the rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) is a medium-sized ovenbird in the family furnariidae it occurs in eastern south america , and is the national bird in argentina .

also known as the red ovenbird , it is common in savannas , second-growth scrub , pastures and agricultural land and is synanthropic .

there are four accepted subspecies .

the rufous hornero is medium-sized with a square tail and very slightly decurved bill .

the plumage is overall reddish brown with a dull brown crown and a whitish throat .

sexes are alike and juvenile birds are slightly paler below ( probably because they are cleaner ) .

rufous horneros feed on insects and other arthropods obtained by foraging on the ground while walking .

they sometimes feed on scraps such as bread crumbs .

songs in the rufous hornero are sexually distinct .

the rapid trill that is usually heard as part of the duet is faster in the male , slower in the female , and both beat their wings at their sides while singing and the wings beat at the same rate as their trill .

thus , while watching an observer may identify the sex by how fast their wings beat while singing .

rufous hornero

the rufous hornero is 18 - 20 cm long and weighs around 50 g .
rufous hornero drawn by françois - nicolas martinet at some point before 1780 for the book histoire naturelle .
english : rufous ovenbird ; french : fournier roux ; german : rosttöpfer ; spanish : hornero común .
range : rufous hornero lives in bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay , uruguay , northern and centre argentina .
the rufous hornero occurs in northern and eastern bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay , uruguay , and northern and central argentina ( 2 ) .
fazenda furnarius rufus pantanal pocone pousada pouso alegre ridgely & tudor rufous hornero the birds of south america : vol . ii the suboscine passerines transpantaneira
rufous hornero are residents of second growth scrub and pastureland from central brazil west to bolivia and south to southern argentina . noted more for their distinctive nests than for their appearance , rufous hornero are large ovenbirds with rufescent brown upperparts , light rufous supercilia , and tawny breast and underparts . rufous hornero feed predominantly on insects such as beetles , crickets , ants , and termites , which they capture while foraging on the ground . rufous hornero are incredible architects that build domed nests out of mud and straw ; these nests are 20 to 30 cm in diameter and 20 to 25 cm tall . the nests of the rufous hornero are almost never reused by the pair that built them , making these nests readily accessible to other birds and animals as nest locations and shelter .
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the rufous hornero remains common and widespread , with a population that faces no major threats and appears to be increasing ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .
there are no conservation measures in place for the rufous hornero , but it almost certainly occurs in numerous protected areas across its range ( 10 ) .
the rufous hornero is a ground forager , mostly eating insects , worms and possibly molluscs . they ocasionally also take vegetable matter , such as seeds and fruit .
new world suboscines encountered in brazil . at left , rufous hornero or red ovenbird furnarius rufus . at right , great kiskadee pitangus sulphuratus . credit : darren naish
protection / threats / status : rufous hornero is common , even abundant in most part of its range in suitable habitat . this species is not threatened at this moment .
the rufous hornero is one of the ovenbirds and is from the same family as the woodcreepers . it looks a bit like a thrush but is very plain with a dirty white
the rufous hornero has a very large breeding range and is described as common and widespread . this population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat .
these days the rufous hornero incorporates the sort furnarius with other five species . they are all local to south america and manufacture mud settles that take after old wood - let go stoves . its nearest relative is the peaked hornero , which is considered as its sister species because of comparative conduct and plumage pattern .
rufous hornero has four subspecies : furnarius rufus rufus f . r . albogularis is smaller . crown is darker and greyer . underparts are buffer . f . r . commersoni is similar to previous , with redder back and paler underparts . f . r . paraguayae has more rufous forehead and nape .
the national symbol of argentina rufous hornero is lives in northern and eastern bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay , uruguay , and northern and central part of argentina . the rufous hornero remains frequent and extensive , with a population that faces no major threats and appears to be increasing & classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list . ( iucn red list & bird life international , june 2009 ) .
behaviour : rufous hornero feeds mainly on several invertebrates’ species , spiders , and some seeds . the bird forages alone or in pairs . it walks while foraging , searching for invertebrates and seeds on the bare ground or among dead leaves , and it often probes into the mud with its bill . if many furnariidae sleep at night in their nests , the rufous hornero prefers to sleep among dense vegetation , but near its nest .
flight : rufous hornero has relatively short , rounded wings , showing its sedentary behaviour , and the lack of aerial foraging . it only flies for moving between two places , and only short distances at a time .
the rufous hornero is often seen on the ground collecting mud or dung to build its remarkable nest . the nest look like miniature versions of the type of oven ( or “horno” ) that you see outside many houses in rural south america . hence the name “ovenbirds” in english and “hornero” . this is the spanish word for baker .
in 1816 , louis jean pierre vieillot set up the family furnarius in his analyze d ' une nouvelle ornithologie élémentaire and incorporated the rufous hornero on it , in spite of the fact that vieillot did not straightforwardly renamed the rufous hornero as furnarius rufus . [ 8 ] its current logical name was utilized interestingly as a part of ornithology by john gould in his zoology of the voyage of h . m . s . beagle in 1841 .
by nature , like the pigeons that live in cities have a gentle nature that they can be seen in the distance from people . the national animal symbol of argentina , rufous hornero couple used to stay together forever .
the rufous hornero is a ground forager , with most of its prey consisting of insects and their larvae , as well as other invertebrates ( 6 ) , and occasionally vegetable matter such as seeds and fruit ( 7 ) . in common with other ovenbirds , the rufous hornero is comparatively fearless of humans ( 8 ) , and is often seen in built up areas , strutting along the ground or perched on a commanding vantage point ( 2 ) .
the national animal of argentina is rufous hornero . it is also the national bird of argentina , and it’s second english name is red ovenbird . argentina’s national animal , rufous hornero , are members of the genus furnarius family furnariidae , endemic to eastern south america . the reason to declare this bird as the national animal is that , this species of bird is quite common in argentina . besides that , in the morning the beautiful voice of these birds just cheers a person up from inside .
adult male has rufous - brown upperparts , with some pale edges on back and rump . on the upper wing , coverts and secondaries are rufous - brown , whereas primaries are duller , rather brownish . we can see the pale buff bend of the wing . the tail is relatively short . the uppertail coverts are rufous . tail feathers are darker .
diet : rufous hornero feeds mainly on insects and spiders , and some seeds . invertebrates , including earthworms , snails and larvae , are taken from the ground , as the seeds . the chicks are fed mainly with insects such as crickets and insects’ larvae .
a pair of rufous hornero will only use their nest for one season but , because the sun - baked mud is extremely hard , it can last for several years and abandoned nests may be used by a variety of other birds - so always check them out .
the rufous hornero is one – or the best - known - of the ovenbirds and is from the same family as the woodcreepers or the spinetails . the bird looks a bit like a thrush but is very plain with a dirty white supercilium and a rather long , slightly
the rufous hornero has profited from human changes to the earth and numerous live in very altered living space , for example , city rural areas . thus surrendered homes might be of advantage to different types of winged creatures that home in its unused
stoves
. the saffron finch is one animal varieties that ordinarily settles in old ovenbird homes . the rufous hornero is a commonplace sight over quite a bit of its reach and has been received as the national flying creature of argentina . it is not debilitated by human exercises and is recorded as slightest worry by the iucn .
the bird in your photos is a rufous hornero . i’ll bet you never heard of it , right ? that’s because these birds are found in south america , which i believe is a long way from dennis . a more english - sounding name for rufous hornero is red ovenbird , but even that doesn’t really help us form an image of what the bird looks like , so i’ll tell you . despite the colorful name , rufous horneros aren’t all that colorful . the books say they are reddish / tan , but to me they look like brown mockingbirds . surprisingly , argentina has named the rufous hornero its national bird and i don’t get it . argentina has all sorts of amazing birds , including penguins , rheas ( tall flightless birds ) , parrots , hummingbirds and even flamingos . so why did the argentines choose this brown bird to be its national bird ? that’s a good question , but you can be sure evita had nothing to do with it . she likely would have voted for something more glamorous , such as the “glitter - bellied emerald” or the “gilded sapphire” ( yes , they are real birds ) . so why did they choose the rufous hornero ? it probably has less to do with the bird’s looks and more to do with its nest - building skills . it seems horneros really are “master builders . ”
