the southern pocket gopher ( thomomys umbrinus ) is a species of rodent in the family geomyidae .

it is found in mexico and the united states , usually in high altitude grassland and shrubland .

it feeds on plant material and has an extensive burrow above which is a large heap of earth on the surface of the ground .

southern pocket gopher

northern pocket gopher ( t . talpoides ) ; very widely distributed ; several subspecies including the cheyenne northern pocket gopher
range all of arizona , southern half of utah , most of california , western half of new mexico , southern third of nevada , and south into mexico .
the range of southeastern pocket gophers extends eastward from southern georgia and southeastern alabama to northern and central florida .
chi - squared analyses of soil influence on and separation of pocket gopher subgenera .
wing , e . 1960 . reproduction in the pocket gopher in northcentral florida .
geographic genetic architecture of pocket gopher ( thomomys bottae ) populations in baja california , mexico .
southern wildlife consults . a survey of the current distribution of the southeastern pocket gopher ( geomys pinetis ) in georgia . georgia : georgia department of natural resources . 2008 . accessed april 09 , 2014 at urltoken .
chamberlin , r . 1971 . two new lithobiid chilopods from burrows of the florida pocket gopher .
mazama pocket gopher ( t . mazama ) ; several subspecies including the western , gold beach , olympic , and tacoma pocket gophers .
morphological adaptations for digging and climate - impacted soil properties define pocket gopher ( thomomys spp . ) distributions
morphological adaptations for digging and climate - impacted soil properties define pocket gopher ( thomomys spp . ) distributions
ross , e . 1940 . new histeridae ( coleoptera ) from the burrows of florida pocket gopher .
while pocket gopher mounds may be considered unsightly , they are evidence of a healthy ecosystem . where possible , pocket gopher activity should be allowed . their tunneling behavior increases soil fertility and aeration and decreases soil compaction .
hubbell , t . , c . goff . 1940 . florida pocket gopher burrows and their arthropod inhabitants .
geographic genetic architecture of pocket gopher ( thomomys bottae ) populations in baja california , mexico . - pubmed - ncbi
is mostly found in central and southern georgia . recent research , however , indicates that the apalachicola and suwannee rivers may be serving as a river barrier within
miller ma ( 1957 ) burrows of the sacromento valley pocket gopher in flood - irrigated alfalfa fields . hilgardia 26 : 431–452 .
this species is known from southeastern united states , from southern alabama , southern georgia , and all but the southern third of florida ( pembleton and williams 1978 ) . the subspecies goffi occurred on the pineda ridge , along the indian river , in the vicinity of eau gallie ( now incorporated into melbourne ) , brevard county , florida . historically it was known from 3 . 2 km north and south of eau gallie and as far as 3 . 2 km inland from the indian river ( layne 1978 , sherman 1944 ) .
plains pocket gophers are solitary animals and will aggressively defend their burrow from other pocket gophers . they spend almost all of their time in their underground burrows . when excavating a burrow system , a pocket gopher can produce up to three mounds of soil a day .
romanach s , seabloom e , reichman o ( 2007 ) costs and benefits of pocket gopher foraging : linking behavior and physiology . ecology 88 : 2047–2057 .
georgia museum of natural history , 2008 .
southeastern pocket gopher geomys pinetis
( on - line ) . accessed december 01 , 2014 at urltoken .
photo : a gopher patrols a golf course in maryland . credit : steve dykes / getty images
there has been much debate among taxonomists about which races of pocket gopher should be recognized as full species , and the following list cannot be regarded as definitive .
the dry garden : détente with the gopher | l . a . at home | los angeles times
because most southern pocket gophers live at high elevations in the mountains of mexico , they are less accessible , and have been less - studied , than some other species . like all pocket gophers , they are vegetarians , consuming both aboveground and underground parts of plants . southern pocket gophers are active all year long and appear to have no set pattern of daily activity , excavating tunnels at any hour of the day . the average life span is probably 2 - 3 years . most young are probably picked off by predators , which include hawks , owls , snakes , weasels , badgers , bobcats , and coyotes , before they are old enough to reproduce .
to complement the nested approach of conditional inference trees , chi - squared analyses test the impact of each soil attribute separately on pocket gopher distributions . furthermore , they test whether the subgenera split at soil attribute values with functional significance . using dataset # 5 ( fig . 2 ) , we ran a series of chi - squared tests with a null hypothesis of an even , random distribution of pocket gophers across the study area . we calculated the expected number of pocket gopher localities for each soil attribute by multiplying the proportion of the study area in each soil bin by the number of pocket gopher localities for each subgenus .
schmeisser r , loope d , wedin d ( 2009 ) clues to the medieval destabilization of the nebraska sand hills , usa , from ancient pocket gopher burrows . palaios 24 : 809–817 .
before beginning a control plan it is important to make sure that pocket gophers are causing the tunneling and mounds of soil . the eastern mole ( scalopus aquaticus ) also occurs in illinois and lives a subterranean life similar to the pocket gopher . moles excavate circular , volcano - shaped mounds of soil . the mound of soil is typically 4 to 8 inches high but may extend up to 2 feet . the pocket gopher builds kidney - shaped mounds .
keep in mind that removing one or more pocket gophers will open up the area to invasion from other pocket gophers . if the soil conditions are good and there is a food supply , pocket gophers will continue to use the area .
connior m , kershen aa , medlin re , elrod da , sasse bd , et al . ( 2010 ) distribution and habitat attributes of an endemic subspecies of pocket gopher . am midl nat 164 : 217–229 .
the southeastern pocket gopher can be common in suitable habitat , but density varies geographically . the last known colony of subspecies goffi was recorded in 1955 and since then no further sightings of the taxon have been documented .
zaitlin b , hayashi m , clapperton j ( 2007 ) distribution of northern pocket gopher burrows , and effects on earthworms and infiltration in a prairie landscape in alberta , canada . applied soil ecology 37 : 88–94 doi :
southeastern pocket gophers generally reside in either sandhill or xeric hammock ecosystems . longleaf pines (
eviner v , chapin f ( 2003 ) gopher - plant - fungal interactions affect establishment of an invasive grass . ecology 84 : 120–128 .
. like all pocket gophers , they are vegetarians , consuming both aboveground and underground parts of plants . southern pocket gophers are active all year long and appear to have no set pattern of daily activity , excavating tunnels at any hour of the day . the average life span is probably 2 - 3 years . most young are probably picked off by predators , which include hawks , owls , snakes , weasels , badgers , bobcats , and coyotes , before they are old enough to reproduce .
( mallophaga : trichodectidae ) of the new world pocket gophers ( rodentia : geomyidae ) .
citation : marcy ae , fendorf s , patton jl , hadly ea ( 2013 ) morphological adaptations for digging and climate - impacted soil properties define pocket gopher ( thomomys spp . ) distributions . plos one 8 ( 5 ) : e64935 . urltoken
