catopsilia pomona , the common emigrant or lemon emigrant , is a medium-sized pierid butterfly found in asia and parts of australia .

the species gets its name from its habit of migration .

some early authors considered them as two distinct species catopsilia crocale and catopsilia pomona .

catopsilia pomona

female unmounted butterfly catopsilia pomona pomona ( fabricius ) f . pomona a1 - | ebay
female unmounted butterfly catopsilia pomona pomona ( fabricius ) f . catilla a1 | ebay
( 1 ) catopsilia pomona pomona fabricius , 1775 – oriental lemon emigrant . this is also known as the common emigrant .
247 catopsilia pomona stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .
a female catopsilia pomona of the crocale form feeding on lantana camara in semenyih , malaysia .
a female catopsilia pomona of the jugurtha form feeding on lantana camara , semenyih , malaysia .
catopsilia pomona , the common emigrant or lemon emigrant butterfly . / lemon emigrant butterfly on sand .
beautiful yellow butterfly , lemon emigrant ( catopsilia pomona ) in kaeng krachan national park , thailand .
entomologists considered catopsilia pomona and catopsilia crocale to be separate species , but it is now scientifically proven that both are forms of the same subspecies - c . pomona pomona . there are in fact at least 6 different colour forms or ' morphs ' .
a catopsilia pomona male hilaria form feeding on eupatorium odoratum flowers , batang kali , selangor , malaysia .
entomologists considered catopsilia pomona and catopsilia crocale to be separate species , but it is now scientifically proven that both are forms of the same subspecies - c . pomona pomona . there are in fact at least 6 different colour forms or
morphs
, 3 of which are illustrated here .
pre - pupatory larva of the common emigrant or lemon emigrant , catopsilia pomona , on the underside of a leaf .
male common lemon emigrant butterfly in bright green perching on green leaf in thailand . ( catopsilia pomona ) selective focus .
close up of lemon emigrant ( catopsilia pomona ) caterpillar feeding . . stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 31061558 .
a common emigrant or lemon emigrant butterfly , catopsilia pomona , after eclosion , with the pupal case in which it emerged in the background .
butterfly is drinking nectar from flower in sunny day . / lemon emigrant ( catopsilia pomona ) female perch on spicy jatropha ( jatropha integerrima )
close up of common emigrant or lemon emigrant ( catopsilia pomona ) . . stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 57928689 .
zhang l , zhou s , zhang y . catopsilia pomona seriously harm to plants of the genus cassia . plant protection . 2003 ; 1 .
catopsilia pomona is commonly found congregating on moist spots along jungle path and river bank . male hilaria form at pos brooke , kelantan , malaysia .
f . pomona , f . crocale , f , jugurtha , f . catilla
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
catopsilia pomona ( fabricius , 1775 )
.
the lemon emigrant
is a scientific name
catopsilia pomona
is a medium sized butterfly . the wingspan is 5 - 7 centimeters . there are 5 - 6 forms formed by the male . it is a lighter color than the female .
a mating pair of the lemon emigrant ( left : female - f pomona ; right : male - f alcmeone ) .
catopsilia pomona pomona or the lemon emigrant is one of the most common butterfly in peninsular malaysia . it occurs in the villages , sub - urban areas , and secondary and primary jungles at elevations up to 1000 m . it is named after the color of its wings and its habit of migration . it is found in several forms and at least 6 variants are recorded in malaysia .
caponpv infected catopsilia pomona larvae have been preserved in the ‘‘chinese general virus collection center” ( cgvcc ) with collection number ivcas 1 . 0228 . obs were purified from homogenized larvae by differential centrifugation [ 46 ] and dna was extracted as described previously [ 47 ] .
saji , k . 2018 . catopsilia pomona fabricius , 1775 – lemon emigrant . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) . butterflies of india , v . 2 . 38 . indian foundation for butterflies . urltoken
butterfly biodata : genus : catopsilia hübner , 1819 species : pomona linnaeus , 1775 subspecies : pomona linnaeus , 1775 wingspan of adult butterfly : 50 - 70mm caterpillar local host plants : senna fistula ( fabaceae , common name : golden shower ) , senna siamea ( fabaceae , common name : kassod tree , siamese cassia ) , senna alata ( fabaceae , common name : seven golden candlesticks ) .