description : rufous hornero is endemic to south america . this bird is the argentina’s national bird . it forms a part of the furnariidae family , and this species builds particular oven - shaped nest with clay and vegetation , giving the bird its different names . its second english name is red ovenbird .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto rufous hornero’s song is a long series of raucous burst of “kweep” , often ending with slower , complaining notes , and usually uttered in duet by the pair . the call includes sharp “jeet” or “krip” , uttered in series . both mates communicate by loud metallic notes .
on the underparts , the throat is whitish , turning pale buff on the breast , and paler on belly . flanks are dark buff . the undertail coverts are buffy - white . on the head , forehead is rufous - brown , blending into duller brownish crown and nape . we can see an indistinct pale rufous supercilium . lores and malar areas are light rufous . ear coverts are darker . chin and throat are whitish .
the rufous hornero is medium - sized with a square tail and marginally decurved bill . the plumage is general rosy cocoa with a dull chestnut crown and a whitish throat . genders are indistinguishable and adolescent feathered creatures are somewhat paler underneath ( most likely in light of the fact that they are more clean ) . rufous horneros feast upon bugs and different arthropods got by scavenging on the ground while strolling . they now and again eat scraps , for example , bread crumbs . songs in the rufous hornero are sexually unmistakable . the quick trill that is typically heard as a feature of the two part harmony is quicker in the male , slower in the female , and both beat their wings at their sides while singing and the wings beat at the same rate as their trill . subsequently , while viewing an eyewitness may distinguish the sex by how quick their wings beat while singing .
laje , r . and mindlin , g . b . ( 2003 ) highly structured duets in the song of the south american hornero . physical review letters , 91 : 1 - 4 .
the rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) is a medium - sized ovenbird in the family furnariidae it happens in eastern south america , and is the national winged creature in argentina . otherwise called the red ovenbird , it is normal in savannas , second - development scour , pastures and farming land and is synanthropic . its reach incorporates southeastern and southern brazil , bolivia , paraguay , uruguay and northern and focal argentina , stretching out as far south as northern patagonia . the species is most firmly identified with the peaked hornero of paraguay and argentina . there are four acknowledged subspecies .
body length is about 5 . 5 in ( 14 cm ) . bill is short , almost straight , and pointed . the body is slender , and the tail long and tipped with small spines . the sexes are similar . the back is colored dark olive - brown , the tail is rufous , the wings are olive - brown with large rufous patches , the throat is white , the belly is light olive , the crown of the head is rufous streaked with black , and there is a whitish stripe over the eye .
chunky , and the tail is short and tipped with short spines emanating from the tips of the tail - feathers . the sexes are similar . the back and the top of the head are colored brown , the tail is rufous , the wings have rufous patches , the belly is brown spotted with white , and the throat and chest are bright white .
16–23 cm ; 31–65 g . large ovenbird with medium - length , nearly straight bill . has poorly defined light rufous supercilium , loral area and malar area , slightly . . .
the crested hornero is closely related to the much more widespread common hornero , and like all horneros it makes a large mud oven shaped nest with a side entrance . the name hornero in fact means oven maker ; the nests are a structural wonder with the side entrance curling behind the nest chamber , such that there is a curved tunnel that the bird needs to navigate before getting to the nest area . this surely keeps mammalian predators from gaining access to the eggs or nestlings . this hornero is a smaller species than the widespread form , and it is restricted to the western part of argentina , bolivia and paraguay in chaco habitats . apart from the smaller size , the crested hornero has a short crest , giving the bird an entirely different aspect than its more common relative . as is typical of horneros , the crested forages on the ground , usually as singles or pairs . every so often the male begins its song which is quickly joined by the female in a rollicking duet , while they duet the two birds also droop and quiver the wings .
a pair of rufous hornero will only use their nest for one season but , because the sun - baked mud is extremely hard , it can last for several years and abandoned nests may be used by a variety of other birds . there are illustrations in ridgely & tudor , the birds of south america : vol . ii , the suboscine passerines , plate 2 , which shows the bird very well .
given that argentina’s national bird is arguably the plainest and least rufous of the horneros ( furnarius spp . ) , its common name is somewhat misleading ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the upperparts to its plumage are rufous brown , while the crown is greyish , the flight feathers are dusky , and the tail is rufous . underneath , it is a slightly paler buffy - brown , with a whitish throat . while it may not be particularly striking , this lively and abundant bird is one of the most familiar species in many parts of southern south america ( 2 ) .
reproduction : breeding season occurs mainly during the austral spring and summer . rufous hornero is known for its wonderful oven - shaped nest . this large spherical nest is made with clay , mud and vegetation such as straw . it is large with 20 to 30 cm in diameter , and 20 to 25 cm high . the walls are about 3 to 5 cm thick . such structure can weight 3 to 5 kg .
rufous hornero - also know as the red ovenbird - is a south american bird that builds earthen nests in trees . it collects mud and dung to create a bowl high atop tree limbs . the sun bakes the nest to create a hardened shelter where the birds can lay their eggs . the nest is oriented to face away from the prevailing winds , creating a refuge from the weather . ©2011 dario sanchez / popular mechanics
remsen , j . v . , jr & bonan , a . ( 2018 ) . rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
habitat : rufous hornero is resident in its range . it frequents pastures and cultivated areas , open habitats with bare soil , second - growth scrub , parks and gardens , and may be found near habitations . it is often seen near water such as rivers , lakes and ponds . it is mostly seen in lowlands , but it also frequents dry , cultivated valleys , and locally , it can be seen up to 3500 metres of elevation .
body length is about 7 in ( 18–18 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , straight , rather stout , and pointed . the body is slender , and the tail is long . the sexes are similar . the back , neck , and top of the head are rufous - brown , the underparts are brown streaked with buff , the tail is rufous , and there is a buffy stripe over the eye .
the rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) is the national bird of argentina , in popular recognition of its bold and jaunty demeanor ; thus , it is of some cultural significance . other than this species , members of the ovenbird family are not of much direct importance to humans . they are an interesting and diverse group of birds , however , and viewings of them are widely sought by birdwatchers and other naturalists , resulting in local economic benefits through ecotourism .
the primary notes tackled the species were made by philibert commerson in 1767 , from an example got at barragán bay amid louis antoine de bougainville ' s expedition . commerson named the winged animal as turdus fulvus and his notes were later distributed by georges buffon in his histoire naturelle in 1779 . however , the rufous hornero was first logically portrayed , as merops rufus , by the german naturalist johann friedrich gmelin in the thirteenth version of systema naturae distributed in 1788 .
body length is about 8 in ( 20 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , slightly down - curved , and pointed . the body is stout , and the tail is long . the sexes are similar . the back is colored brown , the tail and wings are rufous , the belly and throat are whitish , the cap of the head is rufous , and there is a light - brown stripe over the eye .
body length is about 4 in ( 11 cm ) . bill is short , straight , and pointed . the body is slender , and the tail is moderately long . the sexes are similar . the back , top of head , and underparts are brown heavily streaked with buffy - white , the wing and tail are rufous , the wing shows a conspicuous rufous wing - band in flight , and there is a white stripe over the eye .
the rufous hornero is an average sized bird with strong legs , broad wings , longish tail and strong - straight bill suited to eating insects . the plumage is reddish brown with a dull brown crown and a whitish throat . one absorbing fact about the national animal of argentina is they are noted more for their distinctive nests than for their appearance , those are incredible architects . in the spring , the nest chamber is hosting an average of four eggs ; incubate both parents alternatively for 14 to 18 days .
body length is about 6 . 5 in ( 16–16 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , straight , and pointed . the body is small and slender , and the tail is long and indistinctly tipped with two short spines . the sexes are similar . the back and tail are colored olive - brown , the wings are olive - brown with bright rufous patches , the cheeks , throat , and belly are whitish , the crown of the head is rufous , and there is a whitish stripe over the eye .
