lophius piscatorius , commonly known as the angler , is a monkfish in the family lophiidae .

it is found in coastal waters of the northeast atlantic , from the barents sea to the strait of gibraltar , the mediterranean and the black sea .

within some of its range , including the irish sea , this species comprises a significant commercial fishery .

lophius piscatorius

a second species ( lophius budegassa ) has recently been identified in irish waters . the chief identifying feature is the lining of the stomach cavity . in lophius piscatorius it is white and in lophius budegassa it is black .
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lophius piscatorium pardo , 1919 : fide f . de buen , 1926 : 78 .
crozier , w . w . , 1989 . age and growth of anglerfish ( lophius piscatorius l . ) in the north irish sea . fish . res . 7 ( 3 ) : 267 - 278 .
fulton , t . w . , 1903 . the distribution , growth and food of the angler ( lophius piscatorius ) . 21st ann . rep . fish . bd . scotland , part 3 : 186 - 217 .
crozier , w . w . , 1985 . observations on the food and feeding of the angler - fish , lophius piscatorius l . , in the northern irish sea . j . fish biol . 27 : 655 - 665 .
ofstad , l . h . , c . angus , t . pedersen and p . steingrund , 2013 . age and growth of anglerfish ( lophius piscatorius ) in faroese waters . fish . res . 139 : 51 - 60 .
picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . lophius piscatorius ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
tsimenides , n . , 1980 . contribution to the study of the anglerfishes lophius budegassa spinola 1807 and l . piscatorius l . 1758 in greek seas . phd . thesis , university of patras . ( in hellenic with english abstract ) .
vitturi , r . , e . catalano and d . colombera , 1992 . karyotype analysis of the teleostean fish balistes carolinensis and lophius piscatorius suggest the occurrence of two different karyoevolutional pathways . biol . zbl . 111 : 215 - 222 .
landa , j . and p . pereda , 1997 . growth of white monkfish ( lophius piscatorius l . ) in the northern spanish continental shelf ( ices divisions viiic and ixa ) . ices c . m . 1997 / cc : 07 .
fao - figis , 2005 . a world overview of species of interest to fisheries . chapter : lophius piscatorius . retrieved on 14 june 2005 , from urltoken 3p . figis species fact sheets . species identification and data programme - sidp , fao - figis
landa , j . , j . barrado and f . velasco , 2013 . age and growth of anglerfish ( lophius piscatorius ) on the porcupine bank ( west of ireland ) based on illicia age estimation . fish . res . 137 : 30 - 40 .
quincoces , i . , m . santurtún and p . lucio , 1988 . biological aspects of white anglerfish ( lophius piscatorius ) in the bay of biscay ( ices divison viiia , b , d ) in 1996 - 1997 . ices document cm 1998 / o : 48 .
laurenson , c . h . and i . g . priede , 2005 . the diet and trophic ecology of anglerfish lophius piscatorius at the shetland islands , uk . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 85 ( 2 ) : 419 - 424 .
duarte , r . , m . azevedo and p . pereda , 1994 . study on the growth of black monkfish ( lophius budegassa spinola ) and white anglerfish ( l . piscatorius l . ) of ices stock in divisions viiic and ixa . ices c . m . 1994 / g : 26 .
dupouy , h . , r . pajot and b . kergoat , 1984 . etude de la croissance de baudroies , lophius piscatorius et l . budegassa de l ' atlantique nord - est obtenue a partir de l ' illicium . rev . trav . inst . peches marit . 48 : 107 - 131 .
reeve , a . 2008 . lophius piscatorius angler fish . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken
about : monkfish ( angler , headfish , goosefish ) is name of several types of fish in the northwest atlantic , most often the species of the anglerfish genus lophius .
caruso , j . h . - 1983the systematics and distribution of the liphiid anglerfishes : ii . revisions of the genera lophiomus and lophius . copeia , 1983 ( 1 ) : 11 - 30 .
( of batrachus piscatorius ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of lophius eurypterus düben , 1845 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
justification : lophius piscatorius is restricted to the eastern atlantic from greenland to mauritania , including the mediterranean , however , there is some question as to whether it ranges even further south to namibia . it is a demersal species that can occur from the shore to the continental slope . it is a long - lived , late - maturing , slow - growing species with fluctuating levels of recruitment that may make it susceptible to overfishing . it is heavily targeted by bottom trawl fisheries in the north atlantic where overfishing and habitat destruction has been documented . it is regulated by ices which recommends a moratorium . it is listed as least concern .
the angler fish grows up to 200 cm in length and is a very distinctive fish , recognizable by having its head and body depressed , a wide mouth , broad head and a fleshy ' lure ' at the end of its first dorsal spine , which is used to attract prey . its colour can be variable but is principally brown or greeny brown with reddish or dark brown mottlings . it always has a white underside . the skin is loose and scaleless and the midline of the body is fringed with leaf like flaps . lophius piscatorius is a slow moving , bottom dwelling fish most comonly seen half buried and concealed in the sediment .
jardas , i . , 1987 . on the biology and ecology of lophius species ( teleostei , lophiidae ) in the adriatic sea . p . 181 - 185 . in s . o . kullander and b . fernholm ( eds . ) . proceedings , v congress of european ichthyologists , stockholm . department of vertebrate zoology , sweden museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden .
catch statistics showed an overall increasing trend up until 1976 with a sharp increase from 32 , 012 mt to 47 , 364 mt ( 49 % increase ) . catch landings subsequently dropped from 47 , 364 mt in 1980 to 22 , 259 mt in 1993 representing a 53 % decrease . catch has since fluctuated with no clear trend from 1994 - 2011 . there is currently no effort information available for l . piscatorius .
aggregate catch landings for monkfishes ( lophius spp . ) were recorded from mauritania from 1985 - 2011 . over the 27 years , catch landings have fluctuated until a peak in 2000 at 45 mt . catch subsequently declined with almost zero reported catches in 2006 at 2 mt ; representing a 96 % decline in six years . catch statistics have maintained very low ( near zero ) landings for the last five years ( 2006 - 2011 ) .
