yorgia waggoneri is a discoid ediacaran , resembling a transition between the organisms dickinsonia and spriggina .

it has a low , segmented body consisting of a short wide " head " , no appendages , and a long body region , reaching a maximum length of 25 cm ( 9.8 in ) .

it is classified within the extinct animal phylum proarticulata .

yorgia

yorgia waggoneri , south australian museum specimen p49365 . scale bar = 1 cm . modified from coutts et al . ( 2016 ) .
yorgia waggoneri is an unusual organism that is similar to both dickinsonia and andiva . however , unlike those organisms , yorgia has a clear asymmetry to the arrangement of units that run down its length . it also has pronounced anteroposterior differentiation ( i . e . its front and back ends are significantly different ) . the ' front ' of the organism is characterised by fine branching structures that look similar to capillaries , and which taper toward the edge . an unusual asymmetric ' lobe ' sits ' anterior ' of the ' segmented ' body . trace fossils can be found closely associated with the body fossil impression of yorgia , suggesting that it was a mobile organism .
dickinsonia is generally regarded as a member of the vendobionta — a group of organisms that thrived just before most of the modern multicellular animal phyla appeared in the fossil record . other vendobionta such as yorgia and marywadea somewhat resemble dickinsonia , and may be related .
ovatoscutum fossils are negative imprints on the bases of sandstone beds with the
elephant skin
and tubercle texture , diagnostic of microbial mats . the same bedding planes contain various other benthic organisms : yorgia , andiva , dickinsonia , tribrachidium , kimberella , parvancorina and others .
jim gehling , mary droser , sören jensen , and bruce runnegar author the next chapter , which focuses on the form and function of ediacaran organisms . they review ediacaran fossil preservation , as well as providing new evidence , primarily from trace fossils , for the life modes of some well - known ediacaran organisms . based on associated serial resting traces , for example , dickinsonia and yorgia are interpreted as using their lower surfaces to decompose the underlying microbial mat surface and absorb the released nutrients .
~ volume up / headphones ~ # asmr # asmr qualities info : a few moments with yorgia karidi ' s work . camera by petros nikoltsos . edited by yorgia karidi . 88yor88 @ urltoken all works presented as well as the video & audio ; work on this piece are by y . karidi . except the ' sunday afternoon ' peg on 2 : 13 . that is a promo for a series of live music sessions conceived and realised by angelos kiriou in 2015 , co - produced by pseudon studio . the wooden orila logo ( orl rec & paraphenalia ) is a present by the label - founder yiannis iasonidis himself . the superimposed video on 3 : 50 is realised with the help of thodoras vogiatzidis . a few words on occasion of the group publication seen on 2 : 20 . ' oute isia grami ' means ' not even a straight line ' . fifteen or more people are gathering in drawing sessions since 2011 . our days together were collectively organised and curated under open , freestyle principals . i feel as if i have done a second master ' s degree spending both work and leasure time with them .
fig . 10 . 3 . vendobionts grew unusually large for unicellular organisms . while sharing a quilted foliate construction , they radiated into a variety of shapes and life styles on and below the ubiquitous precambrian biomats . note that dickinsonia ( as yorgia , figure 10 . 2 ) lived on top of the mat and were mobile , while phyllozoon probably lived below the mat and was immobile ( figure 10 . 7 ) . among the anchored forms , paracharnia was built for swaying in a current , while a stiff stem allowed other forms to stand upright in quieter waters . note also that in rangea the opposite branch of each quilt pair bent alternatingly into one of the two inner vanes and thereby reduced space problems . ( modified from seilacher ( 2003 ) . )
fig . 10 . 3 . vendobionts grew unusually large for unicellular organisms . while sharing a quilted foliate construction , they radiated into a variety of shapes and life styles on and below the ubiquitous precambrian biomats . note that dickinsonia ( as yorgia , figure 10 . 2 ) lived on top of the mat and were mobile , while phyllozoon probably lived below the mat and was immobile ( figure 10 . 7 ) . among the anchored forms , paracharnia was built for swaying in a current , while a stiff stem allowed other forms to stand upright in quieter waters . note also that in rangea the opposite branch of each quilt pair bent alternatingly into one of the two inner vanes and thereby reduced space problems . ( modified from seilacher ( 2003 ) . )
as mentioned above , the view that the largest , most common and most diversified organisms of the ediacaran biota were giant protozoans ( rather than metazoans ) was based mainly on their allometric compartmentation . partly overturned fronds show that quilting patterns were identical on upper and lower surfaces . the penetration of two infaunal pteridinium specimens by another individual and their growth responses to this accident ( figure 10 . 1 ) are hard to reconcile with metazoans . so are the resting tracks left behind by dickinsonia and yorgia ( figure 10 . 2 ) . they destroy the elephant - skin structure of the biomat and are too deep to have been produced simply by the weight of the organism ; yet there are no scratches related to mechanical digging . digestion of the biomat by microscopic pseudopodia best explains the morphology of these resting traces and the lack of a visible trackway connecting them .
