the common bush tanager ( chlorospingus flavopectus ) is a small passerine bird .

it is a resident breeder in the highlands from central mexico south to bolivia and northwest argentina .

c. flavopectus in the loose sense is a notorious cryptic species complex , and several of the up to 25 subspecies recognized in recent times are likely to be distinct species .

some populations in fact appear to be more distinct than several other members of chlorospingus .

common bush tanager

common bush - tanager — > common chlorospingus note : all bush - tanagers in the genus chlorispingus now use the common name chlorospingus .
how can i put and write and define common bush tanager in a sentence and how is the word common bush tanager used in a sentence and examples ? 用common bush tanager造句 , 用common bush tanager造句 , 用common bush tanager造句 , common bush tanager meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
this species is easily distinguished from common bush tanager by its blacker head and obvious supercilium .
genetic variation coincides with geographic structure in the common bush - tanager ( chlorospingus opht . . .
genetic variation coincides with geographic structure in the common bush - tanager ( chlorospingus ophthalmicus ) complex from mexico .
rather , it appears that the common bush tanager evolved in and was always confined to montane cloud forest .
genetic variation coincides with geographic structure in the common bush - tanager ( chlorospingus ophthalmicus ) complex from mexico . - pubmed - ncbi
the venezuelan population of the common bush tanager would , if this taxon is split up , be assigned to a distinct species .
the common bush tanager is usually encountered in small groups or as part of a mixed - species feeding flock , and is rather sedentary .
the taxonomy and systematics of the common bush tanager are under review ; it appears to be a superspecies or even a complex of superspecies .
genetic divergence in the common bush - tanager chlorospingus ophthalmicus ( aves : emberizidae ) throughout mexican cloud forests : the role of geograph . . . - pubmed - ncbi
genetic divergence in the common bush - tanager chlorospingus ophthalmicus ( aves : emberizidae ) throughout mexican cloud forests : the role of geography , ecology and pleistocene climatic fluctuations .
there is apparently no dedicated nesting season at least in the hottest parts of its range , but in general it seems that the common bush tanager prefers to breed mainly between october and may .
the latin name of the common bush - tanager changed to chlorospingus flavopectus ( however , there are no splits in this group ) . the ebird taxonomy also changed the english name of the bush - tanagers to chlorospingus , following the recommendation of the south american classification committee .
spangle - cheeked tanagers occur in pairs , family groups , or as part of a mixed - species feeding flock ( particularly those containing common bush tanagers ) .
there is huge racial variation in common bush - tanagers , and further study could show that some are better considered separate species . this is the southernmost subspecies ,
yellowish - bellied bush - warbler horornis acanthizoides is split into two species ; hume’s bush - warbler occurs in the himalayas while yellowish - bellied occurs in two disjunct areas of china as wel las the island of taiwan .
garcía - moreno , j . , navarro - sigüenza , a . g . , peterson , a . t . & sánchez - gonzález , l . a . 2004 ( in press ) . genetic variation coincides with geographic structure in the common bush tanager ( chlorospingus ophthalmicus ) complex from mexico . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 33 : 186 - 196 . [ links ]
a bird of arid scrub - it is quite common in drier parts of mexico and central america . ( s6 )
hilty , s . ( 2018 ) . common bush - tanager ( chlorospingus flavopectus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
genetic variation in the common bush - tanager chlorospingus ophthalmicus complex in mesoamerica was studied . an 800 - bp mitochondrial dna fragment , including a portion of coii , full trna - lys , atp8 , and partial atp6 , was sequenced and analyzed for 96 individuals of the species and related taxa , resulting in a detailed framework of genetic differentiation in the northern half of the distribution . . . [ show full abstract ]
peterson , a . t . , escalante , p . , & navarrosigüenza , a . g . 1992 . genetic differentiation among mexican populations of chestnut capped brush finches ( atlapetes brunneinucha ) and common bush tanagers ( chlorospingus ophthalmicus ) . condor 94 : 242 251 . [ links ]
ne of the most common and familiar birds of the neotropics , from southern mexico to tierra del fuego . here is one collecting nesting material . ( s5 )
one of the most common and familiar birds of the neotropics , from southern mexico to tierra del fuego . here is one collecting nesting material . ( s8 )
not globally threatened . common virtually throughout its wide range . deforestation a threat locally , but this species survives even in bushy second growth and along narrow . . .
this is the common open - country sparrow throughout much of the amazon drainage . it can occur well up the east slope of the andes in open country . this photo was taken at about 1450 m elevation . ( s11 )
dickerman , r . w . & phillips , a . r . 1970 . taxonomy of the common meadowlark ( sturnella magna ) in central and southern mexico and caribbean central america . condor 72 : 305 - 309 . [ links ]
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
the full taxonomy can be downloaded . also , we have a version of the full taxonomy with changes in common name , scientific name , and new additions highlighted ; download that here . for those proficient with spreadsheets , this may be the easiest way to review the changes .
. . . particularly high pairwise f st values were found in this study between populations separated by major geographic barriers , such as the southern oaxacan population h28 ( mean pairwise f st ¼ 0 . 463 , range 0 . 342– 0 . 638 ) , isolated from other populations by the sierra madre del sur . the geographic structuring of genetic diversity across this barrier has been found in other organisms , such as the bush - tanager ( garcía - moreno et al . , 2004 ) , the bark beetle dendroctonus mexicanus hopkins . ( anducho - reyes et al . , 2008 ) and the western lyre snake ( devitt , 2006 ) . . . .
garrido , o . h . , parkes , k . c . , reynard , g . b . , kirkconnell , a . k . & sutton , r . 1997 . taxonomy of the stripe - headed tanager , genus spindalis ( aves : thraupidae ) of the west indies . wilson bulletin 109 : 561 - 594 . [ links ]
this ecoregion is found in the highlands of eastern panama , and contains montane forests which grow at elevations from 500 to 1 , 800 m . located on the land bridge between south and north america , complex forests cover this mountainous region and are home to extremely high diversity and endemism . a number of endemic avifauna inhabit this region , including the acaruna tapaculo , pierre bush tanager , pierre warbler , and tacaruna quail - dove . parque nacional darién , central america’s largest national park , is found here and protects twenty - four species of endangered herpetofauna . the inaccessibility of the slopes has left much of the region intact , but the extension of the pan - american highway has led to an increase in slash - and - burn agriculture , gold mining , and illegal trade in local wildlife .
when the taxonomy is updated in ebird , many of the changes are fairly simple to implement . when a common name changes , a scientific name changes , or when the taxonomic sequence is revised , those changes roll through and start appearing in ebird output fairly quickly . keeping track of name changes is a challenge , and avibase is one of the best ways to do so . just type any bird name in avibase and avibase will show you what the history of that name is , and–if it differs from ebird–it will show what the ebird equivalent is for that name . try it for louisiana heron , for example .
in 2012 , the south american classification committee ( sacc ) and ebird split the thrush - like schiffornis into four species , and the nacc followed suit in 2013 . two forms occur in the central american region : the dull , uniformly olivaceous northern schiffornis ( schiffornis veraepacis ) found in central america from the caribbean slope of mexico to nicaragua , both slopes in costa rica , both lowlands and highlands of western panama , and highlands of central and eastern panamá ( except the alturas de nique massif ) ; and the more rufous , gray - bellied russet - winged schiffornis ( s . stenorhyncha ) found in lowlands of central and eastern panamá ( and all elevations of the alturas de nique massif ) . note that russet - winged schiffornis is a common name change for sacc and ebird , which previously used rufous - winged schiffornis .
