aipysurus duboisii , also known as the dubois ' sea snake or reef shallows sea snake , is a species of venomous sea snake .

its geographic range includes papua new guinea , new caledonia and the northern , eastern and western coastal areas of australia , that is the coral sea , arafura sea , timor sea and indian ocean .

they live at depths up to 80 meters in coral reef flats , sandy and silty sediments which contain seaweed , invertebrates and corals or sponges that can serve as shelter .

these snakes feed on moray eels and various fish that live on the seafloor , up to 110 cm in size .

they are viviparous , giving birth to live young rather than laying eggs .

they have medium aggressiveness , i.e. will bite if provoked , but not spontaneously .

the fangs are 1.8 mm long , which are relatively short for a snake , and the venom yield is 0.43 mg .

aipysurus duboisii is a crepuscular species , meaning that they are most active at dawn and dusk .

it is the most venomous sea snake , and one of the top three most venomous snakes in the world .

aipysurus duboisii

aipysurus duboisii bavay 1869 : 33 aipysurus australis sauvage 1877 : 114 aipysurus australis — boulenger 1896 pelagophis lubricus peters & doria 1878 aipysurus duboisii — cogger 1983 : 242 aipysurus duboisii — cogger 2000 : 701 aipysurus duboisii — wilson & swan 2010 aipysurus duboisii — wallach et al . 2014 : 22
lizard beans • exotic - venom : ( aipysurus duboisii ) reef shallows . . .
aipysurus : ' high tail ' . duboisii : after c . f . dubois , a french naturalist .
hans - martin braun added the german common name
dubois ' seeschlange
to
aipysurus duboisii bavay 1869
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hans - martin braun added the german common name
dubois - seeschlange
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aipysurus duboisii bavay 1869
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aipysurus mosaicus sanders , rasmussen , elmberg , mumpuni , guinea , blias , lee & fry 2012 aipysurus eydouxii ( gray 1849 ) ( part ) aipysurus mosaicus — wallach et al . 2014 : 23
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phillips , steve 1991 . a new south wales record for aipysurus duboisii bavay , 1869 ( hydrophiidae ) . herpetofauna ( sydney ) 21 ( 1 ) : 35
species : duboisís reef seasnake ( aipysurus duboisii ) mouse ld50 ( mg / kg ) : 0 . 04 venom yield per snake ( mg ) : 0 . 07
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . aipysurus duboisii in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 05 : 51 : 11 + 1000 .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . aipysurus duboisii in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 13 : 30 + 1000 .
lethal doses in mice are reported for venoms of six species of snakes collected in the coral sea . three have not previously been evaluated . venom of aipysurus duboisii has extremely high lethality exceeded by only one snake species . secretion from emydocephalus annulatus is essentially non - toxic .
citation :
dubois ' sea snakes , aipysurus duboisii ~ marinebio . org .
marinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio
aipysurus mosaicus sanders , rasmussen , elmberg , guinea , blias , lee & fry , 2012 , sp . nov . - plazi treatmentbank
holotype : marine museum brest fide smith ( 1926 ) . holotype : mnhp ( not found ) , from australia [ aipysurus australis ] . holotype : mcg c . e . 30765 , from yule is . , papua new guinea ( erroneously referred to aipysurus laevis by capocaccia 1961 ) . [ pelagophis lubricus ] .
kharin , v . e . 1981 . a review of sea snakes of the genus aipysurus ( serpentes , hydrophiidae ) . zoological zhurnal 60 ( 2 ) : 257 - 264
( of pelagophis duboisii ( bavay , 1869 ) ) van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
sanders , kate l . ; arne r . rasmussen , johan elmberg , mumpuni , michael guinea , peter blias , michael s . y . lee & bryan g . fry 2012 . aipysurus mosaicus , a new species of egg - eating sea snake ( elapidae : hydrophiinae ) , with a redescription of aipysurus eydouxii ( gray , 1849 ) . zootaxa 3431 : 1–18 - get paper here
sanders , kate l . , rasmussen , arne r . , elmberg , johan , guinea , michael , blias , peter , lee , michael s . y . & fry , bryan g . , 2012 , aipysurus mosaicus , a new species of egg - eating sea snake ( elapidae : hydrophiinae ) , with a redescription of aipysurus eydouxii ( gray , 1849 ) , zootaxa 3431 , pp . 1 - 18 : 7 - 12
aipysurus mosaicus , sanders , kate l . , rasmussen , arne r . , elmberg , johan , guinea , michael , blias , peter , lee , michael s . y . & fry , bryan g . , 2012
department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( 2012 ) aipysurus eydouxii . in : species profile and threats database . department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities , canberra . available at : urltoken
research aipysurus duboisii » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms
like all species within the aipysurus genus , the reef shallows sea snake is an entirely aquatic species , never venturing onto land , not even to breed ( 11 ) . this species is active during the day , although it spends much of its time resting under sea fans or hidden within seaweed ( 3 ) .
kharin , v . e . ; cheblyukov , v . p . 2006 . on a new record of a poorly known and rare sea snake aipysurus tenuis lönnberg et andersson , 1913 ( serpentes : hydrophiidae ) in the waters of australia . russian journal of marine biology 32 ( 3 ) : 194 - 197 .
also known as dubois’ sea snake , the reef shallows sea snake ( aipysurus duboisii ) is named after charles fréderic dubois , a belgian naturalist in the 1800s ( 4 ) . the head of the reef shallows sea snake is usually as wide as , or slightly wider than , its body ( 3 ) , and its nostrils are positioned higher up on its head than in terrestrial snakes , which makes it easier to breathe when it surfaces ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the reef shallows sea snake has a long and moderately enlarged tail ( 3 ) and , as in other sea snake species , the end of its tail is flattened and paddle - like , enabling this marine reptile to swim efficiently ( 5 ) .
figure 1 . mrbayes all compatible consensus of 4000 post burn - in trees for the aipysurus and emydocephalus specimens sampled in this study based on the concatenated mitochondrial data ( hydrophis caerulescens outgroup not shown ) . scale bar indicates the number of nucleotide substitutions per site . node support values ( posterior probabilities ) above 0 . 95 are shown .
associate professor bryan grieg fry , a prominent venom expert , has clarified the error :
the hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called ' snakes in question ' . in there , all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together , regardless of the mode of testing ( e . g . subcutaneous vs . intramuscular vs intravenous vs intraperitoneal ) . as the mode can influence the relative number , venoms can only be compared within a mode . otherwise , its apples and rocks .
. studies on mice and human cardiac cell culture shows that venom of the inland taipan , drop by drop , is the most toxic among all snakes ; land or sea . the most venomous sea snake is actually dubois ' seasnake ( aipysurus duboisii ) .
figure 4 . full body photographs of a ) the holotype of aipysurus mosaicus sp . nov . from northern australia ( sama r 65222 ) and b ) a . eydouxii from singapore ( sama r 22569 ) . grid scale represents 1 x 1 cm . note that a . mosaicus has fewer bands on the body and tail and that these are less distinct .
figure 5 . micro - ct images of aipysurus mosaicus sp . nov . from ( a ) left lateral and ( b ) dorsal view of skull , and ( c ) left lateral view of mid - caudal vertebrae ; and aipysurus eydouxii from ( d ) left lateral and ( e ) dorsal view of skull , and ( f ) left lateral view of mid - caudal vertebrae . note the differences in the morphology of the premaxilla , maxilla , nasal , frontoparietal suture , and neural spine ; see text for fuller discussion . specimens illustrated are as follows : ( a , b ) sama r 65222 holotype , ( c ) sama r 23493 paratype , ( d , e ) mzb ophi 4184 , ( f ) sama r 22569 .
notes and disclaimer this information may not be complete . while all care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this page , primary sources should always be consulted for definitive information . animals have an endearing habit of disobeying the rules , so the information on this page should be interpreted with a degree of flexibility . the author and site operator accepts no responsibility for any losses or damages incurred through using this web site or the information contained herein . don ' t get bitten by anything ! this page may be cited as : aipysurus duboisii at the australian reptile online database . last updated 2012 - 08 - 27 16 : 42 : 34 . retrieved from urltoken on the 10th of july , 2018 . before citing information contained in arod , please read our citing arod page . copyright notice this page , its content and layout are copyright © 2007 - 2018 stewart macdonald / ug media , unless otherwise stated . all photographs in the australian reptile online database are © the photographer and may not be reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the photographer . no part of the australian reptile online database may be reproduced without written permission from stewart macdonald .
belcher ' s sea snake , which many times is mistakenly called the hook - nosed sea snake ( enhydrina schistosa ) , has been erroneously popularized as the most venomous snake in the world , due to ernst and zug ' s published book
snakes in question : the smithsonian answer book
from 1996 . associate professor bryan grieg fry , a prominent venom expert , has clarified the error :
the hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called ' snakes in question ' . in there , all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together , regardless of the mode of testing ( e . g . subcutaneous vs . intramuscular vs intravenous vs intraperitoneal ) . as the mode can influence the relative number , venoms can only be compared within a mode . otherwise , its apples and rocks .
. [ 4 ] studies on mice [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] and human cardiac cell culture [ 4 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] shows that venom of the inland taipan , drop by drop , is the most toxic among all snakes ; land or sea . the most venomous sea snake is actually dubois ' seasnake ( aipysurus duboisii ) .
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2012 ) .
( great barrier reef marine park authority ( gbrmpa ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .
listed as least concern ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
national : listed as a marine species under the environment protection and biodiversity protection act 1999 .