movement amongst the ediacaran macrobiota ? there is evidence , particularly from south australia and the white sea , that a small number of the ediacaran macro - organisms were capable of movement . dickinsonia and yorgia have both been found preserved alongside ' ghost ' impressions of their bodies , interpreted to record previous positions of the organism as it moved across the seafloor and fed ( sperling & vinther 2010 ; ivantsov 2011 ) . meanwhile , kimberella has been found at the end of long grooves , and next to fan - like arrays of scratch marks , that have been suggested to record evidence for movement and grazing ( ivantsov 2009 ; gehling et al . 2014 ) . at present , these are the only ediacaran macro - organisms to have been found in direct association with traces , but they suggest that at least some of the ediacaran biota were mobile , and probably animals .
original russian text © a . yu . ivantsov , 2011 , published in paleontologicheskii zhurnal , 2011 , no . 3 , pp . 3–13 .
droser , m . l . , gehling , j . g . , and jensen , s . r . ,
, new haven : yale univ . press , 2005 , pp . 125–138 .
dzik , j . and ivantsov , a . yu . , an asymmetric segmented organism from the vendian of russia and the status of the dipleurozoa ,
belomorskaya biota venda : tr . geol . in - ta an sssr . vyp . 342
( white sea vendian biota : proceedings of the geological institute of the academy of sciences of the ussr , vol . 342 ) , moscow : nauka , 1981 .
( vendian system : historical geology and paleontological substantiation : vol . 1 . paleontology ) , sokolov , b . s . and ivanovskii , a . b . , eds . , moscow : nauka , 1985 , pp . 70–106 .
besskeletnaya fauna venda i ee mesto v evolyutsii metazoa : tr . paleontol . in - ta an sssr . t . 226
, ( soft - bodied vendian fauna and its place in the evolution of metazoa : proceedings of the paleontological institute of the academy of sciences of the ussr , vol . 226 ) , moscow : nauka , 1987 .
fedonkin , m . a . and waggoner , b . m . , the late precambrian fossil
, new haven : yale univ . press , 2005 , pp . 43–66 .
glaessner , m . f . and wade , m . , the late precambrian fossils from ediacara , south australia ,
treatise on invertebrate paleontology . part a . introduction . fossilization ( taphonomy ) , biogeography and biostratigraphy
grazhdankin , d . v . and ivantsov , a . yu . , reconstruction of biotopes of ancient metazoa of the late vendian white sea biota ,
( ecosystem restructure and the evolution of the biosphere , vol . 4 ) , ponomarenko , a . g . , rozanov , a . yu . , and fedonkin , m . a . , eds . , moscow : paleontol . inst . ross . akad . nauk , 2001a , pp . 119–120 .
ivantsov , a . yu . and fedonkin , m . a . , traces of active movement—final evidence for the animal nature of ediacaran organisms ,
( proceedings of the international symposium “evolution of life on the earth” ) , tomsk : ntl , 2001a , pp . 133–137 .
ivantsov , a . yu . and fedonkin , m . a . , locomotion trails of the vendian invertebrates preserved with the producer’s body fossils , white sea , russia ,
ivantsov , a . yu . and malakhovskaya , i . e . , gigantic traces of vendian animals ,
evolyutsionnaya morfologiya zhivotnykh . k stoletiyu so dnya rozhdeniya akad . a . v . ivanova . ch . i . tr . spb . ob - va estestvoispytatelei . ser . 1 . t . 97
( evolutionary morphology of animals . a contribution to the 100th anniversary of the birth of academician a . v . ivanov . part i : proceedings of the st . petersburg society of naturalists , ser . 1 , vol . 97 ) , st . petersburg : gos . s . - peterb . univ . 2008a , pp . 32–42 .
jenkins , r . j . f . and gehling , j . g . , a review of the frond - like fossils of the ediacara assemblage ,
( stratigraphy of the ussr : upper precambrian ) , moscow : nauka , 1963 , pp . 504–505 .
seilacher , a . , grazhdankin , d . v . , and leguta , a . , ediacaran biota : the dawn of animal life in the shadow of giant protists ,
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diagnosis ( from ivantsov , 1999 ) :  body with flattened upper and lower surfaces , relatively high , rounded in outlines . one margin pointed , opposite blunt . body composed of two rows of narrow transverse elements of equal width . elements of row displaced with respect to elements of opposite row along longitudinal axis approximately at one half of element ' s width . angle between elements and longitudinal axis varies from 0 degrees on pointed edge to 90 degrees on blunt edge . lateral flanks of elements pointed and bent towards edge of body .
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type specimen : pin 3993 / 5024 . its type locality is level 1 , yorga beds , mezen ' fm . , russia - ivantsov 1999 , which is in an ediacaran transition zone / lower shoreface siltstone / shale in the mezen ' formation of the russian federation .
this fossil is from the latest precambrian ( vendian ) of the winter coast of the white sea , in north russia , just north of the city of arkhangel ' sk . no one is entirely certain what it
. it was clearly soft - bodied in life - - specimens are often found crinkled , folded , or even folded part way over . it seems to have had a definite
head
end , but its body segments alternate up the midline ( like the fingers of two folded hands ) , and the
head
is asymmetrical . some specimens show light zigzag lines that are probably muscles , and the specimens are often preserved in what look like contracted or distorted positions , which further suggests that they had some sort of muscles in life . the
head
contains unusual branching structures that may have been some sort of digestive organ . at any rate , many arthropods have similar finely branched extensions of the gut , branching off in the head region and forming the digestive glands . but this fossil isn ' t an arthropod . there ' s no sign of legs , and the asymmetrical segmentation isn ' t like anything seen in typical arthropods .
in 1994 , i found the first specimen of this oddball , preserved as an impression on a loose block of fine sandstone that had slid down from some crumbling bluffs on the white sea coast , near the mouth of yorga creek . i remember coming back to camp and saying to my russian colleague , andrei ivantsov ,
nashól trilobít !
