or perhaps the chance of catching a disease .
perhaps most exciting is the fact that this finding came after just the first time the new , ultra - lightweight movement sensor was used in avian research . tagging other sorts of birds that are too small for conventional sensors might tell us similarly surprising things about their movement or migrations habits . “it’s fascinating , ” liechti said , “and it opens up a whole new window for us into these species . ”
joseph stromberg is a science reporter for vox . com . he was previously a digital reporter for smithsonian .
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incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . torpor a sleep - like state in which the body processes slow to a fraction of their normal rate .
perrins , c . ( 2009 ) the encyclopedia of birds . oxford university press , oxford .
davidson , i . and sinclair , i . ( 2006 ) southern african birds : a photographic guide . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .
sinclair , i . and hockey , p . a . r . ( 2005 ) the larger illustrated guide to birds of southern africa . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .
grewal , b . , harvey , b . and pfister , o . ( 2002 ) a photographic guide to the birds of india and the indian subcontinent , including pakistan , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , sri lanka and the maldives . princeton university press , new jersey , usa .
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in analyzing the data captured by the sensors , the researchers found that the test birds stayed in the air at one point for 200 days , covering approximately 10 , 000 kilometers in the process . this , the researchers report , is the longest flight duration ever recorded by a bird , and is only equaled by some sea - going creatures who need only propel themselves forward—birds of course also have to keep themselves in the air , a process that consumes a lot of energy .
some of the most obvious questions that come to mind regarding the birds are : how do they eat and drink ? when do they sleep ? prior research has an answer for the first , they eat what is known collectively as aerial plankton—a mix of fungus spores , small insects , seeds and even bacteria that float about in the sky . the water in their food is apparently enough to sustain the birds indefinitely . as for how and when they sleep , scientists are still divided . data from the sensors in the study indicated slow - downs , or periods of reduced activity where the birds glided more than flapped , but that clearly isn ' t enough evidence to prove that the birds were sleeping . some suggest that the birds , like some other organisms , don ' t have to sleep , or only do so during certain periods of their lifecycle , such as during mating season .
more information : first evidence of a 200 - day non - stop flight in a bird , nature communications 4 , article number : 2554 , doi : 10 . 1038 / ncomms3554
( phys . org ) —an international team of wildlife researchers has found evidence to support the theory that some birds , such as penguins , lost the ability to fly because of adaptations that allowed for better swimming . in their . . .
common swifts climb to altitudes of up to 2 . 5 km both at dawn and dusk . this unexpected behaviour was discovered by geo - ecologist dr adriaan dokter of the university of amsterdam ' s ( uva ) institute for biodiversity and ecosystem . . .
( phys . org ) —a team of researchers working in china has determined that previously found bird fossils show that jeholornis , which lived in what is now china approximately 120 million years ago , had two tails . in their paper . . .
( phys . org ) —two biologists from canada working in france have found that birds that land on roads adapt to average highway speeds—the higher the speed limit , the sooner they take flight when a car approaches . in their . . .
( phys . org ) —a team of researchers with members from the u . s . hungary , france and spain has found that birds that have proportionally bigger brains tend to experience less stress than those with proportionally smaller brains . . . .
birds that yield good vibration provide motion excitation . . . for engineers : as earth warms , birds may be changing their migratory patterns . but to obtain avian data , scientists need in - flight tracking sensors – and those . . .
the co - evolution of plant—pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .
using genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .
fish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .
mucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution—dating back to our days as a jellyfish .
by proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .
our bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .
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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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several birds flying close to a cliff ( parts of the clip at slow motion ) .
lars petersson , pavel stepanek , stanislav harvančík , lior kislev , gemma aznar , juan josé bazán hiraldo , cristiano crolle , frédéric pelsy , peparcos , benoit nabholz , arodris , mattias hofstede , juan gonzalez valdivieso , pablo gutierrez varga , rémi bigonneau , alberto soria , jugal tiwari , pierandrea brichetti , steve . young , ricardo rodriguez , rafael suleimanov , mmjunio , luis miguel ruiz gordón , josé frade , fran trabalon , gilgit2 , borisdelahaie , marco valentini , aleix comas .
alarm calls of a vagrant bird in the hand , shortly before it was released ( it was taken into care earlier ) . noise slightly reduced .
calls in flight from birds flying in a very noisy flock , 40 birds , possibly adults and juveniles . flying over buildings in an urban area . filtered to reduce the traffic noise background .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : tachymarptis melba . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
birds cover an estimated 600 - 1000 km daily just flying , nature of terrain underlying this aerial habitat apparently only significant in so far as it affects pattern of air currents and abundance of flying insects . at lower levels the species usually avoids areas with frequent obstructions such as trees and buildings . breeds in mountain rock ledges , crevices , caves , coastal cliffs , and occasional holes in trees . in recent years also found in tall buildings which has enabled extension of range over lowlands and northwards .
this species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10 , 000 , 000 kmē . it has a large global population , including an estimated 280 , 000 - 650 , 000 individuals in europe ( birdlife international in prep . ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but there is evidence of a population increase , and so the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]
avibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com
tweet of the day is a series of fascinating stories about our british birds inspired by their calls and songs .
five stories of birds and birdsong are told by the people inspired by them .
click here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .
in temperate and mediterranean habitats , breeding mainly in mountainous regions . large daytime wanderings for food often take take birds through a wide variety of habitats .
migration from palaearctic on broad front through higher airspace than other species . migration occurs mainly september to mid - october into africa . first returning birds occur in the mediterranean basin from mid - february .
jeff gour ( author ) , milford high school , george campbell ( editor ) , milford high school .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
living in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
to cite this page : gour , j . 2001 .
tachymarptis melba
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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urltoken
«птицы казахстана» под редакцией и . а . долгушина , том 3 , алма - ата , 1970 . gavrilov e . i . , gavrilov a . e .
the birds of kazakhstan
. almaty , 2005 . э . и . гаврилов .