the dubois ' seasnake is moderately built snake of variable colour . darker specimens are usually found west of torres strait , and paler specimens to the east . typically , the concealed surface of the scale contrasts with the dark brown exposed surface . this produces a reticulate ( net - like ) pattern in the body scales when the body is extended . the scales of the lower flanks are more typically white , forming wedge - shaped pale areas extending to the upper surface . all head shields with the exception of the rostral scale and the nasals are fragmented into small irregular scales . the body scales are imbricate and in 19 rows at the mid - body . ventral scales are broad and vary from 150–165 . the anal scale is divided . subcaudal scales vary from 23–35 . the dubois ' seasnake grows to 109 cm in snout vent length ( cogger 1975 , 1996 ; fry et al . 2001 ; smith 1926 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake occurs between exmouth gulf in western australia ( storr et al . 1986 ) and hervey bay in queensland ( limpus 1975 ) ; and on ashmore reef and the sahul shelf ( minton & heatwole 1975 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake is found in tropical northern australia ( cogger 1996 ) , papua new guinea ( de rooij 1917 ) and new caledonia ( laboute & magnier 1979 ) .
the species occurs in the great barrier reef marine park , and at ashmore reef in western australia which is a commonwealth reserve ( guinea & whiting 2005 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake is most often observed in shallow water near protected coral reefs at depths of 3–4 m ( mccosker 1975 ) , but it has also been caught in trawling nets at depths of approximately 45 m ( dunson 1975b ) . during trawling on the northern australian continental shelf , the species was most frequently caught at depths of 20–50 m ( ward 2000 ) .
sea snakes are air breathing reptiles and must come to the surface to breathe , however they can spend from 30 minutes to two hours diving between breaths . they have one elongate cylindrical lung that extends for almost the entire length of their body which is very efficient for gas exchange . they also carry out cutaneous respiration whereby oxygen diffuses from sea water across the snake ' s skin into the blood . the waste product , carbon dioxide , is then diffused out of the snake ' s body , via the skin ( heatwole 1999 ) .
sea snakes have nostril valves that prevent air entering the lung while underwater . nostril valves open inwards and are held shut from behind by erectile tissue engorged with blood ( heatwole 1999 ) .
sea snakes are able to avoid excess salt accumulation from sea water using a salt excreting gland , known as the posterior sublingual gland , which sits under the tongue . sea snakes shed their skin every two to six weeks , which is more frequently than land snakes and more often than needed for growth alone . the process involves rubbing the lips against coral or other hard substrate to loosen the skin . the snake ' s skin is then anchored to the substrate as it crawls forward , leaving the skin turned inside out behind it . skin shedding allows sea snakes to rid themselves of fouling marine organisms such as algae , barnacles and bryozoans ( heatwole 1999 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake , like most sea snakes , is viviparous , that is giving birth to live young ( cogger 2000 ) . in addition , male sea snakes have two penises called hemipenes , and each is an autonomous independently functioning penis , though only one is used during mating . mating takes place for long periods and sea snakes must surface for air during that time . the female controls her breathing and , as she swims to the surface , the male is pulled along via the hemipenis . males are unable to disengage until mating is finished ( cogger 2000 ; heatwole 1999 ) .
more specifically , dubois ' seasnakes has been found to give birth to a mean of 4 . 5 young ( with a maximum of six and a standard error of 1 . 0 , in a sample of four females ) ( fry et al . 2001 ) . the large size of young and the numbers per brood resulted in this species having the highest relative clutch mass of the sea snake species caught during trawling in northern australia . in northern australia , gestation lasts six to seven months , and births occur between march and june . females appear to reproduce every year ( fry et al . 2001 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake eats reef fishes , including eels , gymnothorax undulatus ( muraenidae ) , blennies salarias fasciatus ( blennidae ) , parrotfish scarus sp . ( scaridae ) , surgeonfish acanthuses xanthopterus ( acanthuridae ) and the scorpaenid richardsonichthys leucogaster ( mccosker 1975 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake is thought to feed in the early evening ( mccosker 1975 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake is sometimes washed ashore in hervey bay , most likely a result of ocean currents carrying it south from northern queensland ( limpus 1975 ) .
sea snakes that inhabit coral reefs and lagoons can be surveyed by travelling slowly ( at about four knots ) along transects in a small boat and visually identifying snakes observed within 3 m of the path of the boat . species can be distinguished by this method if the water is up to 3 m deep . at low tide , surveys can be done on foot , for example by searching the reef flat along transects that are 1000 m long and 20 m wide ( guinea & whiting 2005 ) .
for close up identification , sea snakes that are swimming on the surface of the water can be captured using a dip net employed from a small boat ( limpus 1975 ) . snakes that are underwater and either active or resting can also be hand - netted by an individual snorkelling or scuba diving , using a cylindrical net 300 mm in diameter and 1700 mm long , with 10 mm mesh . with the aid of protective gloves the snake is gently grasped through the mesh at the base of the net , drawing the snake in until the top of the net can be twisted shut ( guinea & whiting 2005 ; guinea in press ) . alternatively , snakes that are resting can be captured by grasping them behind the head and by the mid - body simultaneously . pillstrom tongs and gloves can be used , although mechanical restraint may injure the snake and increase its aggressiveness ( heatwole 1975 ) .
prawn trawling has been identified as a major threat to sea snakes due to : their life history ( low fecundity and longevity ) ; and demographic factors whereby much of the species ' distribution coincides with those areas and depths where prawn trawling occurs ( marsh et al . 1993 ; milton et al . 2009 ) . sea snakes are caught in the bycatch of trawls , and it is estimated that approximately 50 % of individuals caught in trawls die by drowning or being crushed by the weight of the catch ( milton et al . 2009 ; wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . while sea snakes can naturally remain submerged for up to two hours , the conditions within the net will affect the sea snakes ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . these conditions include the physical weight of the catch , the composition of the catch ( including poisonous , spiny or abrasive animals ) and the interaction of the catch with the seafloor . survival has been found to depend on a few factors including when the sea snake enters the net ( early or late in the tow ) , the duration of the trawl , the weight of the catch , how the sea snake is treated on the deck and the sea snake ' s morphology ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) .
the dubois ' seasnake is caught during trawling operations . the species represented 0 . 9 % of the bycatch caught during prawn trawling on the northern australian continental shelf ( ward 1996b ) , and 4 % of the bycatch caught during fish trawling ( ward 1996a ) . in studies carried out during the 1970s , dubois ' seasnakes represented 7 % of the snakes caught during trawling in the timor sea , and 0 . 5 % to 2 % of those caught during research and prawn trawling in the gulf of carpentaria and north east queensland ( redfield et al . 1978 ; shuntov 1971 ; wassenberg et al . 1994 ) .
in the early 2000s , the mandatory use of turtle excluder devices ( teds ) was introduced to all australian trawl fisheries to reduce turtle bycatch . in addition , the bycatch reduction devices ( brds ) were introduced to most australian prawn trawl fisheries to reduce the bycatch of non - targeted species including sea snakes . brds are escape grids or openings designed to enable non - target marine animals to swim out of the net , while teds are hard grids placed in trawl nets to exclude turtles and other large animals . an illustration of these devices can be found here : ted / brd . both teds and brds assist in the conservation of sea snakes by : reducing the number of fish caught which decreases the weight of the catch , thus , reducing the physical damage to sea snakes caught in the nets ; and , enabling sea snakes caught to escape ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . as a result of the mandatory introduction of these devices , australia’s state and commonwealth prawn trawl fisheries must now have both a ted and a second brd installed in every trawl net ( courtney et al . 2010 ) .
a range of studies have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of brds , as well as teds and brds used simultaneously , on sea snakes . for example , wassenberg et al . ( 2001 ) suggested that the mortality rates should decline with the introduction of brds due to the reduced weight of the bycatch in nets as well as increased escapement by snakes . brewer et al . ( 2006 ) concluded that the simultaneous use of teds and brds used by fishers in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) had little effect ( i . e . 5 % ) on excluding snakes from trawl nets . however , they found that the performance of brds alone could be improved if placed closer to the codend ( the trailing end of the net where fish are finally caught ) . more recently , through improvement in design , the fisheye brd was similarly identified as capable of reducing sea snake bycatch and its effectiveness dependant on distance from the codend ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . testing of the yarrow fisheye brd ( heales et al . 2008 ) and the popeye fishbox brd ( raudzens 2007 ) in the npf demonstrated their high potential for reducing sea snake catch rates with no adverse reduction in targeted prawn catch rates .
prawn trawling has been found to have a negative impact on protected sea snake populations ( milton et al . 2008 ) . in 2003 , a crew member observer ( cmo ) program was established in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) . the program aimed to collect data on bycatch such as composition , catch rates and distribution during both npf tiger and banana prawn fishing seasons . the initiative required the commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro ) and australian fisheries management authority ( afma ) to jointly run annual industry workshops to train the crew in the identification , photographing and recording of sea snakes from bycatch . during the 2003–2005 seasons , 21 crew member observers on 17 vessels collected data from 7602 prawn trawls . the observers recorded 4131 sea snakes from 12 species , with over half being photographed for identification and length estimation ( milton et al . 2008 ) .
this cmo program has been used in conjunction with logbooks , requested industry collections , scientific observers and fishery - independent surveys for long term bycatch monitoring solutions , and reflects the npf ' s commitment to the sustainability of all species impacted by its fishing activities ( milton et al . 2008 ) . from 2005 to 2007 , dubois ' seasnake was found to be one of the most common species encountered ( milton et al . 2008 ) .