one of the birds is perched on the nest top with mud in the bill . the bird stands upright with lowered wings and bill pointed upwards , while its mate calls loudly from the nest entrance . these displays , both vocal and visual , and the conspicuous large nest , are also used as advertising displays in territorial behaviour . intruders are expelled by chasing and fighting , accompanied by loud calls . the rufous hornero is often seen collecting nest materials on the ground . it is resident in its range , and pair - bonds probably last after breeding season .
thanks for sharing your photos with me , george . it’s too bad horneros don’t live around here . it would be fun to witness their craftsmanship first - hand . for the folks who would like to see the pics george sent me , try doing a search for “rufous hornero nest construction” on the web . with any luck you should find them , or something similar . just keep in mind that when you use the internet , be sure to wear an aluminum foil helmet on your head or your brain could get sucked out . so far it’s working for me…i think .
predators of grown - up and youthful rufous horneros incorporate winged animals of prey , for example , the dark chested scavanger falcon buteo melanoleucus , little vertebrates , household felines , and various types of snakes and perhaps lizards . however , its secured settle most likely lessens predation hazard .
they are often seen on the ground collecting mud or dung to build their remarkable nests . these look for all the world like miniature versions of the type of oven ( or
horno
) that you see outside many houses in rural south america . hence the name
ovenbirds
in english and
hornero
, the spanish for baker .
ouça maravilhosos cantos de pássaros para relaxar e se conectar com a natureza . the rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) is a medium - sized ovenbird in the family furnariidae it occurs in eastern south america , and is the national bird in argentina and uruguay . also known as the red ovenbird , it is common in savannas , second - growth scrub , pastures and agricultural land and is synanthropic . its range includes southeastern and southern brazil , bolivia , paraguay , uruguay and northern and central argentina , extending as far south as northern patagonia . the species is most closely related to the crested hornero of paraguay and argentina . there are four accepted subspecies . veja mais ( see more ) urltoken trilhas sonoras complementares biblioteca áudio youtube urltoken hear wonderful songs of birds to relax and connect with nature . mendengar lagu - lagu indah burung untuk bersantai dan berhubungan dengan alam . سماع أصوات العصافير رائعة للاسترخاء والتواصل مع الطبيعة . リラックスして、自然と接続するための素晴らしい小鳥のさえずりが聞こえてきます。 聽到美妙的鳥鳴放鬆並與性質。 слушайте замечательный пением птиц , чтобы расслабиться и соединиться с природой . o melhor canal de cantos de pássaros
body length is about 6 . 5 in ( 16–16 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , straight , and sharply pointed . the body is small and slender , and the tail is long and tipped with two sharp spines emerging from the tips of the central pair of tail - feathers . the sexes are similar . the back is colored brown with buffy streaks , the tail is brown with rufous outer feathers , the wings are uniformly brown , the throat and belly are reddish brown with brown speckles , the crown of the head is black with rufous streaks , and there is a buffy - white stripe over the eye .
body length is 7–8 in ( 18–20 cm ) . bill is rather short , almost straight , and pointed . the tail is of medium length . the sexes are similar . the overall coloration is brown on the back , with a tan belly , white throat , somewhat rufous tail , and a tan stripe over the eye .
the rufous hornero ( furnarius rufus ) is so common in the pantanal , that you hardly think of taking a picture , as you think , that you will do it next day . ok , this time some pictures were shot , when the bird was standing on a termite mound . there is some examination ungoing to study the interaction between birds and termites in brazil . a study found 218 bird species feeding on termites or using termitaria for nesting or perching . the study found out , that termites are used as a food source are exploited as a nest site for some bird species as well . some bird species also perch on the top of termite mounds to search for their prey or to conduct territorial or courtship displays .
body length is about 7 in ( 18 cm ) . bill is rather long , slightly downcurved , and pointed . the tail is long . the sexes are similar . overall coloration is dull olive - brown on the back , with a lighter brown - streaked belly , white throat , rufous on the margins of an otherwise blackish tail , and a whitish stripe over the eye .
horneros are fairly common birds and readily take advantage of the changes civilization has made to their environment . they flock to agricultural fields and parklands to search for crickets and other insects . they also like to build their nests on man - made structures . this is how the rufous hornero was brought to our attention . opting not to build a nest on a tree branch or post , this particular pair decided to build their nest on someone’s windowsill . when the property owner discovered the birds’ construction project he / she wasn’t annoyed , but instead snapped a sequence of fourteen photos and posted them online . from these photos we are able to watch the different stages of nest building . the last photo shows us that the nest came out great , looking like a cross between a miniature alamo and some high - end item from pottery barn .
the structure is divided by a wall which separates the entrance from the nest - chamber . the orientation of the entrance may be variable , and it is often positioned contrary to wind or rainfall direction , but not always . some nests have two entrances whereas others have only a top entrance . despite the work and the energy invested in such nest , the rufous hornero , as other furnariidae species , does not reuse the nest and builds a new structure , often above the old one . we can see two or three globular nests one above the other , placed on exposed branch . these nests are used by several other birds’ species when abandoned . this kind of nest allows high nesting success with good protection against predators . however , this species is often parasitized by the shiny cowbird ( molothrus bonariensis ) , but usually its eggs are ejected .
tail is moderately short and tipped with two short spines emerging from the tips of the central pair of tail - feathers . the sexes are similar . the back is colored brown with whitish streaks , the tail is brown , the wings are brown with rufous patches , the throat and belly are whitish bordered with buff , the crown of the head is dark brown , and there is a buff - white stripe over the eye .
body length is about 7 . 5 in ( 18 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , slightly downcurved , and pointed . the body is relatively robust , and the tail is long and indistinctly forked . the sexes are similar . the back and tail are colored olive - brown , the wings are olive - brown with rufous patches , the throat and belly are whitish streaked with brown on the flanks , the crown of the head is olive , and there is a white stripe over the eye .
body length is about 5 . 5 in ( 14–14 . 5 cm ) . bill is short , straight , and sharply pointed . the body is small and the tail is long and tipped with sharp spines emanating from the tips of the feathers . the sexes are similar . the back is colored with lengthwise stripes of alternating dark - brown and tan , the tail is bright rufous , the throat and belly are white , the wings have two buff - colored bands , and there is a tan stripe over the eye .
the rufous hornero breeds in the austral summer , laying eggs amongst august and december , raising nestlings before long , and the youthful may stay in their natal region until the accompanying reproducing season . the species is monogamous and the pair bond is long haul , once in a while forever . the home of the species is run of the mill for the class , an extensive thick dirt
broiler
put on a tree , or man made structures , for example , fenceposts , phone shafts or structures . sets stay together consistently and will deal with the home amid that time ; homes can be built in as meager as 5 days yet generally take longer , at times months , to finish . a grip for the most part contains two to four eggs . the eggs are laid each second day and brooded for 14–18 days . chicks are bolstered for 23–26 days before fledging ; youthful feathered creatures stay in the parental region for around 6 months in the wake of fledging and at times until the accompanying reproducing season . both guardians hatch eggs and bolster the youthful . horneros could possibly reuse homes , along these lines it is very basic to see a few homes near each other ( or even on more seasoned homes ) at the same settling site . in any case , an once in the past unused home might be repaired for another reproducing season .
body length is 7 . 5–9 in ( 19–23 cm ) . the rather long bill is about the same length as the head , straight , and sharply pointed . the body is small and the tail is extremely long and thin ; it is about twice the length of the main part of the body . most of this lengthy tail is formed of the elongated central pair of tail - feathers ( or retrices ) , with the lateral pair of retrices being about half as long as the central ones . the sexes are similar . the overall coloration is rufous - brown on the back , with a tan belly , a reddish crown of the head , and a light - tan stripe over the eye .
horneros ( don’t ask me how to pronounce it ) are typically found in open grasslands . birds that live in such areas need to adapt their nests to fit their habitat . meadowlarks , for example , hide their nests in dense grass . killdeer don’t even bother with the grass ; they lay their eggs on the bare ground , right out in the open . natural camouflage is all the killdeers’ eggs have for protection . horneros aren’t about to lay their eggs on the ground . after all , they live in south america . who knows what crazy things are walking around down there . for safety sake , these clever birds build huge mud nests high off the ground . it is this ability to construct these impressive adobe fortresses that make rufous horneros worthy of being argentina’s national bird . but i still would have gone with the glitter - bellied emerald .
