elachista subalbidella is a moth of the elachistidae family .

it is found from fennoscandia and northern russia to italy and greece and from ireland to romania .

it is also found in north america ( british columbia , manitoba , nova scotia , ontario , quebec , yukon , ohio , pennsylvania and south dakota ) .

the wingspan is 10 – 13 millimetres ( 0.39 – 0.51 in ) .

adults are on wing in june .

the larvae mainly feed on molinia caerulea , but have also been recorded on arrhenatherum , brachypodium pinnatum , brachypodium sylvaticum , calamagrostis arundinacea , diarrhena americana , carex , melica and poa .

they create a long narrow mine in the blade .

elachista subalbidella

elachista subalbidella ( buff dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
elachista subalbidella schlager , 1847 is now recognized within the north american fauna . includes as a synonym elachista hiberna braun , 1948 [ 1098 ] .
home » guide » arthropods ( arthropoda ) » hexapods ( hexapoda ) » insects ( insecta ) » butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) » twirler moths and kin ( gelechioidea ) » grass miner moths ( elachistidae ) » elachistinae » elachista » argentella species group ( elachista argentella species group ) » elachista subalbidella - hodges # 1098 . 1 ( elachista subalbidella )
elachista subalbidella schlager , 1847 is now recognized within the north american fauna . e . hiberna , recognized as distinct in hodges ( 1983 ) has been synonymized .
society of kentucky lepidopterists - species account with collection records . ( as elachista hiberna )
kaila , l . , 1997 . a revision of the nearctic species of elachista s . l . ii . the argentella group ( lepidoptera , elachistidae ) . acta zoologica fennica 206 : 1 - 93 .
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the species is widely distributed on moors and heaths over much of britain , where the adults tend to fly during june .
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recorded in 1 ( 1 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 1874 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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mine fairly translucent . it starts as a narrow corridor , running towards the leaf tip , but this almost invariably is overrun be a later , broad , descending corridor . the centre of the mine contains a vertical tube made of loose silk , in which the larva can quickly move up or down , and in which also most frass gets trapped . the sides of the mine are smooth ( contrary to e . gangabella ) . mines are difficult to find , because the leaves are wilting when larvae are present ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
larva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .
dark olive green ( greyish black while hibernating ) . head and prothoracic plate black . each thorax segment dorsally with a pair of roundish or crescent shaped light spots ( steuer , 1973a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
pupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .
see patocka ( 1999a ) , patocka and turcani ( 2005a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
adult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths . the species is included in urltoken .
larvae in autumn ; in october they are full grown , but they leave their mine only just before pupation , in early spring ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
time of year - adults : the adults tend to fly during june ( ukmoths ) .
distribution in great britain and ireland : widely distributed on moors and heaths over much of britain ( ukmoths ) including caernarvonshire , glamorgan , merionethshire , monmouthshire , north ebudes , pembrokeshire , shropshire , south wiltshire , stafford and westmorland ( nbn atlas ) .
also recorded in the republic of ireland and northern ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) . see also ireland ' s nbdc interactive map .
distribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe incuding austria , belgium , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , finland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , italian mainland , latvia , lithuania , norwegian mainland , poland , romania , russia central , north and northwest , slovakia , sweden , switzerland and the netherlands ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .
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holarctic ; in north america , recorded from bc , mb , ns , on , pq .
braun , a . f . , 1948 . elachistidae of north america ( microlepodoptera ) . memoirs of the american entomological society no . 13 . p . 52 .
contributed by maury j . heiman on 13 january , 2011 - 10 : 38am additional contributions by ceiseman last updated 19 august , 2014 - 6 : 36pm
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kaila , l . 1999a . phylogeny and classification of the elachistidae . systematic entomology 24 : 139 - 169 .
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neolamprologus schreyeni is a species of cichlid endemic to lake tanganyika where it is only known from along the burundi coast , inhabiting crevices .

this species reaches a length of 5 centimetres ( 2.0 in ) tl .