( i found a trilobite ! ) . . . and he got a little annoyed because he thought i was teasing him . . . until he came to the site the next day , agreed that i had in fact found something weird and noteworthy , and carefully chiseled the fossil off the sandstone block .
the next year , andrei found several more of these things at a new locality on the white sea coast . he described the thing in a paper pubished in 1999 . it ' s not a trilobite . . . but even so , andrei did me the great honor of naming it after me . yes , this is the world - famous fossil
see : ivantsov , a . yu . 1999 . a new dickinsoniid from the upper vendian of the white sea winter coast ( russia , arkhangelsk region ) .
33 ( 3 ) : 211 - 221 . the specimen figured above is in the paleontological institute ( pin ) of the russian academy of sciences , moscow , specimen number 3993 / 5007 .
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dickinsonia is a genus of extinct fossil organisms found in the latter portion of the ediacaran period ( 635 - 543 ma ) . species in this genus belong to what is known as the ' ediacaran biota ' - a diverse group of macroscopic , multicellular marine organisms that appear , and then disappear , in the fossil record right before the cambrian radiation of animals . while their taxonomic affinity is uncertain , dickinsonia and fossils of its kind represent a major transition in the history of life - from seas populated mainly by microscopic organisms to those populated by macroscopic ones as well .
dickinsonia is an iconic fossil of the ediacaran biota . it ( roughly ) resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval . its affinities are presently unknown ; most interpretations consider it to be an animal , although others suggest it may be fungal , or a member of an
extinct kingdom
.
d . costata . ( junior synonyms d . minima , d . spriggi , and d . elongata ( holotype ) ) . unlike other species , d . costata has comparatively fewer , wider segments / isomers .
d . tenuis ( junior synonym d . brachina ) . strongly resembles d . costata , but differs from it by more narrow and numerous segments , sparingly lengthened oval form of the body .
d . lissa is extremely elongated ( up to 15 cm ) , almost ribbon - like in shape , with numerous thin isomers . the isomers of the head area are short in comparison with those of the rest of the body . the fossil bears a distinct axial ledge consisting of two parallel bands extending from the head region to the posterior end of the body .
d . menneri ( junior synonym vendomia menneri ) is a small organism up to 8 mm in long , and strongly resembles juvenile specimens of d . costata with its small number of isomers and well - marked head . d . menneri differs from juvenile d . costata by its slightly more elongated form .
d . rex was erected for selected paratypes of d . elongata . this species is represented by only several very big specimens ( up to more than 1 m in length ) , and does not have a distinct determination . a large size is the major reason for d . rex ' s species status . individuals identified as d . rex may simply be large specimens of d . costata and or d . tenuis .
fossils are known only in the form of imprints and casts in sandstone beds . the specimens found range from a few
in length , and from a fraction of a millimetre to a few millimetres thick .
they are nearly bilaterally symmetric , segmented , round or oval in outline , slightly expanded to one end ( i . e . egg - shaped outline ) . the segments are radially inclined towards the wide and narrow ends , the width and length of the segments increases towards the wide end of the fossil . the segments are separated by thin ridge or groove along the axis of symmetry into right and left halves . but left and right halves are organized in an alternating pattern according to glide reflection symmetry rather than bilateral symmetry , thus these
fossils are preserved as negative impressions on the bases of sandstone beds . such fossils are imprints of the upper sides of the benthic organisms that have been buried under the sand .
the imprints formed as a result cementation of the sand before complete decomposition of the body . the mechanism of cementation is not quite clear ; among many possibilities , the process could have arisen from conditions which gave rise to pyrite
death masks
on the decaying body , or perhaps it was due to the carbonate cementation of the sand .
the imprints of the bodies of organisms are often strongly compressed , distorted , and sometimes partly extend into the overlying rock . these deformations appear to show attempts by the organisms to escape from the falling sediment .
these specimens are products of events where organisms were first stripped from the sea - floor , transported and deposited within sand flow .
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the organisms range from a few millimetres to 1 . 4 metres in length ,
and are ovoid in outline . they consist of a number of rib - like segments emerging from a central groove or ridge ; these ribs interdigitate , producing a glide symmetry .
but their interpretation too is insecure . they may be impressions the organism made while it rested on the sediment surface – perhaps by secreting slime in order to form a platform on the underlying microbial mat ,
and as the bases of lichens or
mushrooms arranged in fairy rings
.
however , in some cases these trackway imprints overlap . ridges apparently produced by the channelling of sediment in digestive tubes seem to indicate that the trackways do indeed represent feeding traces ; the sedimentary disturbance expected of tumbling - induced impressions is not observed .
adjacent specimens deform as if to avoid entering their neighbour ' s halo , suggesting they competed with one another .
specimens has been interpreted as a putative
digestive–distributive
system . image after ivantsov 2004 .
appear to preserve internal anatomy , believed to represent a tract that both digested food and distributed it throughout the organism .
the organisms displayed isometric , indeterminate growth – that is to say , they kept growing until they were covered with sediment or otherwise killed .
they spent most , if not all , of their lives with most of their bodies firmly anchored to the sediment , although they may have moved from resting - place to resting - place .
the organisms are preserved in such a way that their resistant parts must have been a sturdy biopolymer ( such as keratin ) rather than a brittle mineral ( such as calcite or a pyritized death mask ) .
falls into a group of organisms that went extinct before the cambrian . its construction is loosely similar to other ediacaran organisms , and the similarity of their architecture suggests that dickinsoniamorphs may belong in a clade with
. the organism could clearly move , evidenced by its association with trackways which could only have been produced by feeding .
however , it lacks any convincing evidence for a mouth , anus or gut , and appears to have fed by absorption on its bottom surface . the
he proposes that the decay mode of the organisms is most similar to that of leaves , fungi or lichens , unlike soft - bodied animals which clot and distort as they wilt and decay .