фауна и распространение птиц казахстана
. алматы , 1999 .
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telomere length qpcr measurements using a multiplex monochrome quantitative pcr ( mmqpcr ) approach ; linear mixed - effects model describing the variation in offspring telomere length using brood size manipulation , year , day of hatching and chick parasitic young as fixed factors . ; statistical analyses testing for quadratic effects of parental age , interactive effects of parental age , and nestling parasite load as possible sources of variation in offspring telomere length ; image for journal cover - description of the methodology used to measure telomere length using a multiplex qpcr approach ; statistic table ; description of additional statistical tests ; credits : pierre bize


the culpeo ( lycalopex culpaeus ) , sometimes known as the zorro culpeo or andean fox ( wolf ) , is a south american fox species .

it is the second largest native canid on the continent , after the maned wolf .

in appearance , it bears many similarities to the widely recognized red fox .

the culpeo 's diet consists largely of rodents , rabbits , birds and lizards , and to a lesser extent , plant material and carrion .

the culpeo was domesticated to form the fuegian dog , but this became extinct some time between 1880 and 1919 .

culpeo

* culpeo wikipedia , the free encyclopedia * lioncrusher ' s domain culpeo ( pseudalopex culpaeus ) facts and pictures .
image - culpeo fox . jpg | japari library wiki | fandom powered by wikia
culpeo fox ( クルペオギツネ , kurupeogitsune ) is a friends that appeared in the kemono friends game .
the culpeo is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
information on the culpeo ( pseudalopex culpaeus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
culpeo fox ( クルペオギツネ , kurupeogitsune ) is a friends that appeared in the kemono friends game . . .
culpeo . ( n . d . ) . retrieved september 6 , 2017 , from wikipedia . org .
the culpeo is hunted for its skins in argentina and bolivia , but this does not seem to be having an impact on their population .
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what made you want to look up culpeo ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
the culpeo ranges along the entire length of western south america . it is found in ecuador , peru , bolivia , argentina and chile , with a small population in columbia . the culpeo is more numerous in the southern parts of argentina , with a strong population of over 200 , 000 individual animals . in northern argentina , however , the culpeo is almost nonexistent . they prefer the pampas grasslands and deciduous forests of their range .
the culpeo is hunted for its skins in argentina and bolivia , but this does not seem to be having an impact on their population . subspecies
the culpeo ranges along the entire length of western south america . it is found in ecuador , peru , bolivia , argentina and chile , with a small population in columbia . the culpeo is more numerous in the southern parts of argentina , with a strong population of over 200 , 000 individual animals . in northern argentina , however , the culpeo is almost nonexistent . they prefer the pampas grasslands and deciduous forests of their range . diet
while the puma attacks guanacos with stealth and ambush , the culpeo fox chases young guanaco until they drop from exhaustion , a hunting strategy known as “cursorial predation” . the guanaco’s novel defensive response to the culpeo fox is probably due both to the fox’s smaller size and its hunting strategy , which makes flight a useless response .
jimenez , j . , a . novaro . 2004 . culpeo . pp . 44 - 49 in c sillero - zubiri , m hoffmann , d macdonald , eds .
diet the culpeo ' s diet consists largely of rodents , rabbits , birds and lizards , and to a lesser extent , plant material and carrion . the culpeo does attack sheep on occasion , and is therefore often hunted or poisoned . [ 2 ] in some regions it has become rare , but overall the species is not threatened with extinction .
throughout its wide distribution , the culpeo uses many habitat types ranging from rugged and mountain terrain , deep valleys and open deserts , scrubby pampas , sclerophyllous matorral , to broad - leaved temperate southern beech forest in the south . the culpeo uses all the range of habitat moisture gradients from the driest desert to the broad - leaved rainforest . in the andes of peru , chile , bolivia and argentina , the culpeo reaches elevations of up to 4 , 800 m ( redford and eisenberg 1992 , romo 1995 , jiménez and novaro 2004 , tellaeche et al . 2014 ) . redford and eisenberg ( 1992 ) placed the culpeo in the coldest and driest environments of south america relative to other south american canids .
travaini , a . , r . peck , s . zapata . 2001 . selection of odor attractants and meat delivery methods to control culpeo foxes ( pseudalopex culpaeus ) in patagonia .
habitat the culpeo lives in some areas in south america . they usually live in the areas where there are deserts , bushlands , upland mountains , and space plateaus , like altiplano .
spatial organization , activity , and social interactions of culpeo foxes ( pseudalopex culpaeus ) in north - central chile . ( n . d . ) . retrieved september 6 , 2017 , from urltoken
culpeo foxes face a danger similar to the dangers their fellow canidae family members face : human interference . culpeo foxes tend to feed on young livestock , which , in turn , infuriates livestock owners . instead of properly securing their herds or implementing a livestock guardian dog program , most ranch owners deal with this natural predator / prey relationship by ridding of the predator . this type of interaction has led to dwindling numbers in the canine family and numerous extinctions . we hope the open , wild lands of the future patagonia national park will provide the culpeo foxes with the freedom they deserve .
they also are found in a wide range of habitats , including the atacama desert ( the driest place in the world ) . this particular culpeo is visiting the chilean flamingo colony in this desert .
in the 1880’s , thomas huxley classified the species with the coyote , not the culpeo and the other zorros . it had the morphology of a coyote , so its scientific name became canis antarcticus .
