biomphalaria tenagophila is a species of air-breathing freshwater snail , an aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family planorbidae , the ram 's horn snails .

this species is medically important pest , because of transferring the disease intestinal schistosomiasis .

( intestinal schistosomiasis is the most widespread of all types of schistosomiasis ) .

the parasite schistosoma mansoni , which biomphalaria snails carry , infects about 83.31 million people worldwide .

the shell of this species , like all planorbids is sinistral in coiling , but is carried upside down and thus appears to be dextral .

biomphalaria tenagophila

phylogenetic analysis of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda ) .
reduced susceptibility of a biomphalaria tenagophila population to schistosoma mansoni after introducing the resistant taim / rs strain of b . tenagophila into herivelton martins stream
biomphalaria tenagophila : genetic variability within intermediate snail hosts susceptible and resistant to schistosoma mansoni infection .
biomphalaria tenagophila potencial vector of schistosoma mansoni in the paraná river basin ( argentina and paraguay ) .
to dr w lobato paraense for providing the albino strain of biomphalaria tenagophila used in this work .
de souza cp , cunha rc , andrade za ( 1995 ) development of schistosoma mansoni in biomphalaria tenagophila , biomphalaria straminea and biomphalaria glabrata . rev inst med trop são paulo 37 : 201 - 206 .
phylogenetic analysis of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi
[ distribution of biomphalaria tenagophila and b . occidentalis in the state of são paulo ( brazil ) ] .
study of biomphalaria tenagophila tenagophila , b . t . guaibensis and b . occidentalis by polymerase chain reaction amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of the ribosomal rna intergenic spacer regions
biomphalaria tenagophila : genetic variability within intermediate snail hosts susceptible and resistant to schistosoma mansoni infection . - pubmed - ncbi
biomphalaria tenagophila guaibensis sp . n . from southern brazil and uruguay ( pulmonata : planorbidae ) . i . morphology
biomphalaria tenagophila potencial vector of schistosoma mansoni in the paraná river basin ( argentina and paraguay ) . - pubmed - ncbi
[ distribution of biomphalaria tenagophila and b . occidentalis in the state of são paulo ( brazil ) ] . - pubmed - ncbi
study of biomphalaria tenagophila tenagophila , b . t . guaibensis and b . occidentalis by polymerase chain reaction amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of the ribosomal rna intergenic spacer regions | journal of molluscan studies | oxford academic
factors conditioning the habitat and the density of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) in an isolated schistosomiasis focus in rio de janeiro city .
study of a population of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) and of schistosomiasis transmission in
alto da boa vista
, rio de janeiro .
in vitro interaction of in vitro - transformed s . mansoni sporocysts with b tenagophila hemocytes
study of biomphalaria tenagophila , b . t . guaibensis and b . occidentalis by polymerase polymerase chain reaction amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of the ribosomal rna gene intergenic spacer
factors conditioning the habitat and the density of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) in an isolated schistosomiasis focus in rio de janeiro . . . - pubmed - ncbi
biomphalaria trigyra ( philippi , 1869 ) - original description ( not figured ) .
study of a population of biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) and of schistosomiasis transmission in
alto da boa vista
, rio de janeiro . - pubmed - ncbi
. . . although gastropod myoglobin has been extensively studied , there are knowledge gaps in its biological characteristics . we describe for the first time the presence of a myoglobin in the triturative stomach of biomphalaria gastropods . we compared biochemical parameters of myoglobins of stomach and radular muscles of biomphalaria glabrata and biomphalaria tenagophila . apomyoglobin and holomyoglobin w . . .
guaraldo am , magalhães la , rangel ha , pareja g ( 1981 ) evolução dos esporocistos de schistosoma mansoni sambon , 1907 , em biomphalaria glabrata say , 1818 . e biomphalaria tenagophila d’orbigny , 1835 . . rev . saúde pública 15 : 436 - 448 .
comparative histology of s . mansoni infection of cabo frio and taim strains of b . tenagophila snails
partial sequences from two its - 2 gene fragments in biomphalaria glabrata ( see text for haplotype codes ) , b . pfeifferi ( bpf ) and b . tenagophila ( bte ) .
sampling localities of populations of biomphalaria of the southern altiplano . the number of localities sampled by basin is shown in parentheses . asterisks indicate basins where biomphalaria snails were not found .
kristensen tk , yousif f and raahauge p 1999 molecular characterisation of biomphalaria spp in egypt .
bakry fa ( 2009 ) genetic variation between biomphalaria alexandrina and biomphalaria glabrata snails and their infection with egyptian strain of schistosoma mansoni . j app sci res 5 : 1142 - 1148 .
lsca of the interaction between s . mansoni sporocysts and hemocytes from b . tenagophila cabo frio and taim strains
geographical distribution of biomphalaria snails in the state of minas gerais , brazil . - pubmed - ncbi
planorbidos altoandinos del norte de chile y biomphalaria aymara spec . nov . ( mollusca : basommatophora )
biomphalaria tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) - highly isolated population in valle de condebamba , department of cajamarca , june 1962 , studied by paraense et al . ( 1964 ) , proving susceptible to infection with schistosoma mansoni .
citation : marques dpda , rosa fm , maciel e , negrão - corrêa d , teles hms , caldeira rl , et al . ( 2014 ) reduced susceptibility of a biomphalaria tenagophila population to schistosoma mansoni after introducing the resistant taim / rs strain of b . tenagophila into herivelton martins stream . plos one 9 ( 6 ) : e99573 . urltoken
the sj strain of s . mansoni was used in this experiment . this parasite strain was isolated from b . tenagophila collected in são josé dos campos / sp in the rio paraíba valley and has been maintained in the mollusk room lobato paraense / cpqrr for over 40 years in hamsters ( mesocricetus auratus ) and b . tenagophila , with sporadic passages in biomphalaria glabrata .
schistosomiasis is considered to be one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases in the world . the disease occurs in 76 countries of south america , asia and africa . in brazil , there are 25–30 million people living in transmission risk areas , with approximately 8 million people infected by schistosoma mansoni ( urltoken ) . there are 11 species of biomphalaria in brazil [ 1 ] , but only three are found to be naturally infected by s . mansoni : biomphalaria glabrata ( say , 1818 ) , biomphalaria straminea ( dunker , 1848 ) and biomphalaria tenagophila ( d’orbigny , 1835 ) [ 2 ] .
yousif f , ibrahim a , el - bardicy sn ( 1998 ) compatibility of biomphalaria alexandrina , biomphalaria glabrata and a hybrid of both to seven strains of schistosoma mansoni from egypt . j egypt soc parasitol 28 : 863 - 881 .
trematodes parasitizing biomphalaria aymara from isluga , chilean altiplano . s , shell ; t , trematodes in the soft body .