three new coccidian ( apicomplexa , eimeriidae ) species from the sayaca tanager , thraupis sayaca , from brazil , are reported in the current study . isospora sanhaci sp . nov . oocysts are spherical to subspherical , 22 . 1 × 21 . 0 μm , with smooth , bilayered wall , ∼1 . 0 μm . micropyle , oocyst residuum and polar granule are absent , while stieda and substieda bodies are present . sporocysts are elongated , 17 . 0 × 9 . 9 μm . sporocyst residuum is present , sporozoites have one refractile body and a nucleus . isospora sayacae sp . nov . are spherical to subspherical , 28 . 9 × 27 . 4 μm , with smooth , bilayered wall , ∼1 . 3 μm . micropyle , oocyst residuum and polar granule are absent , while stieda and substieda bodies are present . sporocysts are bottle - shaped , 23 . 4 × 11 . 8 μm and containing a sporocyst residuum and sporozoites with one refractile body and a nucleus . isospora silvasouzai sp . nov . are spherical to subspherical , 25 . 5 × 22 . 6 μm , with a smooth , bilayered wall , ∼1 . 0 μm . micropyle and oocyst residuum are absent , but one polar granule is present . sporocysts are pyriform ellipsoidal , 17 . 6 × 10 . 5 μm . stieda and substieda bodies and sporocyst residuum are present and sporozoites have one refractile body and a nucleus .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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black - mandibled toucan song . bird is not in the ibc list ! ! !
josep del hoyo , thore noernberg , keith blomerley , richard garrigues , daniêl jimenez , juan sanabria , peter nash , green3birdy , greg baker , yoël jimenez , keith and lynn youngs , german pugnali , desmond allen , carlos gussoni .
thore noernberg , andrew emmerson , margareta wieser , richardgreenhalgh031 , jacob . wijpkema , miguel andina , josep del hoyo , carlos gussoni , guy poisson , orlando jarquín g . , mauricio rueda , pedro arturo amaro , philgunson , luis r figueroa , stanislav harvančík , alberto lobato , paul van giersbergen , daniel avendaño , anthony villaume , agustin carrasco , marc fasol , juanjaimemg , josé frade , josef widmer , kperezleon , ken havard , samuel . ei . jones , lars petersson , hal and kirsten snyder , dusan m . brinkhuizen , róger rodríguez , raymond marsh , tomas grim , erkki lehtovirta , gustavo a . rodríguez , georges olioso , carnifex , c castellani .
– atlantic slope of e mexico ( se san luis potosí and w veracruz s to ne oaxaca ) .
– sierra madre del sur ( guerrero and oaxaca ) , in s mexico .
– sw costa rica and w panama ( chiriquí e to panamá province ) .
– w slope of e andes in colombia from santander s to vicinity of bogotá .
olson , 1983 – w slope of e andes at la pica ( between san andrés and málaga ) , in e santander ( colombia ) .
olson , 1983 – both slopes of n end of c andes in antioquia ( colombia ) .
j . t . zimmer , 1947 – macarena mts , in s meta ( colombia ) .
. , 2013 – e slope of e andes in colombia from boyacá s to cundinamarca .
p . l . sclater & salvin , 1877 – both slopes of andes in ecuador .
o’neill & t . a . parker , 1981 – andes of n peru ( s to pasco ) .
phelps , sr & phelps , jr , 1952 – sierra de perijá , on colombia–venezuela border .
phelps , sr & gilliard , 1941 – n venezuela ( sierra de san luis , in falcón , and sierra de aroa , in yaracuy ) .
hellmayr , 1921 – n & sw venezuela ( miranda and e slope of andes from lara s to táchira ) and w slope of e andes ( norte de santander ) in colombia .
j . t . zimmer , 1946 – e slope of e andes in colombia ( s part of norte de santander and boyacá ) .
hellmayr , 1921 – andes of n bolivia ( cordillera de la paz s to n end of cordillera de cochabamba ) .
berlepsch , 1901 – andes of c bolivia ( s cordillera de cochabamba ) .
hellmayr , 1921 – andes of c bolivia ( headwaters of r mizque ) s to n argentina ( jujuy , salta and tucumán ) .
call notes include buzzy “tzit” repeated over and over , longer trilled “ts’ . . .
humid montane forest and forest borders , especially mossy , epiphyte - laden forest , tall second . . .
small berries and fruit , in costa rica including fruits of ericaceae , melastomataceae and gesneriaceae ; also small arthropods . of 49 . . .
season apr–jun in mexico , mar–jun in costa rica ( up to two broods or two attempts ) , in breeding condition mar to mid - jul in w . . .
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formerly included in a broader emberizidae . recent phylogeny # r has recovered evidence of eight major clades within this newly recognized grouping : ( i ) melospiza and allies ; ( ii and iii ) melozone , atlapetes , pipilo and allies , which form two sister - clades ; ( iv ) zonotrichia , junco and allies ; and ( v–viii ) all other species , which form a polytomy at base of tree , but can be split into ( a ) arremon , ( b ) spizella , amphispiza , chondestes and calamospiza , ( c ) peucaea , arremonops , ammodramus and rhynchospiza , and finally ( d ) two genera that have often been placed in thraupidae , oreothraupis and chlorospingus .
initial molecular studies indicated that this genus and nesospingus , spindalis and phaenicophilus formed a monophyletic clade sister to several new world warbler ( parulidae ) genera ( including basileuterus and vermivora ) , but more recent evidence places chlorospingus as sister to genus oreothraupis , with arremon as a slightly more distant relative # r # r .
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
once a year , ebird updates the taxonomy it uses for the world’s birds , following the most recent edition of the clements checklist of birds of the world and other published recommendations . for example , for birds in central america , most of the taxonomic changes adopted each july by the north american classification committee ( nacc ) of the american ornithologists’ union ( aou ) are reflected in the annual ebird taxonomy update .
the latest issue of the auk ( the aou publication ) includes a supplement of the aou check - list of north american birds with some important changes affecting the taxonomy of the birds in north america ( and hawaii ) . we will mention only those affecting the birds found in central america , including not only splits and lumps , but also name changes and other issues . also included are the differences of these changes with respect to the taxonomy followed by ebird , when pertinent .
in taxonomic order , let’s start with the shorebirds . many species formerly placed in monotypic genera are now included within the genus calidris . that means , we now list the surfbird as calidris virgata , buff - breasted sandpiper as calidris subruficollis and ruff as calidris pugnax . the order of the species within the genus calidris also changed , as well as the sequence of the families within the charadriiformes order .
the only member of the genus otus for the region , the flammulated owl , is now treated as a separate genus on the basis of genetic data , and known as psiloscops flammeolus .
the green - crowned woodnymph is re - lumped with the violet - crowned woodnymph and re - adopt the name crowned woodnymph ( thalurania colombica ) based on better understanding of the ranges and intergrades within these two forms in colombia ( however , they are not known to come into contact in panama ) . ebird retains field - identifiable forms when possible , so that you can report your sightings more specifically . for crowned woodnymph you can still report at the level of the former species , using the option for crowned woodnymph ( violet - crowned ) and crowned woodnymph ( green - crowned ) . in this particular case , it is also possible to report at the subspecies level . these options and their ranges are :
we encourage ebird reporting at the finest level that you can be certain of . even if the option you are looking for is not on the checklist , it can always be found using “add a species” in ebird . options like hummingbird sp . and crowned woodnymph ( violet - crowned woodnymph ) can be found using “add a species” even if that option is not on the data - entry checklist .
black - crowned antshrike ( thamnophilus atrinucha ) is the new name for the western slaty - antshrike due to genetic evidence indicating that our form is not related to the south american slaty - antshrikes , in spite of the physical similarities . also , the latin name of the rufous - rumped antwren changed to euchrepomis callinota .
immaculate antbird is split into two species . the two subspecies ( myrmeciza immaculata zeledoni from costa rica and western panama , and myrmeciza immaculata macrorhyncha from eastern panama and western colombia and ecuador ) now comprise zeledon’s antbird ( myrmeciza zeledoni ) . myrmeciza immaculata is now known as blue - lored antbird and restricted to colombia and venezuela .
the green manakin is now called xenopipo holochlora , and both red - capped and golden - headed manakins changed their genus to ceratopipra instead of pipra . also , the checklist sequence of the manakins changed . in the family mimidae , the linear sequence changed according to phylogenetic analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial dna sequences .