another research project ( which ran between july 2005 and october 2007 ) , established the crew member program ( cmp ) to provide detailed information on the catch composition and catch rates of sea snake species and estimates of the within - trawl mortality rate of snakes in the queensland otter and beam trawl fishery ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . sixty - seven crews collected data from all of the major east coast trawl fishing sectors . additional data were obtained from research charters , research surveys and the fishery observer program . detailed information was collected from a total of 8289 trawls that reported catching 3910 sea snakes . the study found that the highest catch of sea snakes was in redspot king prawn fishery due to an overlap with sea snake habitat .
results from the cmp indicate that sea snake bycatch in the queensland trawl fishery can be significantly reduced by using properly designed and installed brds , with no significant reduction in targeted prawn catch rates . of the brds tested ( the standard codend with no brd , fisheye brd , square mesh codend brd and square mesh panel brd ) , the cmp found that the fisheye brd was the most effective device at excluding snakes i . e . 63 % reduction compared to the standard net , with no significant effect on the catch rate of marketable ( ≥ 20 mm carapace length ) prawns . the fisheye brd was also the most effective device for excluding bycatch of non - targeted species with a 33 % reduction in bycatch rate compared to the standard net ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . furthermore , the square mesh codend was found to also be highly effective at excluding both sea snakes and other bycatch , with reductions of 60 % and 31 % respectively , compared to the standard net . however , the effectiveness of square mesh codend was considered to be limited by the maximum size of the square meshes which would provide too small an exit for large snakes ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . milton and colleagues ( 2009 ) found that the commonly used fisheye brd also had good exclusion ( 43 % reduction in bycatch by weight ) when placed at a distance of 66 meshes from the codend . where sea snake mortality is high ( eg area or sector related ) , more recent studies have suggested that the device should be placed closer to the codend , that is , 50 meshes ( courtney et al . 2010 ) .
as part of the cmo program , tests undertaken on the popeye fishbox brd , conducted by afma in the npf in the gulf of carpentaria , reported an 87 % reduction in the catch rate of sea snakes when the device was installed 70 meshes from the codend , with no significant effect on prawn catch rates ( raudzens 2007 ) . however , repositioning the device to 100 meshes from the codend lowered the exclusion rate of bycatch of non - targeted species , thus making it less effective for sea snakes . brewer and colleagues ( 2006 ) similarly found that there was no decrease in sea snake bycatch in the npf when the brd was placed at a distance of 120 meshes from the codend ( i . e . maximum allowable distance under australian law ) .
as shown from the above findings , the distance of the brd from the codend significantly affects its ability to exclude bycatch of non - targeted species including sea snakes . even if the most effective brd is implemented , its performance will be greatly compromised unless an appropriate maximum distance from the drawstring of the codend is also specified ( courtney et al . 2010 ) .
additional factors that will reduce bycatch of sea snakes include the detection of reduced water flow and the length of hauls ( milton et al . 2009 ; wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . for a brd to be effective , it must also enable the sea snakes to detect the reduced flow posterior to the device ( milton et al . 2009 ) . when tested , the fishbox brd was found to have a relatively large region of reduced flow posterior to the device ( heales et al . 2008 ) . the length of hauls has been found to also impact bycatch rates , with shorter hauls reducing the volume of bycatch which in turn increase the survival chances of sea snakes ( milton et al . 2009 ; wassenberg et al . 2001 ) .
marine bioregional plans have been developed for four of australia ' s marine regions - south - west , north - west , north and temperate east . marine bioregional plans will help improve the way decisions are made under the epbc act , particularly in relation to the protection of marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of our oceans and their resources by our marine - based industries . marine bioregional plans improve our understanding of australia ' s oceans by presenting a consolidated picture of the biophysical characteristics and diversity of marine life . they describe the marine environment and conservation values of each marine region , set out broad biodiversity objectives , identify regional priorities and outline strategies and actions to address these priorities . click here for more information about marine bioregional plans .
dubois ' seasnake has been identified as a conservation value in the north - west ( dsewpac 2012y ) , north ( dsewpac 2012x ) and temperate east ( dsewpac 2012aa ) marine regions . the
species group report card - marine reptiles
for the north - west ( dsewpac 2012y ) , north ( dsewpac 2012x ) and temperate east ( dsewpac 2012aa ) marine regions provide additional information .
brewer , d . , d . heales , d . milton , q . dell , g . fry , b . venables & p . jones ( 2006 ) . the impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communites in australia ' s northern prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 81 : 176 - 188 .
brewer , d . , n . rawlinson , s . eayres & c . burridge ( 1998 ) . an assessment of bycatch reduction devices in a tropical australian prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 36 : 195 - 215 .
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cogger , h . g . , e . e . cameron , r . a . sadlier & p . eggler ( 1993 ) . the action plan for australian reptiles . canberra , act : australian nature conservation agency . available from : urltoken .
courtney , a . , b . schemel , r . wallace , m . campbell , d . mayer & b . young ( 2010 ) . reducing the impact of queensland ' s trawl fisheries on protected sea snakes . department of employment , economic development and innovation , queensland government .
de rooij , n . ( 1917 ) . reptiles of the indo - australian archipelago : ophidia . page ( s ) 334 . leiden .
dunson , w . a . ( 1975b ) . sea snakes of tropical queensland between 18 & # 176 and 20 & # 176 south latitude . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 151 - 162 . baltimore , university park press .
fry , g . c . , a . milton & t . j . wassenberg ( 2001 ) . the reproductive biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in northern australia : characteristics important for assessing the impacts on populations . pacific conservation biology . 7 : 55 - 73 .
guinea , m . l ( in press ) . a technique for catching and restraining sea snakes . herpetological review .
guinea , m . l . & s . d . whiting ( 2005 ) . insights into the distribution and abundance of sea snakes at ashmore reef . the beagle ( supplement 1 ) . page ( s ) 199 - 206 .
heales , d . , r . gregor , j . wakeford , y . yarrow et al ( 2008 ) . effective reduction of diverse fish and sea snake bycatch in a tropical prawn trawl fishery using the yarrow fisheye bycatch reduction device . fisheries research . 89 : 76 - 83 .
heatwole , h . ( 1975 ) . sea snakes of the gulf of carpentaria . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 143 - 149 . baltimore , university park press .
heatwole , h . ( 1999 ) . sea snakes . in : australian natural history series . page ( s ) 148 . sydney , nsw : unsw press .
heatwole , h . & h . c . cogger ( 1993 ) . family hydrophiidae . in : glasby , c . j . , g . j . b . ross & p . l . beesley , eds . amphibia & reptilia 2a . page ( s ) 310 - 318 . canberra , australian government publishing service .
laboute , p . & y . magnier ( 1979 ) . underwater guide to new caledonia . tahityi : les editions du pacifique .
limpus , c . j . ( 1975 ) . coastal sea snakes of subtropical queensland waters ( 23° to 28° south latitude ) . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 173 - 182 . baltimore : university park press .
marsh , h . , p . j . corkeron , c . j . limpus , p . d . shaughnessy & t . m . ward ( 1993 ) . conserving marine mammals and reptiles in australia and oceania . in : c . moritz & j . kikkawa , eds . conservation biology in australia and oceania . page ( s ) 225 - 44 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty & sons .
mccosker , j . e . ( 1975 ) . feeding behaviour of indo - australian hydrophiidae . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 217 - 232 . baltimore : university park press .
milton , d . , g . fry & q . dell ( 2009 ) . reducing impacts of trawling on protected sea snakes : by - catch reduction devices improve escapement and survival . marine and freshwater research . 60 : 824 - 832 .
milton , d . , s . zhou , g . fry & q . dell ( 2008 ) . risk assessment and mitigation for sea snakes caught in the northern prawn fishery . fisheries research and development conservation corporation and csiro marine and atmospheric research , cleveland .
milton , d . a . & g . fry ( 2002 ) . assessment and improvement of brds and teds in the npf : a co - operative approach by fishers , scientists , fisheries technologists , economists and conservationists . fisheries research and development corporation and csiro marine research . cleveland , queensland : csiro marine research .
minton , s . a . & h . heatwole ( 1975 ) . sea snakes from three reefs of the sahul shelf . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 141 - 144 . baltimore : university park press .
raudzens , e ( 2006 ) . at sea testing of ' popeye ' s fishbox ' bycatch reduction device onboard the fv adelaide pearl for approval in australia ' s northern prawn fishery . available from : urltoken .
redfield , j . a . , j . c . holmes & r . d . holmes ( 1978 ) . sea snakes of the eastern gulf of carpentaria . australian journal of marine and freshwater research . 29 : 325 - 334 .
shuntov , v . p . ( 1971 ) . sea snakes of the north australian shelf . ekologiya . 4 : 65 - 72 .
smith , m . a . ( 1926 ) . monograph of the sea - snakes ( hydrophiidae ) . in : british museum natural history . page ( s ) 130 . london : british museum .
storr , g . m , l . a . smith & r . e . johnstone ( 1986 ) . snakes of western australia . page ( s ) 187 . perth , western australian museum .
ward , t . m . ( 1996a ) . sea snake bycatch of fish trawlers on the northern australian continental shelf . marine and freshwater research . 47 : 625 - 630 .
ward , t . m . ( 1996b ) . sea snake bycatch of prawn trawlers on the northern australian continental shelf . marine and freshwater research . 47 : 631 - 635 .
ward , t . m . ( 2000 ) . factors affecting the catch rates and relative abundance of sea snakes in the by - catch of trawlers targeting tiger and endeavour prawns on the northern australian continental shelf . marine freshwater research . 51 : 155 - 164 .
wassenberg , t . j . , d . a . milton & c . y . burridge ( 2001 ) . survival rates of sea snakes caught by demersal trawlers in northern and eastern australia . biological conservation . 100 : 271 - 280 .