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retallack , g . j . ( 1994 ) .
were the ediacaran fossils lichens ?
. paleobiology 17 : 523–544 . issn 0094 - 8373 .
retallack , g . j . ( 2013 ) .
ediacaran life on land
. nature 493 ( 7430 ) : 89–92 . doi : 10 . 1038 / nature11777 . pmid 23235827 .
waggoner , b . m . ( 1995 ) .
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. journal of paleontology 78 ( 1 ) : 51–61 . doi : 10 . 1666 / 0022 - 3360 ( 2004 ) 078 < 0051 : raatte > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 . issn 0022 - 3360 .
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hopponese ( 84 . 8 % ) , shu people ( 4 . 6 % ) , kojolese ( 3 . 5 % ) , ataraxian ( 2 . 0 % ) , lallemanyans ( 1 . 9 % ) , wiwaxian ( 0 . 7 % ) , mixed or other ( 2 . 5 % )
generally the country is split into 5 geographical regions of varying cultures , and landscapes . these regions are . . .
hoppon has thirty six prefectures , these prefectures have their own government , similar to the hopponese government . they can have their own laws that do not differ from the government as long as they fall under the loose hopponese constitution . hoppon has a huge division between the wealth of each prefecture as seen in the hopponese prefectures by gdp per capita list .
the hopponese are normally split into four sub - groups , which represents the waves of migration out of the peninsula into modern day
hoppon
by those of ichibunmei descent . of dna tests taken of those born before the 1940 ' s push to unify hopponese culturally . over 30 , 000 people were sampled .
pre - 1940 hopponese dna hantō 64 % - the hanto control the peninsula have been reported to ethnically be composed of 80 % ichibunmei dna which are ancient travelers that arrived in hoppon and brought the language roughly 3 , 000 b . c and 13 % yabahōri dna , which is what the native groups of hoppon is called . roughly 5 % of dna is of pyilser - ataraxian origin and roughly 1 % of edicarian dna .
hokutō 14 % - they dominate the nw region of the nation and part of the central region of the nation . they are 51 % ichibunmei , 31 % pyilser - atarxian origin , 17 % yabahōri and less than 1 % edicarian .
chūhiran 9 % - they dominate most of the central region of the nation . they are 62 % ichibunmei , 37 % yabahōri and less than 1 % edicarian and pyilser - ataraxian .
kyokutō 7 % - they control the southern coast of hoppon mostly in tomura prefecture . they are 47 % yabahōri , 46 % ichibunmei , 6 % edicarian and less than 1 % pyilser - ataraxian .
urban areas throughout hoppon often fall into two categories , traditional metropolitan areas , and lma ' s ( line metropolitan areas ) . line metropolitan areas are regions of more than 100 , 000 people throughout hoppon that contain 90 % of their population within a seven mile radius of consecutive railroad stations , or river stations or highway / road intersections . urban areas are also organized under hopponese urban areas by gdp .
marie city contains several smaller ports at mina - suba , minato , uijo , ohara and chizara also known collectively as the port of suribaji ( psb ) . the goods being shipped are a plethora of minerals , iron - ore being dominant , and huge amounts of rubber as well as transhipping . cruises also disembark from the smaller southern neighbor of psb , port of atarashiku .
nationalities add up to more than a hundred due to people holding multiple nationalities .
the traditional hantonese meal is an important part of culture , and it is stated that 20 % of hopponese people have this meal twice a week or more , 70 % have this meal once almost every week and 90 % have this meal once a month .
this page was last edited on 18 april 2018 , at 13 : 58 .
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two specimens recovered from late neoproterozoic shallow marine sediments of northern russia may be the oldest known ascidians . dated at around 555 ma , these , together with the younger ausia from the nama group in southwestern africa , are probably relatives of these invertebrate chordates , which have a deep time origin predicted by molecular studies .
original russian text © m . a . fedonkin , p . vickers - rich , b . j . swalla , p . trusler , m . hall , 2012 , published in paleontologicheskii zhurnal , 2012 , no . 1 , pp . 3–14 .