habitat and ecology : throughout its wide distribution , the culpeo uses many habitat types ranging from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line , deep valleys and open deserts , scrubby pampas , sclerophyllous matorral , to broad - leaved temperate southern beech forest in the south . the culpeo uses all the range of habitat moisture gradients from the driest desert to the broad - leaved rainforest . in the andes of peru , chile , bolivia and argentina , the culpeo reaches elevations of up to 4 , 800 m ( redford and eisenberg 1992 ; romo 1995 ; a . j . novaro et al . unpubl . ; j . e . jiménez , pers . obs . ) . redford and eisenberg ( 1992 ) placed the culpeo in the coldest and driest environments of south america relative to other south american canids .
as opportunistic predators , culpeo fox have been known to prey on lizards , rabbits , birds , rodents , and even sheep . but successfully hunting young guanaco—and surviving attacks from adults—awards this small wild canine new stature .
novaro , a . , c . moraga , c . briceno , m . funes , a . marino . 2009 . first records of culpeo ( lycalopex culpaeus ) attacks and cooperative defense by guanacos ( lama guanicoe ) .
the culpeo ( lycalopex culpaeus ) , sometimes known as the culpeo zorro or andean fox ( wolf ) , is a south american species of wild dog . it is the second largest native canid on the continent after the maned wolf . in its appearance it bears many similarities to the widely recognized red fox . it has grey and reddish fur , a white chin , reddish legs , and a stripe on its back that may be barely visible .
not much is known about the lifespan of culpeos . the oldest culpeo discovered in the wild was estimated to be 11 years old . however , the method of aging was not defined , so the accuracy of this estimate is unknown .
culpeos are omnivores and dietary generalists . prey range from wild ungulates , hares , sheep , and small mammals to insects , birds , and lizards . culpeos also eat carrion and fruit . specific examples of items in a culpeo’s diet are
salvatori , v . , g . vaglio - laurin , p . meserve , l . boitani , a . campanella . 1999 . spatial organization , activity , and social interactions of culpeo foxes ( pseudalopex culpaeus ) in north - central chile .
the hunt provided new information not only about the diet—and audacity—of the culpeo fox , but also showed never - before - seen behavior from the guanaco . when attacked by the culpeo fox , researchers were surprised to see the guanacos move into defensive herds and not shy away from kicking and charging at the fox . before this , guanacos were thought to have only one strategy against predation—flight . whenever a guanaco is attacked by a puma , its other known predator , it flees rather than defends itself .
the culpeo fox is an opportunistic predator that will take any variety of prey . this fox mainly feeds on rodents , lagomorphs ( especially the introduced european rabbit and european hare ) and occasionally feed on domestic livestock , and young guanacos . [ 4 ] they sometimes take young lambs a week old and younger . in limited studies , the larger culpeo appears to dominate potential competitors , including south american gray foxes , geoffrey ' s cats , pampas cats , grisons and various raptorial birds . [ 3 ]
pam , you and i must have been thinking alike , because i also did some research on the culpeo fox . and then i wondered , why did they pick this one as our sub team mascot ? hmmm . . . still wondering . . .
hola , muy buenas tardes . me presento soy carlos f . morales , biólogo y recurro en su ayuda para lo siguiente : quisiera solicitar su benia para tomar prestadas algunas fotografías suyas relacionadas con el zorro culpeo ( obviamente voy a informar la fuente , que son ustedes ) , sólo quería hacerlo más formal .
the culpeo and other south american foxes are in the genus lycalopex , which is derived from the greek words lycaon ( which means wolf ) and alopex ( which means fox ) . they are literally “wolf foxes . ” they are more closely related to wolves , but they have evolved into a fox - like form .
the culpeo is the largest of the south american foxes . their overall size increases the further south in their range they live . males are 10 - 15 % larger than the females . their coat is brownish - tawny colored , with paler undersides , and a generally greyish back , and their tail has a black tip .
. . . this study is based on analysing scat contents to determine the culpeo ' s diet . it is a non - invasive method that shows what the species real consumes ( putman , 1984 ; corbett , 1989 ) and is widely used for studying the feeding habits of carnivores ( e . g . halter , 1967 ; reynolds and aebischer , 1991 ; juarez and marinho - filho , 2002 ; malo et al . , 2004 ) . in particular , this method has already been used to study the culpeo ' s diet ( e . g . iriarte et al . , 1989 ; ebensperger et al . , 1991 ) . . . .
so where does the warrah belong ? that is one question that has yet to develop anything like a scientific consensus . perhaps more analysis of the morphology and molecular evolution can provide a better picture . it would be nice to know whether there were any mainland south american canids that were similar to the warrah other than the culpeo .
the culpeo is the largest of the south american foxes . their overall size increases the further south in their range they live . males are 10 - 15 % larger than the females . their coat is brownish - tawny colored , with paler undersides , and a generally greyish back , and their tail has a black tip . distribution
until the early 1990s , the main cause of mortality was hunting and trapping for fur ( miller and rottmann 1976 , novaro 1995 ) . during 1986 , in excess of 2 , 100 fox skins ( culpeo and chilla ) were exported from chile ( iriarte et al . 1997 ) . an average of 4 , 600 culpeo pelts were exported annually from argentina between 1976 and 1982 , with a peak of 8 , 524 in 1977 . legal exports declined to an average of approximately 1 , 000 between 1983 and 1996 with peaks of 2 , 421 in 1990 and 4 , 745 in 1996 and have been negligible since 1997 ( novaro 1995 , jiménez and novaro 2004 ) .