théron a , coustau c ( 2005 ) are biomphalaria snails resistant to schistosoma mansoni ? j helminthol 79 : 187 - 191 .
keywords : biomphalaria andecola - b . helophila - b . peregrina - b . pucaraensis - b . tenagophila - drepanotrema kermatoides - d . limayanum - helisoma duryi - h . peruvianum - h . trivolvis - lymnaea viatrix - physa acuta - p . peruviana - synonymy - peru
biomphalaria tenagophila tenagophila , b . tenagophila guaibensis and b . occidentalis are indistinguishable on the basis of shell morphology and the majority of organs of the genital system . only b . t . tenagophila is susceptible to infection with schistosoma mansoni . the identification of this species is important for epidemiological studies of schistosomiasis . snails from different sites in brazil , argentine and uruguay were studied using the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) and restriction fragment length polymorphism ( rflp ) of the ribosomal rna internal transcribed spacers ( its ) using seven enzymes . profiles resulting from digestion with alu i showed some invariant species - specific products allowing correct identification of b . t . tenagophila , b . occidentalis and b . t . guaibensis . profiles obtained with other enzymes did not permit species identification as extensive intraspecific polymorphism or invariant rflp profiles were observed . restriction profiles obtained with all enzymes were used to calculate the percentage of band sharing between all individual snails and these data were used for a cluster analysis . a closer relationship between b . occidentalis and b . t . guaibensis than b . t . tenagophila and the subspecies b . t . guaibensis was observed . based on previous morphological data and these molecular data , we propose grouping b . t . tenagophila , b . occidentalis and b . t . guaibensis into a b . tenagophila complex .
linus spatz , teofãnia h . d . a . vidigal , roberta l . caldeira , emmanuel dias neto , stella maris gonzalez cappa , omar s . carvalho ; study of biomphalaria tenagophila tenagophila , b . t . guaibensis and b . occidentalis by polymerase chain reaction amplification and restriction enzyme digestion of the ribosomal rna intergenic spacer regions , journal of molluscan studies , volume 65 , issue 2 , 1 may 1999 , pages 143–149 , urltoken
citation : nacif - pimenta r , mattos acad , orfanó ads , barbosa l , pimenta pfp , coelho pmz ( 2012 ) schistosoma mansoni in susceptible and resistant snail strains biomphalaria tenagophila : in vivo tissue response and in vitro hemocyte interactions . plos one 7 ( 9 ) : e45637 . urltoken
richards cs , shade pc ( 1987 ) the genetic variation in biomphalaria glabrata and schistosoma mansoni . j parasitol 3 : 1146 - 1151 .
bezerra fs , nogueira - machado ja , martins - souza rl , chaves mm , correa rf , et al . ( 2003 ) effect of gamma radiation on the activity of hemocytes and on the course of schistosoma mansoni infection in resistant biomphalaria tenagophila snails . mem inst oswaldo cruz 98 : 73–75 .
martins - souza rl , pereira caj , coelho pmz , negrão - corrêa d ( 2003 ) silica treatment increases the susceptibility of the cabo frio snail group of biomphalaria tenagophila to schistosoma mansoni infection but does not alter the natural resistance of the taim snail group . parasitol res 91 : 500 - 507 .
lane 1 : molecular size markers ( phix 174 ) ; lane 3 : negative control ( i . e . , no template dna ) ; lane 13 : pool of s . mansoni cercariae ; lane 14 : b . tenagophila taim ; lanes 6 and 9 : profile of the local strain of b . tenagophila ; lanes 2 , 4–5 , 7–8 and 10–12 : profiles of b . tenagophila collected 14 months after taim introduction ( i . e . , containing the 350 bp marker ) .
although gastropod myoglobin has been extensively studied , there are knowledge gaps in its biological characteristics . we describe for the first time the presence of a myoglobin in the triturative stomach of biomphalaria gastropods . we compared biochemical parameters of myoglobins of stomach and radular muscles of biomphalaria glabrata and biomphalaria tenagophila . apomyoglobin and holomyoglobin were obtained . myoglobin was the most abundant protein in the stomach ( 85 . 0 % ) and radular muscles ( 80 . 0 % ) of the two biomphalaria species evaluated . the molecular mass and isoeletric point of stomach myoglobins were 16 , 124 . 93 da and 7 . 98 and 16 . 095 . 28 da and 7 . 77 for b . glabrata and b . tenagophila , respectively . stomach myoglobins of b . glabrata and b . tenagophila rate autoxidation were equal to 8 . 0 × 10 −4 h −1 ± 0 . 0002 and 1 . 0 × 10 −4 h −1 ± 0 . 00142 , respectively . analysis of n - terminal amino acid sequencing revealed that stomach myoglobins are blocked in this region for a chemical group . concluding , the differences we observed in the biochemical properties of stomach and radular myoglobins of b . glabrata and b . tenagophila suggest they may be isoform representing an evolutionary event related to the adaptation of these proteins .
paraense wl 1966 . the synonymy and distribution of biomphalaria peregrina in the neotropical region . rev brasil biol 26 : 269 - 296 . [ links ]
abou - el - naga if , el - nassery smf , allam sr , shaat ea and mady rfm 2011 biomphalaria species in alexandria water channels .
biomphalaria tenagophila snails are widely spread throughout brazil , and its importance in the transmission of schistosomiasis has increased , especially in the southern and southeastern regions of the country [ 3 ] . interestingly , different strains of the snail show different levels of resistance to s . mansoni infection , with some strains being highly susceptible and others completely resistant [ 2 ] . for example , s . mansoni is unable to elicit infection in the taim strain of b . tenagophila under laboratory conditions [ 4 ] – [ 7 ] . this resistance is the result of the internal defense system ( ids ) of the mollusk [ 8 ] . by contrast , the cabo frio strain of b . tenagophila is susceptible to s . mansoni . consequently , b . tenagophila is an interesting research model in which to study ids mechanisms against s . mansoni .
the results obtained in this study could be the basis for future strategies on the control of schistosomiasis in areas where transmission of the disease is maintained by b . tenagophila .
at 15 days post - introduction , the proportions of the b . tenagophila local population and the b . tenagophila taim population present in the herivelton martins stream were estimated . a total of 237 snails were recovered ; 89 of these snails were physically marked as the taim population , and the remaining 148 snails represented the local strain . the proportion of the local population ( 62 . 5 % ) was significantly higher than that of b . tenagophila taim ( 37 . 5 % ) ( p < 0 . 04 ) .
figure 2 : mean total number of cercariae per snail for biomphalaria alexandrina snail groups from sbsc and five egyptian governorates infected with schistosoma mansoni miracidia from sbsc .
in brazil , biomphalaria tenagophila ( d’orbigny , 1835 ) is the second most important species for schistosomiasis transmission and is responsible for transmission of this disease in large areas of the state of são paulo [ 1 ] and in isolated foci in the states of minas gerais , rio de janeiro and santa catarina [ 2 ] – [ 4 ] .