wassenberg , t . j . , j . p . salini , h . heatwole & j . d . kerr ( 1994 ) . incidental capture of sea - snakes ( hydrophiidae ) by prawn trawlers in the gulf of carpentaria , australia . australian journal of marine and freshwater research . 45 : 429 - 43 .
commonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .
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justification : this species is widespread but patchily distributed . it is found in coral reef habitats and adjacent open habitats . there have been declines in population recorded in ashmore reef although no declines at scott reef . threats in those areas are unclear . there have been declines of sea snakes caught in trawl fisheries over the last few decades , however , it is unknown if these declines are due to abundance reduction or changes in fishery patterns . there have been some regional declines . this species is listed as least concern , however it is recommended that bycatch be monitored and efforts made to reduce bycatch with exclusion devices .
occurs throughout tropical northern australia from exmouth gulf , western australia to the southern great barrier reef , east australia ( cogger 2000 ) . its distribution extends east to reefs in the coral sea ( heatwole 1975 , zimmerman
1994 ) , chesterfield reefs ( minton and dunson 1985 ) and new caledonia ( ineich and rasmussen 1997 ) .
has a patchy distribution and typically occurs at low densities throughout its range ( guinea and whiting 2005 ; guinea 2006 , 2007 ) . thus , it is often among the least abundant species of any recorded at a particular geographic location , as demonstrated by records and sighting rates in australia’s timor sea reefs ( guinea and whiting 2005 ; guinea 2006 , 2007 ) and the great barrier reef ( lukoschek pers . ob . s 2009 , heatwole 1975 ) . since 1998 , records of sea snakes from ashmore reef , australia have shown severe declines , however ,
was not previously recorded as very abundant on the timor sea reefs ( guinea and whiting 2005 ; guinea 2006 , 2007 ) so it is unclear to what extent populations of this species have been affected .
on a trip to the marion reef ( southern coral sea ) in june 2008 , on fifteen dives , sea snakes were encountered on almost every dive , but in small numbers , the most on one dive was a maximum of ten , most dives encountering two to six snakes .
were seen in smaller numbers in shallow water ( n . marsh pers . comm . 2009 ) .
primarily occurs in shallow - water habitats adjacent to coral reefs ( heatwole and lukoschek 2008 ) , including sea grass beds , among gorgonians and broken corals , and over sand ( ineich 2007 ) . it typically occurs at depths ranging from 0 . 02 - 50 m , although there is a record of it being caught at 58 m in prawn trawls ( courtney
. 2010 ) and depths of 80 m have also been recorded ( ineich and laboute , 2002 ) . its diet includes various reef fish species . this snake may be encrusted with algae , bryozoans , polychaetes and tubeworms ( zann
a specimen of 140 cm tl was captured south groote eylandt ( 12 / 11 / 07 ) sample housed in museum and art gallery of the northern territory ( m . white pers . comm . 2009 ) .
this species may be impacted by degradation of coral reef habitat from expanding oil and gas development in northwestern australia . in northeastern australia , a possible threat is trawling activity in the vicinity of reefs .
this species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence . mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral ( hoegh - guldberg 1999 ) . this reduces habitat complexity , with a consequent decrease in prey abundance ( pratchett
2008 ) and the loss of refuge sites . climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists ( francis 2006 ) .
increased sea surface temperatures , coral bleaching , and resulting changes in sediment structure may be linked to localized population declines of sea snakes on ashmore reef , northern australia ( francis 2006 ) . the reasons for the declines on ashmore reef are unknown .
there are no species - specific conservation measures in place , however , this snake is found in some mpas . there are currently no sea snake species protected under cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) .
sea snakes are protected in australia since their addition to the ‘listed marine species’ by the department of environment and water resources in 2000 . they are protected in australia under the environment protection biodiversity and conservation act 1999 . this requires that all australian industries interacting with protected species , directly or indirectly , demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities ( milton
2008 ) . the australian fisheries management act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes .
the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) in australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any commonwealth - managed fishery . the epbc act and the npf’s commitments under its strategic assessment by the department of the environment and water resources , led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long - term bycatch monitoring program for australia’s npf ; ‘design , trial and implementation of an integrated , long - term bycatch monitoring program , road tested in the northern prawn fishery’ frdc pn 2002 / 035 ( brewer
2008 ) . in addition , the npf is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species . since 2003 , the commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro ) and the australian fisheries management authority ( afma ) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew - member observers in the identification , photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the npf tiger and banana prawn seasons .
. 2008 ) . recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets ( t . courtney and e . fletcher pers . comms . 2009 ) .
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although the reef shallows sea snake usually only grows up to 110 cm in length , one individual was caught which measured an impressive 140 cm .
the reef shallows sea snake feeds on a wide variety of reef fish , including blennies and eels .
although the reef shallows sea snake’s venom is highly toxic , this species is not considered to be a threat to humans , as it is relatively small and does not produce a large yield of venom .
in terms of colour and pattern , the reef shallows sea snake is a highly variable species , with a base colour ranging from whitish - beige to purplish - brown .
in terms of colour and pattern , the reef shallows sea snake is extremely variable ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . interestingly , there appears to be a geographical split in terms of colouration , with darker specimens usually being found west of the torres strait , and paler individuals to the east ( 7 ) .
the upper side of the reef shallows sea snake ranges from whitish - beige or salmon to brown or purplish - brown , and is patterned with dark or cream bands or yellowish blotches ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . these markings are usually the result of wedge - shaped areas extending upwards from the underside ( 7 ) , which varies from creamy white to dark brown ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the chin and throat regions are generally paler than the rest of the body ( 3 ) .
most of the scales on the head of the reef shallows sea snake are small and fragmented ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) , while the scales on the underside of the body are almost three times as wide as those on the dorsal surface ( 3 ) . each of the dorsal scales has a fine , pale line running along its edge ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , which can sometimes give the reef shallows sea snake a reticulated appearance when the body is extended ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the dorsal scales are generally smooth , while those on the underside are usually weakly keeled ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
the reef shallows sea snake’s skin is sometimes encrusted with a variety of marine life , from seaweed to polychaete worms , particularly on the top of the head ( 1 ) ( 3 ) . although the reef shallows sea snake is usually relatively small , only reaching lengths of between 80 and 110 centimetres ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , one recorded individual attained an impressive length of 140 centimetres ( 1 ) .
despite being an air - breathing animal , the reef shallows sea snake is capable of remaining underwater for up to two hours at a time , before surfacing to breathe again . its single , elongated lung , which extends for almost the entire length of its body , is highly efficient for gas exchange , and sea snakes are also able to absorb oxygen through their skin when underwater . all sea snakes have specialised nostril valves which prevent water from entering the lung when submerged ( 7 ) .
living in a marine environment poses several challenges . as in other sea snake species , the reef shallows sea snake has a specialised gland under its tongue which enables it to excrete excess salt from its body . additionally , other marine species such as algae and barnacles often become attached to the reef shallows sea snake’s skin , a problem which is solved each time the snake sheds its skin , which usually happens every two to six weeks ( 7 ) .
although the reef shallows sea snake’s venom is highly toxic ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , this species is not thought to pose much of a threat to humans , as it is a relatively small snake and does not yield much venom ( 3 ) .
like most species of sea snake , the reef shallows sea snake is viviparous , meaning that it gives birth to live young rather than laying eggs ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . mating in sea snakes is a lengthy affair , and the males are unable to disengage from the female until copulation is complete . in northern australia , the gestation period of the reef shallows sea snake is between six and seven months , with births occurring between march and june ( 7 ) . reef shallows sea snake litters are relatively small ( 6 ) , consisting of about four or five young on average ( 7 ) , and the young are relatively large ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . female reef shallows sea snakes are thought to reproduce every year ( 7 ) .
the reef shallows sea snake has a more varied diet than some other sea snakes ( 9 ) , opportunistically feeding on a wide range of reef fish species ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . for example , it is known to take blennies ( blennidae species ) , parrotfish ( scaridae species ) and surgeonfish ( acanthuridae species ) ( 7 ) , as well as moray eels ( muraenidae species ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . the reef shallows sea snake stalks its prey along the sea bed ( 3 ) , and is thought to feed in the early evening ( 7 ) . the seaweed which sometimes grows over its skin is useful as camouflage , helping the snake to ambush its unsuspecting prey ( 3 ) .
the reef shallows sea snake is a widespread species , but it is patchily distributed ( 1 ) . this species occurs throughout northern tropical australia from western australia to the southern great barrier reef , and its range extends east to papua new guinea and new caledonia ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) ( 10 ) , as well as the loyalty islands and indonesia ( 10 ) .