the culpeo is distributed from the andes and hilly regions of south america , ranging down to the pacific shoreline in the desert of northern chile . culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations . when hunting pressure is reduced , populations usually can recover quickly . the species is not considered threatened . population trend : stable
i had read of this domestication , but i did not know that a taxidermied specimen existed . the perro yagán was a domesticated culpeo that lived in the camps of the yagán , an indigenous people of tierra del fuego . this taxidermied specimen has spots and shorter legs that the wild version , which are both traits we associate with domestication in canids .
this particular culpeo is performing the deed for which they are famous– begging for food . they are also not above stealing food or robbing hen houses . they are considered sheep - killers in their native range . they also have recently been found to prey on south american camelid crias , which may be one reason why domestic llamas typically hate dogs with a passion .
in 1915 , the european hare was introduced to chile , causing unknown effects on native biodiversity . luckily , culpeo foxes and other carnivores became significant predators of the hares and helped control their population growth , helping bring the ecosystems back to balance . this also led culpeos to spread from the andean foothills across the patagonian plain and into the land that is now the future patagonia national park .
range its distribution extends from ecuador and peru to the southern regions of patagonia and tierra del fuego . some populations live in southern regions of colombia . it is most common on the western slopes of the andes , where it inhabits open country and deciduous forests . populations of the culpeo are also found in some of the westernmost of the falkland islands , where they were introduced by humans .
in 1880 , after it became extinct , thomas huxley classified it as related to the coyote . in 1914 , oldfield thomas reclassified it into the genus dusicyon along with the culpeo and other south american foxes ( now considered part of genus lycalopex ) . there are no living representatives of genus dusicyon , its close mainland relative ( dusicyon avus ) having died out more than 6000 years ago .
no todas las relaciones entre agricultores y el zorro culpeo son malas . en mi familia les tenemos especial carino . hace 30 anos , cuando mis hermanos y yo eramos ninos de mamadera , mis padres estaban costruyendo una casa en un campo de cultivos y ganadero que tenemos a orillas del lago panguipulli . nos fuimos a pasar el verano a la casa mientras la contruian y como no tenia ni puertas ni ventanas , todas las noches teniamos la visita de un zorro culpeo que apodamos el zorro pepe . el zoro pepe siguio visitandonos por anos con gran alegria de mi padre , por que espantaba las liebres que le comian el pasto de los animales y la alegria de mi madre porque el zorro pepe evitaba que las liebres le comieran las flores y los arbolitos nuevos que plantaba en el campo .
darwin was quick to point out that the animal was not that similar to the culpeo , which is the largest of the zorros . culpeos are well - known as being the coyotes of the south american continent . they are mid - level predators and scavengers , and like coyotes on this continent , they are hated . however , they are not south american coyotes . they are big zorros .
the culpeo fox is native to the western side of south america , from ecuador to peru to the southern regions of patagonia and tierra del fuego . they are not found on any other continent . the foxes’ ideal terrain lies on the western slopes of the andes , where they can inhabit both open country and deciduous forests . the dense forests are ideal for resting and taking cover , while the open country is optimal for hunting . at the northern end of their range , where the climate is humid and warm , the culpeo foxes are smaller — about the size of a beagle . however , in and around the park , the foxes are larger in size , a good adaption to deal with harsher climate and competitors like the puma . pumas are , in fact , the foxes’ main natural predator .
the culpeo is distributed along the andes and hilly regions of south america from nariño and putumayo departments of south - west colombia in the north ( jiménez et al . 1995 , ramírez - chaves et al . 2013 ; records from departments further north are dubious ) to tierra del fuego in the south ( markham 1971 , redford and eisenberg 1992 ) . it ranges down to the pacific shoreline in the desert of northern chile ( mann 1945 , jiménez and novaro 2004 ) , south to about valdivia ( osgood 1943 ) and then again in magallanes . on the eastern slopes of the andes , the culpeo is found in argentina from jujuy province in the north , reaching the atlantic shoreline from río negro and southwards . this extended eastward distribution is relatively recent and was apparently favoured by sheep ranching , increased availability of exotic prey and extirpation of puma ( crespo and de carlo 1963 , novaro 1997a , novaro and walker 2005 ) . however , in the last 10 - 15 years the shrinking of sheep production in argentine patagonia has facilitated puma recolonization . the probable increase in predation or competitive exclusion by pumas in turn appears to have caused declines in culpeo populations ( travaini et al . 2007 , a . travaini pers . comm . 2015 ) .
in a paper in mammalia researchers from the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) announce the first observation of south america’s culpeo fox hunting young guanacos , a relative of llamas . in doing so the fox comes head - to - head with aggressive mothers defending their young : researchers were surprised to find the small 30 pound ( 14 kg ) predator facing off a group of 260 pound ( 120 kg ) adult guanacos .
scientists have long wondered how a wolf - like predator could have evolved on the isolated falkland islands independent of any related species . the falkland islands have never been connected to the mainland and has no other native land mammals . other islands with native canids are much closer to a continent . one theory was that its ancestors had drifted over on the ice from patagonia . a second theory was that it was the sole survivor of well - populated pre - glacial forests on the island , however , dog - sized predator is unlikely to have survived on the the islands during an ice age . the warrah resembled the coyote and another theory suggested it was descended from the south american culpeo . a domesticated form of culpeo , the perro yaghan , was used as a hunting dog by the yaghan people of tierra del fuego . if it was closely related to the culpeo , its ancestor would have had to be present in south america up until the continent was settled by humans . dna analysis from museum specimens shows that its most recent common ancestor lived around 330 , 000 years ago and the warrah would have arrived on the falkland islands well before humans . an extinct species known as dusicyon avus , which lived in patagonia as recently as 6000 - 8000 years ago , may be a close mainland relative of the warrah .