lemos qt , andrade za ( 2001 ) sequential histological changes in biomphalaria glabrata during the course of schistosoma mansoni infection . mem inst oswaldo cruz 96 : 719 - 721 .
geographical distribution of intestinal schistosomiasis is directly associated with the presence of susceptible snails of the genus biomphalaria and the etiological agent , s . mansoni . this trematode is a stenoxenic parasite , i . e . , it uses specific intermediate host species [ 4 ] . however , not all biomphalaria species are susceptible to s . mansoni . biomphalaria susceptibility to s . mansoni infection varies among snails according to different ages , genetic variation , immune system status and geographic areas in which both snails and the trematode occur [ 5 ] .
richards cs , merritt jw ( 1972 ) genetic factors in the susceptibility for juvenile biomphalaria glabrata to schistosoma mansoni infection . amer j trop med hyg 21 : 425 - 434 .
characterization of biomphalaria d ' orbignyi , b . peregrina and b . oligoza by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme digestion of the internal transcribed spacer region of the rna ribosomal gene
published and unpublished observations on geographical distribution of biomphalaria snails in the state of minas gerais , brazil , were compiled . this work is aimed at knowing the present occurrence of biomphalaria species in this region , and at contributing to the elaboration of the planorbid chart of minas gerais . in malacological surveys , performed by several researchers , the presence of seven species of this genus was recorded . those planorbids were found in 12 mesoregions , in 283 ( 33 . 1 % ) municipalities out of 853 with the following distribution : b . glabrata ( 185 municipalities ) , b . straminea ( 125 ) , b . tenagophila ( 58 ) , b . peregrina ( 57 ) , b . schrammi ( 26 ) , b . intermedia ( 20 ) and b . occidentalis ( 2 ) . b . glabrata and b . tenagophila are found naturally infected by schistosoma mansoni in minas gerais . in 24 municipalities the three snail hosts of s . mansoni in brazil , b . glabrata , b . tenagophila and b . straminea , are present .
paraense wl 1996 . neotropical planorbid snails with apert - ural lamellae . i . biomphalaria helophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) . mem inst oswaldo cruz 91 : 177 - 186 . [ links ]
granath wo , yashino tp ( 1983 ) lysosomal enzymes activities in susceptible and refractory snail groups of biomphalaria glabrata during the course of infection with schistosoma mansoni . j parasitol 69 : 1018 - 1026 .
bayne cj , buckely pm , dewan pc ( 1980 ) schistosoma mansoni cytotoxicity of hemocytes from susceptible snail hosts for sporocycts in plasma from resistant biomphalaria glabrata . exp parasitol 50 : 409 - 416 .
hahn uk , bender rc , bayne cj ( 2001 ) killing of schistosoma mansoni sporocysts by hemocytes from resistant biomphalaria glabrata : role of reactive oxygen species . j parasitol 87 : 292 - 299 .
biomphalaria tenagophila is very important for schistosomiasis transmission in brazil . however its mechanisms of interaction with schistosoma mansoni are still scantly studied . since this snail displays strains highly susceptible or completely resistant to the parasite infection , the knowledge of that would be a useful tool to understand the mechanism of snail resistance . particularly , the taim strain consistently shows absolute resistance against the trematode , and this resistance is a dominant character . a multidisciplinary research group was created aiming at studying b . tenagophila / s . mansoni interaction . the possibility for applying the knowledge acquired to obtain a biological model for the control of s . mansoni transmission in endemic areas is discussed .
loker es , bayne cj ( 1982 ) in vitro encounters between schistosoma mansoni primary sporocysts and hemolymph components of susceptible and resistant snail groups of biomphalaria glabrata . amer jtrop medhyg 31 : 999 - 1005 .
b . tenagophila strains from different geographic areas exhibit varying rates of infection after exposure to schistosoma mansoni [ 5 ] – [ 7 ] . although many populations of b . tenagophila are susceptible to the parasite , a particular population collected at the taim biological reserve in the state of rio grande do sul , brazil is completely resistant to s . mansoni . b . tenagophila taim has been investigated by researchers for several decades [ 8 ] – [ 23 ] . the results of these studies demonstrated that b . tenagophila taim is resistant to a number of different s . mansoni strains . these studies also demonstrated that this resistance is due to an efficient internal defense system [ 12 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 18 ] . experimental infections revealed that after miracidium penetration , an intense cellular reaction occurs ; this reaction is driven primarily by hemocytes and destroys the parasite during the early hours of infection [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] .
théron a , pages jr , rognon a ( 1997 ) schistosoma mansoni distribution patterns of miracidia among biomphalaria glabrata snail as related to host susceptibility and sporocyst regulatory processes . exp parasitol 85 : 1 - 9 .
loker es , bayne cj , yui ma ( 1986 ) echinostoma paraensei hemocytes of biomphalaria glabrata as targets of echinostoma mediate interference with host snail’s resistance to schistosoma mansoni . exp parasitol 62 : 149 - 154 .
caldeira rl , jannotti - passos lk , carvalho os ( 2009 ) molecular epidemiology of brazilian biomphalaria a review of the identification of species and the detection of infected snails . acta trop 111 : 1 - 6 .
philips tl , shoulberg n , gherson j ( 1984 ) role of cellular and humoral components in the encapsulation response of biomphalaria glabrata to schistosoma mansoni sporocysts in vitro . prog clin biol res : 17 - 29 .
although a number of phylogenetic studies of biomphalaria have included b . schrammi , its systematic position within the genus has been placed in doubt . vidigal et al . ( 2000c ) suggested that b . schrammi is a taxon ‘intermediate’ between h . trivolvis and other species of biomphalaria . dejong et al . ( 2001 ) suggested that b . schrammi is equally distant from other biomphalaria and from helisoma from the genetic point of view , and may represent either a separate or an intermediate lineage . the 5 . 8s sequences obtained by dejong et al . ( 2001 ) were identical for all the biomphalaria species studied and for h . trivolvis , with the exception of b . schrammi , which had two nucleotide differences . the phylogenetic study of morgan et al . ( 2002 ) using ribosomal 28s rna and actin exon placed b . schrammi within a clade formed by eight species of biomphalaria , which supports the inclusion of this species within the genus . however , this result may be due to the small number of species considered and / or the more evolutionarily conserved nature of this molecular locus . the present study , the most inclusive in terms of number of biomphalaria taxa utilized , in all analyses showed b . schrammi forming a lineage independent of the rest of the species of the genus .