chrysolina is a large genus of leaf beetles in the subfamily chrysomelinae .

most species are distributed in europe , asia and africa with a small number of species inhabiting north america ( including introduced european ones ) and introduced species in australia .

the species chrysolina cerealis and c. graminis are protected in the united kingdom .

all species of chrysolina are phytophagous , feeding on specific food plants , and some of them have been used for biological control of weeds .

to control hypericum perforatum ( st john 's wort ) , c. hyperici was successfully naturalized in australia in the 1930s and several species , especially c. quadrigemina , were introduced to california in the late 1940s .

chrysolina

chrysolina costalis ( olivier , 1807 ) ( = chrysolina obsoleta brullé , 1838 sensu bieńkowski 2014 unpubl . )
considerazioni biogeografiche sulle chrysolina delle province appenninica e sicula con descrizione di chrysolina ( stichoptera ) bourdonnei n . sp . ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
chromosomal evolution and trophic affiliation in the genus chrysolina ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) .
on latvian chrysomelinae ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) : 4 . genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860
chrysolina , inspired by the chrysolina perforata beetle . from the insectarium collection , inspired by the vibrant beauty of the insect world ! scroll down for links to video swatches / reviews .
on the types and status of chrysolina sylvatica ( gebler , 1823 ) and chrysolina subcostata ( gebler , 1848 ) from the subgenus pleurosticha motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
karyometric differences among nine species of the genus chrysolina mots . ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
données sur la biosystématique des chrysolina l . s . ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : chrysomelinae ) .
seven new species of the genus chrysolina motschulsky from china ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : chrysomelinae ) .
notes on chromosomes of ten species of the genus chrysolina mots . ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) .
the cytogenetics and cytotaxonomy of chrysolina mots . and oreina chevr . ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
7e contribution a la connaissance du genre chrysolina motsch . ( col . phytophaga chrysomelidae )
new data on the cytology of chrysolina mots . and oreina chevr . ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
les plantes hôtes connues des chrysolina ( col . chrysomelidae ) – essai sur les types de sélections trophiques .
chrysolina americana ( rosemary beetle ) ; larva , feeding on rosemary ( rosmarinus officinalis ) . april , 2007 .
evolution of host - plant affiliation and chemical defense in chrysolina - oreina leaf beetles as revealed by mtdna phylogenies .
беньковский а . о . 2008 . обзор группы видов chrysolina lineella подрода anopachys motschulsky , 1860 ро . . .
chrysolina americana ( rosemary beetle ) ; adult . cryptically disguised on a salvia spp . april , 2007 . spain .
mitochondrial dna phylogeny and the evolution of host - plant use in palearctic chrysolina ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) leaf beetles .
беньковский а . о . 2010 . обзор жуков - листоедов рода chrysolina motschulsky ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) . . .
bieńkowski a . o . 2007 . a monograph of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera : chrysomelid . . .
a review of the subgenus arctolina kontkanen , 1959 of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : chrysomelinae ) .
marshall , j . e . ( 1979 ) .
the larvae of the british species of chrysolina ( chrysomelidae )
.
chrysolina of the world . 4 . review of subgenera : from allochrysolina to allohypericia , alphabetically ordered , february , 28 , 2018
chrysolina americana ( rosemary beetle ) ; adult . on rosemary ( rosmarinus officinalis ) . molyvos , lesvos , greece . february , 2013 .
c . varians is similar to the other chrysolina species released in bc making identification difficult in the absence of the other species for comparison .
what made you want to look up chrysolina ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
new and little known leaf beetles of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 from altai and sayany mountains in south siberia ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) .
chrysolina americana ( rosemary beetle ) ; adults on lavender ( lavandula spp ) . s . agata fossili , alessandria , italy . june , 2007 .
. . . in this sense the most controversial case is the one concerning the genera chrysolina and oreina chevrolat , whose discrimination mainly relies in the ratio between the length of the metasternum and the length of the first abdominal sternite ( weise 1893 ) . it has been suggested that this morphological attribute could be inconsistent ( bieńkowski 2007 ) , thus reinforcing the inclusion of the genus oreina within chrysolina ( chapuis 1874 , doguet 1991 , daccordi 1994 ) or conversely the recognition of chrysolina as a subgenus of oreina ( monrós and bechyné 1956 ) . in addition , taxonomic rearrangements are frequent in chrysolina , including decisions splitting species into new genera ( e . g . . . .
bieńkowski a . o . 2007 . a monograph of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) of the world . part 1 - b / w figures
a study on the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 , with a checklist of all the described subgenera , species , subspecies , and synonyms ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : chrysomelinae ) .
chrysolina ( stichoptera ) oceanoripensis nova species , endémique des dunes françaises des landes de gascogne et considérations sur le sous - genre stichoptera motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) .
its species name graminis is a form of the latin noun gramen ,
grass
, meaning
of grass , grass - like
. chrysolina graminis sensu lato has at least three later binomial names which are considered to be synonyms : chrysomela fulgida fabricius , 1801 , chyrsolina nigrocuprea mallet , 1924 , and chrysolina taupini mallet , 1924 . [ 7 ]
chrysolina quadrigemina is a member of the chrysomelidae , the same insect family that contains the colorado potato beetle . its shape and habits are similar to those of this common and destructive pest of solanaceaous plants . when disturbed , chrysolina spp . beetles will drop from the plant and
play dead
on the soil . they feed voraciously both as larvae and adults .
consideration of the subgenera timarchoptera motschulsky , 1860 and paraheliostola l . medvedev , 1992 of the genus chrysolina motschulsky ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) after description of two new forms from khakassia .
milek tm , simala m , 2010 . rosemary beetle - chrysolina americana l . ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) as a pest of aromatic plants , medicinal herbs and ornamentals . ( ruzmarinova zlatica chrysolina americana l . ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) kao stetnik zacinskog , ljekovitog bilja i ukrasnog bilja . ) glasilo biljne zastite , 10 ( 5 ) : 319 - 333 . urltoken
( pdf ) bieńkowski a . o . 2007 . a monograph of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) of the world . part 1 - b / w figures
friedman all , 2016 . rosemary beetle chrysolina americana : a new invasive leaf beetle ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : chrysomelinae ) in israel . israel journal of entomology , 46 : 87 - 91 .
halstead aj , 1996 . possible breeding by the rosemary beetle , chrysolina americana l . in britain . british journal of entomology and natural history , 9 ( 2 ) : 107 - 108 .
a review of the leaf - beetle genus chrysolina motschulsky ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) from russia and european countries of the former ussr : i . a key to species with developed hind wings .
badmin js , 2004 . chrysolina americana ( l . ) ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) reaches east kent in 2004 . british journal of entomology and natural history , 17 ( 2 ) : 119 .
review of the leaf - beetle genus chrysolina motschulsky ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) from russia and the european countries of the former ussr : ii . a key to species with the reduced hind wings .
. . . however , despite the number of taxonomic studies focused on chrysolina its taxonomy is chronically confused ( kippenberg 2010 ) , and even the circumscription of the genus remains unclear . in fact , the most recent and updated taxonomic review ( bieńkowski 2007 ) does not contribute a comparative morphological diagnosis to differentiate chrysolina from the closely related genera . in this sense the most controversial case is the one concerning the genera chrysolina and oreina chevrolat , whose discrimination mainly relies in the ratio between the length of the metasternum and the length of the first abdominal sternite ( weise 1893 ) . . . .
we also used bayestraits to evaluate different ancestral host plant affiliations scenarios at the root of the chrysolina tree . analyses were conducted by enforcing the ancestral state of the most recent common ancestor ( mrca ) for the core chrysolina node ( excluding the divergent species chrysolina vigintimaculata ) to be one of the eight host plant families recorded for the studied chrysolina species . mcmc was used to explore the samples and the space rate parameter of 1000 post - burnin trees generated in the mrbayes analysis . we performed two independent runs of 10·10 6 generations for each one of the constrained searches , and sampling rate parameters every 100 generations . the constrained runs were then compared by calculating the bayes factors between the best and second best models based on the harmonic mean of the likelihood from each analysis as indicated in bayestraits manual .
top : c . quadrigemina adult . photo : courtesy of usda / ars bottom : adult chrysolina . note the metallic sheen . photo : courtesy of noah poritz , biological control of weeds , inc .
the tansy beetle was first described by linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of systema naturae as chrysomela graminis [ 4 ] and was later transferred to the genus chrysolina . the genus chrysolina currently contains 39 subgenera . [ 5 ] c . graminis ( with its several subspecies ) is located in the subgenus euchrysolina which contains only one other species – c . virgata ; this subgenus was first established in 1950 . [ 6 ]
holloway , j . k . , and huffaker , c . b . 1951 . the role of chrysolina quadrigemina in the biological control of klamath weed . j . econ . ent . 44 : 244 - 7 .
. . . in addition , taxonomic rearrangements are frequent in chrysolina , including decisions splitting species into new genera ( e . g . craspeda motschulsky [ = zeugotaenia motschulsky ] : bourdonné 2005 , camerounia jolivet : bieńkowski 2007 , chalcoidea motschulsky : bourdonné 2012 ) . likewise , the subgeneric arrangement of the chrysolina species is also unstable ( mikhailov 2000 , bieńkowski 2001 , 2007 , bourdonné 2008 , 2012 , kippenberg 2010 ) . . . .
hoebeke , e . r . 1993 . establishment of urophora quadrifasciata ( diptera : tephritidae ) and chrysolina quadrigemina ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) in portions of eastern united states , ent . news , 104 : 143 - 152 .