according to gregory and dickinson ( 2012 ) , ptilogonys ( and ptilogonatidae , the latin name of the silky - flycatchers family ) is an incorrect spelling and has no nomenclatural standing . the aou checklist corrected this and now the name of the family is changed slightly to ptiliogonatidae and the genus to ptiliogonys ; this change affects the latin name of the gray silky - flycatcher ( ptiliogonys cinereus ) , and that of the long - tailed silky - flycatcher ( ptiliogonys caudatus ) . however , this spelling has not yet been adopted by the ebird taxonomy , but it will be included in the august 2014 update .
some issues are pending and may be dealt with in the next aou checklist supplement , in the summer of 2014 . others were not even mentioned… notably the blue - crowned / whooping motmot , a change already adopted by the ebird taxonomy following the work of stiles ( 2009 ) and the south american classification committee . perhaps more studies are needed before a formal pronunciation of the north american classification committee .
chesser rt , banks rc , barker fk , cicero c , dunn jl , kratter aw , et al . 2013 . fifty - fourth supplement to the american ornithologists’ union check - list of north american birds . the auk 130 : 558 - 71 .
remsen jv , cadena cd , jaramillo a , nores m , pacheco jf , pérez - emán j , robbins mb , stiles fg , stotz df & zimmer kj . version 30 - august - 2013 . a classification of the bird species of south america . american ornithologists’ union . urltoken
gregory sms & dickinson e . 2012 . an assessment of three little - noticed papers on avian nomenclature by g . n . kashin during 1978–1982 . zootaxa 3340 : 44–58 .
stiles fg . 2009 . a review of the genus momotus ( coraciiformes : momotidae ) in northern south america and adjacent areas . ornitología colombiana 2009 ; 8 : 29–75 .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
partners in flight estimate the total population to number 500 , 000 - 4 , 999 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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natural song of unseen bird ( different from xc277135 or xc277136 ) perched about 7m up in canopy of humid temperate forest on ridgetop at dusk .
natural song from unseen bird ( neighbor to xc277135 ) in canopy ( ~ 5 - 7m up ) in humid temperate forest on ridgetop at dusk .
natural song from unseen bird in canopy ( ~ 5 - 7m up ) in humid temperate forest on ridgetop at dusk .
upper montane forest . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 168 side b track 11 seq . a )
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 536 side a track 66 seq . a )
natural song ( ? ) from an unseen individual in canopy of subtropical forest .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
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warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
garcía - moreno j 1 , navarro - sigüenza ag , peterson at , sánchez - gonzález la .
max planck research centre for ornithology ( vogelwarte radolfzell ) schlossalleé 2 , d - 78315 radolfzell , germany . jaime . garcia - moreno @ urltoken
maldonado - sánchez d 1 , gutiérrez - rodríguez c 2 , ornelas jf 1 .
departamento de biología evolutiva , instituto de ecología , ac , xalapa , veracruz 91070 , mexico .
departamento de biología evolutiva , instituto de ecología , ac , xalapa , veracruz 91070 , mexico . electronic address : carla . gutierrez @ inecol . mx .
description location and general description the eastern panamanian montane forests are located in the southeastern portion of panama , in the darién province . located in the highlands of eastern panama , these montane forests occur from 500 m to approximately 1 , 800 m , where they grade into paramo grasslands . precipitation on the mountains ranges between 3 , 000 and 4 , 000 mm . in the caribbean coast the rainfall is higher - between 4 , 000 and 5 , 000 mm ; in the central mountains it is lower , ranging from 1 , 700 to 2 , 800 mm ( herrera - macbryde , 1997 ) .
this southern portion of central america is in a zone of plate convergence , where two small oceanic plates are being driven down below the caribbean continental plate . this tectonic instability , combined with active volcanism , produced isolated volcanic islands between northern central america and colombia . the northeastern section of the ecoregion contains the cordillera de san blass and the serranía del darién , from which rises cerro tacarcuna ( 1 , 875 m ) , the highest mountain between the andes and western panama . the southern section encompasses discontinuous mountain chains including the serrania de jungurudó , serranía de bagre , and serranía del sapo , which borders the pacific ocean ( herrera - macbryde , 1997 ) .
biodiversity features this ecoregion ' s combination of significant elevational changes , climatic variations , and location on the land bridge between north and south america , provide it with tremendous biological diversity and endemism ( delgado 1985 , méndez 1994 ) . the lush , dense montane forest shares biological affinities with neighboring colombia ( delgado 1985 ) .
current status steep slopes , and limited accessibility have prevented widespread agricultural and urban development , and have contributed to the existence of large , intact blocks of habitat which still remain in these highlands . but new roads and other public infrastructure have brought colonists from central panama who are cutting the forest rapidly .
much of the ecoregion is protected mainly by parque nacional darién ( 5 , 790 km2 ) , a world heritage site and central america ' s largest national park , which protects 575 , 000 ha ( méndez 1994 ) . this park harbors 13 endangered amphibians and 11 endangered reptiles ( young et al 1999 ) . other protected areas in the ecoregion include indigenous reserves such as the kuna de walá mortí and nurrá ; the canglon forest reserve with 316 km2 ; chepigana forest reserve with 1 , 460 km2 ; and the choco homelands comarca emberá no . 1 with 1 , 826 km2 .
the biodiversity in these parks are threatened by the instability produced from the deterioration of government infrastructure , including parks , under pressures caused by drug - related and other violence in colombia ( powell pers . comm . ) . delgado ( 1985 ) described the enforcement of conservation measures in eastern panamanian parks as ineffective . protection is afforded to llorona san blas ' s ridge , located in the kuna indian reserve of san blas ; these highlands have maintained forest cover due to the kuna ' s jealous guarding of their natural resources ( delgado 1985 ) .
justification of ecoregion delineation these montane forests were delineated following the undp ( 1970 ) vegetation map , and to a lesser degree the navarro et al ( 1984 ) map along the border region between panama and colombia . this ecoregion encompasses the serrania de pirre , serranía de jungurudó , serranía de majé , altos de limos , altos de puna , altos de aspavé , and altos de quía regions of the panama - colombia border region following undp ( 1970 ) classifications of montane and lower montane wet and rain forests . these isolated ranges and peaks have distinct flora and fauna from the surrounding lowlands , some endemic species , and are a convergence zone for central american montane forests and andean montane forests species assemblages .
references delgado , f . 1985 . present situation of the forest birds of panama . in a . w . diamond , and t . e . lovejoy , editors , conservation of tropical forest birds . icbp technical publication no . 4 . international council for bird preservation , united kingdom .
dinerstein , e . et . al . 1995 . an evaluation on the status of conservation of terrestrial ecoregions of latin america and the caribbean . world wildlife fund - us , washington , d . c .
emmons , l . 1990 . neotropical rainforest mammals . university of chicago press , chicago .
gentry , a . h . 1985 . constrasting phytogeographic patterns of upland and lowland panamenian plants . w . g . d’arcy and m . d . correa - a . , editors . the botany of natural history of panama . monogr . syst . bot . 10 , missouri national botanical garden , st . louis .
herrera - macbryde , olga and ancon . 1997 . darien provience . . s . d . davis , v . h . heywood , o . herrera - macbryde , j . villa - lobos , and a . c . hamilton , editors . centres of plant diversity : a guide and strategy for their conservation , vol . 3 the america . iucn , wwf , oxford , u . k .
holdridge , l . r . 1967 . life zone ecology . tropical science center , costa rica
méndez , e . 1994 . estado de la conservación de biodiversidad en panamá . a . vega , editor . corredores conservacionistas en la región centroamericana : memorias de una conferencia regional auspiciada por el proyecto paseo pantera . tropical research and development , inc . florida .
navarro , a . e . s . , g . h . peña , f . c . lemus , j . r . baquero , r . f . soto . 1984 . bosques de colombia .
stattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long and d . c . wege . 1998 . endemic bird areas of the world : priorities for biodiversity conservation . birdl . cons . ser . 7 , cmabridge , uk .
undp . 1970 . mapa ecólogico de panama . map 1 : 5 , 000 , 000 . programa de las naciones unidas