the geographical distribution of biomphalaria tenagophila ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) and b . occidentalis paraense , 1981 in s . paulo state , brazil , is described . the first species being the most important intermediate host of schistosoma mansoni sambon , 1907 . the second species is unsusceptible to transmission . the two species inhabit the limnic environments of great areas of s . paulo , occasionally in simpatria . the 3 , 160 samples of mollusks collected between september 1981 and march 1986 were examined . b . tenagophila were identified in 1 , 062 of these samples from 203 municipalities and b . occidentalis in 255 samples from 97 municipalities . biogeographical circumstances related to the distribution of the planorbids species are commented on .
in this study , we evaluated the impact of b . tenagophila taim on the susceptibility of local strains to s . mansoni after crossbreeding . based on the assumption that snails of the genus biomphalaria favor crossbreeding [ 35 ] and on evidence demonstrating that the s . mansoni resistance of taim snails is dominant , we expected that the genetic signature of the taim strain , including its resistance genes , would be transmitted to the local snails over time [ 14 ] .
in conclusion , our study revealed important aspects of the ids responses of a b . tenagophila resistant strain compared with those of a strain susceptible to s . mansoni shortly after the initial process of infection . these responses are relevant to the survival and consequent development of the infection , resulting in either the death or survival of the parasites . this knowledge establishes the basis for future studies to understand more completely the mechanisms of biomphalaria ids acting against s . mansoni .
observations by pan [ 25 ] at 48 h after infection showed that 90 % of parasites penetrated and remained in the b . glabrata heat - foot region and only a few migrated into deeper tissues . similarly , in our study of b . tenagophila infection by s . mansoni that focused on much earlier time observations , we noticed that sporocysts were always found near the epithelium of the heat - foot region . it appears that the parasite penetrates the snail and initiates development in the exposed heat - foot region of the b . tenagophila , mainly in the base of tentacle . moreover , our data suggest that s . mansoni invasion of both b . tenagophila strains occurs preferentially throughout the epithelial crypts ( moat - like invaginations of the mantle epithelium ) , given that parasites were frequently found near these structures . in addition , we also observed that in both strains of b . tenagophila , the snail tegument did not seem to suffer any notable damage resulting from penetration by the miracidia .
studies performed in the last 30 years demonstrated that a strain of b . tenagophila from the taim biological reserve is completely resistant to schistosoma mansoni infection . this resistance to parasite infection is a dominant characteristic during crossbreeding with susceptible b . tenagophila strains . these experiments also identified a 350 bp molecular marker that is exclusive to the taim strain and does not occur in other geographic strains of this snail species . the taim strain ( taim / rs ) of biomphalaria tenagophila was bred on a large scale , physically marked and introduced into a stream in which previous malacological analyses had revealed the presence of only parasite - susceptible b . tenagophila . samples of offspring captured 4 , 11 and 14 months after the introduction of the taim strain were examined , and the susceptibility of the snails to s . mansoni infection dropped from 38 . 6–26 . 5 % to 2 . 1 % during the 14 months after the introduction of the taim snail strain . a significant correlation was also observed between the absence of infection and the identification of the taim molecular marker . these results demonstrate that the genetic marker from the taim strain was successfully introduced into the wild snail population . in addition , a significant relationship exists between the marker and resistance to infection .
the present work was carried out in a watercress garden in alto da boa vista , in the city of rio de janeiro , brazil . the investigation was carried out in two phases . the first one ( 1985 - 86 ) involved the sampling of biomphalaria tenegophila in two areas to determine its relative populational densities . the results showed that the populations presented similar densities and dynamics . the second phase ( 1988 - 89 ) involved the study of the influence of some environmental factors on the establishment of b . tenagophila in watercress garden . two factors were identified as responsible for the establishment of b . tenagophila in the garden : ( 1 ) the quality of the water entering the irrigation system , to which domestic sewage is added , and ( 2 ) alterations in the nature of the substrate , due to inadequate fertilization techniques , which employ organic matter from adjacent pigsties . aquatic plants and hydrological parameters of the irrigation system were subsidiary factors to the establishment of b . tenagophila in the garden .
large - scale breeding of b . tenagophila taim was performed in a mollusk facility at the chácara santa inês–vila bom jardim , which is located near the experimental field in bananal / sp , according to procedures described by rosa et al . [ 30 ] .
a total of 800 b . tenagophila snails ( taim strain ) that were 9 to 12 mm in diameter were physically marked with a small hole ( 1 mm diameter ) on their side , near the top opening of the shell . a nylon thread was subsequently inserted into this hole , and a knot was made , forming a small ring . this procedure allowed easy differentiation of the local snails ( i . e . , unmarked snails ) from the introduced resistant population ( i . e . , marked snails ) . after marking , the resistant b . tenagophila specimens were introduced into the superior portion of the herivelton martins stream . before the introduction of marked b . tenagophila taim , a sample of the local snail strain was collected for further studies of parasite susceptibility .
teles hm , pereira pa , richinitti lm ( 1991 ) [ the distribution of biomphalaria ( gastropoda , planorbidae ) in the states of rio grande do sul and santa catarina , brazil ] . rev saude publica 25 : 350–352 .
mohamed sh , saoud mf , rivera er , bruce ji ( 1993 ) granulocytes and hyalinocytes in biomphalaria alexandrina resisting infection with the puerto rican snail group of schistosoma mansoni . abst srp conf . cairo egypt feb 17 : 165 .
loker es , bayne cj ( 1986 ) immunity to trematode larvae in the snail biomphalaria . in “immune mechanisms in vertebrate vectors” . ( lackie , a . m . ed ) . oxford univ press new york pp 199 - 220 .
loker es , bayne cj , buckley pm , kruse kt ( 1982 ) ultrastructure of encapsulation of schistosoma mansoni mother sporocysts by hemocytes of juveniles of the 10 - r2 snail group of biomphalaria glabrata . j parasitol 68 : 84 - 94 .
as far as i know , no subsequent mention has been made to this species , except in harry ' s ( 1962 ) catalogue , in which it is placed in the
species group
of taphius peregrinus ( = biomphalaria peregrina ) .
hanington pc , lun c , adema cm , loker es ( 2010 ) time series analysis of the transcriptional responses of biomphalaria glabrata throughout the course of intramolluscan development of schistosoma mansoni and echinostoma paraensei . int j parasitol 40 : 819 - 831 .