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( chesser et al . 2007 , fjeldså et al . 2007 , sacc 324 )
; change english name to band - tailed earthcreeper ( chesser et al . 2007 , fjeldså et al . 2007 , sacc 324 )
( stopiglia et al . 2012 , batalha - filho et al . 2013 )
delta amacuro softtail is a newly described species ( hilty et al . 2013 , sacc 580 )
( ridgely & greenfield 2001 ; hilty 2003 ) ; sacc 41 needs publ . data
( simon et al . 2008 ; bli ; sacc 371 ) . sacc 396 renamed orange - breasted thornbird
six subspecies of spotted barbtail are well differentiated genetic lineages that may merit species status ( valderrama et al . 2014 )
see sacc , pérez - emán et al . 2010 re species status of white - throated barbtail
( irestedt et al . 2009 , moyle et al . 2009 , sacc 5054 ) ; resequence .
( robbins & zimmer 2005 , sacc 198 , bli ) ; note gender agreement . includes
after planalto foliage - gleaner ( zimmer et al . 2008 , sacc 375 )
( ridgely & greenfield 2001 ; hilty 2003 ) ; sacc 40 needs publ . data
mazar barnett & buzzetti 2014 , claramunt 2014 , clements et al . 2015 ; sacc 714 declined
dusky leaftosser species complex is split from middle american tawny - throated leaftosser ( d’horta et al . 2013 , sacc 603 ) . note :
( ridgely & tudor 1994 ; marantz et al . 2003 , sacc 540 )
, which is not sister to long - tailed woodcreeper ( derryberry et al . 2010 , sacc 435 )
( ridgely & tudor 1994 , silva et al . 1995 bli ; cf marantz et al . 2003 ) ; sacc needs proposal
heine , 1860 , known only from the unique type , may be a senior synonym . marantz et al , 2003
subspecies of amazonian barred woodcreeper proposed to species ( batista et al . 2013 , sacc 621 ) . continue to treat as subspecies
newly described taxon proposed as a species , xingu woodcreeper . not accepted as such by sacc ( 621 ) . treated as a subspecies here .
named after w . hoffmanns , a german collector in peru and brazil , not carl hoffmann , a german explorer and naturalist in costa rica . .
to species rank ( sousa - neves et al . , 2013 , sacc 600 decline )
in v 1 . 6 ( aleixo 2002 , marantz et al . 2003 ( but see sousa - neves et al . 2013 cf sacc 600 )
to avoid paraphyly ( see aleixo 2002 , marantz et al . 2003 , sacc footnote 135 )
subspecies of lineated woodcreeper split following rodrigues et al . 2013 , sacc 620 . rename lineated woodcreeper to guianan woodcreeper following splits of the lineated woodcreeper species complex
rondonia woodcreeper split from lineated woodcreeper ( rodrigues et al . 2013 , sacc 620 ) includes
subspecies of curve - billed scythebill proposed to be treated as species ( aleixo et al . 2013 , sousa - neves et al . 2013 , sacc 623 - no pending full revision
newly described taxon proposed as a species . not accepted as such by sacc ( 623 ) . treated as a subspecies here .
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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat ( del hoyo et al . 2003 ) .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
otherwise known as the true ovenbirds , the horneros are widely known for their elaborate oven - shaped mud nests , frequently seen adorning fence posts and telephone poles ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . although these are only used once , they can take several years to disintegrate , and are often appropriated by other birds after the horneros vacate ( 2 ) . in addition to their architectural skills , male and female pairs are known for their highly coordinated duets ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . breeding pairs remain together throughout the year , and begin the arduous task of building the nest several months before egg - laying . around three to four eggs are laid between august and december and are incubated by both parent birds for 16 to 17 days before hatching . similarly , both sexes feed the nestlings , which fledge the nest at 24 to 26 days old ( 6 ) .
mainly found in open or semi - open habitats below 2 , 500 metres ( 2 ) .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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ridgely , r . s . and tudor , g . ( 1994 ) the birds of south america : the suboscine passerines . volume ii . university of texas press , austin , texas .
burton , m . and burton , r . ( 2002 ) international wildlife encyclopedia . marshall cavendish , new york .
fraga , r . m . ( 1980 ) the breeding of rufus horneros ( furnarius rufus ) . condor , 82 : 58 - 68 .
lopes , l . e . , fernandes , a . m . and marini , m . a . ( 2004 ) consumption of vegetable matter by furnarioidea . ararajuba , 11 ( 2 ) : 235 - 239 .
skutch , a . f . ( 1996 ) antbirds and ovenbirds , their lives and homes . university of texas press , austin , texas , usa .
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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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a frontal view of a preening bird on a bare branch before flying away .
josep del hoyo , antonio silveira , pieter de groot boersma , joe angseesing , juan sanabria , carlos gussoni , greg baker , anna motis , keith blomerley , max roth , edson rosa , bob humphries and sally robinson , yaiza aragón , alex garcía · videoaves , will carter , jean - françois marzocchi , j . gonzalez y f . collazo , thore noernberg , juan carlos atienza , richard garrigues , martin manassero , german pugnali , gus yaki .
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plumage pattern and biogeography suggest that most likely sister - species is f . cristatus . race albogularis previously known as badius , but that taxon was described within genus turdus , in which the name was preoccupied . significant variation in body size follows bergmann’s rule , with largest birds farthest from equator . relative distributions in argentina of paraguayae and commersoni require further study . proposed race schuhmacheri ( s bolivia ) appears to be not diagnosable ; description believed to have been based on worn specimens . four subspecies recognized .
pelzeln , 1868 – c & e bolivia ( la paz and beni s to tarija and santa cruz ) , sw brazil ( mato grosso ) and nw argentina ( n salta , se jujuy ) .
cherrie & reichenberger , 1921 – paraguay and n argentina ( formosa s to la rioja , n santiago del estero and n santa fe ) .
( spix , 1824 ) – e & se brazil ( tocantins , s ceará , alagoas and bahia s to goiás , são paulo and rio de janeiro ) .
( j . f . gmelin , 1788 ) – se brazil ( paraná s to rio grande do sul ) , uruguay and c & e argentina ( from s santiago del estero e to corrientes , s to neuquén and ne chubut ) .
song a long , rhythmic , raucous burst of loud , sharp “kweep ! ” notes , trails off towards . . .
second - growth scrub , pastures and agricultural land ; a variety of open habitats , particularly . . .
arthropods and other invertebrates ; also some seeds . reported dietary items are coleoptera ( of families curculionidae , chrysomelidae , . . .
season largely during austral spring - summer ; eggs in sept–dec and nestlings in oct to mid - jan in argentina ; nestlings in oct– . . .
not globally threatened . common to abundant throughout range in suitable habitats , i . e . human - disturbed areas . benefits from moderate anthropogenic habitat alteration ; has . . .
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recent phylogenetic work supports subdivision into 5–6 clades ( herein tribes ) , depending on inclusion or exclusion of xenopini # r .
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pair near nest under construction ( one bird sitting in the nest ) , about 30ft away in a mostly bare tree in a pasture .
macho e femea dentro de um ninho em construcão - ( forno de barro ) mata fechada e seca .
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 332 side b track 27 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 332 side b track 22 seq . a )
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
the slender , almost straight bill has grey or dark brownish upper mandible , whereas lower mandible is paler with dark tip . eyes are reddish - brown to cinnamon . legs and feet are grey , brown or blackish . both sexes are similar . juvenile has paler underparts .
during the breeding season , and particularly during the nest construction , the mates of the pair perform some displays . to build such nest , they need two to three months ( but sometimes only two weeks ) , and these displays have an important role and strengthen the pair - bonds .
the walls made with mud and plant material or dung , are very hard when dry . it is the typical “adobe” technique . the nest is placed up to 8 metres above the ground , and usually situated on exposed tree branch or any suitable structure , or sometimes on the ground in bare areas .
female usually lays 2 to 4 eggs . incubation lasts about 14 to 18 days , shared by both parents . chicks are brooded and fed by both adults , which share all the nesting duties . the young fledge about 23 to 26 days after hatching , and depend on their parents during two or three weeks . they remain within the parental territory for 4 to 9 months more . young may help in new nest building , but parents attack and chase them away from the construction . this species can produces two broods per season .
unusual wild bird . this is how a wild killdeer protects her nest in busy parking lot . .
these nests are built in prominent positions in trees or on any suitable man - made object such as telephone or electricity posts . the nests consist of two chambers so that the 3 to 4 chicks are protected from predators and the wind – in most cases the entrance faces away from the prevailing wind . like most non - tropical birds in south america , eggs are laid in about september and the building of the mud nest depends on there being sufficient rain to produce the mud but rain that is not so heavy that it washes away the nest as it is being built .
the location of the photo - shot was not far from the farm pouso alegre . this is a pousada which is very well situated 7 km away from the transpantaneira . the location is only 33 km south of pocone in the northern pantanal . the hole pousada is a great nature - area with original landscape and extensive cattle ranching . a paradise for the keen birdwatcher as well as for the beginner in birdwatching .