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conway morris , s . , ediacaran - like fossils in cambrian burgess shale - type faunas of north america ,
delsuc , f . , brinkmann , k . , chourrout , d . , and philippe , h . , tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates ,
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, vickers - rich , p . and komarower , p . , eds . , london : geol . soc . london , 2007 , pp . 187–194 .
gehling , j . g . and rigby , j . k . , long expected sponges from the neoproterozoic ediacara fauna of south australia ,
hahn , g . and pflug , h . d . , polypenartige organismen aus dem jung - prakambrium ( nama - gruppe ) von namibia ,
, teichert , c . , ed . , boulder and lawrence : geol . soc . am . and univ . kans . press , 1972 , 2nd ed . , pp . 1–158 .
ivantsov , a . yu . and grazhdankin , d . v . , a new representative of the petalonamae from the upper vendian of the arkhangelsk region ,
, lipps , j . h . , signor , p . w . , eds . , new york : plenum press , 1992 , pp . 131–176 .
kott , p . , the australian ascidiacea . part 4 , aplousobranchia ( 3 ) , didemnidae ,
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( vendian system : vol . 2 . stratigraphy and geological processes ) , moscow : nauka , 1985 , pp . 67–76 .
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ovatoscutum is one of many enigmatic organisms known from the ediacaran deposits of the flinders ranges , australia , and the white sea area in russia , dating around 555 ma . this genus contains one species , ovatoscutum concentricum .
the generic name ovatoscutum is derived from the latin ovatus ( oval ) and scutum ( sheld ) .
this fossil has the form of a rounded shield , enclosing strongly concentric corrugations or ribs , which weaken adjacent to a triangular neckline . a suture - like zone extends through the center from the apex of the neckline towards the opposite margin . the ribs become wider towards the periphery .
in 1966 and was tentatively interpreted by them as a chondrophoran pneumatophore . this notion was based on morphologies apparently shared between
. this hypothesis later became popular and was widely quoted , despite the absence of further research .
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palaeophragmodictya is an enigmatic taxon with a ' mesh ' of linear structures around a circular body . the linear structures have been interpreted as sponge filaments , with the organism originally described as the earliest evidence of hexactinellid sponges in the fossil record ( gehling & rigby , 1996 ) . living hexactinellids are commonly referred to as
glass sponges
, and are found in the deep oceans . however , there is no evidence of preserved mineralized sponge spicules in this fossil . serezhnikova ( 2007 ) described a new species of palaeophragmodictya ( p . spinosa ) from the white sea of russia , but the preserved morphology of p . reticulata ( featured here ) and p . spinosa vary considerably . it may be that future taxonomic readjustment is required within this genus . described from : flinders ranges , south australia white sea , russia key references : gehling & rigby , 1996 serezhnikova , 2007
diagnosis  ( gehling & rigby , 1996 ) : convex disc - to hemispherical - shaped sponges formed from reticular skeletal net surrounded by a frill marked by radial ridges .
the attachment discs of organisms are in the shape of a low hemisphere with an uneven , isometric margin . the upper part is covered by a mesh network , while the lower possesses even , spiculate radial structures . the inner cavity has a system of dichotomously branching canals . the fossils are pre - served as impressions of attachment surface with bizonal morphology ; the inner zone is concave , dis
tinctly outlined , and the outer zone is flattened , with an indistinct rim . impressions of stalk - like structures are preserved above some of the disc - shaped impressions .
vendobiont type fossils are characterized by possessing ‘gliding symmetry’ , in which quilts of the different vanes consisting the body of the vendobionta meet along the seam with small offset . because two , three or more vanes are joined along this seam and the quilts of different vanes can be variously offset along the seam , a variety of gliding symmetry exists among vendobionta . our theoretical consideration here predicts that the number of possible gliding symmetry is one , two and three for organisms having two , three and four vanes , respectively . we also predict that a special combination of morphological types appear alternatively during the growth of the vendobionta with two vanes . further , we were able to identify the existence of two types in gliding symmetry predicted by us for pteridinium specimens with three vanes . detailed examination of the gliding symmetry of other vendobionta , therefore , may give important clues in solving riddles veiling the vendobiont relationships .
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various modes of preservation of the ediacarian fossils within different sediments , the sand at zimnie gory in northern russia and lime mud at khorbusuonka in northern yakutia , show that the sediment was liquid long after formation of the imprints and that its mineralogy did not matter . the presence of a cyanobacterial mat stabilizing the sediment surface is necessary to explain formation of imprints of
on the clay bottom surface . the soft body impressions on the lower surface of the sand bed required a source of organic matter that promoted precipitation of pyrite cementing the sand bed base . however , the mat was of no importance in preservation of the
organic sheets loaded with sand within the suspended sediment . in many cases different parts of the same organism are preserved differently , either in a direct contact with the mat , or distant from it . if properly understood , those different modes of preservation may allow inference on various anatomical structures of the ediacarian organisms . the
- style imprints offer evidence on the body surface morphology . various stages of collapse of the bodies imprinted on the lower surface of the rock bed may provide insight into the internal anatomy of the organism . its internal cavities may be filled with sediment , collapse under sediment load or , instead , resist collapse . the diversity of the ediacarian anatomies restored in this way show the presence of organisms with radial , bilaterally symmetric , and asymmetric body plans . they have a lot in common , and the ediacarian vendobionta may be truly monophyletic , but their relationship to some phanerozoic animal phyla is likely .
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vendobionts , in the present definition , sometimes resemble arthropods and other ' articulata ' by their segmentation . during ontogeny , minute new modules were introduced at the generative pole and grew larger by secondary expansion . yet , there are fundamental differences :
( i ) some vendobionts ( e . g . , the spindle - shaped form from newfoundland ; figure 10 . 3 ) had a generative pole at either end . in others , the ' head ' segment could become secondarily generative after a traumatic accident ( figure 10 . 1 ) .