biomphalaria andecola ( orbigny , 1835 ) - lake umayo near puno , nov . 1952 , collected by dr fortunato blancas sánchez . shell and anatomy as in topotypes from isla del sol , lake titicaca , studied by paraense and deslandes ( 1957 ) .
mohamed ah ( 1998 ) characterization of the hemocytes of biomphalaria glabrata , say 1818 . gastropoda : planorbidae . in interaction with two snail groups of schistosoma mansoni sambon 1907 trematoda . . ph . d . thesis . fac . biol . tübingen univ . germany .
as can be observed , almost all the studies dealing with genetic aspects of resistance to infection were carried out using b . glabrata snails . in this way , the nature of the gene ( or genes ) that is ( are ) able to confer resistance in b . tenagophila is poorly known .
after the experimental infections , histological sections showed that the two strains of b . tenagophila were both infected by s . mansoni . during the time intervals observed in this study , sporocysts were always seen in the dense and muscular connective tissues near the surface of the parasite ( fig . 3a–g ) .
susceptibility and compatibility experiments were carried out with 700 biomphalaria tenagophila from the paraná river basin exposed to infection with schistosoma mansoni . individual infection was performed with 10 miracidia of sj2 strain from the paraiba valley ( brazil ) originally infective to b . tenagophila . these snails were laboratory - breed progeny of b . tenagophila collected from six localities of argentina and one from paraguay . from argentina : rincón de vences ( 7 % ) and posadas ( 11 % ) became infected with s . mansoni and the calculation of frandsen ' s index ( tcp / 100 ) shows that they were class ii poorly compatible . those snails from goya ( 22 % ) , maloyas ( 5 % ) , and berón de astrada ( 3 % ) were class iii compatible to the s . mansoni . none of the 100 snails exposed from caá - catí became infected ( class 0 incompatible ) . tested samples from paraguay ( encarnación ) were infected ( 20 % ) and compatible ( class iii ) . it was also studied the persistence of the infection in 244 snails of the first generation ( f1 ) of those that were susceptible from three places . it was demonstrated an increment of the susceptibility in the f1 from maloyas ( chi2 = 27 . 22 ; p = 0 . 0001 ) and posadas ( chi2 = 4 . 24 ; p = 0 . 04 ) . the results point out the possibility that schistosomiasis might be able to spread into the paraná river basin where b . tenagophila exists .
recently , a multidisciplinary research group constituted of experienced professionals , working with different disciplines , such as parasitology , epidemiology , immunology , pathology , histology , genetics , systematics , and molecular biology , was created aiming at studying more thoroughly the mechanisms connected with s . mansoni / b . tenagophila interactions resulting from cross - breeding with susceptible strains . the biological control method , using introduction of the taim lineage in areas where b . tenagophila is responsible for the transmission of the disease , will be carrtied out . an experimental field test using the taim strain will be conducted in areas where the transmission is due to b . tenagophila , such as ba - nanal and caraguatatuba ( state of são paulo ) . an accord between sucen ( superintendência de controle de endemias do estado de são paulo ) and cpqrr / fiocruz ( centro de pesquisas rené rachou / fiocruz ) has been prepared and the working up of this project is at the final stage . on the other hand , the authors of the present study reckon upon the financial support of a pronex project ( fapemig / cnpq ) already approved , dealing with basic studies on s . mansoni / b . tenagophila interaction , which will provide the necessary support for field studies .
the ventral membrane of the renal tube ( fig . 1b ) is even and smooth , showing no renal ridge . in other features the renal region does not differ from that of other species of biomphalaria . in all specimens the pulmonary cavity was heavily infested with chaetogaster .
frandsen f ( 1979 ) studies on the relationship between schistosoma and their intermediate hosts . iii . the genus biomphalaria and schistosoma mansoni from egypt , kenya , uganda , west indies and zaire two different strains from katanga and kinshasha . j helminthol 53 : 321 - 348 .
molecular phylogenetic analyses support the monophyly of the clade formed by the altiplano taxa , b . peregrina , and b . oligoza with strong branch support . mp analysis recovered this clade as sister to the remaining species of biomphalaria ( excluding b . schrammi ) . given that ml and ba recovered the clade formed by the north american and caribbean species as sister to remaining species of biomphalaria ( excluding b . schrammi ) , further work is needed to clarify the relationships in basal nodes . taxonomically the present study shows ( 1 ) that the nominal species b . crequii is phylogenetically differentiated from b . andecola ; they fall in different clades . ( 2 ) the synonymy of b . costata and b . peregrina was not supported ; the results suggest that they represent distinct lineages within the same clade . ( 3 ) the specific status of b . aymara could not be resolved in this study . ( 4 ) snails from some altiplano localities are infected with trematodes . ( 5 ) biomphalaria schrammi in all the analyses performed appears outside of biomphalaria , suggesting that it does not belong to this lineage .
individuals from f 1 and f 2 generations and parental snails were submitted to infection . in principle , the parental snails were infected with two s . mansoni strains ( le and sj ) . as can be seen in table i , b . tenagophila from taim , rs was found to be resistant to s . mansoni ( sj and le strains ) . these results were already expected , since that strain showed resistance to infection in various studies previously carried out ( santos et al . 1979 ) . b . tenagophila from joinville , sc presented susceptibility rates of 68 . 5 and 65 . 6 % in relation to s . mansoni sj and le strains , respectively . these data corroborate the results obtained by freitas et al . ( 1985 ) , who demonstrated that b . tenagophila joinville was susceptible to both s . mansoni strains ( sj and le ) . it was observed that susceptible parental snails showed a mortality rate higher than the resistant parental snails . these data suggest that s . mansoni infection leads to high mortality in susceptible snails . taking into account that b . tenagophila joinville showed similar susceptibility to both s . mansoni strains , our experiments were carried out using only le strain , which was readily available at our laboratory .
gonzalo a . collado , marco a . mendez ; phylogenetic relationships and taxonomy of altiplano populations of biomphalaria ( gastropoda : planorbidae ) : inference from a multilocus approach , zoological journal of the linnean society , volume 165 , issue 4 , 1 august 2012 , pages 795–808 , urltoken
citation : mohamed ah , el - din ats , mohamed am , habib mr ( 2010 ) tissue responses exhibited by biomphalaria alexandrina snails from different egyptian localities following exposure to schistosoma mansoni miracidia . j bacteriol parasitol 2 : 104 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9597 . 1000104