neolamprologus schreyeni

an adult of neolamprologus schreyeni at magara , lake tanganyika [ burundi ] . photo by ad konings . determiner ad konings
conservation : neolamprologus schreyeni is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( vu ) vulnerable ( 2006 ) .
neolamprologus schreyeni lives inside deep rock crevices and is rarely , if ever , seen in the open . it produces about 20 fry in each batch and they are watched over by both parents . the nests appear to be very narrow slit in the rocks , out of reach of any other fish except young mastacembelid eels or telmatochromis bifrenatus .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
greek , neos = new + greek , lampros = torch + greek , lagos = hare ( ref . 45335 )
africa : endemic to lake tanganyika , only observed along the coast of burundi , but may have a wider distribution ( ref . 46829 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5667 )
shy , rock - dwelling species , living deep inside rock crevices ; never seen in the open ; spend all of their time hiding ( ref . 6770 ) . usually found at levels deeper than 20 m ( ref . 46829 ) . lives in the crevices of the sediment - rich rocky biotope ; its enlarged molar - shaped teeth indicate a diet of hard substances ( ref . 7343 ) .
brichard , p . , 1989 . pierre brichard ' s book of cichlids and all the other fishes of lake tanganyika . t . f . h . publications , inc . 544 p . ( ref . 6770 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
pronunciation : refer to our pronunciation key for an explanation of the phonetic symbols .
habitat : this is the primary location where the cichlid is found and is a generalization . this does not mean a fish cannot be found in other habitats .
diet : many cichlids specialize in eating one type of food ; notwithstanding , some of these specialized feeders are flexible and can be opportunistic feeders .
temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tankmates that are of a different species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to various factors , including aquarium size , tankmates of similar appearance , stocking levels , and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .
conspecific temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tank - mates of the same species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to such factors as aquarium size , stocking levels and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .
maximum size : this is in regards to total length ( including the tail ) of typical aquarium specimens . wild specimens may not attain this size , or may in fact grow larger than aquarium raised individuals due to various factors . also consider that this is the typical maximum size and there are exceptional individuals that will exceed it .
difficulty : this measure is a relative value , comparing a single species against all other cichlids . this only accounts for maintanence in the aquarium and not breeding considerations . 1 = easy and forgiving , 5 = extremely challenging .
snoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )
justification : endemic to lake tanganyika where its ' known distribution is restricted to a short length of the littoral zone along the burundi east coast . this area is vulnerable to sedimentation following ongoing deforestation in the area .
endemic to lake tanganyika where it is only known from the eastern shores of burundi .
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pam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !
articles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .
books for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .
e - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .
trade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .
poll , max . 1974 .
contribution à la faune ichthyologique du lac tanganika , d ' après les récoltes de p . brichard
. bulletin de l ' institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique . v . 88 ( 1 ) : pp . 99 - 110 ( crc00134 )
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pentaceros richardsoni , the pelagic armorhead , richardson 's boarfish or southern boarfish , is a species of armorhead native to the southeastern atlantic ocean to the western indian ocean from tristan de cunha to the coast of south africa and from the southern pacific ocean from australia to chile .

it occurs over the continental shelf and the continental slope at depths from near the surface to 1,000 m ( 3,300 ft ) .

this species can reach a length of 56 cm ( 22 in ) .

it is commercially important as a food fish .