the orange-spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) , also known as the estuary cod , is a species of fish in the family serranidae .

it is found in the western pacific , the indian ocean , and the red sea .

it has also been recorded in the mediterranean sea as a lessepsian migrant .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical mangrove , open seas , shallow seas , subtidal aquatic beds , coral reefs , estuarine waters , intertidal flats , and coastal saline lagoons .

it is threatened by habitat loss and overfishing .

this predatory fish reaches up to 1.2 m ( 3.9 ft ) in length .

in earlier literature it has often been confused with epinephelus tauvina or epinephelus malabaricus .

orange - spotted grouper

orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) from fishbase : technical fact sheet .
this grouper is often confused with the malabar grouper because the pattern on their body is very similar . if you look closely at the dots on their body , malabar groupers have black spots while orange - spotted groupers are orange .
plasma immune protein analysis in the orange - spotted grouper epinephelus coioides : evidence for altered expressions of immune factors associated with a choline - supplemented diet .
plasma immune protein analysis in the orange - spotted grouper epinephelus coioides : evidence for altered expressions of immune factors associated wi . . . - pubmed - ncbi
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orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) from fishes of bitung ( northern tip of sulawesi indonesia ) by seishi kimura and keiichi matsuura ( eds . ) factsheets with photos .
the central marine fisheries research institute ( cmfri ) has succeeded in mass seed production of orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coiodes ) , a fish species enjoying high demand in the market .
orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) lim , kelvin k . p . & jeffrey k . y . low , 1998 . a guide to the common marine fishes of singapore . singapore science centre . 163 pp .
orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) ng , peter k . l . & n . sivasothi , 1999 . a guide to the mangroves of singapore ii ( animal diversity ) . singapore science centre . 168 pp .
hatchery seed production of the species , carried out by the vishakapatanam regional centre of cmfri , is expected to boost sea - cage - culture enterprises . the orange - spotted grouper is a commercially important carnivorous fish with high demand in many overseas markets .
orange - spotted grouper is available globally but predominantly in tropical and sub - tropical waters and is the mainstay in the world live reef food fish trade , particularly in several asian countries . in india , it is found both on the east and west coasts .
orange - spotted grouper ( epinephelus coioides ) on fishes of libong island ( west coast of southern thailand ) by keiichi matsuura and seishi kimura ( eds . ) on the national science museum , tokyo website : factsheets with photos and descriptions with details on similar families .
the orange - spotted grouper is unlikely to become extinct as hatcheries in a number of countries are now able to produce fry from captive brood stock . however , there is only a limited supply of grouper seed for mariculture , and much current grouper mariculture is still based on the supply of wild - caught grouper seed ( sadovy 2000 ) . this reliance on wild caught seed may actually remove groupers that might otherwise reproduce and supplement the wild stock ( sadovy 2000 ) . given that
like many groupers , the orange - spotted grouper has a fascinating life history , known as protogynous hermaphroditism . all orange - spotted groupers begin life as a female , reaching sexual maturity at around 2 to 3 years old , when 25 to 30 centimetres in length . when the female reaches around 55 to 75 centimetres , at approximately four years old , it changes sex and becomes a male ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the maximum age recorded for this species is 22 years ( 1 ) .
the orange - spotted grouper is completely protected in the waters of new south wales , australia , and minimum and maximum size limits for take are in place around queensland ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . the species also occurs in a number of marine protected areas around australia ( 2 ) , including the great barrier reef marine park , a world heritage area ( 6 ) . in 2001 , a number of tagged orange - spotted groupers were released on artificial reefs in yan chau tong and hoi ha wan marine park , hong kong , as part of a restocking trial ( 1 ) .
grandcourt , e . m . , al abdessalaam , t . z . , francis , f . and al shamsi , a . t . ( 2005 ) population biology and assessment of the orange - spotted grouper , epinephelus coioides ( hamilton , 1822 ) , in the southern arabian gulf . fisheries research , 74 : 55 - 68 .
cornish , a . & harmelin - vivien , m . ( grouper & wrasse specialist group )
orange - spotted grouper epinephelus coioides family serranidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? gaily spotted juveniles are sometimes seen on our northern shores , among seagrasses . features : adults to about 95cm . juveniles seen are much smaller . the adult is brown with darker bars and small orange spots on the sides . it is found in coastal areas including estuaries , usually alone . what does it eat ? it eats small fishes , shrimps and crabs . human uses : it is among the common fishes eaten in singapore . here , these fishes are sometimes reared in floating cages from fingerlings ( young fishes ) that are imported from neighbouring countries , until they reach marketable size .
the orange - spotted grouper occurs along continental shores and around large islands from the red sea to south africa , eastward to the western pacific , where it is found from the ryukyu islands in japan , south to australia , and as far east as palau and fiji ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it has also moved through the suez canal into the mediterranean ( 1 ) .
a rather large , robust marine fish , the orange - spotted grouper has an elongated body which is tan above , shading to whitish below . the head , body and median fins ( the dorsal , anal and caudal fin ) bear the numerous , small , orange or reddish - brown spots for which this species is named . the body also bears five faint , irregular dark bars , which divide into two towards the underside of the body . the tail is rounded , and the dorsal fin and anal fin bear small spines ( 3 ) .
adult orange - spotted groupers are generally found in estuaries , often in brackish water , and around protected , silty coral reefs . the species has also been found offshore to depths of 100 metres ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . juveniles are common in estuaries and among mangroves ( 1 ) .
cornish , a . & harmelin - vivien , m . ( grouper & wrasse specialist group ) . 2004 .
the orange - spotted grouper feeds on fish , shrimps , crabs and cephalopods such as cuttlefish ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is thought to use a relatively small home range ( 2 ) and is usually found alone or in small groups , although spawning aggregations of up to 5 , 000 have been reported ( 1 ) . the main spawning period is between march and june in the arabian gulf ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , and october to december in new caledonia ( 1 ) .
at the national mariculture center in bahrain orange spotted grouper eggs are collect following standard methods . under a constant temperature regime of 27 - 28 °c , natural spawning was maintained during a 33 month period between october 1992 and july 1995 and the total number of eggs collected during that period was 279 million . daily floating egg rates varied from 5 . 6 to 69 . 6 per cent ( average 36 . 8 percent ) . spawning relates to lunar rhythm : the quantity of spawned eggs is high about one week before and after the new moon , and is low or none near the full moon . under ambient temperatures , spawning occurs in april and may .
occurs in the western indian ocean from the southern red sea to natal and east to the western pacific where it is distributed from ryukyu islands to new south wales . it ranges east into oceania only to palau in the northern hemisphere and fiji in the southern . orange - spotted groupers inhabit turbid coastal reefs and are often found in brackishwater over mud and rubble . juveniles are common in the shallow waters of estuaries over sand , mud and gravel and among mangroves , feeding on small fish , shrimp , and crabs .
is widely targeted across its global range as adults for food , and as juveniles in se asia for culture , it is unlikely that such heavy harvest on this grouper is sustainable in long term and wild populations of this grouper are likely being depleted . however , more information on catch volumes is needed , since trade volumes can reflect many things other than catch rates .
further conservation measures include regulations on fish farming . in thailand , farms can only be set up in designated areas , and regulations are in place which aim to control environmental pollution and the spread of disease . the farms are run by local , small - scale fishermen , so benefitting local communities ( 5 ) . other suggested measures include further study into the orange - spotted grouper’s biology , taxonomy and catch rates , to more accurately assess its distribution and abundance ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , as well as an increase in mesh size of traps and a reduction in fishing effort in some areas ( 4 ) , and better protection of offshore areas where this impressive marine fish is thought to spawn ( 2 ) .
net cages ( 8 mm mesh ) are used for 2 - 10 cm fingerlings ; 25 mm mesh is used for larger fish . grouper fingerlings are stocked at 15 - 20 / m
the orange - spotted grouper is widely targeted for food , for the live reef fish trade , and as a recreational fish . although commonly produced in hatcheries , juveniles are also extensively taken from the wild for culture , particularly in southeast asia , so removing individuals that might otherwise go on to reproduce and supplement the wild stock ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . this take is currently unregulated ( 1 ) , and the fish farms can potentially bring their own problems , such as the spread of disease and parasites , water pollution , and the unsustainable capture of other fish species as feed ( 5 ) . habitat loss in the form of reef destruction and the loss of mangroves , a key nursery habitat for juveniles , is a further threat to the species ( 1 ) .