rodents and lagomorphs ( rabbits and hares ) are the most prominent in the culpeo ' s diet . they sometimes take young lambs a week old and younger . they are the main form of control of the rabbit population that was introduced to south america in the early 1900 ' s . depending on where they live , their diet can be almost 97 % carnivorous to some areas where up to 30 % of their diet is vegetable matter .
geographic range range description : the culpeo is distributed along the andes and hilly regions of south america from nariño province of colombia in the north ( jiménez et al . 1995 ) to tierra del fuego in the south ( markham 1971 ; redford and eisenberg 1992 ) . it ranges down to the pacific shoreline in the desert of northern chile ( mann 1945 , j . e . jiménez , pers . obs . ) , south to about valdivia ( osgood 1943 ) and then again in magallanes . on the eastern slopes of the andes , the culpeo is found in argentina from jujuy province in the north , reaching the atlantic shoreline from río negro and southwards . this extended eastward distribution is relatively recent and was apparently favoured by sheep ranching ( crespo and de carlo 1963 ; novaro 1997a ) . countries : native : argentina ; bolivia ; chile ; ecuador ; peru presence uncertain : colombia
the culpeo society is a hierarchical matriarchy , since it is the females who fight for dominance . the dominant females inherit their territory from their parents , while the males have to search for their own territory . the dominant female in each territory has breeding rights , and subservient females must leave to establish their own territory to breed . the dominant female also feeds first . courtship , which occurs during the winter , involved a lengthy ritual of mock - fighting .
the mystery wild dog from yesterday was a culpeo ( lycalopex culpaeus ) , the largest of the south american “foxes , ” which are more appropriately called “zorros . ” they are actually far more closely related to the genus canis and its allies . in recent years , it has been commonplace for the genus for the south american “foxes” to be referred to as lycalopex , which is derived from the greek words for wolf ( lycaon ) and fox ( alopex ) .
rodents and lagomorphs ( rabbits and hares ) are the most prominent in the culpeo ' s diet . they sometimes take young lambs a week old and younger . they are the main form of control of the rabbit population that was introduced to south america in the early 1900 ' s . depending on where they live , their diet can be almost 97 % carnivorous to some areas where up to 30 % of their diet is vegetable matter . reproduction and life cycle
the culpeo society is a hierarchical matriarchy , since it is the females who fight for dominance . the dominant females inherit their territory from their parents , while the males have to search for their own territory . the dominant female in each territory has breeding rights , and subservient females must leave to establish their own territory to breed . the dominant female also feeds first . courtship , which occurs during the winter , involved a lengthy ritual of mock - fighting . human relations
big cats—lions , tigers , leopards , jaguars , and our very own puma—tend to steal our hearts , but members of the wild dog family often play equally important roles as predators . here at the future patagonia national park , we often catch glimpses of the second - largest canid in south america , known as the culpeo or andean fox . although typically difficult to see due to their nocturnal habits and rustic brown and grey fur , these wild canids do make frequent appearances around the park .
justification : the culpeo is distributed from the andes and hilly regions of south america , ranging down to the pacific shoreline in the desert of northern chile and argentine patagonia . culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels and still maintain viable regional populations . when hunting pressure is reduced , populations usually can recover quickly . however , it appears that the combined effects of hunting and interspecific competition / predation with pumas ( puma concolor ) are producing a marked reduction in population numbers in some parts of the range in southern argentina . at present , there is no reason to believe the species is declining at a rate sufficient to warrant listing in a threatened category and is listed as least concern .
the ecology of the culpeo populations occurring in the high andes is still little understood . as part of a larger project on the intraguild competition in the mesocarnivores of this region and its effects on the population status of the endangered andean cat ( leopardus jacobita ) , we are carrying out a camera trap survey in an area at over 4200 m of elevation of the nw argentine province of jujuy . the project goal is to describe the use of habitat by culpeos and compare it to those of sympatric andean cats and pampas cats ( leopardus colocolo ) . this project is led by gecm ( grupo de ecología comportamental de mamíferos ) , uns and conicet , and andean cat alliance ( aga ) .
culpeo foxes prefer to roam alone , but come end of summer , these foxes start howling for mates . once they breed , the mated pairs stay together for about five months . first they find a den , which is usually a rocky cave , and hunt for food to hide near the den . the gestation period usually lasts about two months and after the pups are born , the two parents guard the den fearlessly , chasing away any - sized intruder . when the youngsters reach about two months old , they are strong enough to follow their parents and learn to hunt . although , by the end of december , the close - knit family splits up , each member going their own way .
andean foxes are opportunistic predators , which means they will eat almost anything that crosses their path while they hunt for optimum prey . they mostly feed on native fruits such as calfate and chaura berries and mammal prey such as rodents , european hares , domestic livestock , armadillos , juvenile guanacos and huemul fawns . because the majority of domestic livestock was taken out of valle chacabuco , the foxes’ food pot has decreased significantly , turning their focus to young guanacos and huemul . because of this , conservacion patagonica’s wildlife research team plans to begin a project examining the culpeo foxes’ new diet and impact on huemul fawn survival . this type of information will be vital for the future health of the park and for other large - scale restoration projects alike .
native - european contact in tierra del fuego was a rapid process , for which little ethnographic information has been produced . although the fuegian dog seemed to have been important to selk ' nam people ' s life , the taxonomic status of this extinct animal is still uncertain . the aim of the present work was to determine the zoological identity of a taxidermized canid belonging to a fagnano regional museum collection , río grande , tierra del fuego . for this purpose , dna from fuegian dog and patagonian wild canids ( lycalopex culpaeus , lycalopex griseus and lycalopex gymnocercus ) hairs was extracted . an mtdna region control fragment was amplified by pcr and sequenced . sequence alignment was performed among the sequences that were obtained in this research and the canis lupus familiaris sequence from genbank . pairwise analysis showed a higher identity between the fuegian dog and the culpeo fox ( 97 . 57 % ) , with greater divergence with the current domestic dog ( 88 . 93 % ) . these results were supported by the molecular phylogenetic analysis , suggesting atypical fox domestication by hunter - gatherers .