the pocket gopher distribution across soil textures ( fig . 3 ) corroborates a preference reported in the literature for sandy - loam and loam soils [ 34 ] . pocket gophers access the entire range of silt and sand contents in soils of the study area ; however , clay content above 30 % excludes most pocket gophers . these data show that pocket gophers occupy the subset of ideal burrowing soils available . while megascapheus tend to occupy soils with higher clay content , texture alone cannot predict range boundaries between species ( fig . 3 ) .
trapping is the recommended control method for pocket gophers . there are several products designed specifically for trapping gophers . a permit is not needed to trap pocket gophers . following trap instructions will increase the success of this control method . for a detailed guide to trapping pocket gophers see : urltoken .
adopting a small dog strikes her as a possibly effective option , though the dog may do more damage than the gopher . but she is strongly against poisoning .
notes ecologists have described roughly 150 subspecies of botta’s pocket gopher . subspecies designation is based mostly on geographic distribution . while all of these subspecies can interbreed successfully at this point in time , this geographic variaton is one of the first steps leading toward new speciation .
pocket gophers are attracted to areas with a good supply of food in loamy or sandy soils . therefore , in a healthy environment it is extremely difficult to get rid of pocket gophers . packing the soil with a lawn roller may make the area less attractive to pocket gophers but this technique can hinder turf growth .
pocket gophers are not protected by the illinois wildlife code . a permit is not needed to remove them .
huntly , n . , r . inouye . 1988 . pocket gophers in ecosystems : patterns and mechanisms .
pocket gophers are solitary outside of the breeding season , aggressively maintaining territories that vary in size depending on the resources available . males and females may share some burrows and nesting chambers if their territories border each other , but in general , each pocket gopher is asocial and inhabits its own individual tunnel system . pocket gophers can be found concentrated in some environments , with several hundred per acre ( 0 . 4 hectare ) , or in other places with fewer than 50 per acre ( hafner 2004 ) .
the hardest thing to hear during her lecture wasn’t about lost rose bushes or ankles sprained in gopher holes , but the result of a national park service study that found the majority of bobcats tested in the santa monica mountains had consumed rodenticide . the toll became more grim when talk turned to common gopher poisons ' effects on mountain lions , coyotes and owls . as a pet owner , i couldn’t help thinking about my dogs . a strong correlation between mange and gopher poison was so unnerving , it had schiffman’s audience vicariously itching .
, has been reported on southeastern pocket gophers . southeastern pocket gophers may influence soils , microtopography , habitat heterogeneity , and diversity of plant species and primary productivity due to their mixing and moving of soil to create burrow systems .
the bulk of the southeastern pocket gopher diet includes roots and other herbaceous material . while burrowing , they collect plant roots , tubers , bulbs , and stems , which they transport in their cheek pouches to underground storage chambers for later consumption . peak activity is from dusk to dawn and southeastern pocket gophers are active year long . individuals occasionally emerge above ground to feed on grasses , forbs , and sedges .
miller rs ( 1964 ) ecology and distribution of pocket gophers ( geomyidae ) in colorado . ecology 45 : 256–272 .
huntly n , inouye r ( 1988 ) pocket gophers in ecosystems : patterns and mechanisms . bioscience 38 : 786–793 .
plains pocket gophers spend most of their lives underground . tracks and scat are seldom found . the best indicators of their presence in an area are the kidney - or fan - shaped mounds of soil that they produce . these mounds are often 1 to 2 feet in diameter and may be up to 1 foot tall . unlike molehills , pocket gopher mounds are not connected by surface tunnels , though the mounds are usually found in a line .
conservation measures are needed to protect three subspecies in georgia , colonus , fontanelus and cumberlandius . areas where these subspecies are known to occur should be converted to wildlife sanctuaries and further human development should be halted . additional surveys should be done to establish the status and distribution of these remaining subspecies and assess areas of highest priority ( hafner et al . , 1998 ) . sherman ' s pocket gopher ( g . p . fontanelus ) is considered to be endangered and possibly extinct by the georgia department of natural resources ( hafner et al . , 1998 ) . goff ' s pocket gopher ( g . p . goffi ) in florida is presumed extinct .
genus thomomys subgenera plotted by soil texture . red circles indicate soil types inhabited by megascapheus , the subgenus with additional tooth - digging adaptations . blue circles indicate soil types inhabited by the predominantly claw - digging subgenus thomomys . circle size indicates the frequency of pocket gopher subgenera or the frequency of soil types available in the study region .
the soils in the area photographed have a linear extensibility of 4 . 5 % . a and b depict the area during the rainy winter . fresh signs of pocket gopher activity are visible . c and d depict the same area with hardened and cracked soils during the arid mediterranean summer ; cracks of this type can reach up to 1 m deep [ 21 ] . megascapheus pocket gophers inhabit this region of california , which is south of our study area . photos by aem .
lessa ep , thaeler cs ( 1989 ) a reassessment of morphological specializations for digging in pocket gophers . j mammal 70 : 689–700 .
pocket gopher is the common name for any of the herbivorous , burrowing rodents comprising the family geomyidae , characterized by a tubular - shaped body , small eyes , reduced external ears , short limbs , and short and almost hairless tail . these are the
true
gophers , although several ground squirrels of the family sciuridae are often called gophers as well . the many species of pocket gophers are found only in the western hemisphere , extending from canada in north america to colombia in south america .
pocket gophers are mainly crepuscular ( active at dusk and dawn ) and some are nocturnal . they do not hibernate ( hafner 2004 ) .
moulton m , choate j , bissell s ( 1983 ) biogeographic relationships of pocket gophers in southeastern colorado . southwest nat 28 : 53–60 .
vaughan ta , hansen rm ( 1964 ) experiments on interspecific competition between two species of pocket gophers . am midl nat 72 : 444–452 .
cox gw ( 1989 ) early summer diet and food preferences of northern pocket gophers in north central oregon . northwest sci 64 : 77–82 .
life below the surface results in a very low mortality rate for southeastern pocket gophers . predation from owls , mink , and spotted skunks is greatly reduced and usually only takes place during the rare times that these pocket gophers look for food close to their mounds on the surface .
the tunneling and mound - producing behavior of pocket gophers can damage lawns . the mounds of soil may be considered unsightly in a manicured landscape .
burton dh , black hc ( 1978 ) feeding habits of mazama pocket gophers in south - central oregon . j wildl manage 42 : 383–390 .
over 203 articles were published between 1888 and 1976 mentioning the damage caused by pocket gophers . suggestions to control these pests included traps , poisons , anticoagulants , repellents , gas - chambers , and mechanical burrow - diggers . most pocket gophers are quickly exterminated from lawns , golf courses , parks , and cemeteries . the burrowing behavior of pocket gophers can leave soft spots and holes in the soil that may cause injuries in livestock and damage crop and agriculture lands .
southeastern pocket gophers are listed as high priority species in georgia . three of the six subspecies are threatened by habitat destruction by human development of limited habitats :