barclay mvl , mann dj , 2002 . some further records of chrysolina americana ( l . ) ( chrysomelidae ) in london . british journal of entomology and natural history , 15 ( 3 / 4 ) : 136 - 137 .
carron , c . a . , baroffio , c . , schneider , e . , 2017 . chrysolina americana , a new pest in switzerland . . agroscope fat tänikon ( no . 183 ) , 3 pp . . urltoken
bieńkowski a . o . 2013 . the members of the subgenus semenowia weise , 1889 of the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) / / caucasian entomological bulletin , 9 ( 1 ) : 97 - 101 .
c . varians was one of three chrysolina species introduced to bc . a pure population was released 1957 near westbank into a buchgrass habitat surrounded by ponderosa pine . no evidence of the beetle was found the following year and it was presumed the site was too dry to support this chrysolina species . the area has undergone significant development since the release . in 1958 another release was made into an area dominated by interior douglas - fir and short term establishment was found .
in this work we present the results of a phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences from a sample of chrysolina and oreina species , using bayesian and maximum likelihood ( ml ) inference approaches . we expand the taxon sampling of previous molecular studies ( garin et al . 1999 , hsiao and pasteels 1999 ) through the inclusion of representatives for nearly half of the chrysolina subgenera comprising most of the morphologically defined groups and ecological variation of the genus . in addition , the inferred molecular phylogeny is used to test the validity of a number of taxonomic hypotheses derived from morphological , ecological , chemical and genetic data . finally , we aim to investigate the evolution of the host plant associations in the genus chrysolina .
the inferred topology also supported most of the current subgeneric taxonomy of chrysolina ( bieńkowski 2001 , kippenberg 2010 ) , since the monophyly of the subgenera screened for more than one species could be demonstrated or alternatively could not be rejected by the au test . the exceptions in this regard are the synonymy of the subgenus paraheliostola with the subgenus timarchoptera by mikhailov ( 2002 ) and the combination of the species chrysolina ( threnosoma ) timarchoides with the subgenus maenadochrysa by bieńkowski ( 2001 ) . in both cases the taxa in question were recovered with support as well - differentiated lineages , thus indicating that such taxonomic decisions could be wrong . therefore , the subgenus paraheliostola ( type species chrysolina soiota jacobson , 1924 ) should be restored according to the present molecular phylogeny . moreover , the available karyological evidence also conflicts with bieńkowski’s ( 2001 ) proposal ( petitpierre 1975 , 1981 ) , and we thus agree with daccordi and ruffo ( 2005 ) and with kippenberg ( 2010 ) in that chrysolina timarchoides belongs in the subgenus threnosoma .
bieńkowski , a . o . ( 2010 ) .
a review of the leaf - beetle genus chrysolina motschulsky ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) from russia and european countries of the former ussr : i . a key to species with developed hind wings
.
morrison kimberley d . , edward g . reekie and klaus i . n . jensen . 1998 . biocontrol of common st . john ' swort ( hypericum perforatum ) with chrysolina hyperici and a host - specific colletotrichum gloeosporioides . weed technol . 12 : 426 - 435
top : chrysolina quadrigemina beetles on st . john ' s wort . photo : courtesy of noah poritz , biological control of weeds , inc . bottom : c . quadregemina adults clustered on tops of st . john ' s wort . photo : courtesy of usda / ars
mikhailov ye . ( 2005 ) contribution to the knowledge of chrysolina ( crositops ) pedestris ( gebler , 1823 ) ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae ) : preimaginal stages and ecology . contributions to systematics and biology of beetles – papers celebrating the 80 th birthday of igor konstantinovich lopatin , 143–151 .
chrysolina varians habitat appears narrower than other chrysolina species . it may be best suited for maritime climates since it does not tolerate hot dry conditions . it requires soft soils for pupation , avoiding rocky or barren sites . as with other chrysolina it requires open sunny locations , avoiding shaded and forested areas . its native distribution is from spain to west siberia . c . varians occurs in northern and alpine areas of europe and is common where summers are moist . in harsh winter habitat it requires sufficient snow cover for protection . in sweden it is found abundantly in moist forest openings and at sites with low canopy bushes . in bc , c . varians was released into the bunchgrass and interior douglas - fir bec zones . early monitoring determined it did not establish and it was thought the sites may be too dry . bunchgrass and ponderosa pines biogeoclimatic zones are probably not favourable for this particular species .
historical records indicate that the second c . varians release only survived one winter . a few beetles were found one year later , but no further evidence was found in subsequent years . if it did establish long term , it may now be found only in mixed populations with the two other chrysolina species .
campbell c . l . and j . p . mccaffrey . 1991 . population trends , seasonal phenology , and impact of chrysolina quadrigemmina , c . hyperici ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) , and agrilus hyperici ( coleoptera : buprestidae ) associated with hypericum perforatum in northern idaho . environ . entomol . 20 ( 1 ) : 303 - 315
. . . the current publication is a continuation of studies of the latvian fauna of chrysomelinae leaf - beetles ( bukejs 2009bbukejs , c , 2010 bukejs & telnov 2010 ) . the genus chrysolina motschulsky , 1860 comprises 469 species and 251 subspecies ( bieńkowski 2007 ) . most species are distributed in europe , asia and africa . . . .
bayesian phylogenetic tree obtained from the combined analysis of cox 1 , rrn l and h3 . node numbers represent bayesian posterior probability values . only support values higher than 0 . 9 are shown . numbers accompanying the subgeneric classification of the chrysolina species on the right correspond to the systematic groups defined by bourdonné and doguet ( 1991 ) . clades mentioned in the text are highlighted .
maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree obtained from the combined analysis of cox 1 , rrn l and h3 . node numbers represent bootstrap support values . only support values higher than 0 . 7 are shown . numbers accompanying the subgeneric classification of the chrysolina species on the right correspond to the systematic groups defined by bourdonné and doguet ( 1991 ) . clades mentioned in the text are highlighted .
jurado - rivera ja , petitpierre e ( 2015 ) new contributions to the molecular systematics and the evolution of host - plant associations in the genus chrysolina ( coleoptera , chrysomelidae , chrysomelinae ) . in : jolivet p , santiago - blay j , schmitt m ( eds ) research on chrysomelidae 5 . zookeys 547 : 165–192 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 547 . 6018
in a survey of 11 different sites in ontario , 100 % of the sites showed signs of anthracnose infection . preliminary identification of colletotrichum gloeosporioides was made from isolates from stem lesions . this disease is endemic in the nova scotia where researchers noted that the disease was spread by chrysolina spp . beetles . in addition , when stem lesions were combined with defoliation by beetles , the plants suffered 75 % winter kill .
posterior probability values of ancestral host - plant affiliations calculated in bayestraits for the selected nodes in the chrysolina - oreina phylogeny . the highest probability value ( s ) for each node are highlighted in bold . ast . = asteraceae , api . = apiaceae , hyp . = hypericaceae , lam . = lamiaceae , plant . = plantaginaceae , scro . = scrophulariaceae , ran . = ranunculaceae , apo . = apocynaceae .
. . . limbata , as some authors believe , e . g . , bourdonné ( 2005 ) . interpretation of ch . besseri was fixed by designation of neotype , the species was shown to belong to the subgenus chalcoidea motschulsky , 1860 of chrysolina , and the synonymy chalcoidea ( = craspeda ) ( bieńkowski , 2007 ) was proposed . thus , zeugotaenia is a valid name for the subgenus discussed here . . . .
chrysolina spp . are leaf - feeding beetles . in other jurisdictions , the insects over - winter as eggs that hatch early in the spring . in ontario , it is unknown whether the beetles over - winter as larvae or eggs . larvae resemble those of the colorado potato beetle . research has shown that both the larvae and adults accumulate hypericin that they ingest from the plants . the amount of hypericin in the larvae is enough to make them photosensitive and feeding habits seem to reflect this accumulation .
comparing model support with the bayes factor . bayes factors were calculated as described in the bayestraits manual : bf = 2 ( ln lha−ln lhb ) , where ln lhx is the marginal likelihood from the harmonic mean of the post - convergence . the plant family lamiaceae is the most likely ancestral host at the root of the core chrysolina clade with the highest harmonic mean . the right column indicates the bayes factor compared against lamiaceae as the favoured ancestral host . * indicates positive evidence , * * indicates strong evidence , and * * * indicates very strong evidence for the favoured hypothesis .
the importation in 1944 of chrysolina quadrigemina and its close relative , c . hyperici , was the first north american attempt at controlling weeds with insects . the insects are natural enemies of hypericum perforatum , known as klamath weed in the western u . s . , goat weed in the mountain states , and , more generally , as st . john ' s wort . this native european plant is a pest on rangelands throughout the temperate regions of the world because it displaces forage plants and is toxic to cattle and sheep . in 1943 it was estimated that 400 , 000 acres of california rangeland were infested with klamath weed .
specific hypotheses of monophyly were tested using a ml framework and the approximately unbiased test ( au test , shimodaira 2000 ) as implemented in the consel program ( shimodaira and hasegawa 2001 ) . we compared our molecular phylogenetic hypothesis with some of the most relevant systematic proposals for the genus chrysolina ( see results ) . prior to the evaluation of each taxonomic scenario , a ml phylogenetic analysis was performed in garli v . 2 . 01 using the same partitioning scheme and models as in the phylogenetic searches described above , but enforcing the monophyly of the taxa of interest . once the resulting ml trees were obtained , their per site log - likelihoods were calculated using raxml v8 . 0 . x program ( stamatakis 2014 ) and used as input data in consel .
chrysolina graminis and c . herbacea are similar in size and colour and may be confused in uk populations . distinguishing the two species in the united kingdom is particularly important as c . graminis is a vulnerable species whereas c . herbacea is much more common . [ 19 ] this has previously led to the misidentification of c . herbacea as c . graminis . [ 16 ] c . herbacea measures 7–11 mm in length . [ 20 ] it is coloured iridescent green on dorsal surface throughout . the punctuation on the pronotum and elytra is distinctly similar , unlike in c . graminis . there is a smooth lip running only half the length of the ventral edge of the elytra , whereas this lip runs the full length on c . graminis . [ 16 ]