the warrah was discovered by captain strong and the crew of the welfare in 1690 . captain strong took one of the animals on his ship , but during the voyage back to europe it became frightened by the firing of the ship ' s cannon during a battle against the french and jumped overboard . the letter of marque issued to the welfare ' s captain planned that the sloop would harass french trade in the south seas . in 1880 , zoologist thomas huxley concluded from skull comparisons that it was related to coyote . later studies indicated it was closer to a fox rather than a wolf . in 1914 , oldfield thomas moved it into the genus dusicyon , with the culpeo ( photo below ) and south american foxes . its exact taxonomy is still debated - dna studies of remains suggest its closest living relative is the south american maned wolf . its current scientific name is dusicyon australis , meaning foolish dog of the south , alluding to its lack of fear of man . as the only predator on the island it had nothing to fear , which led to its demise .
i can ' t remember if i commented on this or not , but even if i did , i ' ll do so again . i like the concept behind this a lot . i can ' t quite describe just what i like about it , because i can ' t really put it into words . forgive how cheesy and soppy this might sound , but it ' s like you chose to portray the beauty of the fox in many ways , perhaps hinting that your fondness for the creature isn ' t just skin - deep . you drew the muscular system and the skeletal structure of the fox to be just as beautiful as the final form , yet you still managed to pull off an almost haunting nature for the first two , what with how the muscular system seems to sit in a silhouette of the fox . the silhouette isn ' t too dark or distracting though , just dark enough so the pinks and blues have that distinctive pop ; and adding the blood dripping down the skeleton and the fleshy sinews , or whatever they ' re called , still attached to the bone was definitely a nice touch . really awesome job , culpeo . ^ w ^
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wozencraft , w . c . 2005 . order carnivora . in : d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder ( eds ) , mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference . third edition , pp . 532 - 628 . johns hopkins university press , baltimore .
several recent molecular studies have provided support for a monophyletic assemblage of south american endemic canids ( lindblad - toh et al . 2005 , perini et al . 2010 ) , with chrysocyon and speothos forming a sister - clade to the monophyletic south american foxes and atelocynus . on the basis of morphology , zunino et al . ( 1995 ) reviewed previous work and also supported clustering species within the two previous paraphyletic genera ( pseudalopex , lycalopex ) into a single monophyletic genus . they further argued that lycalopex had priority over pseudalopex , subsequently also supported by zrzavý et al . ( 2004 : 324 ) . the only outstanding question would have been whether dusicyon would have been a more appropriate name , since perini et al . ( 2010 ) reported a close relationship between l . culpaeus and dusicyon . however , we now know that dusicyon is far outside this clade ( slater et al . 2009 , austin et al . 2013 ) . based on this evidence , the genus lycalopex is used over pseudalopex for all south american foxes , following wozencraft ' s ( 2005 ) earlier treatment .
jiménez , j . , novaro , a . & ramirez - chaves , h .
main threats to culpeos have been hunting and trapping for fur ( although trade has decreased in the last decade ) and persecution to reduce predation on livestock and poultry ( travaini et al . 2000 , lucherini and merino 2008 ) . although illegal , the use of poison to reduce or prevent livestock losses caused by culpeos is still widespread in some parts of its range , including remote areas of the high andes ( garcía brea et al . 2010 , m . lucherini pers . comm . 2015 . ) . habitat loss does not appear to be an important threat to this species . predation by feral and domestic dogs may be important in some areas ( novaro 1997b ) .
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here we report a high - quality draft genome sequence of the domestic dog ( canis familiaris ) , together with a dense map of single nucleotide polymorphisms ( snps ) across breeds . the dog is of particular interest because it provides important evolutionary information and because existing breeds show great phenotypic diversity for morphological , physiological and behavioural traits . we use sequence comparison with the primate and rodent lineages to shed light on the structure and evolution of genomes and genes . notably , the majority of the most highly conserved non - coding sequences in mammalian genomes are clustered near a small subset of genes with important roles in development . analysis of snps reveals long - range haplotypes across the entire dog genome , and defines the nature of genetic diversity within and across breeds . the current snp map now makes it possible for genome - wide association studies to identify genes responsible for diseases and traits , with important consequences for human and companion animal health .
man ' s best friend , canis familiaris , occupies a special niche in genomics . the unique breeding history of the domestic dog provides an unparalleled opportunity to explore the genetic basis of disease susceptibility , morphological variation and behavioural traits . the position of the dog within the mammalian evolutionary tree also makes it an important guide for comparative analysis of the human genome .
the history of the domestic dog traces back at least 15 , 000 years , and possibly as far back as 100 , 000 years , to its original domestication from the grey wolf in east asia 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . dogs evolved through a mutually beneficial relationship with humans , sharing living space and food sources . in recent centuries , humans have selectively bred dogs that excel at herding , hunting and obedience , and in this process have created breeds rich in behaviours that both mimic human behaviours and support our needs . dogs have also been bred for desired physical characteristics such as size , skull shape , coat colour and texture 5 , producing breeds with closely delineated morphologies . this evolutionary experiment has produced diverse domestic species , harbouring more morphological diversity than exists within the remainder of the family canidae 6 .