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is distributed from zero to 600 m depth from the southwestern barents sea to the strait of gibraltar ( caruso 1986 ) , as well as throughout the mediterranean sea , and south to mauritania ( caruso in press ) . this species was described as frequently occurring in a trawl survey conducted off the coast of namibia between the years 1992 - 1996 ( hamukuaya
as distributed off of mauritania . this species is reportedly expanding its range northward due to increasing water temperatures where it is now known from as far north as greenland , as well as iceland and northwest europe ( møller
the fishery has expanded into deeper waters since the mid - 1990s , areas believed to have been a refuge for adult monkfish , leading to an increased vulnerability of the stock to overexploitation ( seafish . org 2012 ) .
the natural population size of this species in the eastern central atlantic is unknown . this subpopulation may be naturally low compared to subpopulations in the northern parts of its distribution .
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the anglerfish lies half - buried in the mud or sand on the bottom of the sea , attracting fish to its huge mouth by means of its lure . fish are drawn in by the sudden inrush of water . this method of feeding is a speciality of the various groups of anglerfish worldwide .
anglerfish spawn between may and june in british waters , and between june and august in the north atlantic . the eggs , numbering up to a million , are contained in a band of mucus about ten metres long , released to drift in the open ocean . the larvae , when they hatch , look just as extraordinary as the adult fish . they mature at a length of 40 cm and at an age of four years for males , and a length of 70 cm and an age of six years for females . a fully - grown adult anglerfish may live for 20 years or more .
the anglerfish range extends along the eastern atlantic , along the norwegian coast of the south - western barents sea , down to the straits of gibraltar , and includes the mediterranean and black sea . there are also records from icelandic waters .
you can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .
the anglerfish frequents the coastal , deep continental shelf regions , on the sandy or muddy sea bottom , at depths ranging from 20 to 1000 metres .
the biology of deep - water fish such as the anglerfish is still relatively unknown and with deep - water fishing largely unregulated , it has proved difficult to assess whether populations of these fish are being adversely affected . another problem associated with many deep - water species is their late maturity , meaning that there is a greater risk of them being caught before reaching reproductive age .
when these deep - water fish are caught accidentally ( bycatch ) as often happens with indiscriminate trawling , they are unable to survive being hauled up to the surface , and are already dead before they are returned to the sea .
these large predatory fish are thought to be top of the food chain within the ecosystem they inhabit , and there are fears that commercial overfishing of their food , and subsequent damage to their habitat by weighted trawl nets , could have an adverse effect on populations .
the anglerfish is listed in the uk biodiversity grouped species action plan for deep - water fish . the european union ( eu ) has regulatory powers over commercial sea fishing for member countries but allows individual nations some flexibility in the application of the eu rules .
the commercial exploitation of anglerfish is governed by the total allowable catch ( tac ) regulations . catches in the north sea and west of scotland , areas monitored by the international council for the exploration of the sea ( ices ) , are covered by precautionary tacs . however , the fishing industry has been lobbying for an increase , and permission to extend the catching of anglerfish into deeper waters . ices has suggested that commercial deep - sea fishing could pose a serious threat to many species as numbers are below safe biological limits . for other species , we simply do not know the size of their populations . ices has recommended that unsustainable commercial deep - sea fishing should therefore be reduced , and better records kept of fishing activities so catches can be equated to known fish population sizes . at the present time , anglerfish are being overfished , and there are no management plans for its conservation .
the deep - sea ecosystem is still largely unexplored and understudied . however , we do know that it is a fragile system . unregulated , unsustainable commercial harvesting of fish stocks risks wrecking this fascinating habitat before we have learned of its importance and value to the ocean as a whole .
there may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .
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dorsal fin the unpaired fin found on the back of the body of fish , or the raised structure on the back of most cetaceans . larvae the stage in an animal’s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . pectoral fins in fish , the pair of fins that are found one on each side of the body just behind the gills . they are generally used for balancing and braking .
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en - angler ( = monk ) , fr - baudroie commune , sp - rape .
mediterranean , black sea , eastern north atlantic from straits of gibraltar to south - western barents sea .
benthic , from shallow , inshore waters to 500 m . feeds mainly on fishes , occasionally sea - birds . spawning february - july .
caught commercially with bottom trawls , gill nets , and bottom longlines . the total catch reported for this species to fao for 1999 was 53 322 t . the countries with the largest catches were uk ( 16 989 t ) and france ( 10 592 t ) . marketed fresh and frozen ; eaten steamed , sautéed , broiled , fried , microwaved and baked .
bini , g . - 1965catálogo de los nombres de peces , moluscos y crustáceos de importancia comercial en el mediterráneo . fao , rome : i - xv + 407 pp .
buen , f . de . - 1926catálogo ictiológico del mediterráneo español y de marruecos , recopilando lo publicado sobre peces de las costas mediterráneas y próximas del atlántico ( mar de españa ) . resultados camp . int . inst . esp . oceanogr . , 2 : 1 - 221 .
caruso , j . h . - 1986 lophiidae . in : p . j . p . whitehead et al . , ( eds . ) . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean ( fnam ) . unesco , paris , vol . iii : 1362 - 1363 . fishbase : iclarm .