there are 6 species in the genus catopsilia , including gorgophone from australia , thauruma from madagascar ; pyranthe and scylla from the oriental region ; and florella which is found all across africa and also in india , myanmar , thailand and east to china . catopsilia pomona is distributed from sikkim to malaysia , east to the philippines , and south through the islands of the south pacific to australia , where it is very widespread .
citation : wang j , zhu z , zhang l , hou d , wang m , arif b , et al . ( 2016 ) genome sequencing and analysis of catopsilia pomona nucleopolyhedrovirus : a distinct species in group i alphabaculovirus . plos one 11 ( 5 ) : e0155134 . urltoken
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . catopsilia pomona ( fabricius , 1775 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .
the underside of the wings of the female pomona form is lemon yellow in color and has red spots , and the antennae is red .
catopsilia pomona ( lepidoptera : pieridae ) is distributed in asia and australia . in mainland china , it is present mainly in the provinces of hainan , guangdong , guangxi , yunnan , and fujian . it is harmful to kassod tree , wing - podded senna , golden shower , pockwood and other tropical plants [ 14 ] . larvae feed on young leaves and during outbreaks , the trees are stripped of foliage totally . in hainan province , the insect has 13–14 generations a year , causing damage all year round [ 15 ] . caponpv was isolated from dead catopsilia pomona larvae in hainan in 1990 [ 15 ] .
yang m , lin y , liang s , yuan a , sun f . preliminary study on catopsilia pomana npv . forest research . 1993 ; 6 ( 2 ) .
there are 6 catopsilia species : gorgophone from australia , thauruma from madagascar ; pyranthe and scylla from the oriental region ; florella which is found across africa and most of the oriental region ; and pomona , which is distributed from sikkim to malaysia , east to the philippines and south through the islands of the south pacific to australia .
the ' pomona ' group is characterized by having the upperside of antennae red and the presence of red - ringed silvery spots at cell - ends on the underside . the male - f hilaria has similar upperside as the male - f alcmeone but with lesser extent of basal yellow area . the females could appear in the pomona , catilla or the nivescens form . the - f pomona has yellow wings with reduced black border and markings while - f nivescens is similar but with whitish wings . the - f catilla has large reddish patches on the underside .
the various ' pomona ' forms all have a pair of silvery spots on the underside , in the cell of the hind wing , and often have dark patches , these being most pronounced in f . catilla . on the upper surface the wings are whitish with a deep yellow flush in the basal area ( f . hilaria ) , or plain creamy white in other pomona forms
lemon emigrant is a large , strong - flying , migratory species exhibiting a marked sexual and seasonal dimorphism . there are two groups of forms , namely the ' crocale ' group and the ' pomona ' group :
there are 6 species in the genus catopsilia , including gorgophone from australia , thauruma from madagascar ; pyranthe and scylla from the oriental region ; and florella which is found all across africa and also in india , myanmar , thailand and east to china .
larval host plants of c . pomona : apocynaceae : carissa spinarum : fabaceae : bauhinia racemosa , butea monosperma , cassia fistula , c . javanica , c . renigera , c . roxburghii , senna occidentalis , s . siamea , s . tora
the most widespread members of the genus are pomona and pyranthe , both of which are found from india and sri lanka to malaysia , east to the philippines , and south through borneo , sulawesi , java , bali , timor and new guinea , to northern australia .
the lemon emigrant is represented by at least 6 different ' forms ' in the region - the ' crocale ' forms with the antennae black above and the ' pomona ' forms with the antennae red above . the males has narrow black markings on the forewings above , and unmarked on the undersides .
lemon emigrant comes in a number of forms for both sexes , but generally they are moderately large with wing upperside appearing in either white or yellow and black - bordered on the costa and termen of the forewing . there are two groups of forms ; namely the ' crocale ' group and the ' pomona ' group .