genetic analysis of traits in dogs is enhanced by the close relationship between humans and canines in modern society . through the efforts of the american kennel club ( akc ) and similar organizations worldwide , extensive genealogies are easily accessible for most purebred dogs . with the exception of human , dog is the most intensely studied animal in medical practice , with detailed family history and pathology data often available
the dog is similarly important for the comparative analysis of mammalian genome biology and evolution . the four mammalian genomes that have been intensely analysed to date ( human 20 , 21 , 22 , chimpanzee 23 , mouse 24 and rat 25 ) represent only one clade ( euarchontoglires ) out of the four clades of placental mammals . the dog represents the neighbouring clade , laurasiatheria 26 . it thus serves as an outgroup to the euarchontoglires and increases the total branch length of the current tree of fully sequenced mammalian genomes , thereby providing additional statistical power to search for conserved functional elements in the human genome 24 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 . it also helps us to draw inferences about the common ancestor of the two clades , called the boreoeutherian ancestor , and provides a bridge to the two remaining clades ( afrotheria and xenarthra ) that should be helpful for anchoring low - coverage genome sequence currently being produced from species such as elephant and armadillo 28 .
99 % of the euchromatic genome . the completeness , nucleotide accuracy , sequence continuity and long - range connectivity are extremely high , exceeding the values calculated for the recent draft sequence of the mouse genome
and reflecting improved algorithms , higher - quality data , deeper coverage and intrinsic genome properties . we have also created a tool for the formal assessment of assembly accuracy , and estimate that > 99 % of the draft sequence is correctly assembled .
we also report an initial compendium of snps for the dog population , containing > 2 . 5 million snps derived primarily from partial sequence comparison of 11 dog breeds to a reference sequence . we characterized the polymorphism rate of the snps across breeds and the long - range linkage disequilibrium ( ld ) of the snps within and across breeds .
we have analysed these data to study genome structure , gene evolution , haplotype structure and phylogenetics of the dog . our key findings include :
• the evolutionary forces molding the mammalian genome differ among lineages , with the average transposon insertion rate being lowest in dog , the deletion rate being highest in mouse and the nucleotide substitution rate being lowest in human .
5 . 3 % of the human genome contains functional elements that have been under purifying selection in both lineages . nearly all of these elements are confined to regions that have been retained in mouse , indicating that they represent a common set of functional elements across mammals .
200 gene - poor regions , most of which contain genes with key roles in establishing or maintaining cellular identity , such as transcription factors or axon guidance receptors .
• sets of functionally related genes show highly similar patterns of evolution in the human and dog lineages . this suggests that we should be careful about interpreting accelerated evolution in human relative to mouse as representing human - specific innovations ( for example , in genes involved in brain development ) , because comparable acceleration is often seen in the dog lineage .
• analysis across the entire genome of the sequenced boxer and across 6 % of the genome in ten additional breeds shows that linkage disequilibrium ( ld ) within breeds extends over distances of several megabases , but ld across breeds only extends over tens of kilobases . these ld patterns reflect two principal bottlenecks in dog history : early domestication and recent breed creation .
3–5 alleles at each locus . portions of these haplotypes , as large as 100 kilobases ( kb ) , are shared across multiple breeds , although they are present at widely varying frequencies . the haplotype structure suggests that genetic risk factors may be shared across breeds .
1 / 1 , 500 bp within breeds ) to enable systematic association studies to map genes affecting traits of interest . genotyping of
• the genome sequence can be used to select a small collection of rapidly evolving sequences , which allows nearly complete resolution of the evolutionary tree of nearly all living species of canidae .
, resulting in an initial assembly ( canfam1 . 0 ) used for much of the analysis below , and an updated assembly ( canfam2 . 0 ) containing minor improvements (
the recent genome assembly spans a total distance of 2 . 41 gb , consisting of 2 . 38 gb of nucleotide sequence with the remaining 1 % in captured gaps . the assembly has extremely high continuity . the n50 contig size is 180 kb ( that is , half of all bases reside in a contiguous sequence of 180 kb or more ) and the n50 supercontig size is 45 . 0 mb (
the assembly was anchored to the canine chromosomes using data from both radiation hybrid and cytogenetic maps 11 , 13 , 14 . roughly 97 % of the assembled sequence was ordered and oriented on the chromosomes , showing an excellent agreement with the two maps . there were only three discrepancies , which were resolved by obtaining additional fluorescence in situ hybridization ( fish ) data from the sequenced boxer . the 3 % of the assembly that could not be anchored consists largely of highly repetitive sequence , including eight supercontigs of 0 . 5–1 . 0 mb composed almost entirely of satellite sequence .
the nucleotide accuracy and genome coverage of the assembly is high ( supplementary table s3 ) . of the bases in the assembly , 98 % have quality scores exceeding 40 , corresponding to an error rate of less than 10 - 4 and comparable to the standard for the finished human sequence 35 . when we directly compared the assembly to 760 kb of finished sequence ( in regions where the boxer is homozygous , to eliminate differences attributable to polymorphisms ; see below ) , we found that the draft genome sequence covers 99 . 8 % of the finished sequence and that bases with quality scores exceeding 40 have an empirical error rate of 2 × 10 - 5 ( supplementary table s3 ) .
the dog genome assembly has superior sequence continuity ( 180 kb ) than the wgs assembly of the mouse genome ( 25 kb ) obtained several years ago 24 . at least three factors contribute to the higher connectivity of the dog assembly ( see supplementary information ) . first , we used a new version of arachne with improved algorithms . assembling the dog genome with the previous software version decreased n50 contig size from 180 kb to 61 kb , and assembling the mouse genome with the new version increased n50 contig size from 25 kb to 35 kb . second , the amount of recently duplicated sequence is roughly twofold lower in dog than mouse ( supplementary table s4 ) ; this improves contiguity because sequence gaps in both organisms tend to occur in recently duplicated sequence . third , the dog sequence data has both higher redundancy ( 7 . 5 - fold versus 6 . 5 - fold ) and higher quality ( in terms of read length , pairing rate and tight distribution of insert sizes ) compared with mouse . the contig size for the dog genome drops by about 32 % when the data redundancy is decreased from 7 . 5 - fold to 6 . 5 - fold . a countervailing influence is that the dog genome contains polymorphism , whereas the laboratory mouse is completely inbred .