pentaceros richardsoni

note on the pelagic armorhead , pentaceros richardsoni , in the north pacific .
note on the pelagic armorhead , pentaceros richardsoni , in the north pacific . [ 1974 ]
› nelson ' s boarfish › pentaceros richardsoni smith , 1844 › pseudopentaceros richardsoni ( smith , 1844 ) › richardson . s boarfish › pelagic armourhead › southern boarfish
a pelagic armourhead , pentaceros richardsoni , from seamounts in the tasman sea . source : robin mcphee / norfanz founding parties . license : all rights reserved
pentaceros richardsoni smith , 1844 , illustr . zool . sth . africa : unnumbered , pl . 21 . type locality : near cape point , south africa .
the pelagic armourhead was , until recently called pseudopentaceros richardsoni . kim ( 2012 ) in a study examining osteological and myological ( muscle ) characters , concluded that the genus pseudopentaceros is a junior synonym of pentaceros .
martin f . gomon & dianne j . bray , pseudopentaceros richardsoni in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken
other species likely to be straddling out on the north pacific shelf and slope are the cephalopods ( onychoteuthys borealjaponica and gonatopsis borealis ) , the pacific ocean perch ( sebastes alutus ) already overfished in the 1960s ( chikuni , 1985 ) , the pelagic armorhead ( pentaceros richardsoni ) and the alfonsin ( beryx splendens ) .
( of pentaceros knerii steindachner , 1866 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ty - jour ti - relationships of the percoid fish pentaceros richardsoni smith , with description of a specimen from the coast of california t2 - proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 4th series . vl - 32 ur - urltoken pb - california academy of sciences . cy - san francisco , py - 1963 sp - 315 ep - 338 sn - 0068 - 547x au - follett , w i au - dempster , l j er -
although pentaceros richardsoni smith 1844 (
pelagic armorhead
) was included in robins et al . ( 1980 ) , it was dropped from the 1991 north american list , and added to the 1991
world fishes of importance to north americans .
it was there noted that
this species was erroneously included in the previous north american list ( afs spec . publ . 12 ) based on north pacific records subsequently referred to the longfin armorhead p . pectoralis ( hardy , 1983 )
@ article { bhlpart52833 , title = { relationships of the percoid fish pentaceros richardsoni smith , with description of a specimen from the coast of california } , journal = { proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 4th series . } , volume = { 32 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { san francisco , california academy of sciences . } , author = { follett , w i and dempster , l j } , year = { 1963 } , pages = { 315 - - 338 } , }
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greek , pente = five + greek , keras = horn ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; pelagic - oceanic ; depth range 0 - 1000 m ( ref . 75886 ) . temperate ; 23°s - 56°s , 68°w - 174°w
southeast atlantic : tristan de cunha and south africa . western indian ocean : south africa . south pacific : southern australia and new zealand and cape horn , chile . north pacific records refers to pectoralis ( ref . 4537 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 56 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5449 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 14 - 15 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 10 ; anal spines : 4 - 5 ; anal soft rays : 7 - 8 . head and body bluish above , pale below .
have been trawled on the continental shelf and slope ; juveniles recorded from surface waters ( ref . 9563 ) . depth range reported at 0m - 600m in ref . 5449 .
heemstra , p . c . , 1986 . pentacerotidae . p . 622 - 623 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 5449 )
) : 6 . 8 - 16 . 7 , mean 11 . 6 ( based on 217 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5157 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 ±0 . 37 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tm = 4 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 44 of 100 ) .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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a large dark iridescent steely blue boarfish becoming silvery - grey to greyish - green on the sides and below , with exposed finely sculptured head bones . juveniles have the upper body variously marbled with pale lines , spots and blotches .
ne of newcastle , new south wales , southwards around tasmania to sw of beachport , south australia , and west of cape leeuwin to w of geraldton , western australia ; also on the norfolk ridge in aus eez . elsewhere the species is circumglobal in temperate waters of the southern hemisphere - often around seamounts , ridges and rises .
dorsal fin xiv - xv , 8 - 9 ; anal fin iv - v , 7 - 8 ; caudal fin 15 - 18 ; pectoral fin 17 - 18 ; pelvic fin i , 5 ; lateral line 70 - 89 . body moderately deep ( 38 - 45 % sl ) , sides compressed , only slightly rounded ; dorsal profile moderately rounded . head of moderate size ( 29 - 36 % sl ) , predominantly covered with rough , striated bones ; snout straight but becoming anteriorly rounded and bulbous in large adults ; eyes of moderate size ; mouth small , slightly angled upwards ; teeth of both jaws very short , slightly curved , set in narrow bands anteriorly , becoming more narrow along sides ; vomer toothed . scales small , ctenoid , rough and in form of small interlocking , polygonal plates on throat and belly , covering body and head ; lateral line high on sides , following dorsal profile of body . dorsal fin continuous with long base , spines increasing in length and strength to fourth spine and subsequently decreasing in stature ; anterior soft dorsal rays slightly longer than posteriormost dorsal fin spine , edge of soft dorsal rounded ; anal fin with short base , opposite and similar soft portion of dorsal fin ; spine strong ; caudal fin slightly emarginate . pectoral fins moderately elongate , upper rays much longer than lower . pelvic fins large , spine strong .
steel blue to greyish - green , lower surface paler ; pectoral and caudal fins dark , pelvic fins pale . upper body in juveniles variously marbled with pale lines and spots .
andrew , t . g . , hecht , t . , heemstra , p . c . & lutjeharms , j . r . e . 1995 . fishes of the tristan da cunha group and gough island , south atlantic ocean .
gomon , m . f . 2008 . families enoplosidae and pentacerotidae . pp . 609 - 617 in gomon , m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .
hardy , g . s . 1983 . a revision of the fishes of the family pentacerotidae ( perciformes ) .