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2003 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken
lloris , d , j . rucabado , ll del cerro , f . portas , m . demestre & a . roig . - 1984tots els peixos del mar català . i : llistat de cites i de referències . treballs soc . cat . ict . herp . , 1 : 1 - 208 . s
anglerfish * family : lophiidae , * phylum : chordata , * class : actinopterygii , * order : lophiiformes , * type : fish , * diet : carnivore , * size : 8 in ( 20 cm ) up to 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) , * weight : up to 110 lbs ( 50 kg ) , * group name : school . * * did you know ? the angler fish ' s lighted lure glows with the help of millions of bio luminescent bacteria . more info : urltoken
occurs in coastal waters all around britain and ireland . it is predominantly recorded on the west coast of england , wales and scotland and the north , south and east coasts of ireland .
is present in waters from the low intertidal down to depths of 550 m . it is uncommon to see an angler fish in water shallower than 18 m though it may migrate down to as deep as 2000 m in offshore waters in order to spawn . it is found mostly on sandy or muddy bottoms but is also present on shell , gravel and occasionally rocky areas .
skin loose and scaleless with many fringed flaps mostly around the mid line of the fish .
variable colour but basically brown or greeny brown with reddish or dark brown mottlings and white underside .
the angler fish uses its lure to attract prey to within reach . prey items are usually smaller fish ( such as spurdogs , rays , sand eels , sculpins , sea snails , cod , whiting , pouting , haddock , flatfishes ) but a range of items have been found in angler fish stomachs including ; lobsters , crabs , squids and occasionally seabirds .
is otherwise known as monkfish and is an important commercial fish . it can be confused with the angelshark ,
dipper , f . , 2001 . british sea fishes ( 2nd edn ) . teddington : underwater world publications ltd .
fishbase , 2000 . fishbase . a global information system on fishes . [ on - line ] http : / / www . fishbase . org , 2001 - 05 - 03
howson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]
jncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken
marlin ( marine life information network ) , 2005 . searchable benthic data ( seabed ) map [ on - line ] . data access sub - programme , marine life information network for britian and ireland http : / / www . marlin . ac . uk ,
national biodiversity network ( nbn ) atlas website . available from : http : / / www . nbnatlas . org . accessed 01 april 2017
picton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken
wheeler , a . , 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . london : macmillan .
whitehead , p . j . p . , bauchot , m . - l . , hureau , j . - c . , nielson , j . & tortonese , e . 1986 . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . vol . i , ii & iii . paris : united nations educational , scientific and cultural organisation ( unesco ) .
marine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) © 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .
the information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken
linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 236 [ details ]
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van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
dyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus eurypterus ( düben , 1845 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus piscator ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
description : the angler fish is unlike any other fish encountered in the waters around britain and ireland . it has a large flattened head with a wide semicircualr mouth and inward curving , pointed teeth . behind the head the body tapers to a short , thickset tail . there are a number of separate , elongate fin rays on the back of the fish . the first of these is the longest and terminates in a fleshy lobe . it uses this as a kind of fishing rod and lure to attract its prey , hence its common name . the pectoral fins are large and broad and the pelvic fins are small and are located on the underside of the head . a border of fringed lobes surround the head and body . the angler fish is very good at camouflage and the colour varies to match that of its surroundings . adults can reach a maximum length of 2m but most are between 50 - 100cm .
habitat : the angler fish occurs sublittorally from 2m to over 500m in a wide varity of habitats .
distribution : this species is common all around the coasts of britain and ireland .
similar species : the angler fish is unlikely to be confused with any other species .
first dorsal fin is separate and elongate with ' fishing - lure ' on end .
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
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national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
well , here’s an idea . the deep sea anglerfish , melanocetus johnsoni , literally does that by having the rod , line and bait all integrated into its body . going where no other line or bait can ever reach , this angler dwells in the lonely , lightless bottom of the world’s oceans , at a depth of a few thousand feet . the deep sea anglerfish is one of the 200 over species of anglerfish that can be found in the world , all of which possess this angling skill unique to their kind only .
these bony fishes are named for their characteristic mode of predation , where they use an elongated dorsal spine sprouting from the middle of their head over their eyes as a rod and line , and the fleshy growth at the tip of this spine as bait to lure prey in . such an action resembles angling , hence their name . the deep sea anglerfish typically have at least one of these long filament spines ; these are the spines from the anterior dorsal fin . in most anglerfish species , the longest filament is the first ( the illicium ) , and that is where the fleshy growth ( also called the esca ) used to bait prey can be found . this illicium can be moved around in all directions , and the deep sea anglerfish cleverly manipulates this movement in such a way that the esca resembles a worm ( or any other prey animals ) . their jaws , which can be extended up to twice their body size , are then triggered to react upon a prey contacting their esca . in this way , their next meal is lured close to their mouths , and devoured whole in a swift action .