although ‘quality scores’ have been developed to indicate the nucleotide accuracy of a draft genome sequence 36 , no analogous measures have been developed to reflect the long - range assembly accuracy . we therefore sought to develop such a measure on the basis of two types of internal inconsistencies ( see supplementary information ) . the first is haplotype inconsistency , involving clear evidence of three or more distinct haplotypes within an assembled region from a single diploid individual . the second is linkage inconsistency , involving a cluster of reads for which the placement of the paired - end reads is illogical . this includes cases in which : ( 1 ) one end cannot be mapped to the region , ( 2 ) the linkage relationships are inconsistent with the sequence within contigs , or ( 3 ) distance constraints imply overlap between non - overlapping sequence contigs . the linkage inconsistency tests are most powerful when read pairs are derived from clone libraries with tight constraints on insert size . a region of assembly is defined as ‘certified’ if it is free of inconsistencies , and is otherwise ‘questionable’ .
12 mb or about one - fifth of a chromosome . the remaining questionable regions are typically small ( most are less than 40 kb ) , although there are a handful of regions of several hundred kilobases (
) . the questionable regions typically contain many inconsistencies , probably reflecting misassembly or overcollapse owing to segmental duplication . chromosomes 2 , 11 and 16 have 1 . 0–2 . 0 % of their sequence in questionable regions . the certified and questionable regions are annotated in the public release of the dog genome assembly . with the concept of assembly certification , the scientific community can have appropriate levels of confidence in the draft genome sequence .
our understanding of the evolutionary processes that shape mammalian genomes has greatly benefited from the comparative analysis of sequenced primate 21 , 23 and rodent 24 , 25 genomes . however , the rodent genome is highly derived relative to that of the common ancestor of the eutherian mammals . as the first extensive sequence from an outgroup to the clade that includes primates and rodents , the dog genome offers a fresh perspective on mammalian genome evolution . accordingly , we examined the rates and correlations of large - scale rearrangement , transposon insertion , deletion and nucleotide divergence across three major mammalian orders ( primates , rodents and carnivores ) .
we created multi - species synteny maps from anchors of unique , unambiguously aligned sequences ( see supplementary information ) , showing regions of conserved synteny among dog , human , mouse and rat genomes . approximately 94 % of the dog genome lies in regions of conserved synteny with the three other species ( supplementary figs s2–s4 and supplementary table s7 ) .
given a pair of genomes , we refer to a ‘syntenic segment’ as a region that runs continuously without alterations of order and orientation , and a ‘syntenic block’ as a region that is contiguous in two genomes but may have undergone internal rearrangements . syntenic breakpoints between blocks reflect primarily interchromosomal exchanges , and breakpoints between syntenic segments reflect intrachromosomal rearrangements . in the analysis below , we focus on syntenic segments of at least 500 kb .
we identified a total of 391 syntenic breakpoints across dog , human , mouse and rat genomes ( fig . 1 and supplementary figs s2 , s5 ) . with data for multiple species , it is possible to assign events to specific lineages ( fig . 1 and supplementary table s8 ) . we counted the total number of breakpoints along the human , dog , mouse and rat lineages , with the values for each rodent lineage reflecting all breakpoints since the common ancestor with human ( fig . 1 ) . the total number of breakpoints in the human lineage is substantially smaller than in the dog , mouse or rat lineages ( 83 versus 100 , 161 or 176 , respectively ) . however , there are more intrachromosomal breakpoints in the human lineage than in dog ( 52 versus 33 ) .
a , diagram of syntenic blocks ( > 500 kb ) along dog chromosomes ( chr ) 15 , 16 and 31 , with colours indicating the chromosome containing the syntenic region in other species . synteny breakpoints were assigned to one of five lineages : dog ( d ) , human ( h ) , mouse ( m ) , rat ( r ) or the common rodent ancestor ( ro ) . b , lineage - specific intrachromosomal and interchromosomal breaks displayed on phylogenetic trees . intrachromosomal breaks are seen more frequently in the human lineage than in mouse and rat , whereas interchromosomal breaks are somewhat more common in dog and considerably more common in rodents than in humans .
although the overall level of genomic rearrangement has been much higher in rodent than in human , comparison with dog shows that there are regions where the opposite is true . in particular , of the many intrachromosomal rearrangements previously observed between human chromosome 17 and the orthologous mouse sequence 24 , most have occurred in the human lineage ( see supplementary information ) . human chromosome 17 is rich in segmental duplications and gene families 21 , which may contribute to its genomic fragility 37 , 38 .
500 mb smaller than in human . the smaller total size is reflected at the local level , with 100 - kb blocks of conserved synteny in dog corresponding to regions for which the median size is
to understand the balance of forces that determine genome size , we studied the alignments of the human , mouse and dog genomes ( fig . 2 ) . in particular , we identified the lineage - specific interspersed repeats within each genome , which consist of particular families of short interspersed elements ( sines ) , long interspersed elements ( lines ) and other transposable elements that are readily recognized by sequence analysis ( supplementary tables s9 , s10 ) . the remaining sequence was annotated as ‘ancestral’ , consisting of both ancestral unique sequence and ancestral repeat sequence ; these two categories were combined because the power to recognize ancient transposon - derived sequences degrades with repeat age , particularly in the rapidly diverging mouse lineage 24 .