hardy , g . s . 1994 . family pentacerotidae . pp . 629 - 636 , figs 553 - 559 in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .
kim , s . - y . 2012 . phylogenetic systematics of the family pentacerotidae ( actinopterygii : order perciformes ) .
illustrations of the zoology of south africa ; consisting chiefly of figures and descriptions of the objects of natural history collected during an expedition into the interior of south africa , in the years 1834 , 1835 and 1836 . pisces
. london : smith , elder & co . vol . 4 83 pp . 31 pls . [ bound 1849 , published from 1838 to 1847 ]
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robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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chinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken
fao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .
grabda , e . and t . heese ( 1991 ) polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . : wyzsza szkola inzynierska w koszalinie . koszalin , poland . 171 p . ( in polish ) .
heemstra , p . c . ( 1986 ) pentacerotidae . : p . 622 - 623 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin .
hoese , d . f . , d . j . bray , j . r . paxton and g . r . allen ( 2006 ) fishes . : in beasley , o . l . and a . wells ( eds . ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . 2 australia : abrs & csiro publishing , 1472 p .
kim , s . - y . ( 2012 ) phylogenetic systematics of the family pentacerotidae ( actinopterygii : order perciformes ) . : zootaxa 3366 : 1 - 111 .
may , j . l . and j . g . h . maxwell ( 1986 ) trawl fish from temperate waters of australia . : csiro division of fisheries research , tasmania . 492 p .
ministry of fisheries ( 2011 ) mfish approved species codes - table 1 - 4 . : urltoken
misselis , c . ( 2015 ) la biodiversité du pélagos et du benthos profond dans l ' archipel des australes . : p . 69 - 79 salvat , b . ; bambridge , t . ; tanret , d . ; petit , j . 2015 environnement marin des îles australes , polynésie française . institut récifs coralliens pacifique , criobe et the pew charitable trusts polynésie française . polynésie française , tahiti , p . 342 .
robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott ( 1991 ) world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . : am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 21 ) : 243 p .
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . , 1991 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , fifth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 20 . 183 .
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . , 1991 : world fishes important to north americans exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . american fisheries society special publication , no . 21 . 243 .
uchida , r . n . ( 1983 ) summary of environmental and fishing information on guam and the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands : a review of the plankton communities and fishery resources . : noaa - tm - nmfs - swfc - 33 , 159 p .
wu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .
biodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to… urltoken
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far seas fisheries research lab . , shimizu , shizuoka ( japan ) [ corporate author ]
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map 9 : distribution of neritic squids ( from garcia and majkowski , 1992 . reproduced by courtesy of the law of the sea institute , univ . hawaii )
map 10a : distribution of oceanic squids ( from garcia and majkowski , 1992 . reproduced by courtesy of the law of the sea institute , univ . hawaii )
map 10b : distribution of oceanic squids ( continued ) ( from garcia and majkowski , 1992 . reproduced by courtesy of the law of the sea institute , univ . hawaii )
a more complete analysis of the potential offered by oceanic squids is given in garcia and majkowski ( 1992 ) from which the following information is drawn . juveniles of oceanic squids are exploited mainly by set - nets and seines on the shelf , while feeding adults are exploited by jigging vessels ( and , in the past , by large - scale pelagic driftnets ) mainly in the north pacific and the southwest atlantic . catches of squids increased from 745 000 t in the early 1970s to about 2 million t in the late 1980s and early 1990s . catches of oceanic squids ( ommastrephidae ) have oscillated between 250 000 and 460 000 t during the same period .
while knowledge on neritic squids has improved since the first review of world resources potential by fao ( gulland , 1971 ) , that on oceanic squids outside the pacific remains very scanty even for the major ommastrephidae . very rough speculations ( gulland , 1971 ) indicated that potential of oceanic squids would reach “a few million tons but not so much as 100 million tons” . the following table ( from garcia and majkowski , 1992 ) summarizes the situation by major species and ocean region .
1 ) okutani , 1977 ; 2 ) voss , 1973 ; 3 ) jefferts , 1986 ; 4 ) roper et al . , 1984 ; 5 ) zuev and gutsal , 1990 ; 6 ) zuev et al . , 1990 ; 7 ) klumov and yukhov , 1975 ; 8 ) gulland , 1971 .
most of these figures should be taken with caution but they indicate that there is a large potential if fishing can be economically developed . the status of these resources is not very well known . symplectoteuthis oualaniensis in the central eastern pacific is very lightly exploited and the indian ocean stock is probably close to virgin . the stock of dosidicus gigas in the southwestern pacific ocean must be very lightly exploited and the stocks of mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni and gonatopsis borealis are also virgin . the status of ommastrephes bartrami is given in section 3 . 1 .
in this region , the shelf is one of the widest in the world and it supports resources which are among the world ' s richest .
jigging fisheries on the flying squid ommastrephes bartrami started with a catch of 14 000 t in 1974 following overfishing of the todarodes in the sea of japan in the 1960s ( osako and murata , 1983 ) and the search for new grounds in the high seas , following the establishment of eezs in the early 1970s . the fishery extended offshore between 1974 and 1980 reaching 170°e , and oscillates seasonally between 39°n and 49°n ( jefferts , 1986 ) . driftnetting started in 1978 close to japan and expanded rapidly into the central part of the north pacific between 170°e and 160°w . by 1986 japan alone accounted for approximately 150 000 t and it was estimated that korean and taiwanese vessels catch a similar amount ( beamish and mcfarlane , 1989 ) . the total catch would therefore be of the order of 300 000 t , a value close to its total estimated potential . the fishery was regulated by japan after conflicts between jiggers and gillnetters in 1979 , and gillnets were confined at more than 100 km offshore . management includes by - catch limitations but international conflicts with salmon and tuna fisheries are intense and difficult to resolve in the absence of an international body with competence on all species concerned . jefferts ( 1986 ) states that stocks have probably been fully fished since 1978 . jefferts ( 1986 ) also mentions that the northwest pacific stock of ommastrephes bartrami may have been fully fished since 1978 . beamish and mcfarlane ( 1989 ) note that the total estimated catch of this species in the north pacific , of the order of 300 000 t , was close to the estimated total potential . the resource may therefore be fully exploited in the north pacific .