within the biomphalaria genus , there is a large diversity in the susceptibility of strains to infection by schistosoma parasites . physiological and genetic aspects of the snail hosts , as well as the genetic factors of the s . mansoni parasite , contribute to this diversity , as demonstrated in distinct experimental models [ 22 ] – [ 24 ] . until now , most interaction studies have been conducted using b . glabrata–s . mansoni as an experimental model [ 11 ] , [ 25 ] – [ 29 ] . however , recent interaction studies have been developed with another important invertebrate host , b . tenagophila [ 5 ] – [ 8 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 30 ] – [ 34 ] . this experimental model has an important advantage , because the b . tenagophila taim strain is resistant whereas the cabo frio strain is susceptible to s . mansoni infection ; thus , it is possible to develop comparative experimental infections with individuals from the same species .
figure 1 : the survival and infection rates of six biomphalaria alexandrina snail groups from sbsc and five egyptian governorates infected with schistosoma mansoni miracidia from sbsc . p < 0 . 05 significant differences compared to b . alexandrina reference control ( sbsc - tbri strain ) data was expressed as mean ± sd .
adema cm , hanington pc , lun c , rosenberg gh , aragon ad et al . ( 2010 ) differential transcriptomic responses of biomphalaria glabrata ( gastropoda , mollusca ) to bacteria and metazoan parasites , schistosoma mansoni and echinostoma paraensei ( digenea , platyhelminthes ) . mol immunol 47 : 849 - 860 .
this study was performed in the herivelton martins stream ( latitude 22° 43′ 706″ and longitude 44° 21′409″ ) , which is located in the neighborhood of santo antonio do retiro in the municipality of bananal in the state of são paulo , brazil . the stream runs for a length of 42 m , with an average width of 1 . 5 m and a depth of up to 1 . 5 m , before debouching into another stream with a larger volume . previous studies indicated that b . tenagophila is the only biomphalaria species present in this stream and in all water samples collected in the municipality of bananal [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] .
snails - b . tenagophila taim ( from the ecological station at taim , state of rio grande do sul , brazil ) is the resistant strain to s . mansoni infection used in this experiment . this strain has been maintained at the laboratory of the schistosomiasis research unit , federal university of minas gerais , brazil , for more than 20 years , without any kind of selection favoring the resistance character , since these snails are naturally resistant to s . mansoni . the albino b . tenagophila strain from joinville , state of santa catarina , brazil , has been maintained at the same laboratory , and was kindly provided by dr paraense in october 2002 . this strain is highly susceptible to s . mansoni infection .
the divergence times between the biomphalaria clade and b . schrammi and the outgroup clade was estimated at 7 . 76–6 . 77 mya . the origin of the biomphalaria clade ( excluding b . schrammi ) occurred in the early pliocene ( ≈ 5 . 33–4 . 59 mya ) . divergence between b . glabrata and the african species was estimated to about 2 . 55–2 . 20 mya , in agreement with previous estimates ( woodruff & mulvey , 1997 ; campbell et al . , 2000 ; dejong et al . , 2001 ) . divergence within the new neotropical clade occurred in the middle and late pleistocene ( fig . 5 ) .
in the course of several trips to peru i had the opportunity of collecting topotypic specimens of biomphalaria andecola ( orbigny , 1835 ) , b . helophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) , b . pucaraensis ( preston , 1909 ) , drepanotrema limayanum ( lesson , 1830 ) , d . kermatoides ( orbigny , 1835 ) , and lymnaea viatrix orbigny , 1835 , besides b . tenagophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) , helisoma trivolvis ( say , 1817 ) , h . duryi ( wetherby , 1879 ) , physa acuta draparnaud , 1801 , and seemingly p . peruviana gray , 1828 . b . pucaraensis is considered a junior synonym of b . peregrina ( orbigny , 1835 ) .
the present study was performed using data from a biomphalaria tenagophila population located in a watercress garden in the alto da boa vista region representing an isolated focal point of schistosomiasis in the city of rio de janeiro . the density and age structure of this b . tenagophila population and its rate of infection by schistosoma mansoni were studied for a period of 15 months . the snail population showed seasonal variation in density , with a decrease in number of individuals at the beginning of the rainy season . at the end of this season , the population consisted mainly of adults ( 92 . 8 % in may 1985 and 82 . 8 % in april 1986 ) . the population growth curve was logistic and of sigmoidal configuration . schistosoma mansoni cercariae were eliminated over a short period of time ( march , april and may 1986 ) . the release of cercariae of s . mansoni and of birds seems to depend on environmental temperature , which during certain months would show a daily variation of up to 13 degrees c , with the lower thermal limit approaching the limit value for sporocyte development .
to better understand the host reaction of b . tenagophila resistant and susceptible strains to s . mansoni in relation to cellular defenses , we performed in vitro interaction experiments using isolated snail hemocytes from the two strains and in vitro transformed sporocysts . the structural aspects of these sporocysts were confirmed by their morphology and their viability by their capacity to develop infection in snails of both strains .
in the present study we obtained dna sequences of the mitochondrial 16s rrna gene and the its1 and its2 nuclear internal transcribed spacers regions of the rrna gene complex from altiplano populations and other species of biomphalaria to examine its monophyly and systematic position among other species of biomphalaria through an inclusive , multilocus analysis of the group . we also assess whether b . crequii is a synonym of b . andecola . additionally , considering that collado et al . ( 2011 ) assessed the synonymy of b . costata and b . peregrina postulated by paraense ( 1966 ) using coi data , which was not supported , in the present study we further evaluate this hypothesis incorporating multilocus sequences ( 16s , its1 , its2 ) of b . peregrina from a widespread range of the distribution of the species in south america and b . costata from salar de carcote for comparative purposes . available data from genbank for b . peregrina include sequences from uruguay , brazil ( minas gerais , rio grande do sul , ourinhos ) and argentina ( mendoza ) ( table 1 ) . we additionally obtained original sequences of this species from la plata , argentina , thanks to samples generously provided by dr alejandra rumi . finally , we investigate the possible existence of putative species among altiplano populations of biomphalaria and briefly discuss the taxonomy of the neotropical biomphalaria schrammi ( crosse , 1864 ) .
map of south america and the lesser antilles showing the localities sampled . the current geographic distribution of biomphalaria glabrata is shown in grey . the tree represents ml ( right bootstrap values ) and mp ( left bootstrap values ) analysis of concatenated 16s and its - 2 genes ( 943 nt ) . only bootstrap values higher than 50 are shown .