on : papilio pomona fabricius , 1775 od : syst . ent . : 479 . tl :
nova hollandia
distribution : sri lanka , india to myanmar , thailand , laos , cambodia , vietnam , hainan , china , formosa , langkawi , w . malaysia , tioman , singapore , sumatra , java , borneo , palawan , philippines .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
gaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hernández
records of caterpillar hostplants are scattered through published and manuscript sources worldwide and are difficult to retrieve . many rearing records are never published and so are not accessible to other entomologists . but collected hostplant records form a valuable scientific resource that can be used eventually to answer broader biological questions about how lepidoptera and plants interact ( eg , letourneau , hagen & robinson , 2001 ) . it provides information of immediate relevance to agriculture , ecology , forestry , conservation and taxonomy .
hosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .
we hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .
hosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .
in text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .
restrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .
hint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .
drill - down search mode allows the user to home in from the starting - point of either the lepidoptera or the plant family . choose a family group from the drop - down box and allow time for all genera of that family in the database to load to the genus drop - down box ; choose a genus and wait for the species to load . the search button can be pressed at any time , but the record delivery limit may be exceeded at higher taxonomic levels . drill - down search allows the user to see by scrolling all the taxa that are represented in the database . following the previous example , choose nymphalidae , then choose vanessa from the genus drop - down box and then atalanta from the ten possible species of vanessa included in hosts .
the preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .
leguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .
detailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]
we are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .
we are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .
marian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .
we are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .
we thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .
robinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hernández , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .
brummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .
kartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .
kitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .
kitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .
letourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .
mabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]
nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .
nye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .
rawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .
robinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .
scoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .
royal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /
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london : taylor and francis ; calcutta and simla , thacker , spink , & co . ; [ etc . , etc . ]
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fabricius , 1775 – lemon emigrant . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .
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the ' crocale ' forms have wings that are unmarked on the underside . the uppersides of both forms have thin black apical borders in males , while females have a broad dark apical area within which are several pale squarish spots . the ' crocale ' and ' catilla ' forms are both widespread . the various colour forms are seasonal - caused by variations in day - length during the larval stage , but it is quite possible to see ' catilla ' and ' crocale ' side by side at certain times of year .
this species is ubiquitous , being found throughout the year in open areas in secondary forest , along river courses , on open grassland , and even in deserts .
the tall elliptical eggs are yellow and vertically ribbed . they are laid singly or in small batches on the foodplants .
the caterpillar when fully grown produces 2 morphs , one being yellowish green peppered with tiny black dots , and the other being pale yellowish brown . both forms have a broad black stripe along the side , below which is a slightly narrower cream stripe . it feeds diurnally on many trees , shrubs and herbaceous plants in the
leguminosae ( fabaceae ) , favouring cassia but also using butea , bauhinia , pterocarpus , senna and sesbania .
the chrysalis is of the typical pierid shape , pale green in colour , with a thin yellow line along the sides and a blue - green line along the back . it is attached by the cremaster and a silken girdle to the underside of a leaf , or to a stem .
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stripe , and has a pale green head with black dots . the foodplants of this caterpillar are various species in the family
the caterpillar usually rests lying along the midrib of a leaf , making it very difficult to see . the pupa is also hard to see , as it closely resembles a leaf . it is green with a pointed head , and often attached upright to a stem of the foodplant by cremaster and girdle .
the adults have a wingspan up to 6 cms . the wings of the male are white with black wingtips , and a yellow blush toward the hinges .
the eggs are pale yellow and barrel - shaped with ribs . they are laid singly on leaflets of a foodplant .
csiro publishing , melbourne 2000 , vol . 1 , pp . 291 - 293 .
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copyright : © 2016 wang et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : this work was supported by the strategic priority research program of the chinese academy of sciences ( grant no . xdb11030400 ) to zh , and by grants from the national science foundation of china ( no . 31321001 and 31130058 ) to zh . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
members of the family baculoviridae are rod - shaped , insect - specific viruses with double - stranded large circular dna genomes of 80–180 kb [ 1 , 2 ] . lepidopteran baculoviruses synthesize two progeny phenotypes , the budded virus ( bv ) and occlusion - derived virus ( odv ) . virus particles of the latter phenotype are embedded into occlusion bodies ( obs ) [ 3 ] , which offer some protection against environmental inactivating conditions such as uv light , heat and desiccation .