in the northeast pacific , the jack mackerel ( trachurus picturatus symmetricus ) can be found all along the north american coast and is known to exist far offshore . there is a coastal fishery for t . picturatus symmetricus off california and the species is also taken off mexico . it is a by - catch of the north american salmon troll fishery but discarded at sea . it is finally exploited by the long - range foreign trawl fleets targeting at the pacific whiting ( maccall et al . , 1980 ) . landings have varied greatly between 10 000 and 73 000 t since the 1940s in relation to the status of the sardine fishery . they decreased from 28 000 t on average in 1975–79 to about 10 000 t in the late 1980s . the species is known to exist very far offshore , beyond 200 miles off the usa and canada .
spawning population biomass of t . picturatus symmetricus was estimated to be at least 1 . 5 million t ( maccall et al . , 1980 ) . the potential is not known with precision and may be between 50 000 and 290 000 short tons .
two types of straddling resources problems are encountered in this area . on the one hand , continental areas ( australia ) and large islands ( new zealand ) have shelves of sufficient extension to lead potentially to conventional straddling stocks problems . on the other hand , small island countries are a tiny piece of shelf in the middle of an immense oceanic ecosystem and a large part of their resources are oceanic and straddle between the eez and the high seas .
because of the low turn - over in such fisheries , there may be a temptation to exploit them through “pulse fishing” 18 for economic reasons . very cautious management practices are required if conservation and stable output from this type of resource are to be ensured .
although catches on spawning concentrations of orange roughy are virtually free of by - catch , at least one group of species is taken significantly in this fishery , the oreo dories ( allocyttus verrucosus , a . niger , neocyttus rhomboidalis , pseudocyttus maculatus ) of which about 20 000 t are taken by australia and new zealand . until recently , these species were discarded but over the past few years , fishermen have started to keep them and even to target at them . they reach depths beyond 1 000 m and may represent another straddling stock of unknown importance in the area .
the straddling oceanic resources of small island countries of the area consist essentially of tuna and tuna - like species ( e . g . the narrow - barred spanish mackerel scomberomorus commerson ) , oceanic squids and sharks , flying fish and dolphinfish already addressed above . although not treated in this paper , it is worth mentioning that small cetaceans also represent a potential straddling resource . the relative importance of oceanic resources for the island economy implies that regional management system 19 covering the entire range of distribution of the resources should be put in place to ensure long term sustainability .
a significant and hardly exploited stock of another ommastrephidae , the jumbo flying squid ( dosidicus gigas ) exists in the southeastern pacific ocean , from california to the southern tip of latin america ( map 9 ) . the stock , which has yielded up to 19 000 t seems to be largely underexploited and is presently targeted inside the eezs of mexico ( gulf of california ) and peru as well as outside the peruvian eez .
the chilean jack mackerel ( trachurus picturatus murphyi ) spawns across the ocean from new zealand to chile and seems to be able to complete its entire life cycle in the south pacific convergence , independent of the neritic zone ( bayley , 1989 ) . the stock structure and potential subdivision into sub - species are still being argued ( parrish , 1989 ) . on the latin american coast , the species is found essentially off peru and chile between 1°30 ' n and 58°s and can extend its distribution further north during a period of anomalous climatic conditions ( el niño ) . its distribution may extend as far as 900 miles offshore according to larval distribution , covering an area of 1 . 7 million km 2 ( mathisen and tsukayama , 1986 ) .
over the last two decades this species has provided one of the largest increases in world fish catch , from about 170 000 t in 1970–74 to 3 . 8 million t in 1990 . the fishery developed off chile and peru after the anchoveta collapse , favoured by an increase of the area covered by the stock and its biomass ( tsukayama and santander , 1987 ) . at the end of the 1970s , the ex - ussr was looking for new grounds out of eezs and a fishery yielding 500 000–6000 000 t / year was developed , first along and outside the eezs of peru and chile . after 1985 the fishery extended westward along the west wind drift between 39° and 45° south and as far offshore as 80– 120° west and possibly beyond with seasonal shifts following the oscillation of the south pacific subtropical convergence ( parrish , 1989 ) , and catches of the ex - ussr fleet increased to 1 . 1 million t in 1989 and 1990 . there is also an active fishery by chile and peru .
total mortality of t . picturatus murphyi , estimated from catch curves in peru and chile , ranges from 0 . 57 to 0 . 90 , a fairly high value for such long - lived animals ( 10–15 years ) . in 1983 , exploitation rates calculated from the ratio between catches and acoustic biomass ( 8 . 9 million t ) in the eez of peru and chile were around 16–25 % , indicating that the resource was heavily exploited ( at least locally ) . however , such values must be considered with caution as the data used did not cover the whole resource and all the removals ( mathisen and tsukayama , 1986 ) . the status of the whole stock of the south pacific is not known .