in the near - lightless conditions at the bottom of the ocean , the deep sea anglerfish emits light from its esca to attract and lure prey . this light is blueish green , and is produced through a chemical process known as bioluminescence by bacteria housed in the esca . in some species of anglerfish , their organs or other parts of their bodies emit light as well through the same process .
at this point , i guess i would have to burst the bubble of all avid male anglers by saying that the best anglers of the year goes to the females , in the context of the deep sea anglerfish . across all anglerfish , this distinctive dorsal spine or illicium , and esca , are features that belong only to the females . the males do not have them . the male anglerfish is significantly smaller than the female , and completely different in appearance .
what is interesting to note is that when a male anglerfish matures , its digestive system degenerates and it cannot feed on its own anymore . therefore it has to find a female or die of starvation . the male angler uses its small hooked teeth to latch itself onto a female , at the same time releasing an enzyme that dissolves the skin of his mouth and that of her body . the two become fused together and their blood vessels join as one . the male , now inseparable from the female , acts as a parasite and gets all of his nourishment from her body . a female can as many as six males on her body . such a behaviour ensures that when it is time for the female to spawn , she has a mate by her side made readily .
the features and characteristics of the deep sea anglerfish certainly makes this angler both weird and unique . their well developed angling techniques and efficient natural angling equipment has enabled them to stand out as outstanding anglers . at the same time , their grotesque appearance and scary features have earned them the nickname “common black devil” .
well , one thing is for sure . i wouldn’t want it as a nightlight !
“animal fact files , angler fish ( deep sea ) ” . bbc , august 2005 . url :
“anglerfish , finding nemo – copyright pixar , ” by randy berrett . bbc news online .
the sexual peculiarities of the angler fish” . scribal terror , 17 jun 2007 . url :
deep - sea anglerfish – big mom , tiny dad” . oceanservice . url :
monkfish has a very large head with a large mouth that bears long , sharp , recurved teeth . body is flat and adapted for life on the sea bottom - depending on the species , body is light or dark brown - reddish , with dots and spots of various sizes and shapes that help monkfish to camouflage itself while waiting for prey .
thee first spines of the spinous dorsal fin has been modified to act as an angling apparatus that bears a bulb - like ( fleshy ) lure . this angling apparatus is located at the tip of the snout just above the mouth and is used to attract prey - small fish that are swallowed whole .
monkfish on fishmarket - photo is not ' flattened ' , monkfish is that flat : ) photo by n . m .
monkfish is relatively large fish - it grows to a length of more than 1 . 5 m ( 5 ft ) with specimens of 1 m ( 3 ft ) being common . the largest recorded specimen weighed around 115 kg ( 253 lb ) .
habitat : monkfish is found in north atlantic on both sides - in europe and in america . also , it is found in mediterranean and black sea ( actually , black sea is part of mediterranean sea , but for many species it is needed to emphasize this ) .
in general , lophiidae or anglerfishes are found in the arctic , atlantic , indian and pacific oceans .
monkfish can be found on various terrain types that provides opportunity for easy prey and camouflage - it roams from shallows to depths up to 1000m .
fishing period : it can be caught year long , little bit better in warmer months .
fishing rigs and tackle : due to it ' s size and shape , it can be easily caught in various nets . in recreational fishing , it is most commonly caught on longline and on strong rod and reel . rarely , it will attach slow moving lure while trolling just above sea bed - in that case , prepare for great surprise and fight : )
it will swallow any fish or fish meat that it can find . due to the mouth size , even rather small specimens can swallow large bait .
monkfish on fishmarket , with gilthead seabream ( down right ) . photo by n . m .
cuisine : monkfish is considered as delicacy . tail has very special taste and often is prized more than a lobster . head is often used in soups and fish stews with other fish . tail has almost no bones , but many people prefer monkfish head in fish stew and then served on large plate - whole - myself included : )
acutally , it is great , no matter how one prepares it - barbequed , fried , grilled . . . also , the liver of monkfish , known as ankimo , is considered a delicacy in japan .
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don ' t forget the urltoken all ireland smooth hound championships on july 21st hosted by sea angling ireland sac .
species target for 2014 ( 1 ) anything else will be a bonus . 186 . 6m = 204 yds ballybrack sac .
yeah different species alright , although i think anglerfish is sometimes sold as monkfish and perhaps thats where the confusion about the two species arises .
ir . brathair ; fr . ange de mer ; ge . meerengel ; du . bergelote ; it . squadro , sp . angelote .
sometimes confused with the angler fish ( which is marketed as
monkfish
) but this species is a cartilaginous fish . looks like a cross between a shark and a skate . , but is more closely allied to the former . mouth terminal , instead of back behind snout as in sharks and skate . grows to about 100 lb .
ir . lairnhineach , lasgaire ; fr . baudroie ; ge . seeteufel ; du . zeeduivel ; it . rana pescatrice ; sp . rape .
skin naked , with numerous lappets , especially around the mouth . huge head and wide mouth with numerous long teeth . pectoral fins with fleshy bases ; the gill opening behind the pectoral . first dorsal fin on the head , the rays separate ; the anterior ray over the mouth and tipped with a
lure . .
grows to 150 lb .
“our prime purpose in this life is to help others . and if you can ' t help them , at least don ' t hurt them . ” - dalai lama “learn from yesterday , live for today and hope for tomorrow . ” - albert einstein
linnaeus , c . , 1758 . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordinus , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . impensis direct . laurentii salvii , holmiae . 824 p .
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microblepsis acuminata is a moth in the drepanidae family .