it is possible to exclude pocket gophers from small areas by using a barrier made of hardware cloth . the wire must be buried at least 18 inches deep .
breeding season southeastern pocket gophers apparently breed throughout the year , although females usually have two peaks in reproductive activity ( february - march and june - august ) .
the chi - squared tests assess whether pocket gophers respond to the physically significant soil thresholds outlined in table 1 . we used the no grid dataset because this dataset maintains gopher records within the biologically important distances over which competitive exclusion could occur ( n = 684 ) . however we also report the chi - squared tests for the 6 . 5 km dataset , which show similar results ( table s1 and fig . s2 ) .
case , r . , b . jasch . 1994 . pocket gophers . pp . b17 - b29 in s hyngstrom , r timm , g larson , eds .
the good news about these supposedly rasping gophers , schiffman said , is that they are shy . they rarely venture beyond the immediate mouth of a burrow , so if you create a raised bed , you’re unlikely to have gophers jumping fences . another heartening piece of gopher trivia was the news that their populations level out . one report estimates maximum capacity at 30 an acre . whatever it is , if you have been living with gophers for a while , your gopher hotel is probably full . they are territorial . you won’t have more .
cox g , hunt j ( 1992 ) relation of seasonal activity patterns of valley pocket gophers to temperature , rainfall , and food availability . j mammal 73 : 123–134 .
hoffman j , choate j , channell r ( 2007 ) effects of land use and soil texture on distributions of pocket gophers in kansas . southwest nat 52 : 296–301 .
southeastern pocket gophers are morphologically adapted for a fossorial lifestyle . due to the lack of visibility underground , sight is not essential resulting in a reduction of eyes . external ears also are often reduced to decrease friction , although hearing may be important . it is possible that pocket gophers may use chemical , vibrational , and tactile communication to perceive their environment . no data regarding vocalizations of southeastern pocket gophers are known , although it is presumed they make a variety of audible grinding , clicking , and chattering noises , as do other
to address concerns that our pocket gopher dataset reflected sampling bias towards certain regions with more trapping effort from collectors , we conducted a sensitivity analysis on the conditional inference trees and forests . using a series of four grids with increasing grid square dimensions ( 2 . 5 by 2 . 5 km , 4 by 4 km , 6 . 5 by 6 . 5 km , and 10 by 10 km ) we selected one locality closest to the center of each grid square ( datasets # 6 - 9 in fig . 2 ) . we then compared the conditional inference trees and forests from all pocket gopher localities ( n = 684 ) , localities in a 2 . 5 km grid ( n = 531 ) , 4 km ( n = 474 ) , 6 . 5 km ( n = 400 ) , and 10 km grid ( n = 327 ) ; see datasets # 5 - 9 in figure 2 .
patton , j . 1984 . pocket gophers . pages 628 - 631 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .
the fossil record of pocket gophers is known for as far back as the early miocene / late oligocene , about 25 million years ago . in addition , the evolutionary relationship of the species of lice found on pocket gophers appears to mirror the evolutionary history of the their host species , suggesting a relationship that goes back millions of years ( hafner 2004 ) .
reichman oj , baker rj ( 1972 ) distribution and movements of two species of pocket gophers ( geomyidae ) in an area of sympatry in the davis mountains , texas . j mammal 53 : 21–33 .
burrowing animals , pocket gophers are found in habitat with soil where they can create subterranean tunnels and that does not flood , including meadows , forests , deserts , and agricultural fields , including high - elevation habitats .
reichman oj ( 2007 ) the influence of pocket gophers on the biotic and abiotic environment . in : begal s , burda h , schleich c , editors . subterranean rodents : news from underground . heidelberg : springer . pp . 271–286 .
there are no detailed data available regarding reproductive investment in southeastern pocket gophers . given the mating system ( polygynous ) and time to weaning and dispersal , the female likely provides sole care for altricial young for a time period of approximately one month .
this leads to a personal observation . as someone who gardens on a remnant of an old altadena farm and who walks as often as possible at hahamongna watershed park in pasadena , it’s interesting to note that in the gopher - rich foothills , the large citrus trees at home and the old oaks of hahamongna seem not only to tolerate active burrows around their trunks , but also benefit from greater water infiltration .
the characteristics of soils that confer difficulty in digging significantly separate the subgenera of genus thomomys into different soil types . this is consistent with the existing literature , which attributes competitive exclusion to soil “hardness” [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . our results , however , consider both percent soil clay and bulk density more precisely as the soil attributes that confer hardness . furthermore , we introduce linear extensibility ( related to clay mineral type , and specifically the presence of smectite clays ) and depth to bedrock as important discriminating factors for the ranges of soil - dependent organisms . before we discuss our findings further , we put in context two factors besides soil that concern pocket gopher distributions .
) and other hardwood species . the soil contains more organic material and is slightly moister than that of the sandhill ecosystem . in sand pine scrub and longleaf pine flatlands habitats , southeastern pocket gophers occur less commonly . in areas where sandhill and xeric hammock habitats are disappearing due to modern land - use practices , southeastern pocket gophers are adapting by burrowing into road shoulders , power line rights of way , railroad embankments , fields along airport runways , parks , lawns , orchards , cemeteries , baseball fields , and golf courses .
due to the fossorial life history of southeastern pocket gophers , they have many commensal relationships : approximately 60 species of arthropods , mostly insects , have been found in their burrows , 14 of which are considered to be obligate commensals . for example , camel crickets (
hafner , m . s . 2004 . pocket gophers ( geomyidae ) . pages 185 to 198 in b . grzimek et al . , grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2nd ed . , vol . 16 . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657921 .
many rodents have check pouches for storing food . these internal pouches connect to the pharynx and may have evolved gradually under selective pressure for holding more and more food in the mouth . but the geomyidae ( pocket gophers ) and heteromyidae ( kangaroo rats and pocket mice ) have invaginated their cheeks to form external fur - lined pouches with no connection to the mouth or pharynx . what good is an incipient groove or furrow on the outside ? did such hypothetical ancestors run about three - legged while holding a few scraps of food in an imperfect crease with their fourth leg ?
impact of validation on pocket gopher locality georeferences . old localities ( dark red circles ) were designated using only the brief locality description as per the manis protocol . new localities ( blue and pink circles ) were designated by aem using the collector ' s original field notes . our validation targeted localities that had red flags for coordinate accuracy ( n = 146 , 22 % of the dataset ) . in all but a few cases the difference in location varied only slightly . on average localities moved 1 . 8 km , which is less than the sensitivity of the underlying soil layer , 2 . 5 km . the exceptions , noted by the red lines denoting the distance moved , were caused by typos during the georeferencing process for the old localities .