the tansy beetle ( chrysolina graminis ) is a species of leaf beetle . it measures 7 . 7–10 . 5 mm in length and has a characteristic bright metallic green colouration . the common name derives from the tansy plant on which they often feed as both larvae and adults . in addition to the nominotypical subspecies , which repeats the specific name , c . graminis graminis , there are five further distinct subspecies of tansy beetle , which , collectively , have a palearctic distribution , although in the majority of countries where it is found the species is declining . [ 2 ] in the united kingdom it is designated as ' nationally rare ' [ 1 ] and this localised population , centred on york , north yorkshire , [ 3 ] has been the subject of much recent research .
st . john ' s wort , a native of europe , was first introduced to north america in 1793 in pennsylvania . it became established in eastern canada by 1883 . over much of its range in canada it has been successfully controlled by the introduction of insects that feed only on st . john ' s wort . biological control of st . john ' s wort was introduced in australia in the 1930 ' s with the introduction of three beetles that fed only on st . john ' s wort in its native habitat in europe - chrysolina hyperici from the atlantic region of europe ; c . quadrigemina from the mediterranean region and anaitis plagiata from northern europe . during the 1950 ' s ontario imported and released all three species in an effort to achieve similar biological control of st . john ' s wort . c . quadrigemina is currently predominant .
st . john ' s wort has long been a magical plant in folklore . in medieval times it was believed that if you stepped on the plant after dark you would be transported by a magical horse around the heavens and returned to earth only as the sun rose . it was universally called
the grace of god
. in england it was used to cure insanity , in russia to cure rabies and in brazil as a cure for snake bite . crushed flowers oozed a red pigment ( hypericin ) that looked like blood . its name derives from the fact that its flowers are harvested around the summer solstice or st . john ' s day on the 24th of june . it is extremely attractive to cats and rats and is said to have been used by the pied piper to lure rats out of hamelin . unfortunately , it is also attractive to certain chrysolina spp . beetles .
ancestral host plant affiliations were reconstructed using bayestraits v . 2 . 0 ( pagel and meade 2013 ) selecting the mcmc mode and the “multistate” model of evolution ( pagel et al . 2004 ) . to take into account phylogenetic uncertainty , reconstructions were based on 1000 randomly selected post - burnin bayesian trees from the phylogenetic analysis in mrbayes 3 . 2 . following the manual’s recommendations ( urltoken ) , the reversible - jump ( rj ) mcmc with a hyperprior approach was chosen , and the interval of 0–30 for the rj - hyperprior implementing an exponential distribution was applied . the “addmrca” command was used to calculate the posterior distribution of ancestral character states at selected nodes in the bayesian chrysolina tree . a total of 10·10 6 generations were run , with samples taken every 100 iterations and discarding a burn - in fraction of 10 % . results of the mcmc runs including the ess values were analysed in tracer v . 1 . 5 .
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the native range of c . quadrigemina is from north africa to denmark , not extending as far north as sweden . in 1944 , an introduction program into north america was initiated , but it was not possible to obtain european insects because of the war , and so specimens were imported from australia , where they had previously been established . this required changing the life cycles of these southern hemisphere insects to be in phase with the northern hemisphere . fine , daily sprays of water were administered , which caused the adults to emerge from aestivation , a heat or drought induced quiescent period , and to lay eggs . finally , the small imported population increased enough to complete feeding tests , and the beetles were released in february of 1946 .
c . quadrigemina is up to 1 / 4
in diameter . although not brightly metallic , it has a metallic sheen that can be green , bronze , purple , and / or blue , depending on the individual .
c . quadrigemina is generally specific to h . perforatum . it has been reported feeding on some native and ornamental hypericum species , but it does not prosper . it is not known if it can complete its life cycle on species other than h . perforatum .
the klamathweed beetle is very closely synchronized in its growth stages with the host plant . in 1943 , negotiations between harry s . smith , chairman of the department of biological control at the of the university of california and the usda bureau of entomology and plant quarantine , resulted in an agreement that c . quadrigemina and two other potential klamath weed control agents would be tested , prior to release , on 6 plants to which the insects had not been exposed in europe or australia : sugar beet , flax , hemp , sweet potato , tobacco , and cotton . upon satisfactory completion of the tests , the klamathweed beetle was released .
adults emerge from pupal cells that are just beneath the soil surface in april and early may when the plants are producing flower buds or are actually in flower . they feed voraciously on the plant foliage until late june / early july , and then , fully fed , spend an obligate period of aestivation beneath stones and debris and in crevices of the soil . the aestivation period cannot be entered in moist conditions . with the onset of fall rains , the beetles again become active , in synchrony with the host plants . the plants form a leafy , basal growth upon which active beetles feed sparingly , then mate and lay their eggs about mid - october . the larvae reach the third - and fourth - stages of development by feeding on the plant ' s basal growth , which they completely destroy . they then enter the soil to a depth of about one inch and individually form cells for pupation . there is one generation per year .
because its life cycle is so well synchronized with klamath weed growth habits , c . quadrigemina is very effective against this plant pest if it is located in climates suitable for the beetle . after the initial north american release in 1946 , c . quadrigemina multiplied so quickly that at one location two years later , 5000 beetles , a small fraction of the total population , were collected for redistribution . by 1951 , populations were established in all 21 california counties in which klamath weed was a problem , and the plant was already under control in some of the original locations . by 1957 , the plant was reduced by 99 % in northern california .
c . quadrigemina is adapted to a climate with hot , dry summers and mild , rainy winters , and all stages of c . quadrigemina – eggs , larvae , pupae , and adults – are able to withstand winter temperatures of california areas that support klamath weed . adults and larvae are susceptible to frosts , but all stages can survive under snow cover .
canadian efforts have had mixed success . in 1951 , releases in british columbia of c . quadrigemina and c . hyperici ( a species more tolerant of moisture ) have resulted in effective control of st . johns wort in many areas of the province . both of these species have been introduced and become established in southern ontario . more recently , c . quadrigemina has been reported in new york , pennsylvania , ohio , maryland , and west virginia , and is presumed to have spread from release sites in ontario .
in areas where the klamathweed beetle thrives , st . johns wort is reduced to an acceptable level or is at least subjected to extensive damage . however , in moist areas , c . quadrigemina introductions have done little to control the weed , even when the beetle persists . cold is another negative factor , and in one year of heavy frost , the c . quadrigemina population at a canadian site ( zamora - westbridge vicinity ) collapsed . the presence of trees and dense ground vegetation helps to protect the beetles from frosts .
thanks to noah poritz of biological control of weeds , inc . , for supplying photographs and information .
environment canada . 1997 . invasive plants of natural habitats in canada : an integrated review of wetland and upland species and legislation governing their control . upland species accounts . urltoken
hare , j . d . 1997 course outline :
insect ecology ,
biology / entomology 127 , university of california , riverside .
harris , p . , peschken , d . , and milroy , j . 1969 . the status of biological control of the weed hypericum perforatum in british columbia . can . entomologist , 101 : 1 - 15 .
holloway , j . k . 1957 . weed control by insect . ecology , evolution , and population biology , readings from scientific american . w . h . freeman and co . , san francisco . 319 pp .
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family . the beetle is a native of southern europe that has become an established pest in britain since the 1990s . it is an attractive 8 - mm - long metallic green beetle with purple stripes on its wing cases and thorax . the soft - bodied grubs are greyish white with five darker longitudinal lines ; fully grown larvae are 5 - 8 mm long . sausage - shaped eggs , 2 mm long , may be found on the underside of the leaves from early autumn to spring . for further information see the royal horticulture society ' s rosemary beetle survey (
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
beenen r , winkelman j , 2001 . notes on chrysomelidae in the netherlands 5 ( coleoptera ) . ( aantekeningen over chrysomelidae in nederland 5 ( coleoptera ) . ) entomologische berichten , 61 ( 5 ) : 63 - 67 .
bibolini c , 1964 . on the bionomics of c . americana . ( sulla biología della chrysomela americana l . ( coleóptera - chrysomelidae ) . ) frustula entomologica , 6 ( 4 ) : 1 - 122 pp .
uk royal horticultural society , 2002 . report of the rhs science departments , 1999 - 2001 : science for gardeners . london , uk : royal horticultural society ( rhs ) , viii + 36 pp .
zandigiacomo p , 2002 . entomological diagnosis and advice in the service of agriculture : 6th year . ( diagnosi e consulenze entomologiche al servizio dell ' agricoltura : 6° anno . ) notiziario ersa , 15 ( 1 / 2 ) : 21 - 22 .
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the beetles are metallic bronze , brown or greenish coloured . adults emerge in early - june and begin feeding in clusters on young terminal leaves , flower buds or the underside of leaves . they continue to feed until leaf drop in july and early - august . reproduction is related to day length ; with longer daylight , less feeding and reproduction occurs . when day length is reduced they move into plant litter and await the fall rains . once precipitation breaks dormancy , mating and egg laying begins . females oviposit eggs individually or in small clusters on winter basal leaves .
the elongated , 1 . 2mm x 0 . 5mm orange eggs overwinter and hatch the following spring . the eggs incubate for 6 - 7 days .