wwf and iucn . 1997 . centres of plant diversity . a guide and strategy for their conservation . volume 3 : the americas . united kingdom : iucn publications unit .
young , b . e . , g . sedaghatkish , e . roca , and q . fuenmayor . 1999 . el estatus de la conservación de la herpetofauna de panamá . resumen del primer taller internacional sobre la herpetofauna de panama . the nature conservancy y asociación nacional para la conservación de la naturaleza ( ancon ) .
world wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
chlorospingus flavigularis is found is found on the slopes of the andes from northern colombia ( córdoba and antioquia ranges ) south through ecuador into peru ( south to puno ) .
chlorospingus hypophaeus is found in western panama , mainly on caribbean slope , from bocas del toro east to western kuna yala .
duszynski d . , wilber p . 1997 . a guideline for the preparation of species descriptions in the eimeriidae .
lainson r . 1994 . observations on some avian coccidia ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) in amazonian brazil .
sick h . 1997 . ornitologia brasileira . nova fronteira , rio de janeiro , 862 pp .
stotz d . f . , fitzpatrick j . w . , parker t . a . , moskovits d . k . 1996 . neotropical birds : ecology and conservation . university of chicago press , chicago , 546 pp .
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. . . atpase 8 / 6 gene of mitochondrial dna can be utilized for resolving difference between variety of taxa ( garcía - moreno et al . 2004 ; fuchs et al . 2008 ) and for detecting intraspecific variation in several species ( mcglashan & hughes 2000 ; reza et al . 2008 ) . the complete length of atpase 6 / 8 region from m . rosenbergii was 827 bp with an overlap of 7 bp . . . .
. . . the distribution of several species in mesoamerica has been historically fragmented as a result of geological and climatic events ( navarro - sigüenza et al . , 2008 ; valderrama et al . , 2014 ) . in particular , species inhabiting cloud forests that are allopatrically distributed on mountain ranges can be affected by the restricted mobility of individuals and thus limited gene flow between isolated populations ( garcía - moreno et al . , 2004 ; puebla - olivares et al . , 2008 ; barrera - guzmán et al . , 2012 ; ornelas and gonzález , 2014 ) . pleistocene climate oscillations are also known to influence the distribution of mesoamerican cloud forest species by promoting expansion , contraction and divergence of populations ( gutiér rez - rodríguez et al . , 2011 ; ornelas and gonzález , 2014 ) . . . .
. . . previous studies based on coding mtdna fragments and morphological traits have suggested that the c . ophthalmicus species complex is composed of several lineages , each one restricted to a different mountain range ( garcía - moreno et al . , 2004 ; sánchezgonzález et al . , 2007 ; bonaccorso et al . , 2008 ) : c . ophthalmicus - sierra madre oriental , c . wetmorei - sierra de los tuxtlas , c . albifrons - sierra madre del sur , c . dwighti - central highlands of chiapas , and c . postocularis - pacific slope of chiapas . our investigation based on mtdna and microsatellites analyses supports these previous studies , proving further evidence that each of these lineages has evolved independently and need to be treated as separate species according to de queiroz ( 2007 ) . . . .
. . . vocalizations are useful characters for species diagnosis and delimitation in birds , especially across phylogeographic breaks ( payne , 1986 ; isler et al . , 1998 ; tubaro , 1999 ) . they can be used which are composed of highly isolated , well - differentiated populations with minimal gene flow along their distributions ( peterson et al . , 1992 ; garcía - moreno et al . , 2004 ; bonaccorso et al . , 2008 ; navarro - sigüenza et al . , 2008 ; gonzález et al . , 2011 ; barrera - guzmán et al . , 2012 ; cortés - rodríguez et al . , 2013 ; rodríguez - gómez et al . , 2013 ) . thus , this avifauna is ideal to study patterns of differentiation among isolated montane populations . . . .
. . . the high average diversification rate of andean taxa in this study was principally based on the inclusion of three rapid , recent radiations : cranioleuca spinetails , muscisaxicola groundtyrants and spinus siskins ( formerly carduelis or sporagra ) . for continentally - distributed spinus siskins , however , the phylogeny employed ( van den elzen et al . , 2001 ) had sparse geographic sampling and poor resolution ; further , the molecular dating method applied by weir was not ideal for recent divergences ( garcía - moreno et al . , 2004 ; ho et al . , 2005 ) . thus , increasing the geographic sampling and phylogenetic resolution for the south american siskin radiation should provide insight into the tempo of avian pleistocene diversification within and outside the andes . . . .
. . . in addition , these species are morphologically similar to each other ( ramírez - pulido et al . 2004 ) ; therefore , based on our molecular analyses and morphological evidence , we suggest that the relationship of c . obscurus with various branches of c . mexicanus needs to be supported with additional data by examination of more individuals from more localities . last but not least , c . nelsoni is a species only known from the type locality in sierra de los tuxtlas , east of méxico ( merriam 1895 ; cervantes and guevara 2010 ) , a mountain system isolated from other mountains ( garcía - moreno et al . 2004 ) . previous hypotheses suggested an uncertain relationship due to the absence of postcranial material of c . nelsoni to be evaluated ( woodman and timm 2000 ; woodman 2005 ) . . . .
. . . evidence gathered to date suggests that c . nelsoni has been long enough in isolation to become morphologically and genetically different of c . mexicanus and c . obscurus ( cervantes and guevara 2010 ) . it is worth noting that the evolutionary relationships of the biota from los tuxtlas , veracruz are still difficult to understand ( garcía - moreno et al . 2004 ) . c . magnus , an enigmatic shrew our data are important evidence that c . magnus and c . phillipsii are sister groups . . . .
. . . a variety of studies in phylogeography have focused on the isthmus of tehuantepec and its influence on the speciation of different taxonomic groups including birds ( garcía - moreno et al . 2004 ; cortes - rodriguez et al . 2008 ; arbeláez - cortés et al . 2010 ; barrera - guzman et al . 2011 ) , mammals ( sullivan et al . 1997 ; kerhoulas 2008 ; guevara - chumacero et al . 2010 ) , amphibians ( duellman 1960 ) , and plants palicourea padifolia , ( gutiérrez - rodríguez et al . 2011 ) among others . however , most of these studies lacked rigorous multilocus methods to test hypotheses of demographic processes ( rosenberg and nordborg 2002 ) . . . .
. . . this parallel event is suggestive of two instances of peripatric speciation in opposite points of the geographic distribution of p . longirostris
sensu lato
associated with the existence of drier ecosystems . the results of this work agree with conclusions of other studies indicating that mesoamerica has been a place for speciation of various bird lineages , including hummingbirds ( e . g . , garcía - moreno et al . 2004 ; garcía - moreno et al . 2006 ; garcía - deras et al . 2008 ; navarro - sigüenza et al . 2008 ; gonzález et al . 2011 ; arbeláez - cortés et al . 2012 ) . in addition , this work contributes to a growing body of evidence indicating an active diversification of . . .
systematics , biogeography , and conservation of mesoamerican birds . emphasis in biological collections , biological databases , molecular systematics , and historical biogeography as tools for biodiver…
[ more ]
i museo de zoología alfonso l . herrera ,  facultad de ciencias , universidad nacional autónoma de méxico , apartado postal 70 - 399 , mexico , d . f . 04510 , mexico ; corresponding author : adolfo g . navarro - sigüenza , museo de zoología alfonso l . herrera ,  facultad de ciencias , universidad nacional autónoma de méxico , apartado postal 70 - 399 , méxico , d . f . 04510 , méxico ; e - mail : fcvg01 @ urltoken ii natural history museum and biodiversity research center , the university of kansas , lawrence , kansas 66045 usa
extensive debate has surrounded the application of alternative species concepts in ornithology . the biological species concept ( bsc ) and phylogenetic species concept ( psc ) have typically been set in opposition , with extensive debate on the relative merits of each . an alternative is the evolutionary species concept ( esc ) , which offers a perspective similar to that of the psc , yet with several significant differences . to date , no major avifauna has been examined and compared among taxonomic viewpoints . herein , we develop an alternative phylogenetic / evolutionary species taxonomy to the current bsc treatment for the more than 1000 bird species of mexico . a total of 135 biological species was divided to produce a total of 323 phylogenetic / evolutionary species , 122 of which represent new endemic forms in mexico .