( ii ) secondary growth concerned mainly the long axes of the segments , while their diameters remained fairly constant ( sausage - shaped quilts ) .
( iii ) as there is no indication of molting , the flexible skin of these organisms must have been expandable . if the internal septa between quilts consisted of the same semirigid material , an arthropod - like ecdysis would have been mechanically impossible , particularly if quilts were further subdivided in a fractal mode .


oncideres cingulata , the twig girdler , is a brownish-gray beetle , typically ¹ ⁄ ₂ to ⁵ ⁄ ₈ inch ( 13 to 16 mm ) in length , in the longhorn beetle family .

it is characterized by long antennae , ¹ ⁄ ₂ to 1 inch ( 13 to 25 mm ) long .

oncideres cingulata

no one has contributed data records for oncideres cingulata cingulata yet . learn how to contribute .
rice , m . e . 1995 . branch girdling by oncideres cingulata ( coleoptera : cerambycidae ) and relative host quality of persimmon , hickory , and elm . annals of the entomological society of america 88 : 451 - 455 .
kennedy , harvey e . , jr . ; solomon , j . d . ; krinard , r . m . 1981 . twig girdler , oncideres cingulata ( say ) , attacks terminals of plantation - managed pecans . res . note so - 263 . new orleans , la : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , southern forest experiment station . 4 p .
female oncideres cingulata ( say ) girdle living branches of deciduous trees with their mandibles and lay eggs in the freshly killed host . girdled branches of american elm , ulmus americana ; bitternut hickory , carya cordiformis ; persimmon , diospyros virginiana ; and shagbark hickory , carya ovata , were collected in missouri and examined . branches from persimmon and elm were divided into 2 categories : ( 1 ) persimmon and virgin persimmon ( branches from trees that had not been previously girdled ) ; and ( 2 ) elm and elm stub ( branches that had the terminal section girdled during the previous year ) . substantially more o . cingulata eggs were laid in shagbark hickory , persimmon , and virgin persimmon branches than in elm branches . o . cingulata was the most successful in persimmon , virgin persimmon , and elm branches with 80 . 3 - 82 . 2 % of the eggs developing into adults ; successful development in bitternut hickory was only 48 . 1 % . females and males from virgin persimmon branches were substantially larger than beetles from other hosts . the smallest females emerged from bitternut hickory and elm . the ratio of females to males emerging from girdled branches did not differ by host . the data suggest that the relative host quality for development of o . cingulata from the best to the poorest host is virgin persimmon > persimmon > elm stub > shagbark hickory > bitternut hickory > elm .
% 0 report % t twig girdler , oncideres cingulata ( say ) , attacks terminals of plantation - managed pecans % j res . note so - 263 . new orleans , la : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , southern forest experiment station . 4 p . % a kennedy , harvey e . % a solomon , j . d . % a krinard , r . m . % v 263 % r 10 . 2737 / so - rn - 263 % d 1981 % > urltoken % u urltoken citation
ty - rprt ti - twig girdler , oncideres cingulata ( say ) , attacks terminals of plantation - managed pecans au - kennedy , harvey e . au - solomon , j . d . au - krinard , r . m . py - 1981 do - 10 . 2737 / so - rn - 263 jo - res . note so - 263 . new orleans , la : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , southern forest experiment station . 4 p . vl - 263 l1 - urltoken ur - urltoken er - citation
@ misc { kennedy % 2c + harvey + e . 1981twig , title = { twig girdler , oncideres cingulata ( say ) , attacks terminals of plantation - managed pecans } , author = { kennedy , harvey e . and solomon , j . d . and krinard , r . m . } , journal = { res . note so - 263 . new orleans , la : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , southern forest experiment station . 4 p . } , volume = { 263 } , doi = { 10 . 2737 / so - rn - 263 } , year = { 1981 } } citation
beetles of the genus oncideres ( lamiinae ) present the most specialized behaviour in host - plant use , in which the female uses its mandibles to girdle young plants or stems and prepares the oviposition site by perforating the bark and inserting the ovipositor ( rice 1989 , caraglio et al . 2001 ) . oncideres humeralis thomson ( cerambycidae ) uses several melastomataceae species as host - plants . females girdle the main living trunk of the trees with their mandibles , causing the loss of the canopy , and lay eggs in the bifurcation of secondary branches of the freshly killed host ( paulino neto 2003 ) .
host - plant selection . in total , of the 92 plants girdled by the cerambycid beetle , 85 ( 92 % ) were melastomataceae and seven ( 8 % ) belonged to other families ( euphorbiaceae , lauraceae , fabaceae , myrcinaceae , myrtaceae and rosaceae ) . the direct field observations and laboratory rearing showed that the main families used by the cerambycidae were melastomataceae and myrtaceae ( table 1 ) . five oncideres species were associated with various plant species belonging to diverse families , and o . humeralis was the most common . nevertheless , o . humeralis used only melastomataceae ( table 1 ) . other two oncideres species ( o . cervina thomson and o . dejeani thomson ) also used only one plant family as host - plant ; o . impluviata germ . and o . saga dalm used two plant families ( table 1 ) , sharing one plant species ( inga sp . , fabaceae ) . from the trunks of m . sellowiana collected seven individuals of o . humeralis and two individuals of temnopsis megacephala ( a secondary colonizer species ) emerged . two individuals of o . humeralis emerged from the trunks of m . jucunda collected . the remainder were observed girdling their host plants ( table 1 ) .