is one of the few species among farmed grouper species . the development of new faster - growing strains through selective breeding techniques and use of intensive cost - effective recirculation systems are imperative to increase the production .
seafdec . 2001 . husbandry and health management of grouper . asia - pacific economic cooperation fisheries working group 01 / 2000 . aquaculture department , southeast asian fisheries development center , manila , philippines . 94 pp .
heemstra , p . c . and j . e . randall , 1993 . fao species catalogue . vol . 16 . groupers of the world ( family serranidae , subfamily epinephelinae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the grouper , rockcod , hind , coral grouper and lyretail species known to date . rome : fao . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 16 ) : 382 p . ( ref . 5222 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 11 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 16 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 . small individuals closely resemble e . tauvina and e . malabaricus , but have orange spots and lack hexagonal spots on the fins ( ref . 37816 ) ; head and body tan dorsally , shading to whitish ventrally ; numerous small brownish orange or reddish brown spots on head , body and median fins ( ref . 89707 ) ; further characterized by having overall tan color ; four irregular h - shaped dark bars ; back with 3 - 4 blackish saddles ; head , body and fins with numerous small brownish orange or reddish brown spots ; body scales ctenoid except for nape , back , thorax , abdomen and above anal - fin base with cycloid scales ; greatest depth of body 2 . 9 - 3 . 7 in sl ; rounded caudal fin ; short pelvic fins , 1 . 9 - 2 . 7 in head length ( ref . 90102 ) .
tank . brooders usually start spawning between 36 hrs and 48 hours after injection . there were over ten grouper breeder farms raising > 10 000 spawners in southern taiwan p . c . in 1998 ; these were producing 40 billion eggs / yr .
for such a significant commercial fish , surprisingly little is known about the biology of the orange - spotted grouper , and there is a lack of accurate catch data , particularly as the species is often misidentified ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . however , populations are believed to be decreasing , with significant declines in catch rates reported in many areas ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . it is unlikely that the heavy harvest of this species is sustainable in the long - term , particularly in light of its vulnerability to overexploitation as a result of its long lifespan , slow growth , and tendency to group together in spawning aggregations ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . in addition , the minimum sizes captured are often below the size of sexual maturity , and below the size at which sexual transition to the male occurs , so potentially leading to female - biased sex ratios and a lack of reproductive adults in the wild population ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .
the map shown below is constructed from fao reported statistics for this species . farming activities also occur in other countries including china , thailand , taiwan p . c . , indonesia , and are reported to fao in the generic category
grouper unidentified
.
although grouper culture is widespread in asia and the pacific , its continued development is constrained by the limited availability of fingerlings . most economies , with the exception of china taiwan p . c . , rely almost totally on wild - caught fry and fingerlings for stocking .
lavilla - pitogo , c . r . , castillo , a . r . & de la cruz , m . c . 1992 . occurrence of vibrio sp . infection in grouper ( epinephelus suillus ) . journal of applied ichthyology , 8 : 175 - 179 .
doi , m . , munir , m . n . , razali , n . l . & zulkifli , t . 1991 . artificial propagation of the grouper , epinephelus suillus at the marine finfish hatchery in tanjong domeng , terengganu , malaysia . kertas pengembangan bil . 167 , department of fisheries , malaysia , 41 pp .
responsible aquaculture at the production level should be practised in accordance with the main principles of environmental and ecological protection – see article 9 of the fao code of conduct for responsible fisheries . integrated efforts could help to explain the development of intensive productions systems and answer questions raised by the public . veterinarians have the responsibility for the health assessment of reared animals ; they control and measure the state of health with the aim of preventing disease . thus they are the most suitable people to interact with farm operatives and government inspectors in examining the animals and deciding whether or not they are showing signs of good health and well - being . animal health in this sense would aim to create equilibrium between the animal and its new environment in intensive conditions . the utilization of non - destructive devices for grouper collection , proper fish handling and increased efficiency in culture management could create socio - economic and environmental benefits . a well - developed grouper culture operation , complemented by appropriate wild grouper fishery management could provide sustainable employment for many people – from marginal fishers to farmers to traders . the demand for wild seed has led to unsustainable and illegal practices such as the use of cyanide to capture large numbers of seed with relatively low investment in time and effort . grouper fisheries that are based on illegal or destructive fishing practices underline the urgent need for habitat protection and sustainable utilization of natural resources .
kawahara , s . , al - bosta , a . a . & shams , a . j . 1996 . hatchery production of grouper , epinephelus coioides , and rabbitfish , siganus canaliculatus , at the national mariculture center , bahrain : 1995 . national mariculture center , directorate of fisheries , ministry of works & agriculture , state of bahrain . 19 pp .
this is one of the most common grouper found locally and can be caught just about anywhere along our coast as well as offshore waters . they can be typically found near rocky shores and reefs but larger ones ( > 3kg ) mostly dwell in deep canals in offshore waters and sometimes come near shores to spawn . they are well adapted to shallow and deep waters .
is one of the two major cultured groupers in taiwan p c . the national mariculture center , bahrain has conducted mass fry production trials of this species since 1992 . grouper pond production is becoming an attractive alternative to intensive shrimp culture in countries where management problems have forced growers to abandon shrimp farming . this species has been tested in several countries as a potential species for mariculture .
kawahara , s . , al - bosta , a . a . al - murbaty , f . a . & shams , a . j . 1995 . hatchery production of the grouper , epinephelus coioides , at the national mariculture center , bahrain : 1993 - 1994 . national mariculture center , directorate of fisheries , ministry of works & agriculture , state of bahrain . 22 pp .
there is a lack of appropriate techniques for efficient grouper culture to marketable sizes . a major production constraint is heavy mortality of groupers during the collection and culture phases due to handling stress and diseases . high mortality rates occur in the early larval stages and larval cannibalism is rampant . farmed fish are also often prone to diseases ( especially viral diseases and parasitic infestations ) . research to solve these problems is under way in japan , taiwan p . c . , thailand and bahrain .
2003 ) , factors which are likely to increase its vulnerability to overexploitation . spawning aggregations of groupers have consistently been shown to be easily overexploited as fishes from a large area will gather in a small place at the same time and place each year , making them attractive targets for fishers . it seems likely , that species of grouper that are sought after for food and that form spawning aggregations , will be more vulnerable to overfishing than those that are not targeted and do not .
for baiting wise , a bottom feeder rig is typically used to fish for groupers . if you ' re fishing close to a rocky shore , floats might be used to reduce chances of snagging . however , rig must be adjusted so that the bait can sink to near bottom of the rocky sea bed . reaction must be swift when dealing with groupers , for once they dash back into the rocks when they hit , they often refuse to come back out or that the fishing line may snap due to abrasion from rocks . take high abrasion into account when choosing leaders for grouper fishing .
hua , d . k . , cai , m . l . & zhang , z . y . 1994 . studies on the grouper’s syndrome : i . etiology and histopathology . in : l . m . chou , a . d . munro , t . j . lam , t . w . chen , l . k . k . cheong , j . k . ding , k . k . hooi , h . w . khoo , v . p . e . phang , k . f . shim & c . h . tan ( eds ) , proceedings of the third asian fisheries forum , 26 - 30 october 1992 , singapore , pp . 353 - 356 . asian fisheries society , manila , philippines .
totally protected in new south wales waters ( public consultation document 2002 ) . tagged e . coioides are released on artificial reefs in yan chau tong and hoi ha wan marine park in 2001 as a part of restocking trial ( these together with red snapper account for 15 , 000 fish released to - date ) ( cheung 2001 ) . mariculture of this grouper is carried out in se asia ( sadovy 2000 ) . this fish is being cultured for local consumption in thailand and for export using mainly seed supply from the wild ( yashiro 1996 ) . this fish is also cultured in singapore and taiwan ( heemstra and randall 1993 ) . under current queensland ( australia ) fishery regulation , e . coioides , whose length is less than 35 cm or more that 120 cm is protected ( fishing industry organization and marketing amendment regulation 1993 ) .
ponds are prepared and fertilized . once natural food is abundant , adult tilapia are added at a stocking density of 5 000 - 10 000 / ha to produce fingerlings to serve as live prey for the groupers . grouper fingerlings ( ~ 6 cm tl ) are added at 5 000 - 10 000 / ha at least a month after the release of adult tilapia . sorting and grading of the fingerlings is carried out weekly to prevent cannibalism and to minimize competition for space and food . if tilapia fingerlings are not abundant , supplementary feeding is carried out using chopped fish at 5 per cent bw / day , half early in the morning and the rest late in the afternoon . when the fish weigh about 200 g , feeding is reduced to once daily with fresh or frozen chopped fish at 5 per cent bw or with pellets at 2 per cent bw . 20 - 50 per cent water exchange takes advantage of spring tides or pumped water from reservoirs and is carried out at least twice / week . paddlewheel aerators are used when do