gran debate ha rodeado la aplicación de conceptos de especie alternativos en la ornitología . el concepto biológico de especie ( cbe ) y el concepto filogenético de especie ( cfe ) han estado típicamente en contraposición , existiendo mucha discusión acerca de las ventajas relativas de cada uno . una alternativa es el concepto evolutivo de especie ( cee ) , que ofrece una perspectiva similar a la del cfe , aunque con algunas diferencias importantes . a la fecha , no se ha examinado y comparado alguna avifauna regional desde el punto de vista del cbe y de los conceptos alternativos . en este trabajo desarrollamos una taxonomía alternativa a la existente en la actualidad bajo el cbe para las más de 1000 especies de aves de méxico . un total de 135 especies biológicas fue dividido hasta producir un total de 323 especies filogenético / evolutivas , 122 de las cuales son nuevas formas endémicas al país .
ainley , d . c . 1980 . geographic variation in leachs stormpetrel . auk 97 : 837 - 853 . [ links ]
aldrich , j . w . 1944 . notes on the stellers jays ( cyanocitta stelleri ) of southern mexico . proceedings biological society of washington 57 : 23 - 24
aldrich , j . w . 1984 . ecogeographical variation in size and proportions of song sparrows ( melospiza melodia ) . ornithological monographs 35 : 1 - 135 . [ links ]
aldrich , j . w . & james , f . c . 1991 . ecogeographic variation in the american robin ( turdus migratorius ) . auk 108 : 230 - 249
amadon , d . , & short , l . l . 1992 . taxonomy of lower categoriessuggested guidelines . bulletin of the british ornithologists club supplement 112a : 11 - 38 . [ links ]
aou . 1983 . check - list of north american birds , 6th ed . american ornithologists union , washington , d . c . [ links ]
aou . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th ed . american ornithologists union , washington , d . c . [ links ]
baker , j . m . , lópez - medrano , e . , navarro , a . g . , rojas - soto , o . r . & omland , k . e . 2003 . recent speciation in orchard orioles group : divergence of icterus spurius spurius and icterus spurius fuertesi . auk 120 : 848 - 859 . [ links ]
banks r . c . , cicero , c . , dunn , j . l . , kratter , a . w . , ouellet , h . , rasmussen , p . c . , remsen jr . , j . v . , rising , j . a . & stotz , d . f . 2000 . forty - second supplement to the american ornithologists union check - list of north american birds . auk , 117 : 847 - 858 . [ links ]
banks , r . c . , cicero , c . , dunn , j . l . , kratter , a . w . , rasmussen , p . c . , remsen jr . , j . v . & stotz , d . f . 2002 . forty - third supplement to the american ornithologists union check - list of north american birds . auk 119 : 897 - 906 . [ links ]
baptista , l . f . 1978 . a revision of the mexican piculus ( picidae ) complex . wilson bulletin 90 : 159 - 181 . [ links ]
barajas l . , f . c . & phillips , a . r . 1993 . a haplospiza finch in western mexico ; the lessons of an enigma . bulletin british ornithologists club 114 : 36 - 46
barrowclough , g . f . 1980 . genetic and phenotipic differentiation in a wood warbler ( genus dendroica ) hybrid zone . auk 97 : 655 - 668 . [ links ]
barrowclough , g . f . & gutierrez , r . j . 1990 . genetic variation and differentiation in the spotted owl ( strix occidentalis ) . auk 107 : 737 - 744 . [ links ]
benítez - díaz , h . 1993 . geographic variation in morphology and coloration of the acorn woodpecker ( melanerpes formicivorus ) . condor 95 : 63 - 71 . [ links ]
berlioz , j . 1943 . etude critique des trochilidés du genre lampornis swainson . oiseaux 13 : 74 - 83 . [ links ]
binford , l . c . 1965 . two new subspecies of birds from oaxaca , mexico . occasional papers museum of zoology louisiana state university 30 : 1 - 6 . [ links ]
binford , l . c . 1989 . a distributional survey of the birds of the mexican state of oaxaca . ornithological monographs 43 : 1 - 405 . [ links ]
burns , k . j . 1998 . molecular phylogenetics of the genus piranga : implications for biogeography and the evolution of morphology and behavior . auk 115 : 621 - 634 . [ links ]
cortés - rodríguez , m . n . 2003 . filogeografía de lampornis amethystinus swainson ( aves : trochilidae ) . unpubl . b . s . dissertation facultad de ciencias , unam , mexico . [ links ]
cracraft , j . 1983 . species concepts and speciation analysis . current ornithology 1 : 159 - 187 . [ links ]
cracraft , j . 1992 . the species of the birds - of - paradise ( paradisaeidae ) : applying the phylogenetic species concept to a complex pattern of diversification . cladistics 8 : 1 - 43 . [ links ]
davis , j . i . , & nixon , k . c . 1992 . populations , genetic variation , and the delimitation of phylogenetic species . systematic biology 41 : 421 - 435 . [ links ]
dickerman , r . w . 1965 . the nomenclature of the redwinged blackbird ( ageliaus phoeniceus ) of south - central mexico . occasional papers museum of zoology louisiana state university 31 : 1 - 6 . [ links ]
dickerman , r . w . 1981 . geographic variation in the scrub euphonia . occasional papers museum of zoology louisiana state university 59 : 1 - 6 . [ links ]
dickerman , r . w . 1990 . the scaled antpitta , grallaria guatimalensis in mexico . southwestern naturalist 35 : 460 - 463 . [ links ]
dickerman , r . w . 1997 . geographic variation in southwestern u . s . and mexican spotted owls , with the description of a new subspecies . pp 45 - 48 in : dickerman , r . w . ( ed . ) the era of allan r . phillips : a festschrift . albuquerque , new mexico , usa . [ links ]
dickson , k . m . 2000 . the diversity of canada geese . occasional papers canadian wildlife service 103 : 11 - 24 . [ links ]
de queiroz , k . & donoghue , m . j . 1988 . phylogenetic species concepts and species revisited . cladistics 6 : 83 - 90 . [ links ]
escalante p . , p . & peterson , a . t . 1992 . geographic variation and species limits in the hummingbird genus thalurania . wilson bulletin 104 : 205 219 . [ links ]
escalante p . , p . , navarro s . , a . g . & peterson , a . t . 1993 . a geographic , historical , and ecological analysis of avian diversity in mexico . in the biological diversity of mexico : origins and distribution ( t . p . ramamoorthy , r . bye , a . lot , and j . fa , eds . ) . oxford university press , new york . pp . 281 307 . [ links ]
escalona - segura , g . & peterson , a . t . 1997 . variable plumage ontogeny in the black ( turdus infuscatus ) and glossy - black ( t . serranus ) robins . wilson bulletin 109 : 182 - 184 . [ links ]
garcía - deras , g . m . 2003 . límites de especies dentro del complejo cynanthus latirostris ( aves : trochilidae ) . unpubl . b . s . dissertation facultad de ciencias , unam , mexico . [ links ]
garrido , o . h . , peterson , a . t . , & komar , o . 1999 . geographic variation and taxonomy of the cave swallow ( hirundo fulva ) complex , with the description of a new subspecies from puerto rico . bulletin british ornithologists club 119 : 80 - 91
gordillo - martínez a . 2000 . modelling distributions of mexican odontophoridae : implications in conservation . proceedings of the 2nd international galliformes symposium . kathmandu and royal chitwan national park , nepal . pp . 79 - 85 . [ links ]
griscom , l . 1934 . the ornithology of guerrero , mexico . bulletin museum of comparative zoology 75 : 367 - 422 . [ links ]
groth , j . g . 1993 . evolutionary differentiation in morphology , vocalizations , and allozymes among nomatic sibling species in the north american red crossbill ( loxia curvirostra ) complex . university of california publications in zoology 127 : 1 - 143 . [ links ]
hilty , s . l . & brown , w . l . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton university press , usa . [ links ]
hinkelmann , c . , & schuchmann , k . l . 1997 . phylogeny of the hermit hummingbirds ( trochilidae : phaethornithinae ) . studies of neotropical fauna & environment 32 : 142 - 163 . [ links ]
holt , e . g . 1928 . the status of the great white heron ( ardea occidentalis audubon ) and wurdemanns heron ( ardea würdemanni baird ) . special publications cleveland museum of natural history 1 : 1 - 35 . [ links ]
honey - escandón , m . b . i . 2002 . filogeografía de las poblaciones del carpintero arlequín melanerpes formicivorus ( aves : picidae ) . unpubl . b . s . dissertation facultad de ciencias , unam , mexico . [ links ]
howell , s . n . g . 1993 . taxonomy and distribution of the hummingbird genus chlorostilbon in mexico and northern central america . euphonia 2 : 25 - 37 . [ links ]
howell , s . n . g . 1994 . the specific status of black - faced ant - thrushes in middle america . cotinga 1 : 21 - 25 . [ links ]
howell , s . n . g . 1993 . a taxonomic review of the greenfronted hummingbird . bulletin british ornithologists club 113 : 179 - 187 . [ links ]
howell , s . n . g . , & robbins , m . b . 1995 . species limits of the least pygmy - owl ( glaucidium minutissimum ) complex . wilson bulletin 107 : 7 - 25 . [ links ]
howell , s . n . g . , & webb , s . 1995 . a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america . oxford university press , oxford . [ links ]