it was described by leech in 1890 .

it is found in china ( hubei , shensi ) and japan .

the wingspan is about 39 mm .

adults are pale reddish brown , the apex of the forewings blackish and two dark brown lines transverse the disc of the wing .

the first is deflected to the median nervurem then inflected to the inner margin and the second runs from the costa towards the outer margin , where it joins a darker apical streak .

there is also an obscure submarginal line and two small black central spots .

the hindwings have two central dark brown lines , the first curved and the second straight .

there is also slightly wavy dark brown submarginal line .

microblepsis acuminata

microblepsis violacea ( butler , 1889 ) = agnidra violacea butler , 1889 = albara takasago okano , 1959 = drepana violacea = albara violacea = betalbara rugosa = albara takasago okano 1959 .
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animal communication signals can be highly elaborate , and researchers have long sought explanations for their evolutionary origins . for example , how did signals such as the tail - fan display of a peacock , a firefly flash or a wolf howl evolve ? animal communication theory holds that many signals evolved from non - signalling behaviours through the process of ritualization . empirical evidence for ritualization is limited , as it is necessary to examine living relatives with varying degrees of signal evolution within a phylogenetic framework . we examine the origins of vibratory territorial signals in caterpillars using comparative and molecular phylogenetic methods . we show that a highly ritualized vibratory signal—anal scraping—originated from a locomotory behaviour—walking . furthermore , comparative behavioural analysis supports the hypothesis that ritualized vibratory signals derive from physical fighting behaviours . thus , contestants signal their opponents to avoid the cost of fighting . our study provides experimental evidence for the origins of a complex communication signal , through the process of ritualization .
evolutionary origins of animal communication signals have been a major preoccupation of biologists since the time of darwin . many displays are thought to have evolved through the process of ritualization , whereby activities not associated with communication , such as locomotory movements , breathing or body secretions , are co - opted to create new communication signals 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . unintended cues generated by such non - signalling behaviours are thought to be modified to enhance their efficacy as communication signals through exaggeration of amplitudes , increases in regularity of rhythm and stereotypy , and changes in the relative timing of pattern elements 1 . many informal hypotheses on signal origins are inferred exclusively from behavioural comparisons within or between species . for example , a cricket song , generated by rubbing wings together , is hypothesized to have evolved from inadvertent sound production associated with pheromone release 5 or movements associated with flight 6 . the peacock tail - fan display is thought to have originated from bowing and pecking at the ground to present food to females 7 . formal testing of such hypotheses proves challenging , as it is necessary to conduct a phylogenetic comparison between species , and document homologous behaviours representing different stages of the ritualization process . the purpose of our study is to test the hypothesis that ritualized territorial signals in caterpillars that resolve conflicts using vibratory signals evolved from vibratory cues associated with locomotion .
the masked birch caterpillar , drepana arcuata ( walker ) ( drepanidae : drepaninae ) , communicates ownership of its territory using complex vibratory displays 8 . resident caterpillars construct silken leaf shelters that they defend against intruding conspecifics by performing a repetitive vibratory display involving three principal elements : anal scraping , mandible drumming and mandible scraping ( fig . 1 ) . these caterpillars possess specialized structures on their anal segment that they drag across the leaf to make a scratching noise , which they produce while drumming or scraping their mandibles at varying rates to create a complex signal display . consistent with other territorial displays in animals , these signals are generated primarily by the resident ; they escalate in rate and kind as the encounter proceeds , and typically result in the intruder leaving the territory ( supplementary video 1 s1 ) . this unusual form of communication in d . arcuata is highly ritualized , allowing both opponents to resolve contests without physical harm .
( a ) caterpillars build and occupy silken leaf shelters ( scale bar , 2 . 5 mm ) . ( b ) when approached by an intruder , the resident produces three types of vibratory signals : anal scraping ( green ) is performed by pulling the abdominal segment forward while at the same time scratching a sclerotized ' oar ' against the leaf surface ; mandible drumming ( blue ) and mandible scraping ( orange ) are produced by rapidly hitting and laterally scraping opened mandibles against the leaf surface , respectively .
in seeking hypotheses to explain the evolutionary origin of vibratory signalling , we performed a survey of literature that included preliminary morphological 9 , 10 or behavioural 11 , 12 descriptions of drepanid caterpillars . we observed a range of morphologies and behaviours associated with the anal segment across species . most interestingly , it was noted that many species lacked anal prolegs , whereas others possessed a pair of fully functional prolegs . prolegs are unsegmented legs located on abdominal segments 3–6 and 10 in most caterpillars 13 , 14 and are used for locomotion . this observation of morphological variation in the anal segment led to our hypothesis that the ritualized anal scraping signal seen in d . arcuata was co - opted from crawling . specific predictions that would support this hypothesis include the following : ( 1 ) structures and movements in species that use their anal segment for crawling will be homologous to the modified forms found in anal scraping species ; ( 2 ) the possession of anal prolegs will be the basal condition when mapped onto a phylogeny ; and ( 3 ) anal scraping signals will possess modifications characteristic of ritualized signals when compared with cues associated with crawling . to test these predictions , we studied the morphological , behavioural and associated vibratory characteristics of the anal segment in distantly related species . we then constructed a molecular phylogeny onto which walking and talking with the anal segment were mapped .
examinations of the terminal abdominal segment in 36 species of drepanidae revealed interesting morphological diversity ( see methods and table 1 ) . most notably , whereas some species possess fully formed anal prolegs , others lack these prolegs altogether ( fig . 2 ) . furthermore , some species that lack anal prolegs possess a pair of specialized oar - shaped structures ( anal oars ) resembling thicker , hardened versions of small hairs ( setae ) commonly found on the surface of a caterpillar ' s body . the number and position of primary setae are relatively conserved throughout the order lepidoptera and each primary seta is assigned a specific identity 13 , 14 . in 17 species of drepanidae ( table 1 ) , detailed comparisons of the primary anal setae were made and homologues were identified . on the basis of the position and relative position of other known setae , we concluded that the anal oar is homologous to the posterior proctor seta or pp1 ( fig . 2b , f ) that has undergone modification through sclerotization to become a stridulatory organ specialized for communication .
table 1 : lepidoptera specimens ( ingroup taxa ) and corresponding details of their morphology , behaviour and genes sequenced .