the straddling stocks considered here are those which straddle over the eez limits of canada , greenland and eec and stocks exclusively fished by coastal states but which extend beyond the 200 mile limits into international waters . these stocks are assessed by nafo ( the northwest atlantic fisheries organization ) , of which all coastal states except the usa , and a high proportion of dwfns fishing outside of 200 miles of the coastline , are members . most of the important fisheries are demersal , and to a significant extent , aim principally at cod , with a by - catch of a mixture of other bottom fish .
most demersal stocks in this area are under coastal countries ' jurisdiction except for two small areas , the “nose” and the “tail” of the grand banks which extend beyond the 200—mile limit and the flemish cap area ( map 13 ) . species occurring on this straddling shelf include the grand banks cod ( gadus morhua ) , american plaice ( hippoglossoides platessoides ) , redfish ( sebastes marinus ) , witch flounder ( glyptocephalus cynoglossus ) , atlantic halibut ( hippoglossus hippoglossus ) greenland halibut ( reinhardtius hippoglossoides ) , yellowtail flounder ( pleuronectes ferruginaeus ) and grenadiers ( macrouridae ) . other straddling resources in the area include mackerel ( scomber scombrus ) and neritic squids ( loligo pealei and illex illecebrosus ) .
the coastal states in the northwest atlantic sharply curtailed or eliminated distant - water effort in their eezs in the 1970s , and with the exception of stocks on the tip of the grand banks and the flemish cap , and those for which advice has been requested by coastal states , management of shelf areas seaward of 200 miles has been conducted under the auspices of nafo . this organization has attempted to maintain stock levels , or follow a stock - rebuilding strategy by harvesting depleted stocks at below the level providing the maximum sustainable yield ( f msy ) . it is probably correct to say that all straddling stocks of groundfish in this zone are fished at or beyond the f msy level , and that nafo recognizes that “the groundfish stocks… . are now , generally , in the worse condition they have ever been” . restrictive quotas have been placed on cod , american plaice , redfish and other groundfish stocks which are severely depleted ( nafo , 1992 ) .
the causes of the recent sharp decline in cod resources of the grand banks to a record low biomass seem to be found in a combination of climate - related fluctuations of recruitment , increase in predation of young cod by growing populations of harp seals , decline of one major food item of the cod ( the capelin ) , disagreement on management targets between countries participating in the fishery , inaccurate declaration of landings and fishing by non - member countries of nafo and resulting uncertainty in the scientific forecasts .
the production in the northern areas of the northwest atlantic is influenced by the environment . the effect on cod has already been mentioned . there is also evidence that changes in ambient temperature , and not overfishing , are responsible for stock declines of american plaice . it is known that abundance and catches of mackerel and squid are generally higher in northern areas during warming trends in marine environments , which affects the sharing patterns for these stocks , not only between adjacent coastal states but between them and high seas fisheries .
the decline in straddling groundfish stocks of the flemish cap and nose and tail of the grand banks , has raised a number of controversial political issues regarding the reinforcement of the efficiency of international fisheries commissions , and the clarification of the interests of coastal states in regulating fisheries on those portions of straddling stocks lying beyond their eez ' s . although the areas falling outside the canadian 200—mile zone are relatively small , a much more significant part of the stock , through migration , may occur in these areas at certain periods of the year . this case also illustrates the difficulties faced by commissions not having independent means to control biases in statistical reporting and surveillance by participating countries , particularly when such reporting has direct implications on the quotas allocated in the following year . the inertia of the quota allocation mechanism is clearly evident , particularly in a period when declining abundance was not unambiguously reflected in all of the assessments . the consequences of the stock decline on coastal communities which became evident in 1992 , has been the closure of domestic fisheries by the canadian government , followed by a compensation package to support fishermen in a province where unemployment is high , and job alternatives few .
cod . total catches from this the formerly very large northwest atlantic cod stock increased rapidly after 1959 as spawning and prespawning concentrations were heavily exploited by distant—water fleets , with peak catches of 800 000 t in 1968 , with a steady decline thereafter to 1978 . inshore catches also declined from 160 000 t to 35 000 t in 1974 . in 1992 the canadian domestic cod fishery was suspended because of the disastrous state of this stock , and apparently voluntary restraint has been shown by some countries fishing outside 200 miles . recent studies of north atlantic cod have shown that stock abundance and distribution varies with climatic conditions : cod were rarer in the northern part of their range during “the little ice age” in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries : on the contrary , intermingling of stocks from iceland to northeast canada , although not extensive , means that these stocks are not genetically isolated . this may have implications for long - term sharing arrangements .
redfish . a long - lived species occurring on the shelf and slope of the northwest atlantic , this slow - growing species has shown poor resistance to unrestrained fishing . most stocks were heavily depleted under the international fisheries that preceded extended jurisdiction , and have only slowly recovered for those stocks ( within eezs ) where a long - term stock rebuilding policy has been followed . straddling stocks are depleted and in need of stock rebuilding .
flatfish . the american plaice , occurs on the grand banks , and is largely taken with haddock in the mixed trawl fishery aimed at cod . in recent years , northern haddock stocks in the west atlantic have been low in abundance . in part , this is due ( as for the flatfish ) to high vulnerability to fishing , and slow growth and small size . there has been a significant discard rate of small flatfish in trawl catches in the grand banks area . other flatfish such as the atlantic halibut are currently relatively uncommon , and not object of a directed fishery . they occur in somewhat warmer waters than the greenland halibut , a deep , coldwater species subject to directed fisheries in recent years .