the closest relatives of the pocket gophers are the members of the rodent family heteromyidae , the pocket mice , kangaroo mice , and kangaroo rats . members of both of these families are characterized by external , fur - lined cheek pouches for storing food , a trait unique from the internal pouches found in many rodents . this feature was used by evolutionist stephen jay gould as support for the conjecture that evolutionary adaptations can come about suddenly rather than by a series of small steps , since it is hard to conceive of an intermediary with just a small crease having any adaptive advantage .
plains pocket gophers are classified as herbivores . they feed mainly on roots , rhizomes , and bulbs . they are also known to consume roots of shrubs and small trees and the leaves of plants such as alfalfa , clover , sweet clover , bluegrass , dandelion , dock , and plantain .
plains pocket gophers are found throughout much of the mid - section of illinois . their range extends from st . clair and madison counties to east and south of the illinois river over to the kankakee river and south of that river to the border of indiana . they can be locally abundant .
southeastern pocket gophers play several important roles in the functioning of their ecosystems . they are known to promote plant growth , increase water penetration , increase availability of helpful nutrients , aerate the soil , and enhance plant diversity . humphrey ( 1992 ) observed the return of leached nutrients to the surface of the soil , pushing up to 81 , 600 kg / ha of burrow soil to the surface per year . the soil mounds create numerous small sites for colonization and secondary succession within grasslands , sandhills , and scrub . southeastern pocket gophers are also well - known model systems for studies of coevolution .
the extensive burrowing activity of pocket gophers moves a lot of soil , which frees up nutrients for plants and helps in plant distribution through movement of plant parts , such as tubers and roots . they are also important ecologically as part of food chains , being consumed by owls , snakes , and coyotes , among others . native americans also have used them as a food source and they are considered a delicacy in parts of latin america . on the other hand , the herbivorous behavior of pocket gophers also has led to their damaging agricultural crops and trees , and they are widely considered agricultural pests .
to schiffman , who studies grassland ecology , gophers amount to nature’s own engineers . their tunneling talents were so evident when early explorers beheld california that the 16th century british explorer sir francis drake noted in his diary , “we found a whole country to be a warren of a strange kind of conies . ” of the
conies ,
or burrowing animals noted by drake - - gophers , voles , moles , kangaroo rats and ground squirrels - - it is the pocket gopher that drives modern gardeners nuts . unlike insect - eating moles and seed - eating voles , gophers appreciate tender roots and fresh green leaves . one 1939 study quoted by the mammalogists society even claimed to have detected “the rasping sound of the gophers’ teeth shearing through the plant fibers” from 20 to 30 feet away .
southeastern pocket gophers breed throughout the year . females exhibit two major peaks of activity during february through march and june through august , whereas males have a more constant higher level of activity from january through august . males have alternating cycles of spermatogenic activity and inactivity , and they produce sperm at a higher rate with increased age . litter sizes ranges from 1 to 3 with averages of 1 . 7 ± 0 . 51 or 1 . 52 ± 0 . 11 . females may produce two litters per year corresponding with their two peaks of sexual activity . southeastern pocket gophers are born nearly naked , tail - end first and average 50 mm and 5 . 8 g . the eyes , ears , and cheek pouches are closed at birth and the teeth are not yet erupted . young southeastern pocket gophers are usually weaned and dispersed by one month , and reach sexual maturity by the age of 4 to 6 months .
thomomys bottae ; many subspecies , including the botta ' s , fish spring , bonneville , clear lake , san antonio , pistol river , mount ellen , guadalupe , limpia , mearns ' , stansbury island , antelope island , cebolleta , salinas , skull valley , swasey springs , harquahala and limpia greek pocket gophers .
the long - term soil response to climate change will depend on a number of factors including soil mineralogy , temperature , precipitation , and the time period under which these processes change the soil . warmer , drier conditions will , in general , lead to a hardening of smectite dominated soils [ 17 ] . further , long - term aridity could fundamentally change soil composition , leading to an additional hardening through carbonate - precipitated layers [ 53 ] . however , pocket gopher activity generates high levels of disturbance that retards the calcification process [ 53 ] , [ 54 ] . climate change trends predict not only warming but also a redistribution of precipitation in california [ 55 ] . in areas with increased rainfall , weathering – accelerated by warmer temperatures – would lead to a long - term change in mineralogy from smectite to kaolin clays , and generally decrease soil hardness [ 17 ] .
plains pocket gophers need well - drained soils since they spend much of their lives in underground burrows . the burrows may be dug under roadsides , old fields , hayfields , cemeteries , golf courses or lawns . their burrow systems may be up to 500 feet long , and are usually within 3 feet of the ground ' s surface .
breeding takes place in january through spring . plains pocket gophers have one litter each year with an average of 3 to 4 young per litter . the young gophers are cared for by the female only and are weaned by 5 to 6 weeks of age . after a few more weeks the young disperse to dig their own burrow systems .
in our sensitivity analysis , the conditional inference forests for all five datasets over the surface to 20 cm depth consistently ranked soil attributes percent clay , bulk density , and linear extensibility in order of importance ( table 2 ) . the conditional inference forests for all five datasets over the surface to 1 m depth also consistently ranked percent clay , bulk density , linear extensibility in the same order with depth to bedrock last ( table 3 ) . in general , clay and bulk density had variable importance measures about three to four times that of linear extensibility and depth ( tables 2 and 3 ) . these trends are seen over both depths for all five pocket gopher locality datasets ( # 5 - 9 in fig . 2 ) in the sensitivity analysis ( table 2 ) , suggesting that they are not a product of sampling bias . furthermore , the decrease in variable importance as the separation between localities increases suggests that the distribution pattern we observe is most important over local scales – i . e . where soil type is biologically important . in other words , competitive exclusion based on soil type can only occur across the small distances juvenile pocket gophers disperse ( on average 57–239 m depending on species with a range of 7 . 5–789 m ) [ 28 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] .
located only in the western hemisphere , pocket gophers are widely distributed in western and central north america ( including canada , united states , and mexico ) , extend into central america and are located as far south as northwestern colombia in south america ( hafner 2004 ) . one species , geomys pinetis , is found in southeastern united states , in alabama , georgia , and florida .
pocket gophers are solely herbivorous , feeding mainly on underground parts of plants , but occasionally plants near the entrances to their burrows . they create horizontal tunnels for feeding that are around the depth of the greatest root density ( 2 to 8 inches ; 6 to 20 centimeters ) , but have nest areas and places to hoard food that may be several feet deep ( hafner 2004 ) .