baculoviridae contains four genera : alphabaculovirus [ nucleopolyhedroviruses ( npvs ) of lepidopteran insects ] , betabaculovirus [ granuloviruses ( gvs ) of lepidoptera ] , gammabaculovirus ( npvs of hymenoptera ) and deltabaculovirus ( npvs of diptera ) [ 4 , 5 ] . the alphabaculoviruses can be further divided into group i and group ii , based on phylogenetic analysis and their membrane fusion proteins . group i viruses use gp64 as the fusion protein while group ii viruses use f - protein instead [ 6 – 8 ] . phylogeny analysis suggested that group i fall into two clades , “a” and “b” [ 9 ] . despite the diversity in gene content of baculovirus genomes , 37 have been identified as core genes present in all sequenced baculoviral genomes and play very important roles in the viral replication cycle [ 10 ] . in addition , there are 23 genes conserved in all sequenced lepidopteran baculoviruses ( npvs and gvs ) and 11 are specific to group i [ 10 – 13 ] .
so far , 78 baculoviruses have been fully sequenced , including 19 group i alphabaculoviruses , 35 group ii alphabaculoviruses , 20 betabaculoviruses , 3 gammabaculoviruses and 1 deltabaculovirus ( urltoken , and s1 table ) . in this study , the complete genomic sequence of caponpv was determined and analyzed . phylogenetic analysis suggested that this virus is a distinct species in group i alphabaculovirus .
orfs and direction of transcription are indicated by arrows . the colors represent gene types : red for core genes , blue for lepidopteran conserved genes , green for group i specific genes , grey for other baculoviral genes . open arrows represent hypothetical unique genes of caponpv . hr s are represented by pink square boxes . the collinear region conserved in lepidopteran baculoviruses is also indicated .
phylogenetic analysis was performed using amino acid sequence alignments of the combined 37 core genes from 79 sequenced baculoviruses with maximum likelihood method . it is tested by bootstrap method with a value of 1000 . numbers at nodes indicate bootstrap scores , only the value > 50 % are shown . caponpv is highlighted in bold .
caponpv genes were compared to homologues in 7 other well characterized baculoviruses ; autographa californica mnpv ( acmnpv , belonging to group i , clade “a” ) , orgyia pseudotsugata mnpv , ( opmnpv , group i , clade “b” ) , helicoverpa armigera npv ( hearnpv , group ii ) , spodoptera exigua mnpv ( semnpv , group ii ) , cydia pomonella gv ( cpgv , a betabaculovirus ) , neodiprion lecontei npv ( nelenpv , a gammabaculovirus ) and culex nigripalpus npv ( cuninpv , a deltabaculovirus ) ( s2 table ) . most of the caponpv genes shared nt identity lower than 63 % with the alphabaculoviruses and lower than 35 % with that of beta - , gamma - and deltabaculoviruses ( s2 table ) .
gene parity plots of caponpv against representative baculoviruses : acmnpv ( group i clade “a” ) , opmnpv ( group i clade “b” ) ; hearnpv ( group ii ) ; cpgv ( a betabaculovirus ) , nelenpv ( a gammabaculovirus ) and cuninpv ( a deltabaculovirus ) . caponpv orfs are on the x axis . the red line and arrow point to the collinearly conserved region .
black background shows greater than 80 % identity among compared regions , dark gray and light gray shows greater than 50 % and 30 % identity , respectively . palindromes are indicated below the alignments .
caponpv contains 12 replication associated genes , 12 transcription associated genes , 8 genes essential for oral infection , 34 structure related genes and 15 auxiliary genes ( table 1 ) . the rest are 45 of unknown function including 4 hypothetical unique genes of caponpv .
fgf plays an important role in developmental processes affecting cell growth , differentiation , and motility and is one of the conserved proteins in vertebrates and invertebrates [ 23 ] . lepidopteran baculoviruses also encode fgf , and it was previously found conserved in all the lepidopteran baculoviruses [ 9 ] except in maruca vitrata nucleopolyhedrovirus ( mavinpv ) [ 12 ] . although deletion of fgf from acmnpv had no effect on replication in tissue culture cells , bioassays showed that time of death in larvae was delayed [ 24 ] . it has been suggested that fgf may play a role in dissemination of the virus within the host insect [ 25 ] . recent evidence suggests that fgf initiates a cascade of events that may accelerate the establishment of systemic infections [ 26 ] . in our study , fgf was not found in the caponpv genome .