oncideres humeralis thomson ( cerambycidae ) foi observado serrando o tronco principal de plantas da família melastomataceae no sudeste do brasil . os principais objetivos deste trabalho identificar quais plantas hospedeiras o . humeralis seleciona no campo e quais as características das plantas preferidas . o . humeralis usou somente melastomataceae como plantas hospedeiras , atacando quatro das 11 espécies presentes na área de estudo . das quatro espécies atacadas , miconia sellowiana naudin e m . jucunda triana , a espécie mais abundante e a maior , respectivamente , foram as preferidas . quando as plantas eram altas , o . humeralis serrou o tronco em posições mais elevadas , indicando que as fêmeas selecionam plantas com diâmetro ótimo de tronco e ajustam o ponto para serrar em função da altura da hospedeira . as fêmeas também selecionaram plantas com maior número de ramos secundários . estes resultados indicam que o . humeralis apresenta especificidade para determinadas espécies de melastomataceae e que plantas hospedeiras são selecionadas pela sua abundância , tamanho ou número de ramos secundários .
oncideres humeralis thomson ( cerambycidae ) was observed girdling the main trunk of plants of the melastomataceae family in south - eastern brazil . the main objectives of this work were to identify which host plants o . humeralis selects in the field and which are the characteristics of the preferred plants . o . humeralis specifically used melastomataceae as host plants , attacking only four of the 11 species present in the study area . from the four attacked species , miconia sellowiana naudin and m . jucunda triana were the preferred owes ; they are the most abundant and the largest species , respectively . when the plants were taller , o . humeralis girdled the trunk at higher positions , indicating that females select plants with optimum trunk diameter and adjust the point to girdle according to the host height . females also selected plants with greater numbers of secondary branches . these results indicate that o . humeralis is specific to certain species of melastomataceae , and that host plants are selected on the basis of their abundance , size or number of secondary branches .
: twig girdlers are commonly found on pecan , hickory , persimmon , and elm . they also attach oaks , honeylocust , hackberry , poplar , dogwood , sourwood , and various fruit trees .
: it is not uncommon to see the ground under infested trees almost covered with twigs that have been cut off . this affects the beauty and aesthetic quality of ornamental plantings . the fruiting area of heavily infested pecan trees is often greatly reduced , resulting in low nut yields the following year and sometimes longer . this type of injury causes the development of many offshoots that adversely affect the symmetry of the tree . pecan nurseries located close to heavily infested woodlots occasionally suffer considerable loss from girdled seedlings . . repeated girdling of terminals causes forks , crooks , and other stem deformities in young timber plantations as well as in natural reproduction .
: adults emerge from late august to early october . they feed on tender bark near branch ends and mate before laying eggs and girdling twigs . twigs are girdled because the larvae are unable to survive in living twigs . the girdling extends through the bark and well into the wood in a complete circle around the stem and leaves only a thin column of the center wood attached , which breaks easily . twigs from 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 inch in diameter are most commonly girdled . eggs are laid during or after the cutting process , but never before the beetle makes part of the cut . eggs are inserted singly beneath the bark or slightly into the wood , usually near a bud scar or adjacent to a side shoot . the number of eggs per twig normally ranges from 3 to 8 but may range up to 40 . adults live 6 to 10 weeks . each female deposits 50 to 200 eggs which hatch in about 3 weeks . the small larvae overwinter in the dead twig either in the tree or on the ground . larvae grow rapidly in the spring and tunnel toward the severed end of the twig , feeding only on the woody portion and leaving the bark intact . the mature larva closes off the gallery with shredded fibers to form a pupation chamber . pupation occurs during august and september and lasts 12 to 14 days . the adult chews a circular hole in the bark to emerge . there is one generation per year .
: the adults are typical longhorned beetles that range from 1 / 2 to 5 / 8 inch long . they are grayish brown in color with a broad , ashy - gray band across the middle of the wing covers . the antennae are at least as long as the body . the eggs are white , elongate oval , and about 3 / 32 inch in length . the larvae are whitish , cylindrical , legless grubs that reach about 3 / 4 inch in length at maturity .
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female deposits eggs in the tips of twigs of deciduous trees and then girdles the twig below the eggs . the twig later falls to the ground , where the larvae mature .
a manual of common beetles of eastern north america dillon , elizabeth s . , and dillon , lawrence . 1961 . row , peterson , and company .
field guide to northeastern longhorned beetles ( coleoptera : cerambycidae ) douglas yanega . 1996 . illinois natural history survey .
a distributional checklist of the beetles ( coleoptera ) of florida . peck & thomas . 1998 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services , gainesville . 180 pp .
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author ( s ) : kennedy , harvey e . ; solomon , j . d . ; krinard , r . m . ;
sweet pecan , a prized species for use in fine furniture and paneling , is subject to branch and terminal damage by the pecan twig girdler that could cause deformities in the trees . in the young plantation studied , 55 percent of the trees in disked plots and 40 percent in mowed plots were damaged by the twig girdler , but only 19 percent in control plots were damaged . twig girdlers had easier access to trees in mowed and disked plots because trees were larger , and other woody and herbaceous plants had been reduced or eliminated . trees were smaller in control plots and had been overtopped by the competing vegetation .