almost all of the subgenus and genus chi - squared tests returned highly significant p values ( p < 0 . 01 or p < 0 . 001 ) . this demonstrates that genus thomomys pocket gophers distribute non - randomly with respect to bulk density ( surface to 20 cm : χ 2 = 81 . 15 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ; surface to 1 m : χ 2 = 91 . 07 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ) , percent soil clay ( surface to 20 cm : χ 2 = 28 . 50 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ; surface to 1 m : χ 2 = 65 . 93 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ) , linear extensibility ( surface to 20 cm : χ 2 = 38 . 74 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ; surface to 1 m : χ 2 = 70 . 25 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and depth to bedrock ( χ 2 = 17 . 93 , df = 4 , p < 0 . 01 ) . soil bin chi - squared values suggest that pocket gopher subgenera trend towards divergent soil types ( fig . 5 ) . corroborating the conditional inference tree analyses , subgenus thomomys gophers skew towards low clay , low bulk density , and low linear extensible soils while megascapheus gophers skew towards soil bins with higher attribute values ( fig . 5 ) .
depending on the species and local conditions , pocket gophers may have a specific annual breeding season , or may breed repeatedly through the year . during breeding season , females will allow males to enter their burrows to mate . each litter typically consists of two to five young , although this may be much higher in some species . the young are born blind and helpless , and are weaned at around forty days ( patton 1984 ) . the young then establish their own burrows .
all pocket gophers are burrowers , that create complex networks of tunnels . they are larder hoarders ( large hoards , found in a single place ) , and their cheek pouches are used for transporting food back to their burrows . gophers can collect large hoards . their presence is unambiguously announced by the appearance of mounds of fresh dirt about 8 inches ( 20 centimeters ) in diameter . these mounds will often appear in vegetable gardens , lawns , or farms , as gophers like moist soil .
pocket gophers respond to climatic factors through the soil response to changes in available moisture . this impact on a relatively large vertebrate underscores the importance of the soil response to changes in available moisture for all soil dependent organisms , notably plants . despite forecasts of radical changes in temperature and precipitation , no climate change models account for such changes . particularly in regions with mediterranean climates and shrink - swell clays , the soil response to available moisture should be included in conservation and agricultural outcomes given ongoing climate change .
trapping has been one reaction , but once a gopher was in a cage , who among us would know what to do with a disgruntled rodent ? by the end of schiffman’s lecture , i was convinced that the only safe way to defend vegetables from gophers was to out - engineer nature’s own tunnelers . line vegetable plots with brick or wood or stone to two feet deep . then line this barrier with wire mesh . so far , the strategy has worked . generous inter - planting of poppies and sunflowers also seems to have kept the bulging cheek sacks of gophers full of seeds instead of roots and leaves . of dozens of stone fruit trees , roses , native fuchsias , lilacs and sages put in my garden last autumn , i’ve lost two small sages and one zauschneria cutting . not bad for a third of an acre with at least a dozen gophers . the rest of the plantings benefited from deep percolation of rain and irrigation .
most gophers have short , brown fur that often closely matches the color of the soil excavated from where they live and helps camouflage it from predators as they move soil to the surface . their most characteristic features are their large cheek pouches , from which the word
pocket
in their name derives . these external pouches are fur - lined , and can be turned inside out . they extend from the side of the mouth well back onto the shoulders . used to hold food and nest material for transport ( but not soil ) , these cheek pouches when full can make the head appear almost two times its natural size ( hafner 2004 ) .
percent clay , linear extensibility , and bulk density all increase at lower depths . the increase in clay content and soil structural unit size results in an increase in bulk density within the subsurface soil horizons [ 16 ] . clay particles translocate to deeper depths via water , which is accelerated by pocket gophers digging [ 36 ] ; therefore clay content , along with linear extensibility and bulk density , tends to increase with soil depth . thus , the subset of accessible soils for subgenus thomomys decreases with depth . furthermore , subgenus thomomys is underrepresented in soils with the shallowest depths with the least stable temperatures ( 20–50 cm ) ; this trend drives most of the significant subgenus thomomys chi square test for depth to bedrock ( χ 2 = 6 . 50 , df = 2 , p < 0 . 05 ) .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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although they will attempt to flee when threatened , they may attack other animals , including cats and humans , and can inflict serious bites with their long , sharp teeth .
some sources also list a genus hypogeomys , with one species , but this genus name is normally used for the malagasy giant rat , which belongs to the family nesomyidae .
gould , s . j . 1980 . the return of hopeful monsters . natural history 86 : 22 - 30 . reprinted in s . j . gould , the panda ' s thumb . new york : w . w . norton . retrieved march 13 , 2012 .
macdonald , d . w . ( ed . ) 2006 . the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press . isbn 0199206082 .
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this species and t . bottae are under revision ( patton et al . in press ) .
justification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it does not appear to be under threat and is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
this species is found from south - central arizona and south - west new mexico , south to puebla and veracruz , mexico .
it is locally abundant and common , although many populations are probably small and may be ephemeral ( wilson and ruff 1999 ) .
although this species is limited in its distribution , it appears to have no immediate threats to its survival ( hafner et al . 1998 ) .
there are no known conservation measures specific to this species . it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t21800a115163507 .
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kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
arizonantaskurotta
to
thomomys umbrinus ( richardson , 1829 )
.
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using a piece of 24 inch wire , bend the wire at a 90 degree angle and place it in the trench with the lower piece facing out from the area to be protected .
replace the soil , making sure that the wire is flush with the ground and is completely covered .
frightening devices , such as ultrasonic emitters , have not proven to be effective .
grain baits treated with strychnine alkaloid ( 0 . 25 to 0 . 5 % active ingredient ) or zinc phosphide are sometimes used . these products are registered as restricted use pesticides and only licensed pesticide applicators may use the product . baits should be placed in the burrow to reduce the likelihood of killing non - target species .
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cortez , jorge d . ; henke scott e . ; wiemers dean w . ; fulbright timothy e . ; wester david b . ; riddle richard
[ gophers , habitat preferences , plant communities , surveys , vegetation , geographic information systems , sandy soils , cynodon dactylon , habitat destruction , plant litter , u . s . fish and wildlife service , confidence interval , geomys ]
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mordellistena trinotata is a species of beetle in the mordellistena genus that is in the mordellidae family .