a number of deepwater species occur in slope areas around the north atlantic , and are taken by specialized trawlers . the only species currently of importance are grenadiers ( macrouridae ) .
capelin . a small pelagic fish spawning inshore , recorded from the grand banks , where it plays an important role in the diet of cod and marine mammals . acoustic surveys play a large part in assessment of these and other pelagic stocks , given that , as for other small schooling pelagics , the commercial catch rate is not a good indication of stock size . this species is not an important straddling stock but it is mentioned here because recent scientific advice has cautioned against heavy catches being taken from close to inshore spawning areas because of the effect this might have on future spawning and on the cod populations feeding on these stocks . this illustrates the link between management of straddling predator stocks and more national prey stocks .
mackerel . northwest atlantic stocks of scomber scombrus are managed as a single unit despite the existence of two spawning areas in the gulf of st . lawrence and between cape cod and cape hatteras ; both groups overwinter in the gulf of maine and waters further south , and part of the stock may pass outside the 200 - mile zone during migration . they were formerly subject to an intensive fishery by non - coastal states , which harvested a peak 430 000 t in 1973 . this fishery was halted in 1977–78 with extension of jurisdiction of the usa and canada and most catches are now taken inside eez ' s .
squids . neritic squids are accessible to fisheries on deep shelves and slopes and , as such , are potential candidates for straddling resources . the long - fin squid loligo pealei spawns in inshore waters , depositing eggs on the bottom in shelf areas and then migrates offshore to overwinter . its abundance measured by research vessel surveys during 1968–87 reached its lowest values in the late 1970s . most catches are obtained in the eezs and its contribution to straddling stocks in the area seem minimal . the short - fin squid ( illex illecebrosus ) spawns in deep waters at the edge of the shelf where it may be vulnerable to high seas fishing and then moves northwards to enter shelf waters to feed . stock size appears to be related to climatic factors at least as much as to fishing , and these factors may also influence both north - south migrations ( which are often extensive ) and inshore - offshore movements . a peak in illex catches was reached in the late 1970s ( 90 000–180 000 t ) , catches have decreased significantly since then ( 5 000–20 000 t in the 1980s ) and the stock is at least fully exploited .
the area is covered by ices for research and management advice and the mandate for management lies with neafc and eec . there are only three limited areas of high seas in the northeast atlantic : a small one over the deep shelf of the barents sea and two further south in deeper oceanic waters of the norwegian sea and the north atlantic ( map 14 ) .
the blue whiting ( micromesistius poutassou ) is one of the main straddling resources . it is distributed throughout many eezs and high seas zones during its life cycle , spawning in spring at the edge of the shelf west of britain and ireland , moving northwards between norway and iceland , to feeding grounds , where they overwinter . the fishery became fully established in 1977 and landings peaked in 1979–80 at more than 1 million t . catches have decreased since then to 356 000 t in 1991 . the stock was heavily overfished in the late 1980s . since 1986 , fishing mortality has decreased and is now close to natural mortality . the stock is increasing and is considered within safe biological limits .
the oceanic redfish 21 ( sebastes mentella ) is also an important straddling resource . the oceanic redfish exists essentially in the high seas area but straddles in the eez of iceland and greenland . the fishery started in 1982 on a virgin stock and the landings increased from 60 000 t in 1982 to 105 000 t in 1986 to drop subsequently to 38 000 t in 1989 and 23 000 t in 1991 . the reason for the decrease is not ascertained . the biomass may be around 800 000 t and there is no scientific assessment on the present status of the stock .
straddling demersal stocks of cod ( gadus morhua ) , haddock ( melanogrammus aeglefinus ) and greenland halibut ( reinhardtius hippoglossoides ) together with redfish exist in the barents sea but catches are believed by scientists to be insignificant despite press reports of intensive fishing .
pelagic straddling stocks include the norwegian spring - spawning herring ( clupea harengus ) . this species traditionally spawned on the west coast of norway , fed in summer northeast of ireland and overwintered east of ireland and north of the faeroes . this pattern seems to have changed in the late 1960s and the species is now distributed in the norwegian zone most of the year . the stock is recovering from a historical collapse . it is increasing progressively due to good recruitment . the present biomass is still below the minimum biologically safe level of 2 . 5 million t and the stock is dominated by a single year class ( 1983 ) . catches and fishing mortality will be kept low until higher biomass builds up .
separate statistics for eez and high seas catches are available for these stocks even though the reliability of the high seas data is uncertain and these stocks are assessed by ices working groups as management units , taking into account data submitted on the whole stock range .
the mediterranean coastal countries have not extended their eezs to 200 miles and most of them still have a 12 - mile limit . the mediterranean shelves are usually very narrow and there are therefore very few demersal straddling stocks . two areas , however , have created straddling stocks problems : the gulf of lions and the gulf of gabes . in these two areas , the shelf extend beyond the 12 - mile limit and its resources are , therefore accessible to others ( e . g . , spanish fishermen in the gulf of lions and italian and greek fishermen in the gulf of gabes ) . the resources correspond to deep shelf and slope fish assemblages with hake and deep sea shrimps as the main target species . the general fisheries council for the mediterranean ( gfcm ) has the capacity to address the problem in its entirety and has done so for the gulf of lions .
straddling resources of small pelagic fish exist such as sardines in the sea of alboran , horse mackerel in the central mediterranean and , most probably , everywhere beyond 12 miles .