( a , d ) schematic of t . or and d . arcuata illustrating the overall body plan of each species . ( b , f ) ( top panels ) schematic of identified setae on the terminal segment in t . or and d . arcuata ; labels refer to names of setae according to stehr 13 ( d = dorsal , sd = subdorsal , v = ventral , sv = subventral , l = lateral , pp = posterior proctor ) ; ( bottom panels ) scanning electron micrographs showing posterior views of the right anal proleg in t . or and the homologous region with stridulatory oar in d . arcuata . pp1 setae are marked with arrows , and colours correspond to setae labelled in the top panel . scale bars , 200 μm ( t . or ) and 100 μm ( d . arcuata ) . ( c , e ) video frames of the terminal abdominal segments in each species , illustrating one complete crawling cycle in t . or and one complete anal scraping movement in d . arcuata . arrows show the progression of movement . scale bars , 3 mm ( t . or ) and 1 . 5 mm ( d . arcuata ) .
in addition to the two conditions described above ( anal prolegs and crawling , and no anal prolegs and anal scraping ) , there is a third general morphological condition in some members of the drepanidae species—ones that lack both anal prolegs and anal oars ( see fig . 3 ; table 1 ) . these species are peculiar as they do not use their anal segments for crawling or for sound production and the movements produced with this segment vary . some species with this condition , such as oreta rosea ( walker ) , have long processes emerging from the anal shield that they quickly sway from side to side when disturbed , perhaps to ward off a predator or parasitoid . other species , such as watsonalla cultraria ( fabricius ) , produce the same anal scraping movements as d . arcuata but produce no detectable vibration signals as they lack the modifications of anal oars . this morphological alternative could represent an intermediate condition , a secondary loss of prolegs , or a loss of anal oars .
figure 3 : bayesian tree showing ancestral and derived states of the terminal ( anal ) segment .
anal prolegs present ( orange ) , absent ( green ) ; anal oars present ( red ) , absent ( blue ) . posterior probabilities are shown above branches . pie charts are maximum likelihood probabilities of ancestral states at four selected nodes . the common ancestor of drepaninae and thyatirinae ( node b ) had a 99 . 9 % probability of possessing anal prolegs . anal oars were probably gained at node c and were subsequently lost multiple times .
table 2 : lepidoptera specimens ( outgroup taxa ) , and corresponding details of their morphology and genes sequenced .
( a ) video frames illustrating a typical encounter between a resident and intruder , whereby the intruder enters the leaf shelter ( 1 ) , the resident then approaches the intruder while hitting , pushing or mandible scraping ( t . or ; scale bar , 9 mm ) , or uses ritualized signals ( d . arcuata ; scale bar , 7 mm ) ( 2 ) and the intruder turns to leave ( 3 ) . ( b ) laser vibrometer traces of the cues and signals on the leaf during such an encounter . numbers correspond to frames in a . relative amplitudes are equal between species . the box encloses part of the trace that is enlarged in the coloured segment below , which shows the vibrations generated by the resident when the two individuals are close together . colours correspond to cues or signals in c . ( c ) transition diagrams showing the probability of one type of behaviour following another . asterisks denote significantly more probable transitions ( d . arcuata , n = 13 ; t . or , n = 7 ; p < 0 . 05 ) . ms , mandible scraping ; as , anal scraping ; md , mandible drumming .
in summary , our results support our hypothesis that a ritualized territorial signal—anal scraping—is derived from a locomotory pattern—crawling—observed in ancestral species . moreover , we provide evidence for the contextual framework of signal evolution by showing that other signalling components—mandible drumming and scraping—became substitutes for more physically aggressive behaviours such as pushing , hitting and biting . thus , several evolutionarily derived species within this group use a ' civilized ' alternative to physical fighting . many other animals resolve conflicts using ritualized displays thought to derive from behaviours associated with physical aggression . foot drumming in kangaroo rats 16 and pawing the ground in bulls are thought to have evolved from intentions to chase , and human sports events such as the olympic games are suggested to represent ritualized fighting displays 17 . however , the evolutionary pathways leading to such ritualized displays remain untested . our study provides direct experimental evidence for the evolutionary origin of a communication signal , and supports the fundamental tenets of ritualization suggested by classic ethologists . further research on this unique model system of vibratory caterpillars should examine the environmental selection pressures that influenced ritualization , as well as the changes to the neuromuscular system accompanying the transition from walking to talking .
living and preserved larvae used in this study were obtained from various sources ( see table 1 ) . larvae were reared indoors on cuttings of their respective host plants under a light–dark ( 18 : 6 ) photoperiod at 21–26 °c . all larvae used for experiments were late instars ( third to fifth ) occupying solitary leaves or leaf shelters , with the exception of cyclidia substigmaria substigmaria ( cyclidiinae ) , which live gregariously .
we examined the anal segments ( a8–a10 ) of larvae preserved in 80 % ethyl alcohol . drawings were made using a drawing tube and setae were identified and labelled following the nomenclature described by stehr 13 and i . hasenfuss ( personal communication ) . for scanning electron micrographs , anal segments were air dried or prepared in hmds ( hexamethyldisilazane ) 18 . specimens were sputter coated with gold palladium and examined using a jeol scanning electron microscope ( jsm - 6400 ; jeol ) . morphological characteristics of the anal segment in some species were obtained from literature , as indicated in table 1 .
total genomic dna was extracted from 43 adult moths ( see tables 1 and 2 ) stored in 100 % ethyl alcohol at −80 °c . a single leg from each sample was ground and then digested at 58 °c for 1 h with 20 mg ml −1 proteinase k in 250 μl of a solution containing 0 . 1 m tris ( ph 8 . 0 ) , 10 mm edta and 2 % sds . samples were then incubated at 65 °c for an additional 10 min in a solution containing 5 m nacl and 10 % cetyl trimethylammonium bromide . the solutions were extracted using standard phenol–chloroform protocols and dna was precipitated overnight in 95 % ethyl alcohol .
dna fragments were amplified by pcr using specific primers for three genes—cad , nd1 and 28s d2 . amplifications were carried out in 20 μl volumes containing 3 μl of each primer , 2 . 0 μl of 10× taq buffer containing mgcl 2 ( bioshop ) , 1 . 2 μl mgcl 2 ( bioshop ) , 0 . 4 μl of an equimolar solution of dntps ( invitrogen ) , 0 . 5 μl of taq polymerase ( bioshop ) , 7 . 9 μl dh 2 o and 2 μl dna template . a typical pcr procedure for all genes consisted of 3 min denaturation at 95 °c , followed by 30 cycles including denaturation ( 30 s at 95 °c ) , annealing ( 30 s , temperatures are given below ) and extension ( 30 s at 72 °c ) . an additional 10 min extension step at 72 °c was included in the final cycle . pcr products were verified by agarose gel electrophoresis and either purified using a genelute pcr clean - up kit ( sigma - aldrich ) for direct sequencing or cloned using a topo cloning kit ( invitrogen ) before sequencing multiple clones of each fragment . the second expansion segment of the 28s gene was amplified using primers 28s d2f : 5′ - agagagagttcaagagtacgtg - 3′ and 28s d2r : 5′ - ttggtccgtgtttcaagacggg - 3′ ( ref . 19 ) at an annealing temperature of 59 °c . an 849 bp region of the cad gene was amplified using primers 743nf : 5′ - ggngtnacnacngcntgyttygarcc - 3′ and 1028r : 5′ - ttrttnggnarytgnccncccat - 3′ ( ref . 20 ) at an annealing temperature of 50 °c . often it was necessary to follow this amplification with a second amplification using nested primers at 50 °c ( 791f : 5′ - ttygargargcnttycaraargc - 3′ and 963r : 5′ - gcrcaccartcraaytc - 3′ ( ref . 20 ) ) . for nd1 , we designed drepanidae - specific primer pairs based on weller et al . ( ref . 21 ) 5′ - gagccaggttggtttctatc - 3′ and 5′ - gaattagaagatcaaccagcaa - 3′ , and used an annealing temperature of 53 °c .