it was described by píc in 1929 .

mordellistena trinotata

this is the place for trinotata definition . you find here trinotata meaning , synonyms of trinotata and images for trinotata copyright 2017 © urltoken
¿qué significa mordellistena ? existen 2 definiciones para la palabra mordellistena . también puedes añadir tu mismo una definición para mordellistena
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word trinotata . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word trinotata and , of course , trinotata synonyms and on the right images related to the word trinotata .
mordellistena es un género de coleópteros de la familia mordellidae . incluye las siguientes especies : [ 1 ]
larva : mordellistena is the only genus in this family which larvae have characteristic tergal processes and paired urogomphi ( comment by artjom zaitsev ) .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
formerly treated in a much broader sense ; many spp . have been moved to other genera , incl .
small , slender , linear or wedge - shaped . scutellum somewhat trianglular , rounded . antennae usually threadlike , sometimes slightly sawtoothed . eyes coarsely granulate . each hind tibia has 1 - 6 short , more or less oblique ridges on outer surface ; tarsal segments may also bear ridges . most are solid black , but some have red , orange or yellow markings
plants in aster family , some trees , mostly oak . for many species , food in unknown .
ford e . j . , jackman j . a . ( 1996 ) new larval host plant associations of tumbling flower beetles ( coleoptera : mordellidae ) in north america . coleopterists bulletin 50 : 361 - 368 .
nomenclatural changes for selected mordellidae ( coleoptera ) in north america j . a . jackman & w . lu . 2001 . insecta mundi 15 ( 1 ) : 31 - 34 .
taxonomic changes for fifteen species of north american mordellidae ( coleoptera ) a . e . lisberg . 2003 . insecta mundi 17 ( 3 - 4 ) : 191 - 194 .
american beetles , volume ii : polyphaga : scarabaeoidea through curculionoidea arnett , r . h . , jr . , m . c . thomas , p . e . skelley and j . h . frank . ( eds . ) . 2002 . crc press llc , boca raton , fl .
a manual of common beetles of eastern north america dillon , elizabeth s . , and dillon , lawrence . 1961 . row , peterson , and company .
peterson field guides : beetles richard e . white . 1983 . houghton mifflin company .
the book of field and roadside : open - country weeds , trees , and wildflowers of eastern north america john eastman , amelia hansen . 2003 . stackpole books .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
by hong - fu chu and lin - yao wang in 1988 . it is
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anthrenus pimpinellae larval case . jpg 30 - mar - 2012 16 : 52 125k
mordellidae species list at joel hallan’s biology catalog . texas a & m university . retrieved on 20 may 2012 .
mordellidae species list at joel hallan’s biology catalog . texas a & m university . retrieved on 17 may 2012 .
mordellidae species list at joel hallan’s biology catalog . texas a & m university . retrieved 19 may 2012 .
please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . unsourced material may be challenged and removed .
mordellidae species list at joel hallan’s biology catalog . texas a & m university . retrieved on 19 may 2012 .
mordellidae species list at joel hallan’s biology catalog . texas a & m university . retrieved on 18 may 2012 .
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hypatima cryptopluta is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it was described by alexey diakonoff in 1954 .

it is found in new guinea .

hypatima cryptopluta

this is the place for cryptopluta definition . you find here cryptopluta meaning , synonyms of cryptopluta and images for cryptopluta copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word cryptopluta . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word cryptopluta and , of course , cryptopluta synonyms and on the right images related to the word cryptopluta .
cryptopluta diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 21
hypatima antsianakella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 209
hypatima issikiana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima manjakatompo viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 211
hypatima perinetella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 210
hypatima venefica ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
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hypatima anguinea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37
hypatima antiastis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima apparitrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima aridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima caryodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima cirrhospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima corynetis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima ericta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima indica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima instaurata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima isopogon ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima isoptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima isotricha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima lactifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima melanocharis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
hypatima nodifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima orthomochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima parichniota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima particulata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima phacelota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima pilosella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima rhicnota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
hypatima silvestris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima syncrypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima tephroptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima tonsa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima verticosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima xerophanta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima xylotechna ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima acicula park & ponomarenko , 1999 ; species diversity 4 : 326 ; tl : s . thailand , khaoyai
hypatima stenosa park & ponomarenko , 1999 ; species diversity 4 : 331 ; tl : s . thailand , khaoyai
hypatima mangiferae satter , 1989 ; bull . ent . res . 79 ( 3 ) : 412 ; tl : kenya
hypatima disetosella park , 1995 ; tropical lepid . 6 ( 1 ) : 75 ; tl : nantou co . , taiwan
hypatima issikiana park , 1995 ; tropical lepid . 6 ( 1 ) : 77 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan
hypatima nigro - grisea [ = nigrogrisea ] janse , 1949 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 1 ) : 47
hypatima rhomboidella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40 ; [ fe ]
hypatima spathota ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
hypatima excellentella ponomarenko , 1991 ; ent . obozr . 70 ( 3 ) : 617 ; tl : barabash - levada , primorskii krai
hypatima venefica ponomarenko , 1991 ; ent . obozr . 70 ( 3 ) : 616 ; tl : barbash - levada , primorskii krai
hypatima disetosella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 47 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38
hypatima pentagonia park & ponomarenko , 1999 ; species diversity 4 : 325 ; tl : nw . thailand , chiang mai , doi suthep - pui np , 1380m
hypatima arignota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38 ; park & ponomarenko , 1999 , species diversity 4 : 330
hypatima haligramma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39 ; park & ponomarenko , 1999 , species diversity 4 : 332
hypatima iophana ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29 ; park & ponomarenko , 1999 , species diversity 4 : 322
hypatima teramotoi ueda , 2012 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 62 ( 2 ) : 81 ; tl : japan , honshu , osaka pref . , sakai city
hypatima acris park , 1995 ; tropical lepid . 6 ( 1 ) : 83 ; tl : taiwan , tainan co . , 2 - 3km s kwantzuling , ca . 350m
hypatima excellentella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 38 ; bae , lee & park , 2014 , ent . res . 44 : 19 ( list )
hypatima ( chelariini ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ fe ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 182 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 166 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 189 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 192 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 249 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 167 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 198 ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 37 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 29 ; [ afromoths ]
chelaria agriogramma meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 153 ; tl : mt murud , 4500ft
chelaria albo - grisea [ = albogrisea ] walsingham , 1881 ; trans . ent . soc . 1881 ( 2 ) : 264 , pl . 12 , f . 34 ; tl : spring vale
chelaria ammonura meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 430 ; tl : queensland , brisbane
chelaria anguinea meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 161 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
anthotypa ( meyrick , 1939 ) ( chelaria ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54
chelaria antiastis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 514 ; tl : andamans , port blair
chelaria apparitrix meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 164 ; tl : java , preanger , 5000ft
chelaria aridella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 639 ; tl : sarawak , borneo
artochroma diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 20
chelaria attenuata meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 300 ; tl : new south wales , sydney