inyoka is a monotypic genus of southern african colubrids .

the word " inyoka " is nguni for " snake " .

these snakes were previously grouped in the genus lamprophis but were found to be closer related to hormonotus ; a substantial genetic divergence between them and a 1900 km gap between their geographic ranges meant a new genus was erected for lamprophis swazicus , the sole species of the new genus .

inyoka

umose wenza inyoka yethusi , wayibeka ensikeni ; kwathi lapho inyoka imlumile umuntu , uma ebeyibheka inyoka yethusi , wasinda .
unumeri 21 : 9 zul59 ; umose wenza inyoka yethusi , wayibeka ensikeni ; kwathi lapho inyoka imlumile umuntu , uma ebeyibheka inyoka yethusi , wasinda .
cat nightengale ft . kelly lemon - lovesick ( prod . by inyoka ) * free download * by inyoka
inyoka art gallery , hoedspruit : address , phone number , inyoka art gallery reviews : 4 . 5 / 5
lamprophis swazicus schaefer 1970 lamprophis swazicus — boycott 1992 lamprophis swazicus — branch 1993 inyoka swazicus — kelly et al . 2011 inyoka swazicus — wallach et al . 2014 : 350 inyoka swazicus — bates et al . 2014 : 362
joe nice introduces another new talent to his label ! read our review for gb009 → urltoken 1 . inyoka - echidna vip 2 . inyoka - lia 3 . inyoka - program 4 . inyoka - peregrine discover the genre ' dubstep ' in its authentic meaning via our playlist → urltoken ✖ inyoka ✖ facebook | urltoken soundcloud | urltoken ✖ gourmet beats ✖ facebook | urltoken soundcloud | urltoken ✖ urltoken ✖ facebook | urltoken soundcloud | urltoken twitter | urltoken website | http : / / urltoken
inyoka gallery offers a wide range of local art . we were especially surprised by the items made during art classes with the local schools .
i decided to try out some shading digital wise . for a first run , i am pretty proud of the turnout ! not sure if digital is my thing or not , though . what do you all think ? whimsy is a personal inyoka - a species created and owned by myself . do not steal her , or the art related to the inyoka species .
habitat : rupicolous and occurs in rocky montane grassland type species : lamprophis swazicus schaefer , 1970 , is the type species of the genus inyoka branch & kelly in kelly et al . 2011 .
we at inyoka think that the dogma that dictates the do’s and don’ts of fashion severely limits men’s creative expression . and , it’s long overdue to be overthrown ! we need a stylistic revolt ! . . .
inyoka gallery shows off local talent from the area and encourages artists to participate by holding themed exhibitions where each artist creates their take on the theme . well worth a visit as there is much artistic talent in the area .
inyoka is a modern alternative jewellery brand born with the purpose to create accessible and innovative fashion forward designs for both men and women . we combine traditional jewellery parts with unconventional materials to create bold complex geometric shapes that are unique and unexpected .
‘inyoka’ means ‘snake’ in the nguni language group , of which siswati is the main language of swaziland , closely related to the isizulu , isindebele and isixhosa languages of adja - cent areas . the nguni languages have a number of noun classes that do not correspond to the gender classes of most indo - euro - pean languages . since gender is not inherent to such nouns , we treat inyoka as masculine for the purposes of name formation and therefore retain the epithet swazicus in its current form for the type species of the genus .
upcoming dates : 6 / 2 - philadelphia , pa ( one art community center / / pex ) 6 / 6 - wash , dc ( u st . music hall / / bassline business ) for any inquiries or booking info please e - mail : inyoka @ urltoken
gourmet beats begins 2017 in style with some absolutely crazy tunes from none less than inyoka . the virginia - based newcomer presents his first official solo - ep through probably the most suitable imprint in the united states for upcoming talent ; joe nice’s very own gourmet beats . episode after episode gourmet beats proves to have a great taste for quality dubstep . our colleagues at trusik also recently acknowledged inyoka as “one to keep your eyes on” and claims his productions as “efficiently minimal , full of dark atmospherics and plenty of sub weight” . gb009 is due to release on the 3rd of february 2017 .
swazi rock snake inyoka swazicus swaziland red data status : data deficient southern african red data status : rare international red data status : near threatened key features : broad flattened head , distinct from the neck and long slender body comments : restricted to the highveld region this species has a limited distribution in swaziland . this species is endemic to south africa and swaziland . the type locality of the species , which is forbes reef ( schaefer 1970 ) , is located in malolotja nature reserve . habitats : rocky ridges and slopes
swazi rock snake – inyoka swazicus the swazi rock snake is large eyed slender house snake that is extremely secretive and considered rare in much of its range . the swazi rock snake is only found in the eastern most parts of south africa including losotho and swaziland . the swazi rock snake is usually a dark red , red brown , beige , orange brown , to light bright . the have a tendacy to favor rocky outcrops hunting a wide range of prey in and around rock crevices . the are considered nocturnal and their large eys help them see in the darkness . the are considered small by house snake standards and are ussually around 40 to 50 cm with 90 cm as a maximum length
type locality :
forbes reef , swaziland ( 26˚42 ' s , 31˚ 05 ' e ) .
[ = manzini district , western swaziland ] . corrected to 26° 8 ' 58 . 50
s , 31° 6 ' 13 . 13
e and 26° 8 ' 55 . 62
s , 31° 6 ' 23 . 49
e by james culverwell , pers . comm . , 25 may 2015 ) .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : pem 1514 / 81 , a 568 mm specimen ( j . culverwell , oct . 1968 ? ) .
bates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .
boycott , r . c . 1992 . an annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of swaziland . the conservation trust of swaziland - get paper here
branch w r 1984 . the house snakes of southern africa ( genus lamprophis ) . litteratura serpentium 4 ( 3 - 4 ) : 106 - 120
branch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .
hermann r 1993 . seltene hausschlangen sudafrikas . teil 2 . lamprophis inornatus ( dumeril , bibron & dumeril , 1854 ) und lamprophis swazicus schaefer , 1970 . sauria 15 ( 4 ) : 3 - 8 - get paper here
kelly , christopher m . r . ; william r . branch , donald g . broadley , nigel p . barker , martin h . villet 2011 . molecular systematics of the african snake family lamprophiidae fitzinger , 1843 ( serpentes : elapoidea ) , with particular focus on the genera lamprophis fitzinger 1843 and mehelya csiki 1903 . mol phylogenet evol . 58 ( 3 ) : 415 - 426 - get paper here
schaefer , n . 1970 . a new species of house snake from swaziland , with notes on the status of the two genera lamprophis and boaedon . ann . cape prov . mus . ( nat . hist . ) 8 ( 14 ) : 205 - 208 .
visser j 1979 . notes on two rare house snakes . part 2 . the generic status of lamprophis fiskii boulenger ( 1887 ) and lamprophis swazicus schaefer ( 1970 ) . j . herp . assoc . africa 21 : 31 - 37 - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
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we ' re an association of artists . our gallery features the work of people living , working and creating in and around hoedspruit in limpopo province , south africa . run by the community , for the community , most of the work shown on this website is for sale . we are open daily from 08h30 to 16h00 .
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kelly , c . m . r . , branch , w . r . , broadley , d . g . , barker , n . p and villet , m . h . 2011 . molecular systematics of the african snake family lamprophiidae fitzinger , 1843 ( serpentes : elapoidea ) , with particular focus on the genera lamprophis fitzinger 1843 and mehelya csiki 1903 . molecular phylogenetics & evolution 58 ( 3 ) : 415 - 426 .
justification : although the species is rarely encountered , it occurs over a fairly wide range in rocky habitats that do not appear to be significantly impacted by anthropogenic habitat transformation hence it is assessed here as least concern . however , afforestation in the northern parts of the range has almost certainly destroyed or altered some habitat .
endemic to southern africa . found from central limpopo in the north , southwards through mpumulanga and swaziland , reaching northern kwazulu - natal .
inhabits rock outcrops in grassland and savanna ( branch 1998 ) . shelters under rocks on rock , or in crevices , at altitudes of 1 , 400 - 1 , 900 m ( jacobsen 1989 ) .
there appear to be few threats facing this species . habitat transformation by mining and use of land for exotic plantations may be a threat but probably rarely affects the rocky outcrops that this species inhabits .
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an awesome place / project ! please , go in there and get inspired ! you deserve it - and they do . . .
we ' re an association of artists . our gallery features the work of people living , working and creating in and around hoedspruit in limpopo province , south africa . run by the community , for the community , most of the work shown on this website is for . . .
some wonderful local artists on display here , quality works that would not get the opportunity without this artist ' s co - op .
this is a forum for being in touch with local talent we found quite refreshing and a good concept . it is nice to see the quality of the contributing artists and one has to return as exhibitions rotate .
you can view any artwork you have in mind . big gallery and enough space to walk through and enjoy the art .
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some lovely local art to browse and / or buy . the little store next door had some fabulous local artefacts for sale as well .
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thanks so much for your support - we are very proud of our artists and the work they produce . we hope to welcome you back often .
i attende the event of friday night ( 31st july 2015 ) it was beautiful . peole of hoedspruit community are full of love . i really enjoyed the event . they have beautiful and affordable art works . i just love the place . keep up the good work . god will . . .
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we ' re an association of artists . our gallery features the work of . . .
we ' re an association of artists . our gallery features the work of people living , working and creating in and around hoedspruit in limpopo province , south africa . run by the community , for the community , most of the work shown on this website is for sale . note that we currently have about 70 members and will be adding their work to this website as fast as we can .
thanks so much for taking the time to share your experience of our gallery . we are immensely proud of the work being produced by the school children in our community and are really happy we ' re able to showcase their talent and help them sell their work to raise much - needed funds .


the papuan toby is a small sized fish which grows up to 10 cm .

it is widely distributed throughout the tropical waters of the indian ocean and of the western pacific ocean .

it inhabits coral reefs with clear water in lagoons and external slop even drop-off from 6 to 50 m. canthigaster papua has a diurnal activity .

it occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade .

canthigaster papua

the papua toby ( canthigaster papua ) is one of the most attractive members of the genus .
aquarium fish : the papuan ( canthigaster papua ) and ocellated toby ( c . solandri )
a netted toby , canthigaster papua , at tufi wharf , papua new guinea . source : dave harasti / urltoken license : all rights reserved
canthigaster papua , also known as the papuan toby , is a demersal marine fish belonging to the family tetraodontidae .
aquarium fish : the papuan ( canthigaster papua ) and ocellated toby ( c . solandri ) — advanced aquarist | aquarist magazine and blog
scott michael . aquarium fish : the papuan ( canthigaster papua ) and ocellated toby ( c . solandri ) - advanced aquarist - ( english )
canthigaster papua has long been considered a color form of c . solandri . note the differences between this photo and the shots of c . solandri below .
the papuan toby ( canthigaster papua ) has a red - brown body covered in small bright blue - green dots . orange markings highlight its mouth and there is a . . .
i have long “had a thing” for one group of these “inflatable fishes . ” these are the puffers in the genus canthigaster ( known commonly as the tobies or sharpnosed puffers ) . there are approximately 32 species in the genus canthigaster . one of the most spectacular of these is the papuan toby ( canthigaster papua ) . for a long time c . papua was considered synonymous with the ocellated or bluespotted toby ( canthigaster solandri ) . now there are a number of ichthyologists that recognize the two as distinct species . canthigaster papua is known from the philippines , indonesia , new guinea and australia , while c . solandri is more wide - ranging , having been reported from east africa east to the hawaiian and line islands . another very similar species , the pearl toby ( canthigaster margaritata ) , is restricted in distribution to the red sea .
specimens of c . papua are very common in museum collections ( fishnet2 searched 28 march 2012 ) .
due to its affinity with coral reefs , c . papua may be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss .
due to its affinity with coral reefs , c . papua may be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range .
fish from the canthigaster genus , also known as tobies , are smaller then most pufferfish and cannot blow themselves up to the same degree .
this species is similar to canthigaster solandri , but can be distinguished by the orange area beneath the snout and the blue spots on the side .
the fingerprint toby ( canthigaster compressa ) is not as common in the aquarium trade as these similar congeners . the husbandry of all these species is similar .
the ambon toby ( canthigaster amboinensis ) differs from its close relatives in the length of the snout and the coloration . this species is often found in the surge zone .
an adult male ocellated toby ( canthigaster solandri ) can be a very beautiful beast . even though it has been known to eat sps corals in nature , some aquarists have successfully kept in reef aquariums .
allen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 . ( as canthigaster solandri ) allen , g . r . & j . e .
australia ; cambodia ; disputed territory ( spratly is . ) ; guam ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; japan ; malaysia ; micronesia , federated states of ; myanmar ; new caledonia ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; singapore ; solomon islands ; thailand ; tuvalu ; viet nam
canthigaster papua is distributed from the andaman islands throughout the philippines and indonesia to solomon islands ranging to palau , australia ( northern great barrier reef and northwest shelf ) and new caledonia ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) , excluding christmas island . the range is extended westward to include : yap island , guam , and fongafale island , tuvalu . the range is extended northward to include the ryuku islands , japan ( stump in prep 2014 ) . it is found at depths ranging from 1–35 metres ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . the type locality is bima , sumbawa island , lesser sunda islands , indonesia ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .
one final interesting tidbit - there are some very interesting mimetic relationships that exist between several tobies and three filefish species . all of these are examples of batesian mimic - where a toxic species is mimicked by a non - toxic form . the saddled toby ( canthigaster valentini ) is mimicked by the saddled filefish ( paraluteres prionurus ) , the pearl toby is mimicked by the red sea puffer mimic ( paraluteres arquat ) while an undescribed monacanthid , known commonly as the spotted puffer mimic ( paraluteres sp . ) , resembles the ocellated toby .
greek , kanthos = the outer or inner corner of the eye , where the lids meet , 1646 + greek , gaster = stomach ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 6 - 50 m ( ref . 37816 ) . tropical ; 21°n - 25°s , 72°e - 171°e
indo - west pacific : maldives to eastern new guinea , north to the philippines and palau , south to the great barrier reef and new caledonia .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48637 )
dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 10 ; anal soft rays : 8 - 10 .
lives in coastal to outer reef habitats from silty to pristine reefs ( ref . 48637 ) . occurs in clear , coral - rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs ( ref . 37816 ) . sometimes solitary ( ref . 90102 ) . adults often in pairs along deep drop - offs while juveniles can be found in shallow estuaries ( ref . 48637 ) .
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) , 1999 . catalog of fishes . updated database version of november 1999 . catalog databases as made available to fishbase in november 1999 . ( ref . 33021 )
) : 26 . 4 - 28 . 9 , mean 28 ( based on 224 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03548 ( 0 . 01779 - 0 . 07077 ) , b = 2 . 92 ( 2 . 73 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .
lives in coastal to outer reef habitats from silty to pristine reefs ( ref . 48637 ) . occurs in clear , coral - rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs ( ref . 37816 ) . sometimes solitary ( ref . 90102 ) . adults often in pairs along deep drop - offs while juveniles can be found in shallow estuaries ( ref . 48637 ) .
10 . 0 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48637 ) )
description : characterized by reddish brown body color with small blue - white spots on head , body and caudal fin ; blue eye spokes ; snout and back with blue lines ; base of dorsal fin with prominent blue - edged black spot ; depth of body at origin of anal fin 2 . 1 - 2 . 7 in sl ; head length 2 . 3 - 2 . 7 in sl ; snout length 1 . 3 - 1 . 5 in head length ; caudal peduncle depth 1 . 7 - 2 . 2 in head length ; slightly rounded caudal fin ( ref . 90102 ) .
reef - associated ; marine ; depth range 6 - 50 m ( ref . 37816 )
it inhabits coral reefs with clear water in lagoons and external slop even drop - off from 6 to 50 m .
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both the papuan and ocellated tobies are excellent aquarium inhabitants . the only possible drawback with these tobies is that some individuals will nip the fins of other fishes .
eef fish posses a variety of anatomical and behavioral characteristics to help them avoid predators . sharp spines , extreme agility , cryptic coloration , noxious body slime , and batesian mimicry are all examples of adaptations that some fish possess to lessen the chances that they will become a meal . but probably the most unusual antipredation adaptation possessed by reef fishes is body inflation . this is where a fish increases it ' s girth by swallowing water ( or in some cases air ) . several fish groups are known to possess this unusual gift , including the swell sharks ( genus
) , the frogfishes ( antennariidae ) , the porcupinefishes ( diodontidae ) and the pufferfishes ( tetraodontidae ) . apparently , by increasing their size these animals reduce the chances that a predator will be able to ingest them , or by suddenly inflating they might startle a would - be predator , or make themselves difficult to extract from a reef crevice .
the two species differ in coloration . the papuan toby is brown overall with blue spots on the side of the body , blue lines on the back and the dorsal surface of the caudal peduncle , a black spot at the base of the dorsal fin and orange on the underside of the snout . the ocellated toby has spots on the side of the body , on the back and caudal peduncle , with some lines radiating from the eyes , and has no or little orange on the ventral surface of the snout , head or belly . both species typically have orange on the tail , but c . papuensis usually sports more orange . the papuan toby is probably sexually dichromatic and dimorphic . in the closely related c . solandri the males attain a larger size and typically have fewer , larger spots than females . there also appears to be some size and color differences between the sexes in the papuan toby .
these two tobies are found at water depths from 1 to 34 m ( 3 to 118 feet ) in depth , generally in areas protected from strong water movement , around coral heads , rocky reefs , sea grass meadows , pier pilings and in a number of different reef habitats ( e . g . fringing reefs , lagoons around patch reefs , on the back and fore reef ) . in micronesia juveniles are said to be more common in shallower , more protected areas than adults . these tobies feed most on algae , followed by an array of benthic invertebrates , such as tunicates and small crustaceans . tube worms , foraminiferans , fish parts , and coral are also consumed to a lesser degree . they are reported to neatly nip off the tips of small - polyped stony ( e . g . acropora spp . ) and alcyonarian corals with its strong fused teeth . these tobies can be observed singly , in pairs , or in groups on the reef . adults are often seen in pairs , but are likely haremic like many other tobies .
both the papuan and ocellated tobies are excellent aquarium inhabitants . the only possible drawback with these tobies is that some individuals will nip the fins of other fishes . you may not see them doing the nipping , only the results of it – circular bite marks on the fins . fortunately , most individuals do not engage in this undesirable behavior . when they do nip tankmates , they most often assault long - finned fishes , like comets , bannerfishes , batfishes and tangs . tobies are rarely aggressive towards other fish species , with the possible exception of congeners . the papuan and ocellated tobies are territorial fishes , with males excluding consexuals from their territories . therefore , individuals ( especially males ) may fight with each other if placed in the same tank . it is possible to keep a male with a female together in a larger aquarium ( e . g . , 100 gallons or more ) .
toby fighting usually begins with bouts of displaying , where the combatants increase their apparent size by erecting a ridge on the back and belly . they perform these lateral displays to try and drive their opponent away with out actually coming to blows . but , if one individual does not back down and leave the area biting will usually ensue . this can result in severe injuries . the problem with captive combat , is that the fish that retreats cannot “leave the area” since our aquariums are so much smaller than the normal toby territory and hence this subordinate is chastised by the more dominant , or territory holding fish . if it gets to the point where biting occurs you will need to separate the fish or risk losing one of them to injury . you could try taking the dominant fish out of the tank and placing it in a different aquarium for a week or two , and then try adding the more aggressive fish back into the tank and see what happens . in some cases the subordinate will accept its position in the pecking order from the onset and avoid the more dominant fish . in these cases lethal fighting usually does not occur .