in the previous report , 11 genes ( gp64 , tyrosine phosphatase gene ( ptp ) , ie2 , odv - e26 , ac5 , ac30 , ac73 , ac72 , ac114 , ac124 , ac132 ) have been identified as specific to group i viruses and are absent from all other baculoviruses [ 13 ] . these genes might have had an evolutionary role in the emergence of group i viruses [ 13 , 27 ] . notably absent from caponpv is a homologue to ac30 . this gene seems to be nonessential because deletion thereof did not affect the production of bmnpv [ 28 ] . interestingly , cyunnpv , a member of group i also lacks ac30 ( data not shown ) .
caponpv lacks odv - e66 , a structure protein of odv involved in oral infection .
odv - e66 was identified as a component of odv envelopes [ 32 ] . acmnpv odv - e66 was shown to have chondroitinase activity [ 33 ] and its crystal structure was determined [ 34 ] . it was suggested that odv - e66 may function in midgut infection by degrading the peritrophic membrane , which contains a low level of chondroitin sulfate [ 33 ] . in fact deletion of odv - e66 in acmnpv increased the oral infection dose about 1000 times while did not changed the infectivity of bv , suggesting odv - e66 is an important oral infectivity factor [ 35 ] . odv - e66 is present in most alphabaculoviruses and betabaculoviruses , however , it was not found in caponpv genome .
a characteristic feature of group i viruses is the presence of gp64 and the loss of fusion function of f . except for gammabaculoviruses and group i viruses , the f protein functions as the envelope fusion protein of bv . in acmnpv , the f - like protein is also associated with bv membranes and its deletion from the genome results in infectious virus with titers similar to the parental virus in cell cultures , but the time to kill larvae is somewhat extended [ 36 ] .
previous studies showed the importance of the furin cleavage site in the fusion process . furin protease digests f into two components , a small n - terminus membrane - anchored f2 and a large domain f1 at the c - terminus . both are needed for viral - host membrane fusion [ 7 , 37 ] . the f - like protein in group i viruses lacks the furin cleavage site and , therefore , lost its fusion function . instead , gp64 functions as an efficient envelope fusion protein [ 38 – 40 ] .
in our study on f - like protein in caponpv , an insertion was found in the region equivalent to the fusion peptide ( fig 5 ) . we also found another stretch of amino acids are inserted ahead of the pre - transmembrane domain ( pre - tm ) of caponpv ( fig 5 ) . sometimes , pre - tm domain , which is rich in aromatic amino acids , plays an important role in membrane fusion [ 41 – 44 ] . similar insertions into the fusion peptide region and the pre - tm were also found in cyunnpv ( data not shown ) .
according to phylogeny ( fig 2 ) , caponpv evolved relatively earlier than other group i alphabaculoviruses . thysanoplusia orichalcea nucleopolyhedrovirus ( thornpv ) , another relatively early member of group i ( fig 2 ) also has an insertion at the fusion peptide region ( fig 5 ) . the change of viral fusion ability mediated by the presence of gp64 and the inactivation of f are considered critical events in the origination of group i [ 13 ] . our results provide new evidence in the understanding of the process of f inactivation and , therefore , the early evolutionary events of group i alphabaculoviruses .
the genome of caponpv was sequenced with the roche 454 gs flx + system by using a shotgun strategy . the determined nucleotide sequences were assembled with gs de novo assembler software version 2 . 7 . the complete genome sequence and annotation information were submitted to genbank ( accession number : ku565883 ) .
putative orfs were analyzed using the fgenesv0 program ( urltoken ) [ 48 ] and the ncbi orf finder ( urltoken ) . orfs potentially encoding more than 50 amino acids were designated as putative genes with minimal overlaps . gene parity plot analysis was performed as previously described [ 17 , 49 ] . the tandem repeats finder ( urltoken ) was used to locate hr s . gene annotation , comparisons were done with the aid of ncbi blast algorithm ( urltoken ) .
a phylogenetic tree was generated based on amino acid sequences encoded by the 37 core genes from caponpv and that of the other 79 reference genome sequences of baculoviruses in ncbi ( s1 table ) . all the sequences were joined together in the same order and the alignments were generated using muscle method of mega6 with default settings . a phylogenetic tree was constructed by mega6 using maximum likelihood method based on the jtt matrix - based model [ – 50 ] . phylogeny tested by bootstrap method with a value of 1000 [ 51 ] .
the authors thank the 454 services from the core facility center of wuhan institute of virology . this work was supported by the strategic priority research program of the chinese academy of sciences ( grant no . xdb11030400 ) to zh , and by grants from the national science foundation of china ( no . 31321001 and 31130058 ) to zh .