chelaria baliodes lower , 1920 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 44 : 66 ; tl : warra , s . queensland
chelaria binummulata meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 513 ; tl : natal , weenen
chelaria brachyrrhiza meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 431 ; tl : fiji , lautoka
chelaria caryodora meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 164 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
chelaria cirrhospila meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 302 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
chelaria corynetis meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 162 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon
nothris cyrtopleura turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 165 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin ; n . queensland , kuranda
chelaria demonstrata meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 303 ; tl : new guinea , kei is .
chelaria dermatica meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 432 ; tl : queensland , brisbane
taiwan , thailand , philippines , ceylon , andaman is . , borneo , sulawesi , queensland . see [ maps ]
tituacea [ sic ] deviella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 43
chelaria discissa meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 581 ; tl : queensland , cairns
disposita ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( chelaria ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 71
nothris dissidens meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 301 ; tl : waterval onder
ephippias ( meyrick , 1937 ) ( chelaria ) ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 95
chelaria ericta meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 162 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon
chelaria euchorda meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins
cymatomorpha euplecta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 412 ; tl : brisbane , queensland ; sydney , new south wales ; gisborne , victoria ; quorn , south australia
larva on quercus mongolica ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
chelaria formidolosa meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 581 ; tl : natal , pinetown
chelaria haligramma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 382 ; tl : anakapalli , s . india
larva on anacardium occidentale ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 39
chelaria harpophora meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 431 ; tl : queensland , brisbane
psoricoptera hora busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 14 ; tl : alhajuela , panama
chelaria improba meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 297 ; tl : barberton
gelechia indica swinhoe , 1885 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1885 : 884 ; tl : bombay , india
chelaria instaurata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft
chelaria iophana meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 162 ; tl : ceylon
chelaria isopogon meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 513 ; tl : belke , kanara , india
chelaria isoptila meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 163 ; tl : kandy , ceylon
chelaria isotricha meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 164 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft
chelaria lactifera meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 161 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
chelaria lecticata meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 282 ; tl : transvaal , pilgrims rest
chelaria loxosaris meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 21 ; tl : natal , umkomaas
chelaria mancipata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 297 ; tl : three sisters
chelaria melanecta meyrick , 1914 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 10 ( 8 ) : 246 ; tl : transvaal , johannesburg
chelaria melanocharis meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 511 ; tl : telawa , java
chelaria meliptila meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 283 ; tl : new ireland , st . matthias i .
chelaria metaphorica meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 430 ; tl : queensland , brisbane
chelaria microgramma meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 301 ; tl : new south wales , sydney
mycetinopa ( meyrick , 1934 ) ( chelaria ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 451
chelaria nimbigera meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 283 ; tl : new ireland , new hanover i .
chelaria nodifera meyrick , 1930 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 99 ( suppl ) : 724 ; tl : tonkin
chelaria orthomochla meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 199 ; tl : java
chelaria orthostathma meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 429 ; tl : queensland , brisbane
chelaria parichniota meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 4 ; tl : likiang , china
chelaria particulata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 167 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon
chelaria phacelota meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 166 ; tl : peradeniya , ceylon
gelechia pilosella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 640 ; tl : sarawak , borneo
chelaria probolaea meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 298 ; tl : barberton
allocota procax meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 274
chelaria rhicnota meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 580 ; tl : shevaroys , s . india
larva on mangifera indica ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40
= ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40 ; [ nhm card ]
= ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 40 ; [ nhm card ]
larva on betula spp . , alnus spp . , corylus avellana , carpinus betulus , populus spp . ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
chelaria scopulosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 165 ; tl : karwar , kanara
cymatomorpha scotia turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 160 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda
chelaria silvestris meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 164 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
allocota simulacrella meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 420 ; tl : sydney , new south wales
chelaria solutrix meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 69 ; tl : woodbush village
sorograpta ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( chelaria ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 70
chelaria spathota meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 165 ; tl : konkan , bombay
larva on mangifera indica , lannea grandis ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
deuteroptila sphenophora meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 419 ; tl : brisbane , queensland
chelaria stasimodes meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 70
subdentata diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 17
gelechia sublectella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 640 ; tl : sarawak , borneo
chelaria syncrypta meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 580 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon
chelaria tenebrosa meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 301 ; tl : south australia , quorn
chelaria tephroplintha meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 30 ; tl : fiji , labasa
chelaria tephroptila meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 70 ; tl : mahableshwar , bombay
larva on quercus acutissima , quercus serrata , q . variabilis , q . glauca , q . phillyraeoides ueda , 2012 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 62 ( 2 ) : 85
chelaria tessulata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 431 ; tl : queensland , cairns
semodictis tetraptila meyrick , 1909 ; ann . transv . mus . 2 ( 1 ) : 16 , pl . 5 , f . 7 ; tl : kranspoort , pretoria
chelaria tonsa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 164 ; tl : khasi hills , assam
episacta toreuta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 162 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda , near cairns
chelaria trachyspila meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 354
chelaria triannulata meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 69 ; tl : woodbush village
tricosma ( meyrick , 1933 ) ( chelaria ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 355
larva on quercus mongolica ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 41
chelaria verticosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 166 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft
chelaria xerophanta meyrick , 1930 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 99 ( suppl ) : 724 ; tl : tonkin
chelaria xylotechna meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 199 ; tl : java
chelaria zesticopa meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 514 ; tl : texas , alpine , fort davis , 5000 - 8000ft ; new mexico , bent , 7000ft
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
microlepidoptera of new guinea , results of the third archbold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv
the natural history of british insects ; explaining them in their several states . . . with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope
lepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes
systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition
in gardiner , no . xii . tortricina and tineina . results of the percy sladen trust expedition to the indian ocean in 1905
walsingham , 1881 on the tortricidae , tineidae , and pterophoridae of south africa trans . ent . soc . 1881 ( 2 ) : 219 - 288 , pl . 10 - 13
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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sebastes schlegelii also known as the korean rockfish , is a predatory species of seaperch found in northern asia .