marine ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 100 m ( ref . 167 ) . subtropical ; 37°n - 34°s , 28°e - 180°e ( ref . 5222 )
indo - west pacific : red sea south to at least durban , south africa and eastward to palau and fiji , north to the ryukyu islands , south to the arafura sea ( ref . 9819 ) and australia . recently reported from the mediterranean coast of israel ( ref . 5222 ) . frequently misidentified as epinephelus tauvina or epinephelus malabaricus ( ref . 27362 ) .
maturity : l m 48 . 3 , range 25 - 30 cm max length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 47613 ) ; max . published weight : 15 . 0 kg ( ref . 11228 ) ; max . reported age : 22 years ( ref . 3627 )
inhabit turbid coastal reefs ( ref . 9710 ) and are often found in brackish water ( ref . 27362 ) over mud and rubble ( ref . 6390 ) . solitary ( ref 90102 ) . juveniles are common in shallow waters of estuaries over sand , mud and gravel and among mangroves ( ref . 6390 ) . feed on small fishes , shrimps , and crabs . probably spawn during restricted periods and form aggregations when doing so ( ref . 27352 ) . eggs and early larvae are probably pelagic ( ref . 6390 ) . has been tested in several countries as a potential species for mariculture ( ref . 43448 ) .
) : 24 . 4 - 29 . 1 , mean 28 . 1 ( based on 2094 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01175 ( 0 . 01021 - 0 . 01352 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 3 . 01 - 3 . 07 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 ±0 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 17 ; tm = 2 - 3 ; tmax = 22 ; fec = 43 , 618 ) .
prior r = 0 . 43 , 2 sd range = 0 . 24 - 0 . 78 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 84 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 29 , based on : 1 m , 2 k , 3 tgen , 1 tmax , 2 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 58 of 100 ) .
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groupers are generally cultured in floating net cages or earthen ponds , but cage culture is more common in southeast asia . in 1979 , the penghu station of the taiwan fisheries research institute ( tfri ) started artificial propagation by using hormone - inducing technique .
the major spawning period is march to june . females mature at 250 - 300 mm tl at an age of 2 - 3 years ; sexual transition occurs at a total length of 550 - 750 mm . fecundity estimates varied from 850 186 ova in a 350 mm tl fish to 2 904 912 ova for one of 620 mm tl . eggs are pelagic ; best survival of larvae is attained at 30 °c and 30 ‰ . successful artificial propagation of
has been reported in malaysia . they probably spawn during restricted periods and form aggregations when doing so and the eggs and early larvae are probably pelagic .
tanks . most of the brooders are collected from the wild and reared for 1 to 7 years using seawater at a constant temperature of 27 - 28 °c and 45 ‰ , following standard culture methods . the fish are fed with frozen sardines , mackerels , cuttlefish , squids and top - shell clams because these foods have high contents of cholesterol , phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids . artificial diets containing hormones used for maturation or sex - reversal are also used .
whenever brooders do not spawn naturally , mature females and males are selected from broodstock tanks and injected with human chorionic gonadotropin ( hcg ) at 700 and 500 iu / kg bw respectively . after the injection , the fish are stocked at 28 . 0 - 28 . 5 °c in a 50 m
eggs are collected from the egg collection net within 3 hours after spawning . floating eggs are stocked at 600 000 per 1 m
tank . the eggs are incubated in the same tank with moderate aeration and running water until they hatch . newly hatched larvae are collected from the water surface by glass beakers within 3 hours after hatching and their number estimated by collection in a 20 l bucket and sub - sampling . larvae are then transferred to larval rearing tanks .
concrete tanks ( 4 x 2 . 5 x 2 . 5 m ( hxwxd ) . standard methods for larval rearing are applied . artificial lighting is provided as follows [ hatching day = day 0 ] : at day 3 when larvae start feeding , from 07 : 00 to 24 : 00 ; at days 4 and 5 , continuous ; at day 6 , from 07 : 00 to 22 : 00 ; at day 7 , 07 : 00 to 20 : 00 . natural lighting is provided from day 8 onwards only .
larvae start feeding immediately after the mouth opens . newly open - mouth larvae are fed once a day with enriched
, s - rotifer of 160 - 180 µm size at a density of 5 - 6 rotifers / ml . at 3 - 20 mm tl , larvae are fed twice daily with s - rotifer of 180 - 200 µm at 5 - 10 rotifers / ml . larvae of 5 to 8 mm , 8 to 20 mm and larger than 20 mm tl sizes are fed almost continuously with microfeeds of 140 - 410 µm , 315 - 580 µm and 479 - 800 µm , respectively . at tl 6 - 25 mm , the larvae are also fed enriched
there are two production systems used for the nursery stage - indoor and outdoor . the indoor system uses tank sizes of 30 - 50 m
hatchery reared or wild - caught fry are nursed in tanks or hapa nets until they reach 6 cm . hapa nets [ 1 x 2 x 1 . 5 m ; - 2 mm mesh ] are set in tanks or ponds or inside floating net cages and stocked < 2 . 5 cm fry at 1 000 - 2 000 / net . sorting and grading are essential during the nursery phase . lamps are placed at the centre above the hapa nets to attract live prey such as adult
, copepods , mysids , small fish or crustacean larvae . fish are fed to satiation either with high protein formulated feeds of various sizes or finely chopped frozen or fresh fish mixed with a vitamin - mineral premix [ 1 kg trash fish ; 10 - 20 g vitamin and mineral mix ] 4 - 6 times / day .
in either semi - intensive or intensive flow - through systems . such tanks are stocked with < 2 . 5 cm fry at 50 - 200 / m
are sometimes used in flow - through or recirculation water systems . the fish are graded every 5 - 7 days until they reach > 6 cm after 45 - 60 days . at this stage , fish are transferred to grow - out ponds or floating cages .
falls below 4 ppm . water quality is maintained at ph 7 . 5 - 8 . 3 , 25 - 32 °c , 20 - 35 ‰ , 4 - 8 ppm do
. grading is carried out at least once a month . fish are fed with appropriate fresh or frozen chopped fish daily at 10 per cent bw or with pelleted feeds 3 per cent bw , half early in the morning and half late in the afternoon . 0 . 5 per cent vitamin and mineral premix is added to the properly thawed trash fish before feeding . floating net cages should be moved to a new site every 2 - 3 years of culture to allow deteriorating bottom conditions to recover . the duration of culture in the grow - out phase is 4 - 7 months , depending on the preferred size at harvest .
generally , farmers depend on commercial suppliers for grow - out feeds . costs for groupers vary from usd 1 100 to 1 200 / tonne ( 2010 ) .
groupers are harvested at 400 g or above , depending on specific market demand . fish are marketed either live for the restaurant business and international markets or freshly caught for local markets .
fish are harvested by seine in the early morning or late afternoon . the water is disturbed ( agitated ) two hours before harvest to prevent occurrence of rigid muscles in the fish . alternatively , for partial harvesting , modified lift nets may be installed in feeding areas ; these have to be lifted slowly to avoid fish escape . it is advisable to install 8x2x1 . 5 or 8x4x1 . 5 m net cages ( 25 mm mesh ) in the ponds to hold fish temporarily . the stocking density in these holding cages should not exceed 20 / m
feeding is stopped 1 - 2 days before marketing . the net cage should be inspected for any damage and then lifted slowly from one side to concentrate the fish in one corner . a fine , soft knotless scoop net or soft plastic screen is used to catch the fish . care must be taken to avoid loss of scales or causing lesions on fish during harvesting .
harvested fish are stocked in an aerated conditioning tank . to slow metabolic activity , the water temperature is slowly lowered to 20 °c ( 2 - 3 °c / hr ) by adding crushed ice in plastic bags or by using cooling pumps . 3 - 5 fish are stocked into each 20x20x30 cm double - lined plastic bag . biomass is limited to 2 - 3 kg / bag . oxygen is added at a 1 : 3 water : oxygen ratio before sealing with a rubber band . the bags are packed in styrofoam boxes to which an adequate amount of frozen gel packs , ice bags or frozen water in sealed plastic bottles wrapped in old newspapers is added to keep the temperature low during transportation . this method is suitable for air transport for a period not exceeding 8 hours after packing .
fry usually comprise between 15 - 20 per cent of ongrowing costs . in hatcheries , labour costs are 20 to 25 per cent of the total . other large factors are feed ( 30 percent ) , followed by administrative expenses and fuel and power requirements for heater / chillers and automatic feeders . generally , ongrowing costs are lower in larger - scale farms .
in some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an fao recommendation .
penghu station , taiwan fisheries research institute ( tfri ) , taiwan p . c .
aquatic animal health research institute , department of fisheries , kasetsart university campus , jatujak , bangkok , thailand .
groupers have become one of the most important aquaculture and traded commodities in the asia - pacific region . it is also an important fish in the livelihoods of small and large - scale coastal fish farmers . groupers are considered as a high - value species with a high potential for contributing to the economic development of these countries . the expanding trade in live groupers of various ages and stages , whether for aquaculture or for seafood restaurants , has increased demand since 2006 .
this species grow more slowly on formulated feeds with high protein levels than many carnivorous farmed species .
the inadequate supply of seed is further aggravated by lack of appropriate handling techniques during collection , transport and storage of collected fish , and sometimes by an unregulated management of the wild stocks .
used during production mainly to prevent and treat bacterial disease , antibiotics are leading to the development of antibiotic - resistant bacteria that are pathogenic to humans . the development of antibiotic resistance by pathogenic bacteria is considered to be one of the most serious risks to human health at the global level . many countries around the world have introduced , changed or tightened national regulations on the use of antibiotics , in general and within the aquaculture sector .