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the ' crocale ' group is characterized by having the upperside of antennae black , and the absence of silvery spots at cell - ends on the underside . the male - f alcmeone is mostly white above but yellow in the basal third of the wings and thinly bordered at the forewing apex . the females could appear in the jugurtha or the crocale form . the - f jugurtha is creamy white above with yellow wing base and black border on the forewing costa and termen of both wings . it has a series of black submarginal markings and a black spot at cell - end on the forewing . the - f crocale has a broad black distal border with a series of whitish spots embedded on both wings .
the lemon emigrant is a common butterfly in singapore . the fast flying adults can be found all over the island , at places such as the nature reserves , urban gardens , wastelands and housing estates . as with the other catopsillia spp . , the adults have the habit of visiting flowers and puddling on damp grounds .
across the region , the lemon emigrant is known to utilize a number of host plants of the senna genus . the most commonly utilized host plant in singapore is the golden shower ( senna fistula ) . this plant is commonly cultivated across singapore in gardens , parks , park connectors and even on the divider along major expressways . the caterpillars of the lemon emigrant feed on the relatively young leaves of the host plant .
the eggs of the lemon emigrant are typically laid singly on the upperside of a leaf of the host plant . at times , more than one egg can be found on the same leaflet . the long spindle shaped egg is laid standing at one end with a length of about 1 . 4 - 1 . 5mm . it is white in color with vertical ridges and numerous indistinct and intermittent horizontal ridge lines . the micropylar sits at the tip of the standing egg .
a mother lemon emigrant laying an egg on senna alata . left : in the act of depositing an egg . right : egg deposited and visible .
the egg takes about 2 days to hatch . the newly hatched has a length of about 2 - 2 . 2mm . it has a white head capsule bearing several short setae . its body is creamy white with a yellowish tint and featuring dorsal , dorso - lateral and lateral rows of small tubercles running lengthwise . each tubercle has a short seta emerging from the middle of it .
after hatching , the young caterpillar proceeds to devour the remnant of the egg shell . the leaf diet will soon follow , and with that the body turns yellowish green . the growth is fast paced and the body length reaches about 4 . 5mm in this 1st instar which lasts about 1 - 1 . 5 days before the moult .
two views of a 1st instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 4 . 5mm .
the 2nd instar caterpillar is yellowish green on all body segments and the head . the body is covered in rings ( about five for each body segment ) of numerous small dark tubercles from which very short setae emerge . the head capsule also features numerous similar tubercles . a whitish lateral band spanning the spiracles makes its debut in this instar . the 2nd instar lasts about 1 - 1 . 5 days with the body length reaching about 9mm .
two view of a 2nd instar caterpillar , early in this stage , length : 4 . 8mm .
two views of a late 2nd instar caterpillar , dormant prior to its moult , length : 8 . 8mm .
the 3rd instar caterpillar resembles the 2nd instar caterpillar closely . this instar takes about 1 - 1 . 5 days to complete with body length reaching about 16mm .
two view of a 3rd instar caterpillar , newly moulted , length : 8 . 6mm .
two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 16mm .
two views of a late 3rd instar caterpillar , dormant prior to its moult , length : 15 . 2mm .
in the 4th instar caterpillar , the whitish lateral band has a thin yellowish band lying above . furthermore , above this yellowish band , some of the black tubercles come in much larger size than those further away , giving an impression of a black border to the whitish band . the thickness of this black border varies from specimen to specimen . this penultimate instar lasts 1 . 5 - 2 days with body length reaching about 23 - 26mm .
two views of a 4th instar caterpillar , early in this stage , length : 16mm .