the species is a popular quarry for anglers .

s. schlegelii are blackish with black pelvic , anal and caudal fins .

the seaperch has a total of 8 weak head spines .

it is black when young and turns a mottled gray on the sides with age , often nearing white .

this species can vary greatly in size between bodies of water .

they can live for up to 18 years , and older individuals are often much larger than average ; the maximum recorded length is 60 cm ( 24 in ) .

the record is 6.6 lb ( 3 kg ) .

it is a pelagic fish , occurring on the continental shelf .

like other pelagic fish , they spend most of their time amid the water columns and are generally associated with rougher terra .

this can make it somewhat inconvenient for commercial fisheries , which are often situated in nearshore , shallow water , and rocky areas ( reefs ) .

they make up an important component of nearshore fisheries in northern asia .

s. schlegelii breed via internal fertilization , females storing sperm until the development of the eggs .

the phases between the start of the process and the end are separated by several months .

the majority of the young are reared in late winter to early spring .

females produce between 125,000 and 1,200,000 eggs every breeding season .

however it has been noted that not all of the eggs are released every year .

it has been occasionally observed that the female may absorb the eggs back into her system .

sebastes schlegelii

a teleostan homolog of catalase from black rockfish ( sebastes schlegelii ) : insights into functional roles in host antioxidant defense and expressional responses to septic conditions .
a teleostan homolog of catalase from black rockfish ( sebastes schlegelii ) : insights into functional roles in host antioxidant defense and expressio . . . - pubmed - ncbi
( of sebastes ( sebastocles ) schlegelii hilgendorf , 1880 ) hyde , j . r . ; vetter , r . d . ( 2007 ) . the origin , evolution , and diversification of rockfishes of the genus sebastes ( cuvier ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 44 ( 2 ) : 790 - 811 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of sebastes schlegeli hilgendorf , 1880 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sebastes schlegeli hilgendorf , 1880 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
antioxidative defense renders a significant protection against environmental stress in organisms and maintains the correct redox balance in cells , thereby supporting proper immune function . catalase is an indispensable antioxidant in organisms that detoxifies hydrogen peroxides produced in cellular environments . in this study , we sought to molecularly characterize a homolog of catalase ( rfcat ) , identified from black rockfish ( sebastes schlegelii ) . rfcat consists of a 1581 bp coding region for a protein of 527 amino acids , with a predicted molecular weight of 60 kd . the protein sequence of rfcat harbored similar domain architecture to known catalases , containing a proximal active site signature and proximal heme ligand signature , and further sharing prominent homology with its teleostan counterparts . as affirmed by multiple sequence alignments , most of the functionally important residues were well conserved in rfcat . furthermore , our phylogenetic analysis indicates its common vertebrate ancestral origin and a close evolutionary relationship with teleostan catalases . recombinantly expressed rfcat demonstrated prominent peroxidase activity that varied with different substrate and protein concentrations , and protected against dna damage . rfcat mrna was ubiquitously expressed among different tissues examined , as detected by qpcr . in addition , rfcat mrna expression was modulated in response to pathogenic stress elicited by streptococcus iniae and poly i : c in blood and spleen tissues . collectively , our findings indicate that rfcat may play an indispensable role in host response to oxidative stress and maintain a correct redox balance after a pathogen invasion .
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marine ; demersal ; depth range 3 - 100 m ( ref . 58496 ) . temperate
maturity : l m ? , range 26 - 28 cm max length : 65 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56557 ) ; max . published weight : 3 . 1 kg ( ref . 40637 ) ; max . reported age : 20 years ( ref . 56557 )
found near shore , on rock bottoms ( ref . 11230 ) . juveniles associate with drifting seaweed ( ref . 12114 , 12115 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . commercially cultured in japan . the species can be easily reared in aquaria ( ref . 5474 ) .
masuda , h . , k . amaoka , c . araga , t . uyeno and t . yoshino , 1984 . the fishes of the japanese archipelago . vol . 1 . tokai university press , tokyo , japan . 437 p . ( text ) . ( ref . 559 )
) : 8 - 21 . 3 , mean 17 ( based on 86 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01047 ( 0 . 00835 - 0 . 01313 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 3 . 02 - 3 . 12 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 ±0 . 7 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 21 ; fec = 44 , 000 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 68 of 100 ) .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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elvitigala da 1 , priyathilaka tt 1 , whang i 2 , nam bh 3 , lee j 4 .
department of marine life sciences , school of marine biomedical sciences , jeju national university , jeju self - governing province 690 - 756 , republic of korea ; fish vaccine research center , jeju national university , jeju special self - governing province 690 - 756 , republic of korea .
fish vaccine research center , jeju national university , jeju special self - governing province 690 - 756 , republic of korea .
biotechnology research division , national fisheries research and development institute , 408 - 1 sirang - ri , gijang - up , gijang - gun , busan 619 - 705 , republic of korea .
department of marine life sciences , school of marine biomedical sciences , jeju national university , jeju self - governing province 690 - 756 , republic of korea ; fish vaccine research center , jeju national university , jeju special self - governing province 690 - 756 , republic of korea . electronic address : jehee @ jejunu . ac . kr .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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found near shore , on rock bottoms ( ref . 11230 ) . juveniles associate with drifting seaweed ( ref . 12114 , 12115 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . commercially cultured in japan . the species can be easily reared in aquaria ( ref . 5474 ) .
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acanthophila kuznetzovi is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it is found in russia , where it is known only from the southern part of primorsky krai .

the wingspan is 12 – 13 mm .

the forewings are brown , with three indistinct dark-brown dots , two of these at the middle and at the end of the cell , and the third at the anal fold .

there are also two light-grey short strokes and a thicker costal one , as well as a dorsal one before the tornus .

the hindwings are grey .

acanthophila kuznetzovi

this is the place for acanthophila definition . you find here acanthophila meaning , synonyms of acanthophila and images for acanthophila copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word acanthophila . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word acanthophila and , of course , acanthophila synonyms and on the right images related to the word acanthophila .
figs 35 - 38 . female genitalia . 35 ) acanthophila silvestrella ; 36 ) a . kuznetzovi ; 37 , 38 ) a . pusilella sp . n . : 37 ) ventral aspect ; 38 ) additional membranous sack , lateral aspect .
figs 35 - 38 . female genitalia . 35 ) acanthophila silvestrella ; 36 ) a . . . . | download scientific diagram
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the la palma salamander ( bolitoglossa subpalmata ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family .

it is endemic to costa rica .

it is also found in western panama .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , pastureland , plantations , rural gardens , and heavily degraded former forest .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

la palma salamander

information on the la palma salamander is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
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parra - olea , g . , garcía - parís , m . , hanken , j . , and wake , d . b . ( 2004 ) . ' ' a new species of arboreal salamander ( caudata : plethodontidae :
this salamander is threatened from habitat loss and fragmentation due to increasing agricultural encroachment . it appears to be gone from parque nacional poas and has become extremely rare at monteverde . declines that occur in more suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease , possibly chytridiomycosis . however , chytridiomycosis normally impacts aquatic or semi - aquatic species ( iucn 2006 ) .
clade occurs in the mountains of costa rica and extreme western panama . these salamanders inhabit humid cloud forests and paramo - like habitats , at moderate to high elevation ( 1500m ) . four clades within the main clade have been defined by allozyme and mtdna data , and two disjunct geographic units have been categorized . the northern geographic unit , which comprises the species
) , includes populations ranging from volcan cacao to volcan turrialba , in the cordillera guanacaste , cordillera de tilaran , cordillera central , and cordillera de aguacate . the second unit is found in the cordillera talamanca , and runs from cerros de escazu in costa rica to chiriqui in western panama ( wake and lynch 1976 ; garcia - paris et al . 2008 ) .
. these species are not sympatric ( garcia - paris et al . 2008 ) .
brame , a . h . , jr . and wake , d . b . ( 1972 ) . ' ' new species of salamanders ( genus
garcía - parís , m . , parra - olea , g . , and wake , d . b . ( 2008 ) . ' ' description of a new species of the
hanken , j . ( 1979 ) . ' ' egg development time and clutch size in two neotropical salamanders . ' '
wake , d . b . and lynch , j . f . ( 1976 ) . ' ' the distribution , ecology , and evolutionary history of plethodontid salamanders in tropical america . ' '
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .
c . michael hogan selected
distribution and habitat
to show in overview on
bolitoglossa subpalmata ( boulenger , 1896 )
.
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
bolitoglossa subpalmata ( boulenger , 1896 )
.
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the species bolitoglossa subpalmata actually occurs in northern costa rica ( savage 2002 ) . more southern populations are probably a new species .
species description based on savage ( 2002 ) . medium - sized species with a rather robust body . adults range from 71 - 131 mm , including the tail . tail is generally longer than the body .
the dorsal surface ranges in color from black to grey to red - brown . the color may be uniform or some red , brown or yellow coloration may be present along the center of the dorsal surface .
the ventral surface is also variable in color , ranging from light to dark brown , to grey or black . some specimens have flecks of white , brown or red on the ventral surface .
this species is relatively common in costa rica and may be found in bromeliads above the forest floor or on the ground under objects ( savage 2002 ) .
montane rainforest , marginally down to premontane forest , 1245 - 2900 m elevation .
: we use the most recent data from these primary sources : who , world bank , unesco , cia and individual country databases for global health and causes of death .
we use the cdc , nih and individual state and county databases for verification and supplementation for usa data .