both strands of gel - purified or cloned dna fragments were sequenced in an applied biosystems 3730 dna analyzer ( applied biosystems ) . sequence contigs were viewed , assembled and edited using dna baser ( heraclesoftware ) . sequences were aligned in mafft 22 using an e - ins - i setting with 1 , 000 iterations , and also checked by eye . the optimal nucleotide substitution model for each gene was determined with the akaike information criterion 23 , as implemented in modeltest 24 . the best - fit models were gtr + g ( 28s ) and gtr + i + g ( cad , nd1 ) . the data sets were concatenated into a single data set of 1 , 617 base pairs , including 680 informative sites ( cad—638 base pairs , 242 informative sites ; nd1—450 base pairs , 190 informative sites ; and 28s d2—529 base pairs , 248 informative sites ) and the appropriate substitution model partitioned for each gene . phylogenetic analysis was conducted in mrbayes 25 with eight chains , sampling every 1 , 000 generations with a heating temperature parameter of 0 . 12 . the markov chain was terminated at 25 million generations , determined by examining trace plots in awty 26 .
we coded anal prolegs and oars as discrete binary presence / absence characters in mesquite 27 . we inferred ancestral conditions of anal prolegs and oars for four selected nodes , with posterior probability of 1 in mesquite using the mkv model for morphological character data 28 . we used bayes traits 29 to determine whether the two traits were strongly correlated on phylogeny following the method outlined by pagel 30 . the fully aligned , concatenated data matrix can be accessed as a supplementary file ( supplementary data s1 ) .
behaviours associated with the anal segment , territorial interactions and vibratory signals and cues were studied directly in 11 species representing all three subfamilies . in addition , behavioural characters for two species were obtained through personal communication from i . hasenfuss . a full list of species and behavioural characters obtained is provided in table 1 . detailed comparisons of behaviours and signals associated with territorial encounters were performed on two species , t . or and d . arcuata , which represented thyatirinae and drepaninae , respectively . territorial behaviours were not scored for the other sister group , cyclidiinae , as the representative species for this group did not exhibit territorial behaviour .
vibrations measured using a polytec laser doppler vibrometer ( pdv 100 ; polytec ) were digitized and recorded onto a marantz professional portable solid - state recorder ( pmd 671 ; 44 . 1 khz sampling rate ; marantz ) . vibrations on the leaf surface were measured at the location of a circular piece of reflective tape ( 2 . 0 mm in diameter ) positioned 1–2 . 5 cm from the resident caterpillar . all vibration recordings were made in an acoustic chamber ( eckel industries ) in conjunction with video recording . oscillograms were produced using the raven bioacoustics research program ( cornell laboratory of ornithology ) .
to determine whether the vibrational signals of d . arcuata met the four main conditions for ritualization , the signals were compared with crawling patterns in t . or on the basis of simplification , exaggeration , repetition and stereotypy . to quantitatively compare the simplicity of movements between species , components of each behaviour were counted and compared directly , wherein each component comprised a single directional change in movement . exaggeration was assessed by comparing the relative amplitude of vibration signals associated with crawling and anal scraping within given trials of d . arcuata . because of differences in leaf structure and size of the individuals between trials , amplitudes of d . arcuata anal scraping could not be compared directly with crawling in t . or . however , it was found that vibrations produced by crawling were comparable between species , and therefore anal scraping in resident d . arcuata caterpillars was compared with intruder crawling within the same trials using a paired t - test . amplitude measurements were taken for 11 trials using the raven bioacoustics research program and behaviours were compared . repetition was assessed by comparing rates of anal scraping in d . arcuata with rates of crawling in t . or within the 20 s period following the time of closest contact . rates were compared between 16 individuals of d . arcuata and 9 individuals of t . or using a t - test . all statistical tests were performed with a 95 % confidence interval .
data deposition . all sequences were submitted to genbank under accession numbers gu174157 , gu174263 .
how to cite this article : scott , j . l . et al . the evolutionary origins of ritualized acoustic signals in caterpillars . nat . commun . 1 : 4 doi : 10 . 1038 / ncomms1002 ( 2010 ) .
copyright : © 2010 scott , j . l . et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
( eds huber , f . & markl , h . ) 54–68 ( springer , 1983 ) .
vol . 1 ( ed . stehr , f . w . ) 288–596 ( kendall / hunt publishing company , 1987 ) .
( eds petrov , b . n . & csaki , f . ) 267–281 ( akademiai kiado , 1973 ) .
we thank h . beck , y . l . chen , s . corver , k . eda , j . miall , t . muus , l . scott , k . silvonen , c . h . wei and s . wu for collecting moths ; v . bura , s . matheson and r . smith for their help with data collection and i . hasenfuss for unpublished observations on drepanidae caterpillars . we are deeply indebted to charles and kim mitter for providing specimens from the university of maryland leptree frozen tissue collection . we thank c . castaldo for help with statistical comparisons of trees in bayestraits . this work was supported by nserc discovery grants ( j . e . y . , j . h . s . and m . l . s . ) , cfi ( j . e . y . ) , coa ( s . - h . y . ) , nsc ( s . - h . y . ) , agriculture and agri - food canada ( j . h . s . ) and an nserc postgraduate scholarship ( j . l . s . ) .
department of biology , carleton university , 1125 colonel by drive , ottawa , ontario , canada k1s 5b6 .
department of entomology , university of maryland , 4112 plant sciences building , college park , maryland 20742 - 4454 , usa .
agriculture and agri - food canada , canadian national collection of insects , arachnids and nematodes , 960 carling avenue , k . w . neatby building , ottawa , ontario , canada k1a 0c6 .
department of biological sciences , national sun yat - sen university , kaohsiung 804 , taiwan .
j . l . s . and j . e . y . developed concepts , designed the study , performed behavioural experiments and wrote the paper . j . e . y . supervised the project . a . s . , a . y . k . , j . h . s . , j . l . s . and m . l . s . contributed to the molecular phylogeny by collecting and / or analysing data . s . - h . y . contributed specimens and conceptual advice on comparative behaviour and morphology . all authors discussed results and commented on all stages of the paper .
a territorial encounter over a partially constructed leaf shelter . a resident drepana arcuata caterpillar defends its leaf shelter using ritualized vibratory signals . these vibrations are produced by dragging anal ' oars ' on the leaf surface and scraping and drumming mandibles . sound recordings are made with a microphone held behind the leaf .
walking movements in tethea or , a species that possesses anal prolegs that are used for walking , but lacks modified setae used for producing vibrations ( see movie 3 ) .
movements associated with anal scraping in drepana arcuata . this species lacks anal prolegs , and instead uses modified setae to produce vibratory signals .
a territorial encounter in tethea or recorded using a laser vibrometer . an intruder enters the leaf shelter comprising 2 leaves sewn together with silk , and the resident repels the intruder by scraping its mandibles , pushing , hitting , and biting .
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tresus is a genus of saltwater clams , marine bivalve mollusks in the family mactridae .