based on these data , our research group suggested that the taim strain represents a novel tool for the biological control of schistosomiasis transmission . the methodology for exploiting this tool includes introducing a large number of b . tenagophila ( taim / rs ) snails into water bodies where this species is the only transmitter of s . mansoni [ 19 ] . the introduction of the taim lineage can be monitored by identifying the 350 bp molecular marker in the offspring that result from crossbreeding between resistant b . tenagophila snails ( i . e . , introduced snails ) and susceptible snails ( i . e . , local snails ) . the preliminary results obtained in previous field studies have been promising , although it was not possible to evaluate the impact of the taim strain on the susceptibility of the local snails in these analyses [ 19 ] . therefore , the main purpose of the present work was to analyze susceptibility to infection and the presence of the marker in the descendants of crosses between taim and local b . tenagophila snails collected 4 , 11 and 14 months after the introduction of the taim strain into a stream in the municipality of bananal in the state of são paulo , brazil .
biomphalaria helophila ( orbigny , 1835 ) - ditch at trujillo , june 1959 ; rivulet at trujillo , apr . 1963 , studied by paraense and ibañez ( 1964 ) ; ditch at trujillo , june 1963 ; ditch at puerto chicama , apr . 1965 ; topotypes from marshes at callao , apr . 1965 , studied by paraense ( 1996 ) .
polymerase chain reaction - restriction fragment length polymorphism ( pcr - rflp ) analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region ( its ) of ribosomal dna using the restriction enzyme ddel verified that the b . tenagophila taim population exhibits a molecular profile with three its fragments ( i . e . , fragments of 800 , 470 and 350 bp ) ; other b . tenagophila populations in brazil only exhibit the first two bands [ 17 ] . thus , the 350 bp fragment is typical of the taim snail strain . although the taim molecular marker is only a fragment of the ribosomal dna and likely plays no role in the resistance of the snails to infection , this fragment exhibits a dominant genotype [ 27 ] and therefore constitutes a valuable molecular marker for the taim strain in both laboratory and field studies .
the freshwater snails of the genus biomphalaria preston , 1910 are widely distributed in the neotropical and african regions where some species are intermediate hosts of schistosoma mansoni sambon , 1907 , a digenetic trematode which causes schistosomiasis ( who , 1993 , 1998 ) . the taxonomy of biomphalaria has been principally based on shell morphology and the anatomy of the reproductive system ( paraense , fauran & courmes , 1964 ; paraense , 1966 , 1981 , 1984 , 2003 ; valdovinos & stuardo , 1991 ) , but the similarity of these characters among taxa has made classification difficult ( paraense , 1988 ; estrada et al . , 2006 ) . in fact , convergent shell evolution among african biomphalaria species has been detected , complicating species identification using conchological characters ( plam et al . , 2008 ) . the incorporation of molecular techniques , based mainly on restriction fragment length polymorphism ( rflp ) analyses , has helped in the identification and recognition of species , although most of the studies have concentrated on neotropical species ( caldeira et al . , 1998 , 2000 ; vidigal et al . , 1998 , 2000a , b , 2001 , 2002 ; spatz et al . , 1999 , 2000 ; velásquez et al . , 2002 ) . at the time of writing , 30–37 species are considered valid within biomphalaria ( dejong et al . , 2001 ; jørgensen , kristensen & stothard , 2007 ; caldeira , teodoro & carvalho , 2008 ) .
reconstruction of the divergence times of lineages of biomphalaria estimated using a substitution rate of 1 . 6–2 . 2 % per million years for the 16s locus . we used one sequence per population / species to generate a bayesian tree . numbers at nodes represent millions of years . the origin of the sequences is shown using numbers or initials ( see table 1 ) .
we compiled dna sequences of the 16s rrna gene and its1 and its2 region available in genbank from several sources ( table 1 ) and obtained original sequences of these three molecular loci from altiplano populations of biomphalaria and other species of the genus ( see below ) . the sequences used in this study were sourced from across a large fraction of the generic range and thus we can estimate the systematic position of the populations of biomphalaria restricted to the neotropical southern altiplano . we used helisoma trivolvis as the outgroup for molecular analyses based on previous phylogenetic studies ( bandoni , mulvey & loker , 1995 ; dejong et al . , 2001 ; morgan et al . , 2002 ) ; its sequences were obtained by dejong et al . ( 2001 ) .
b . tenagophila is a planorbid with a wide distribution in south america ( paraense 1984 ) , and has epidemiological importance , since it maintains the life cycle of the trematode s . mansoni in some areas in brazil . in spite of its dominance in some areas , b . tenagophila is found in nature with low rates of infection . however , it is responsible for the majority of the autochthonous cases of schistosomiasis in the state of são paulo ( brazil ) , as well as for the foci of the disease in the states of minas gerais and santa catarina ( brazil ) ( paraense 1986 ) . this last focus is maintained by a highly susceptible population ( joinville , santa catarina , brazil ) of mollusks to s . mansoni . there is a b . tenagophila population , indigenous to the ecological station at taim , state of rio grande do sul , brazil , that systematically has been found to be resistant to different s . mansoni strains , as shown in various laboratory experiments ( santos et al . 1979 ) . the scope of the present work was to carry out crossbreedings between this resistant strain and a highly susceptible one ( joinville ) , as well as to study parasitological , molecular and genetic aspects of their offspring in the presence of s . mansoni infection .
specimens of b . tenagophila taim and cabo frio strains were maintained in the mollusk room ‘lobato paraense’ of the centro de pesquisa rené rachou at fiocruz in belo horizonte , minas gerais , brazil . the b . tenagophila taim strain , which was originally collected at the ecological station of taim , rio grande do sul , brazil and maintained in laboratory conditions , has been completely resistant to experimental infection with s . mansoni [ 4 ] , [ 13 ] . this strain was collected by members of our group , during the 1970s , with permission from the director of the ecological station of taim at that time . the b . tenagophila cabo frio strain was initially collected in cabo frio , rio de janeiro , brazil and showed an infection rate by s . mansoni of approximately 50 % . this strain was also collected by members of our group , during the 1970s , following permission from the health department of cabo frio that determined the area for collection . thus , both strains have been maintained in the laboratory for more than 25 years following field collection . all the snails were reared at 27°c in aquaria with running water , calcium carbonate substrate , artificial light and were fed daily with lettuce and ration . only adult snails with shell diameters of 8–14 mm were used in the experiments .