tobies will eat a wide variety of chopped , fresh seafood , flake foods and frozen preparations . it is very important to feed these fish at least twice a day , especially in tanks that lack plant growth or sessile invertebrates . if fed any less than this , these fishes will loss weight . tobies do best when housed in a tank that has an abundance of fleshy or filamentous algae , on which they can browse throughout the day . because they are omnivores , it is important to include sufficient quantities of plant material in their diets , including algae , spinach , dried algae and frozen and / or flake foods formulated for herbivores . tobies should also be housed in a tank with some hard calcareous decor that they can nip at or the aquarist can add a small piece of live rock now and then for them to chew on . this will help ware down their teeth , which will continue to grow and can get so long that they interfere with their normal feeding behavior .
if a specimen shows chronic , abnormal distention of the abdomen it may be suffering from an internal infestation of nematode worms of the genus philometra . unlike normal toby inflation , the distended abdomen of fish suffering from this infection will be asymmetrical in form and will change shape as the parasites move around . schleser ( 1994 ) recommends introducing fenbendazole ( add at a volume of 1 % of the active ingredient ) to gelatin based foods to eradicate intestinal worms .
a smaller c . solandri beginning to preform an aggressive display . note the partially erected ridge on the ventrum .
although it can break the ice at parties , provoking your toby to inflate is not a good puffer maintenance practice . this will stress your fish and it could prove to be fatal if your toby ingests air . tobies sometimes have difficulty expelling air from the stomach and end up bobbing helplessly at the water ' s surface . another word of warning ; these fish are not strong swimmers , so make sure all siphons tubes have strainers or small specimens may end up in your power filter .
myers , r . f . 1999 . micronesian reef fishes . coral graphics , guam , pp . 330 .
schleser , d . m . 1994 . captive husbandry of batfish ( family ogcocephalidae ) . aquarium frontiers , spring : 27 - 29 .
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carpenter , k . e . , comeros - raynal , m . , harwell , h . & sanciangco , j .
is widespread in the western pacific , where is appears to be common . it inhabits a wide range of coral reef - associated habitats at depths ranging from 6 to 180 metres .
is a component of the marine aquarium trade , however there are no indications of population declines from harvesting at present time . there have been no documented population declines in
, however due to its affinity with coral reefs this species may be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range . there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for
, however its distribution overlaps with several marine reserves in parts of its range . it is therefore listed as least concern .
is abundant on inshore coral - reefs of the indo - australian archipelago ( frisch 2006 ) .
is a reef - associated species which lives in coastal to outer reef habitats from silty to pristine reefs ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . it occurs in clear , coral - rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs ( myers 1999 ) . adults are often seen in pairs along deep drop - offs while juveniles can be found in shallow estuaries ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .
, may be mimics of this species ( frisch 2006 ) . this species is an omnivorous benthic forager . larvae of this species were found to settle on moorings and artificial structures ( leis
is sexually dimorphic ( stump in prep . 2014 ) . in all species for which spawning has been described , males are larger than females and defend territories that include multiple females . spawning occurs during the day and involves the preparation of an algal nest on the substratum by the females into which eggs are deposited and fertilized by the male , and spawning occurs in multiple bouts , with no parental care after the last bout . this is consistent with field observations of spawning , social organization , and sexual dimorphism in other
species ( gladstone 1987 , kobayashi 1988 , sikkel 1990 , sikkel and sikkel 2012 ) .
is a component of the marine aquarium trade . it is exported from sumatra and other parts of indonesia , and retails for moderate prices ( liveaquaria . com accessed 05 march 2012 ) .
2008 ) . of 704 zooxanthellate reef - building coral species which were assessed by using the international union for conservation of nature red list criteria , 32 . 8 % are in categories with elevated risk of extinction ( carpenter
in the south western pacific islands , which include 27 , 060 km 2 of coral reef area , 4 % of the reefs have been effectively lost ( 90 % mortality ) , while 17 % are at a critical stage with 50–90 % loss of coral cover as of 2008 ( wilkinson et al . 2008 ) .
declines in mean coral cover have been recorded in mauritius and la réunion ( wilkinson et al . 2008 ) . in la réunion , native fish fauna are threatened by eutrophication and pollution , overfishing and poaching , by marine aquaculture , and by shoreline construction ( fricke et al . 2009 ) .
in the southwestern indian ocean , which includes 5 , 270 km 2 of coral reef area , 9 % of the reefs have been effectively lost ( 90 % mortality ) , while 24 % are at a critical stage with 50–90 % loss of coral cover as of 2008 ( wilkinson et al . 2008 ) .
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this species has a toxin in its skin , which it releases when highly stressed or dying .
this poison can kill all the aquatic life in the aquarium , if unlucky .
these fish must not suck in air when they are being fed or transported , as they have difficulties expelling it again .
this species eats shrimps , crayfish , crabs , small bivalves , sea urchins , snails and similar .
these fish require food which helps to prevent overgrowing teeth . e . g . clams .
if their teeth grow too much , it might necessitate grinding them down , however this is a very stressful procedure .
these fish should be kept in a well run aquarium where they can
graze
algae from rocks and stones .
if there are insufficient algae on the rocks , it is important to feed more frequently and supplement with algae rich food e . g . spirulina .
one must avoid catching pufferfish with a net , as there is a risk of it
puffing
itself up , whilst being in it . it can be fatal if it
puffs
itself up when out of the water , as it will have trouble getting rid of the air again . if it is stuck in the net it is necessary to cut it free .
when transported , the pufferfish can release a poison , so avoid emptying this water into the aquarium .
some , but by no means all , are known nip other fish , hermit crabs and the like . these small pufferfish can sometimes be kept in a coral aquarium , but it is necessary to ascertain which corals they are likely to nip .
pufferfish ( tetraodontidae ) are known for their unique way of swimming , their very interesting personality and of course their ability to puff up . it is not a coincidence that so many aquarists fall for these funny fish .
in nature , pufferfish blow water onto sand to find food , hence they are also called
blowfish
. they will sometimes do this in the aquarium . in addition to this they will also spray water out of the tank , so do not be suprised if they do : - ) site electrical equipment with care .
many of the species have spines , but these can normally only be seen when the fish is puffed up .
they are not generally reef safe , and will sometimes nibble at the fins of the other fish . they are , on the other hand , very hardy and if ones purchases a healthy specimen it can live for many years under good conditions .
one must be careful when handling and transporting the fish , as many of the species will release a toxin into the water .
they are described as being difficult to keep , but if one has the correct equipment and food , it is indeed possible . something to be aware of with pufferfish is that they demand a lot of food , so the aquarium must be able to handle this . they require food which grinds their teeth , as they keep on growing through out their life . the fish is unable to eat if their teeth grow too long . suitable foods are snails or mussels . flake foods are not suitable for pufferfish even though they will eat it . it must be supplemented with a varied selection of seafood and frozen foods .
when selecting a pufferfish at the fish store , one must be aware of parasites , as these are quite common among them . these may show up as white spots or small irregularities in the skin . they can also have internal parasites which can only be avoided by quarantining the fish .
see more about feeding , selecting and diseases in john champlin ' s article .
john champlin . puffer care and information - urltoken - ( english ) bob fenner . all my puffers , tobies , box , porcupine , cowfishes - wet web media - ( english )
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .
minimum volume
indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .
this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .
hardiness
indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .
in this case , a
normal
aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .
special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .
always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .
often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .
reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .
reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .
not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .
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specificationsmpn228 - puffermanufacturerthat fish placecommon namepapuan toby - sm / medscientific namecanthigaster papuadifficultyeasyreef safenoinvert . . .
the netted toby is brownish to orange with numerous small bluish - green spots on the body and tail , black - edged bluish - green lines radiating from the eye and on the head , and a black spot below the dorsal fin . small juvenile common coral trout ( plectropomus leopardus ) and barcheek coral trout ( plectropomus marginatus ) avoid predators by mimicing the poisonous netted toby .
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urltoken
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014
special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the false - eye puffer get ' s it ' s name from the black spot at the base of the dorsal fin which looks like an eye .
a false - eye puffer at ribbon reef . photographer : erik schlögl © erik schlögl
the false - eye puffer can be recognised by its colouration . it is brown to orange with numerous small blue - green spots on the body and caudal fin . black - edged blue - green lines radiate from the eye and a black spot is present below the dorsal fin .
in australia it is known from the offshore reefs of north - western western australia and from the northern great barrier reef .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
randall . 1977 . review of the sharpnose pufferfishes ( subfamily canthigasterinae ) of the indo - pacific . records of the australian museum . 30 ( 17 ) : 475 - 517 .
kuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .
randall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .
lateral view of a false - eye puffer . view full size photographer : erik schlögl © erik schlögl
dorsal view of a false - eye puffer . view full size photographer : erik schlögl © erik schlögl