many of them are known under the common name the horse clam or as species of gaper clam .

they are similar to geoducks .

tresus

are we missing a good definition for tresus capax ? don ' t keep it to yourself . . .
tresus capax ( gould , 1850 ) . invertebrates of the salish sea . rosario beach marine laboratory . accessed 08 / 12 / 2014 .
maggie whitson added an association between
image of tresus nuttallii and enhydra lutris
and
enhydra lutris ( linnaeus , 1758 )
.
because of the large siphons , tresus capax has a very deep pallial sinus . it has a continuous pallial line . note also the almost equal - sized anterior and posterior adductor muscle scars . the posterior end is to the left .
how to distinguish from similar species : tresus nuttallii ( uncommon in our region of the salish sea but common elsewhere ) has a shell more than 1 . 5x as long as high and the umbones are near the end of the anterior quarter
tresus capax is a marine bivalve found along the northwest coast of north america . this is a sport species , commercially harvested in british columbia . it burrows in the mud , feeds on particles brought through long siphons that protrude from the mud , and has a life span of around fifteen years , with spawning in late winter . unlike other members of the tresus genus , t . capax has a fringe of tissue known as the visceral skirt , which is commonly parasitized by crabs .
citation :
fat gapers , tresus capax ~ marinebio . org .
marinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 3 / 27 / 2014 8 : 47 : 00 am ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio
citation :
pacific gapers , tresus nuttallii ~ marinebio . org .
marinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 3 / 27 / 2014 8 : 57 : 00 am ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio
research tresus capax » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms
research tresus nuttallii » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms
coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
( of cryptodon conrad , 1837 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of schizothaerus conrad , 1853 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of schizothaerus keenae kuroda & habe , 1950 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of lutraria inflata dunker , 1853 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of lutraria inflata dunker , 1853 ) coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
( of lutraria nuttallii conrad , 1837 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spisula longa dall , 1921 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spisula longa dall , 1921 ) coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
( of schizothaerus nuttallii ( conrad , 1837 ) ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of schizothaerus nuttallii bighopensis henderson , 1931 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of schizothaerus nuttallii bighopensis henderson , 1931 ) coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
equip : you champion the causes of your guild . all guild reputation gains are increased by 100 % .
equip : grants the new moon spell , which deals damage and then transforms into a more powerful spell .
there is power within that would be freed . with balance and control , the wolf may be tamed , but only for a time .
can take on the form of a powerful moonkin , balancing the power of arcane and nature magic to destroy enemies at a distance .
instantly heals you for 30 % of maximum health . usable in all shapeshift forms .
you gain : thick hide reduces all damage taken by 6 % . you also learn : mangle thrash ironfur frenzied regeneration
roots the target and all enemies with 15 yards in place for 30 sec . damage may interrupt the effect . usable in all shapeshift forms .
increases the damage bonus from lunar and solar empowerment by an additional 20 % . reduces the astral power cost of starfall by 20 .
aligns the power of the moon and stars , causing lunar strike to extend the duration of your moonfire by 5 . 2 sec , and solar wrath to extend the duration of all of your sunfires by 3 . 5 sec .
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coan , eugene v . , paul valentich scott , and frank r . bernard
turgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .
turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .
common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
fat gaper with retracted siphons protruding and the dark periostracum still partially present . photos by jessica brown .
at one end from which the long siphons protrude . when retracted the siphons , which can be as long as the shell ,
. the shell length is often more than 10 cm and can be up to 28 cm . see the
the fat gaper can be found buried up to 1 m deep in more compact sand - mud , mud , and clay substrates . it inhabits the intertidal and subtidal of quiet , sheltered locations to a depth of 30 m . its range extends from the gulf of alaska to southern california , though it is more common at the north of its range .
unlike the pacific gaper , the fat gaper usually hosts pea crabs in its mantle . the pacific gaper has thick leathery plates at it siphon tips .
because of its large size , the fat gaper may also be mistaken for the pacific geoduck ( panopea abrupta ) , which is even larger with shell valves that gape at all sides .
harbo , r . m . ( 1999 ) . whelks to whales : coastal marine life of the pacific northwest [ revised ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . p . 126 .
lamb , a . , and hanby , b . ( 2005 ) . marine life of the pacific northwest [ electronic version ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing .
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kento furui added the japanese common name
ニシン科
to
clupeidae
.
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) . the shell is about 1 . 5 times as long as high (
, where it is still attached , is a dark brown or black . shell chalky white or yellow . this is the largest intertidal clam in the northern part of its range ( alaska ) , though in puget sound the geoduck clam is larger .
geographical range : kodiak island , alaska to central california . uncommon in california .
general references : brusca and brusca , 1978 harbo , 1997 kozloff , 1993 mcconnaughey and mcconnaughey , 1985 morris et al . , 1980 o ' clair and o ' clair , 1998 ricketts et al . , 1985
the shell is less than 1 . 5 times as long as it is wide .
the umbo is about 1 / 3 the way from the anterior end of the shell ( to the left in this photo ) . the hinge ( to the right of the umbo ) is thin
there is a shelflike chondrophore and several hinge teeth on both hinge plates . top = right valve , bottom = left valve . anterior is to the right .
the gouge on the siphon of this individual is due to a bite by the predatory hairy triton snail fusitron oregonensis .
this individual from march point has a shell length of 19 cm and shell height of 11 cm . it has retracted its siphon about as far as it can but before retraction the siphon was 18 cm long , or about as long as the shell .
on some mud flats the tips of the large siphons , which are exposed at the surface when feeding , become overgrown with red algae such as polysiphonia , as seen here . photo by dave cowles 2007
this photo shows a gaper clam siphon in situ , in the upper center of the picture . it is so overgrown with a tuft of red algae ( about 8 cm across ) that it is well camouflaged . photo by dave cowles , july 2016
for more information on fishing , please contact the wdfw fish program . 360 - 902 - 2700 fish program district biologists
harbo , r . m . ( 1999 ) . whelks to whales : coastal marine life of the pacific northwest [ revised ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . p . 127 .
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gaper clams have large siphons that protrude above the substrate surface when feeding . protective leathery plates are found just below the siphon tips . it is common for algae to grow on their neck as well .
clam harvesters often notice a pair of small crabs living in the mantle of their gaper clams . these crabs are gaper pea crab , pinnixa faba . once settled , mature females grow too large to leave the clam and spend the rest of their lives in the clam . males , which are markedly smaller , move from clam to clam throughout their lives .
a male gaper pea crab ( right ) seen crawling around the siphon of a gaper clam .
at the hinge of a clam , a cavity can be found that is known as a chondrophore . in gaper clams , this cavity is very pronounced , and is the thickest part of a gaper shell . as a shell is deteriorated through the years , the chondrophore is the last part of a gaper still recognizable by species . over time , chondrophores get polished by sand and surf and are found by beach combers . chondrophores are used in the prefered method to age gaper clams . annulli ( annual lines ) can easily be seen on the surface of these cavities .
gaper clams have very large siphons . having such large siphons enable gapers to live very deep in the substrate , thereby avoiding many clam predators . as seen in the picture to the left , a softshell ( upper clam ) is compared to a gaper ( lower clam ) which have evolved to not close completely , thus leaving a gape to accommodate the siphon .
the more common
fat
gaper clam and the less common pacific gaper are sometimes mistaken for geoduck clams .
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