pseudatemelia amparoella is a moth of the oecophoridae family .

it was described by vives in 1986 .

it is found on the iberian peninsula .

pseudatemelia amparoella

pseudatemelia flavifrontella sensu auctt . nec ( [ denis & schiffermüller ] , 1775 ) pseudatemelia flavifrontella
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tegeticula cassandra is a moth of the prodoxidae family .

it is found in the united states in north-central florida and bordering areas of georgia .

the habitat consists of open pine and pine-oak forests and open grassy areas with oak scrub .

the wingspan is 20 – 27 mm .

the forewings are white and the hindwings are dark gray with a brown tinge .

the larvae feed on yucca filamentosa , yucca smalliana , yucca flaccida and possibly yucca aloifolia .

they feed on developing seeds .

pupation takes place in a cocoon in the soil .

tegeticula cassandra

tegeticula cassandra pellmyr , 1999 , n . sp . , systematic entomology , v . 24 , no . 3 , p . 243 - 271 .
pellmyr , o . 1999 . systematic revision of the tegeticula yuccasella complex ( lepidoptera : prodoxidae ) north of mexico . systematic entomology 24 : 243 - 271 .
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wing expanse 20 - 27 mm . forewing white ; hindwing dark grey with brown tinge , darkest by fore edge and apex , gradually lighter toward back corner . male genitalia with aedeagus 1 . 45 - 1 . 70 mm long , 0 . 09 - 0 . 10 mm in cross section ; female genitalia with posterior apophyses 4 . 1 - 4 . 5 mm long , large corpus bursae with signa 1 . 44 - 1 . 72 mm in diameter .
fairly similar to elatella , with which it shares a distinctive ovipositor shape ( a high dorsal ridge ) . genitalia are characteristic for identification ; a diagnostic key is provided .
the species is known from the capsular - fruited yucca filamentosa ( y . smalliana , y . flaccida ) and probably the fleshy - fruited y . aloifolia . eggs are laid just below the ovary surface , usually at the base of the style . the larva feeds on developing seeds . pupation occurs in a cocoon in the soil .
natural habitats include relatively open pine and pine - oak forests , and open grassy areas with oak scrub . altitude 0 - 30 m .
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< p > this subsection of the < a href =
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> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘family and domains’ section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =
urltoken
> length < / a > and < a href =
urltoken
> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =
publication
> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =
urltoken
> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =
urltoken
> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called ‘primary ( citable ) accession number’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( ‘last modified’ ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =
/ help / sequence - searches
> more . . < / a > < / p >
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darwell ct , segraves ka , althoff dm ( 2017 ) the role of abiotic and biotic factors in determining coexistence of multiple pollinators in the yucca - yucca moth mutualism . ecography 40 ( 4 ) : 511 - 520 . urltoken
darwell ct , segraves ka , althoff dm ( 2016 ) data from : the role of abiotic and biotic factors in determining coexistence of multiple pollinators in the yucca - yucca moth mutualism .
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