al - baharna , w . s . 1986 . fishes of bahrain . directorate of fisheries , bahrain . 294 pp .
boulenger , g . a . 1895 . catalogue of the fishes in the british museum . 2 ed . vol . 1 . british museum ( natural history ) , london . xix + 391 pp .
chong , y . g . & chao , t . m . 1986 . common diseases in marine finfish . primary production department , republic of singapore . 34 pp .
gunther , a . 1859 . catalogue of the acanthopterygian fishes in the collection of british museum . vol . 1 , british museum , london . xxxi + 524 pp .
hamilton , f . 1822 . an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches . archibald constable and company , edinburgh . 405 pp .
heemstra , p . c . & randall , j . e . 1986 . serranidae ( subfamilies epinephelinae and serranidae ) . in : w . fischer & g . bianchi ( eds ) , fao species identification sheets , western indian ocean . vol . 4 , 241 pp . fao , rome .
mathews , c . p . , samuel , m . & baddar , m . k . 1986 . sexual maturation , length and age in some species of kuwait fish related to their suitability for aquaculture . kuwait bulletin of marine science , 8 : 243 - 256 .
playfair , r . l . & gunther , a . c . l . 1867 . the fishes of zanzibar . john van voorst , london . ( reprint edition 1971 , newton k . gregg , kentfield , california ) . xiv + 153 pp .
randall , j . e . & heemstra , p . c . 1991 . indo - pacific fishes . revision of indo - pacific groupers ( perciformes : serranidae : epinephelinae ) , with descriptions of five new species . indo - pacific fishes , no 20 . 332 pp . b . p . bishop museum , honolulu , hawai’i .
weber , m . & de beaufort , l . f . 1931 . the fishes of the indo - australian archipelago . vol . 6 . e . j . brill , leiden . xii . + 448 pp .
classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
environment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .
pogonoski , j . j . , pollard , d . a . and paxton , j . r . ( 2002 ) conservation overview and action plan for australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes . environment australia , canberra , australia . available at : urltoken
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
anal fin in fish , an unpaired fin on the under surface of a fish , behind the anus . brackish slightly salty water , usually a mixture of salt and freshwater , such as that found in estuaries . caudal fin the tail fin of a fish . cephalopod from the greek for ‘head - foot’ , a class of molluscs that occur only in marine habitats . all species have grasping tentacles , and either an internal or external shell . includes nautiloids , cuttlefish , squids , octopuses , and extinct ammonites and belemnites . dorsal fin the unpaired fin found on the back of the body of fish , or the raised structure on the back of most cetaceans . home range the area occupied by an animal during routine activities , which is not actively defended . protogynous hermaphroditism a system in which an animal begins its life cycle as a female , but as it ages , based on internal or external triggers , it shifts sex to become a male animal . spawning the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water . taxonomy the science of classifying organisms , grouping together animals which share common features and are thought to have a common ancestor .
carpenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . ( 1999 ) the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 4 : bony fishes part 2 ( mugilidae to carangidae ) . food and agriculture organisation of the united nations , rome . available at : urltoken
image quest marine the moos poffley end witney oxfordshire ox29 9uw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 704050 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 779203 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / stock
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this species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency – abu dhabi .
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frequently mis - identified as e . malabaricus or e . tauvina in aquaculture and fisheries literature ( heemstra and randall 1993 ) .
for such a significant commercial species , little is known of its biology or catch rates – efforts need to be made to address both data gaps . see the supplementary material for a summary of the known information on abundance in the wild and in markets .
for further information about this species , see 44674 _ epinephelus _ coioides . pdf .
occurs in the red sea south to at least durban ( south africa ) , eastwards to palau and fiji , north to the ryukyu islands ( japan ) , and south to the arafura sea and australia ( heemstra and randall 1993 ) . it has also migrated through the suez canal to the eastern mediterranean ( randall 1995 ) . its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown . this species is also frequently misidentified as
has been reported from papua new guinea where 1 , 000 to 5 , 000 fish congregate in the muddy / sandy bottom of a large shallow bay for three to four days in every month of the year . at night , the fish sleep partially buried in the mud and have been targeted by local fishers for generations . fish are speared from a canoe with a hand held spear at night using light lamp to locate them . fishers report that 30 to 40 years ago they could take between 200 and 500 fish in a night , whereas today ( 2003 ) they catch between 50 and 100 fish in a night , a decline of 50 % ( hamilton 2003 ) .
in a bay in new caledonia ( m . kulbicki , pers . comm . ) .
australia ; bahrain ; bangladesh ; brunei darussalam ; cambodia ; china ; djibouti ; egypt ; eritrea ; fiji ; hong kong ; india ( andaman is . ) ; indonesia ; iran , islamic republic of ; iraq ; israel ; japan ( nansei - shoto ) ; jordan ; kenya ; kuwait ; lebanon ; macao ; malaysia ; mozambique ; myanmar ; oman ; pakistan ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; qatar ; saudi arabia ; singapore ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; sudan ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; united arab emirates ; viet nam ; yemen
e . coioides is so widely distributed that estimating overall population size , or changes in overall population size is near impossible . as a result little is known about the population . minimum population doubling time is 1 . 4–4 . 4 years ( fishbase 2003 ) .
adults are reef - associated ( fishbase 2003 ) and are often found in brackish water ( randall et . al . 1997 ) over mud and rubble ( kailola et . al . 1993 ) . juveniles are common in estuaries over sand , mud and gravel and among mangroves ( kailola et . al . 1993 ) . maximum age recorded is 22 years ( fishbase 2003 ) . females are mature at 25–30 cm total length ( 2–3 years old ) , sexual transition occurs at a length of 55–75 cm , and the major spawning period in the persian gulf is from march to june ( heemstra and randal 1993 ) . in the southern arabian gulf it is march to may ( grandcourt et . al . 2003 ) . in new caledonia spawning aggregations form in late october to early december ( m . kulbicki , pers . comm . 2004 ) .
overfishing and habitat destruction are the two most possible threats . habitat destruction includes that of coral reefs ( adult habitat ) ( burke et . al . 2002 , hodgson and liebeler 2002 ) and mangroves ( juvenile habitat along with estuaries ) . significant decreases in mangrove area are known to have occurred in se asia . in malaysia , 12 % was lost from 1980 to 1990 , in the philippines mangroves have decreased by 60 % ( 4 , 000 km² originally to 1 , 600 km² in 1997 ) , in viet nam mangroves decreased by 38 % ( 4 , 000 km² to 2 , 525 km² in 1997 ) , while in thailand the loss has been 54 % ( 5 , 500 km² in 1961 to 2 , 470 km² in 1997 ) ( spalding et . al . 1997 ) . these figures represent a loss of some 7 , 445 km² of mangroves ( about 9 % of the se asian total ) while other countries like indonesia , which has the largest total area of mangrove habitat in the world ( 42 , 550 km² ) are also known to have suffered losses ( spalding et . al . 1997 ) . such destruction of important habitat will have undoubtedly reduced populations of e . coiodes .
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shiu yl 1 , chiu kh 2 , huynh tg 3 , liu pc 4 , liu ch 5 .
department of aquaculture , national pingtung university of science and technology , pingtung , taiwan .
department of aquaculture , national pingtung university of science and technology , pingtung , taiwan ; college of aquaculture and fisheries , cantho university , cantho , vietnam .
department of aquaculture , national pingtung university of science and technology , pingtung , taiwan . electronic address : chliu @ mail . npust . edu . tw .
allen , gerry , 2000 . marine fishes of south - east asia : a field guide for anglers and divers . periplus editions . 292 pp .
kuiter , rudie h . 2002 . guide to sea fishes of australia : a comprehensive reference for divers & fishermen new holland publishers . 434pp .
according to shubhadeep ghosh , senior scientist at the vishakapatanam regional centre , the initial success in seed production was achieved in 2014 , but the survival rate of the larvae was very low . after manipulating water quality and feeding protocols , an enhanced survival rate was achieved .
the larvae are now in advanced stage with a size of around 3 cm after 42 days of rearing in the hatchery , and ready to be transferred for nursery rearing . later , the fingerlings can be used for mariculture in grow - out cages , he said .
major breakthrough stating that the initiative is a major breakthrough in the mariculture business , gopalakrishnan , cmfri director , said the success in seed production has raised hopes for mariculture of the fish using hatchery - produced seeds .
the development will widen the scope for mariculture , helping fish farmers carry out sea - cage culture of the species and opening a good business opportunity for farmers and exporters .
in most of the major landing centres , the fish fetches ₹400 - 450 / kg in the wholesale market . live fish in international markets fetch prices that are three to four times higher , said gopalakrishnan .
giving a fillip to fish production in the country , the central marine . . .
the central marine fisheries research institute ( cmfri ) is keen on boosting . . .
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they are carnivorous feeders and typically eat crustaceans , fishes and squids . fresh squids are commonly used offshore to target for large groupers while baitfish and prawns are more commonly used in along shores and reef areas . size of bait does matter when it comes to targeting large groupers . artificial lures , especially diving ones , work well along shores and reefs for hunting groupers .