the plump , humped - back larvae , initially orange coloured , change to dirty pink - grey as they mature . the eggs that have overwintered usually hatch in may . the new larvae feed on buds and immature leaves causing complete defoliation before moving on to adjacent plants . feeding on st . john ' s wort causes the larvae to become light sensitive . photosensitivity prevents them from feeding during the day , and they must feed during low light periods before sunrise . after the morning feed they seek shade and protection , the smallest hide in leaf buds while the larger ones move under the plants or into the soil . they resume feeding at sunset . mature larvae burrow into the soil during spring and early summer and create a pupal cell .
early spring larvae feeding on fleshy new growth cause the most damage . although adult feeding can be impressive , it has less impact than early larvae feeding . heavy fall feeding may cause some impact on the plants ' ability to overwinter .
by early - june , adults can be swept when they cluster on the plants .
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today st . john ' s wort is one of the most popular medicinal plants . it is used extensively in europe in the treatment of mild depression . it also has antiviral and antibacterial properties and is used to promote the healing of damaged nerves .
the chemical most often connected with st . john ' s wort is hypericin , the chemical used as a
marker
for medicinal activity . recent research has revealed that there are at least 50 chemicals in this plant with varied medicinal properties . like so many plants that are used as medicines the valuable properties of this herb cannot be attributed to one single chemical .
st . john ' s wort , however , is more than an important medicinal . it is a serious noxious weed on grazing lands in parts of north america . since many animals grazing on st . john ' s wort react to hypericin , this weed was the subject of one of the first successful programs in weed biocontrol .
there are four colour morphs of this beetle , bronze , metallic green and metallic blue , and a purple form not recently observed in ontario . bronze coloured beetles outnumber blue coloured beetles by about 9 : 1 . green coloured c . quadrigemmina are rarely found . the metallic sheen on their elytra ( wing covers ) is distinctive .
defoliation is most severe in the week before flowering and continues during maximum bloom , the time when flowers are harvested for medicinal use . in observation plots of 3 - year - old st john ' s wort as many as 97 beetles per plant were counted . the beetles fed mostly on the leaves , and flower tops were left relatively untouched .
very young larvae feed only at night and are concealed in terminal leaf buds during the hours of peak sunlight . older larvae feed only in the early dawn . they burrow into the soil during the day and remain there until dawn the next day . mature larvae pupate in the soil . adults emerge from the soil about the first week of june . adults feed heavily until mid - late july . the elytra ( protective wing covers ) transmit almost no light and thus the hypericin cannot become
activated
. adults are reluctant to fly from plant to plant . when the elytra are opened during flight , light can penetrate the cuticle , activating the hypericin which becomes toxic to them . adults move about only when threatened with starvation .
in mid - late july the adult beetles enter summer diapause , burrowing into the soil to
rest
until they are ready to emerge to mate and lay eggs . in demonstration plots , no mating activity was observed among the adults during early season feeding . this type of diapause is very risky for the beetles . by mid - august 80 % of the beetles in the ground had succumbed to predation in the demonstration plots . the most prevalent predatory beetles are in the carabidae family .
at wild sites in ontario beetles were found only occasionally and anthracnose at low levels did not cause severe dieback of the stems . the situation was much different in cultivated plantings of st . john ' s wort .
anthracnose was prevalent in most cultivated plantings of st . john ' s wort . anthracnose lesions on cultivated plants expanded until they girdled the stem and the entire plant was involved . the disease progressed to involve entire plants . the disease progressed quicker on plants transplanted into plastic mulch . unless totally diseased , for the first two years plants succumbing to anthracnose re - grew the following spring . commercial growers found that these plants could be harvested for the flowers but the overall harvest weight was reduced .
colletotrichum can be a seed - borne disease . producers growing their own transplants should take care to obtain disease - free seed .
two factors are at work in cultivated st . john ' s wort that threaten the survival of the plants :
disease can be introduced on the seed resulting in higher disease incidence than in wild stands .
this combination of beetles and disease results in considerably more damage to the planting than either pest alone . in recent studies there was a direct link between the severity of feeding damage and the severity of disease .
duffey s . s . and j . m . pasteels . 1993 . transient uptake of hypericin by chrysomelids is regulated by feeding behaviour . physiological entomology 20 , 119 - 129
fields p . g . , john t . aenason and bernard j . r . philogene . 1989 . behavioural and physical adaptations of three insects that feed on the phytotoxic plant hypericum perforatum . can . j . zool . 68 : 339 - 346
hildebrand p . d . and k . i . n . jensen . 1991 . potential for the biological control of st . john ' s - wort ( hypericum perforatum ) with an endemic strain of colletotrichum gloeosporioides . can j . plant pathol . 13 : 60 - 70
this inforsheet was originally aurthored by jan schooley , former ginseng and medicinal herb specialist , omafra .
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size demi sample : 1 / 8 tsp in jar - $ 3 . 50 mini jar : 1 gm ( 1 / 2 tsp ) in jar with sifter and full labeling - $ 7 . 25
this premium eyeshadow collection features truly unique , color traveling pigments that display a strong and vibrant color shift under artificial light sources . when they are in between two different light sources , you will be able to see the strongest multiple color transmission . under direct sunlight or diffused artificial light , the effects are muted or washed out , and you will only see a slight and subtle color shift . they have a highly reflective / chrome finish , and they show the most saturated color effects and color travel when exposed to artificial lighting and especially mixed lighting of different color temperatures , much like the beautiful alexandrite gemstone exhibits trichroism , reflecting and absorbing light differently in different directions and color temperatures .
as the pigments used in this collection are extremely costly and used as the highest percentage in the formulas ( they are six times the cost of the typical duochrome / interference pigment ) , i have adjusted prices / sizing accordingly . basically , you will find that these are twice the cost of other aromaleigh eyeshadows . example : a regular aromaleigh sample is 1 / 8 tsp in a baggie for $ 1 . 25 . with insectarium , you get 1 / 16th tsp in a baggie for the same price of $ 1 . 25 )
recommended application for these is over a cream eyeshadow base ( nyx cream eyeshadow base is my go - to ! ) . sticky or glue bases may work well for you , but i personally don ' t use these or test / swatch my products with them . with all color shifting / duochrome shades , i urge you to use a flat taklon brush or other suitable tool to flatten and align the color shifting component of the eyeshadow . this will create a more uniform and reflective surface .
product photographs here at aromaleigh appear more
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demi sample : 1 / 8 teaspoon in 3 gram jar . no sifter . bottom label only . sets available .
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status : widespread , especially in the south - west ; usually coastal , can be locally common . habitat : various open habitats , but also valley woodland . host plant : various , especially ribwort plantain and a range of lamiaceae , including mints . overwintering : usually as larvae ; also as adults in warmer locations . food : leaves other notes : similar to c . staphylaea , but larger . no metallic reflection . elytral punctures sparse and random . now more correctly known as c . banksii .
depth range based on 3 specimens in 3 taxa . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : - 2 - - 1 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : - 2 - - 1 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .
w . t . parsons , e . g . cuthbertson . noxious weeds of australia . 2nd ed . collingwood : csiro publishing , 2001 . isbn 0 - 643 - 06514 - 8 . p . 389 .
wilfred william robbins , alden springer crafts . weed control : a textbook and manual . n . y . : mcgraw - hill , 1962 . p . 137 , 155 , 162 .
huffaker , c . b . and c . e . kennett ( 1959 ) . a ten - year study of vegetation change associated with biological control of klamath weed . journal of range management 12 : 69 - 82 .
gilbert waldbauer . what good are bugs ? : insects in the web of life . cambridge : harvard university press , 2003 . isbn 0 - 674 - 01027 - 2 . p . 158 .
richard e . white . a field guide to the beetles of north america . boston : houghton mifflin , 1983 . isbn 0 - 395 - 91089 - 7 . p . 296 .
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corresponding author : josé a . jurado - rivera ( se . biu @ odaruj . esoj )
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species from two subgenera . our sampling includes type species representatives regarding 13 of the studied
) . beetles were collected by us in the field or received from colleagues in absolute ethanol and stored in the laboratory at - 20 °c before processing . voucher specimens are deposited for long - term storage at the dna and tissue collection of the biodiversity , systematics and evolution group ( bio6evo ) of the university of the balearic islands .
studied taxa , sources , host plants and genbank accession numbers . species groups defined by bourdonné and doguet ( 1991 ) are also indicated . a : baselga and novoa ( 2006 ) , b : bieńkowski 2010 , c : bieńkowski 2011 , d : bourdonné 2005 , e : bourdonné and doguet 1991 , f : cobos 1953 , g : garin et al . 1999 , h : jolivet and petitpierre 1976 , i : jolivet et al . 1986 , j : koch 1992 , k : lopatin and mikhailov 2010 , l : mikhailov 2006 , m : petitpierre 1981 , n : rizza and pecora 1980 , o : vela and bastazo 1999 .
total dna was purified from beetle head and pronotum using the dneasy tissue kit ( qiagen , west sussex , uk ) and following the manufacturer’s protocol . elutions were done in 200 μl volume and one microliter was used in pcr reactions . three different molecular markers were selected for the study , including a partial sequence of the mitochondrial 16s rdna (
) . pcr conditions used 0 . 2 μm of each primer and 3 . 5 mm mgcl
using a standard protocol of 35 cycles with annealing temperature ranging from 50 to 45 °c ( 60s ) depending on the sample , and denaturation ( 94 °c ) and elongation ( 72 °c ) lasted 30 and 60s , respectively . pcr products were visualized by 1 % agarose gel electrophoresis and subsequently purified using msb spin pcrapace ( invitek , berlin , germany ) . sanger sequencing was performed with the same primers as above using the bigdye terminator cycle sequencing kit ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca , usa ) . sequences were edited and contigs were assembled using bioedit v . 7 ( hall 1999 ) , and deposited at genbank under the accession numbers referred in table