the continental shelf off this area is fairly narrow and most catches are taken inside the 200 miles , including small pelagic species such as sardine , mackerel and horse mackerel . apart from tunas and tuna - like species and , possibly , oceanic sharks , only one species of fish , the blue horse mackerel ( trachurus picturatus ) is known to migrate between the coast of sahara and the offshore seamounts possibly reaching the cape verde islands . this potential pelagic straddling stock is exploited by eastern europe fleets and by coastal countries , but catches are not distinguished from the other more neritic species of horse mackerel ( t . trachurus and t . trecae ) . nothing is known of its potential and status .
in the lesser antilles , the species which occur in and out of the eezs and migrate through the archipelago are the flying fish ( hirundicthys affinis and cypselurus cyanopterus ) and the dolphinfish ( coryphaena spp . ) , the wahou ( acantocybium spp . ) , the blackfin ( thunnus atlanticus ) , yellowfin ( t . albacares ) , albacore ( t . alalunga ) and skipjack ( katsuwonus pelamis ) tunas , the atlantic sailfish ( istiophorus atlanticus ) , the white marlin ( tetrapturus albidus ) and blue marlin ( makaira nigricans ) , the king mackerel ( scomberomorus cavalla ) and the oceanic sharks ( prionace glauca , carcharhinus longimanus and isurus oxyrinchus ) ( mahon , 1987 ) .
according to joseph ( 1987 ) , migratory species of the caribbean region were the target of japanese fisheries in the late 1950s and in the 1960s and the eastern caribbean states witnessed the depletion of these stocks ( referring to tuna and large tuna - like species ) without sharing any of the benefits . the republic of korea , taiwan ( province of china ) and venezuela joined in the ' 70s and dominated the fishery in the ' 80s .
the situation is similar to that described for the south pacific and the establishment of eezs has improved the control of coastal states on access to the resources but the problem of overall management and resources allocation remains . a good compilation of migration patterns of pelagic resources from this region is available in mahon ( 1987 ) .
important straddling stocks , occurring both within the areas under national jurisdiction and in the adjacent high seas , can be found in the southwest atlantic . this is one of the few areas of the world where the continental shelf and slope extend well beyond the 200 - mile limit , and therefore the main straddling stocks in this area are predominantly demersal . there is very little information on the offshore distribution of neritic pelagic fish stocks in this area . they are far less abundant and , excluding highly migratory species , there are no records of noticeable offshore catches of these species in the area .
in the southern part of fao statistical area 41 , between 41°50 ' s and 48°00 ' s , the patagonian shelf and slope has a total area of about 12 323 mi 2 extending beyond the 200 - mile limit ( map 15 ) . in this area , many important demersal fish stocks occur both in jurisdictional waters and adjacent high seas and are examined below .
a large proportion of the total stock of the short - fin squid ( illex argentinus ) occurs in the area over the patagonian shelf and slope beyond the 200 - mile limit . it is estimated that from 11–35 % of the total biomass of this stock is concentrated in this area , which is also a main fishing ground for this species . the common squid ( loligo spp . ) is also found both within and beyond the 200 - mile limit . in the past between 2 % and 12 % of the total biomass of common squids has been reported in the area beyond the 200 - mile limit . total catches of these two groups of species increased consistently from around 100 000 t / year in the early 1980s to 744 000 and 750 000 t in 1987 and 1989 , to then drop to 550 000 t in 1990 . there are no current estimates of the proportion taken beyond the 200 - mile limit , but in the past ( 1981 ) up to 74 % of the total catches of short - fin squid were reported as taken in the area beyond the 200 miles . these stocks are mostly exploited by long - range fleets from the republic of korea , ex - ussr , japan , taiwan ( prov . of china ) , and spain . both the short - fin squid and the common squid stocks are considered to be fully - to over - exploited in the patagonian shelf area . a flying squid ( martialia hyadesi of the ommastrephidae family ) seem to be also presently exploited on the patagonian shelf and surrounding waters but no detailed information is available . further information on the distribution , abundance and exploitation of these stocks is provided in otero et al . ( 1982 ) , fao ( 1983 ) and csirke ( 1987 ) .
the southern blue whiting ( micromesistius australis ) is mainly distributed on the continental shelf and slope to the south of 38°s , including the burdwood bank . it is estimated that from 1–12 % of the total biomass of the stock occurs in the area of the patagonian slope and shelf beyond 200 miles , where it is exploited by long - range fleets . in 1990 , the total catch of this species was 194 000 t , mostly taken by long - range fleets from poland , ex - ussr , and japan . there are no current estimates of the proportion taken beyond the 200 - mile limit , but in the past ( 1981 ) up to 70 % of the total catches of this species were taken in the area beyond 200 miles . this stock is considered to be under - to moderately - exploited .
the grenadier ( macrourus spp . ) is also distributed in the southern patagonian shelf and slope with 11–58 % of its total biomass being reported to occur in the area beyond 200 miles . this stock has been yielding total annual catches of 20 000 to 50 000 t / year , mostly taken on the outer patagonian shelf and slope by long - range fleets from the ex - ussr . there is no information on the proportion taken beyond 200 miles in recent years . the stock is considered to be moderately exploited .
other demersal fish stocks are reported to straddle beyond the 200 - mile limit : the pink cusk eel ( genypterus blacodes ) , the patagonian toothfish ( dissostichus eleginoides ) , the tadpole mora ( salilota australis ) , the patagonian grenadier ( macruronus magellanicus ) , the grenadier ( macrourus whitsoni ) , the antarctic cod ( notothenia rossii ) , rockcods ( notothenia spp . ) , sharks and rays and common squid ( loligo spp . ) . it is estimated that about 1–16 % of their biomass is outside the eez limit . these stocks yield 20 000–50 000 t / year and are exploited by argentinean fleets and long - range fleets from ex - ussr and poland . there is no information on the proportion taken outside the eez in recent years . overall , these stocks are considered moderately exploited .