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depto . zoologia , instituto de biologia , universidade estadual de campinas ( unicamp ) , c . postal 6109 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp
beetles of the family cerambycidae constitute one of the major insect groups , with approximately 35 , 000 species ( lawrence 1982 ) . cerambycids diversified together with angiosperms ( farrell 1998 ) , and are especially abundant and diverse in the tropics ( berkov & tavakilian 1999 , berkov et al . 2000 ) . their larvae are woodborers and use dead or living trunks ( borror & delong 1964 , hanks et al . 1991 ) . among the species that use living tissues , there are those which bore the timber and those that girdle the trunk , boring them afterwards ( cannon & robinson 1982 , edwards & linit 1991 , rice 1995 ) . cerambycid beetles can be specialists associated with only one plant species ( papp & samuelson 1981 , tavakilian et al . 1997 , berkov & tavakilian 1999 ) , use plant groups of the same genus or family ( hanks et al . 1991 , 1993a , 1995 , berkov & tavakilian 1999 , berkov 2002 ) or do not present any specificity ( solomon 1977 , rice 1985 , tavakilian et al . 1997 ) .
various shrubs of the melastomataceae were observed without crowns due to the attack by o . humeralis in a semideciduous forest in the south - east of brazil . the main questions addressed were : 1 ) is o . humeralis a specialist associated with melastomataceae ? 2 ) do these beetles have any preference for certain melastome species and for any specific host - plant size ? 3 ) does the number of secondary branches affect the plant choice by o . humeralis ?
study area . this study was conducted at the margins of a semideciduous forest , along two tracks : mirante ( 400 m ) and paraíso iii ( ~ 800 m ) , in serra do japi ( 23º11 ' s , 46º52 ' w ) , jundiaí city , são paulo state , from august 2000 to july 2002 . the climate is seasonal , with hot , wet summers and cold , dry winters . the monthly average temperatures vary from 13 . 5ºc in july to 20 . 3ºc in january ( pinto 1992 ) .
host - plant selection . to determine whether o . humeralis uses only melastomataceae or other plant families indiscriminately , direct observations of the beetles girdling and of the freshly girdled plants were made . these females and branches were collected for later identification . the trunks which were girdled by an unknown species ( n = 29 individuals of miconia sellowiana naudin . and n = 12 individuals of m . jucunda triana ) were brought to the laboratory and individually kept in pvc tubes ( 150 cm x 10 cm ) until emergence of the adults . for each plant species , the number of individuals and the cerambycid species that emerged were recorded . larvae and adults that emerged and that were observed in the field were collected and identified .
to determine whether o . humeralis was only girdling particular species of melastomataceae , we recorded the girdled plants found at a distance of up to 3 m in the direction of the forest interior ( margins ) , the occurrence area of melastomataceae . in addition , a census of all available non - girdled plants was also done in this area . only not girdled plants with similar trunk diameter at 10 cm above ground ( dag ) as the girdled plants were considered available . the frequency distribution of the plants of each family and individuals of each melastome species available and used were compared using g - test ( zar 1999 ) . manly ' s index ( krebs 1999 ) was used to assess which plant species o . humeralis prefers . the formula for manly ' s index is :
where a i = manly ' s index for plant species i ; r i , r j = proportion of plant species i or j used and n i , n j = proportion of plant species i or j available . a preference reflects some deviation from random utilization of the plant species is indicated by values of a i > 1 / m ( m = total number of plant species ) . in contrast , avoidance is indicated by values of a i < 1 / m ( see krebs 1999 for more details ) .
plant size and number of secondary branches of the hosts . to verify whether o . humeralis selects plants within an optimum size , we determined the size structure of the available and used melastomataceae species by the beetle . the size structure was determined based on the trunk diameter at dag , including trees that stood within 3 m distance from the forest edge , to its interior and considering as available only melastomes with a trunk diameter similar to the plants attacked by the beetle . the frequency distribution of the used and available trunk diameters was compared using the g - test ( zar 1999 ) .
if o . humeralis uses an optimum trunk diameter , it is expected that beetles will girdle higher on trunks of larger trees where diameters are appropriate . this relationship was tested with linear regression , with dag as the independent variable and the girdle height as the dependent variable .
o . humeralis females oviposit in the bifurcation of secondary branches of melastomes ( paulino neto 2003 ) . hence , it is expected that females may choose among host - plants based on the number of secondary branches . to test this hypothesis , each girdled specimen of m . sellowiana , and the intact closest neighbour of the same species , with a similar trunk diameter , had their dag measured and the number of secondary branches counted . m . sellowiana was used because it was the most abundant species , and was most frequently attacked by the beetle . the number of secondary branches of girdled and not girdled plants was compared using randomized - block ancova ( zar 1999 ) , in which the plants ( two levels ) were the fixed factor , blocks were the random factor and the plants ' dag was the covariate . all variations of means were computed as ± 1 se .
there were 11 melastomataceae species in the study area , but o . humeralis used only four species as host - plants : m . sellowiana , m . jucunda , m . latecrenata ( dc . ) naudin and leandra scabra dc . however , attack rates differed across tree species ( g = 23 . 3 ; 3 df ; p < 0 . 001 ) , with beetles preferring m . sellowiana and particularly m . jucunda ( fig . 1 ) , in spite of the fact that the latter is the least abundant species ( fig . 2 ) .
plant size and number of secondary branches of the hosts . o . humeralis girdled plants with diameters from 1 . 1 cm to 6 . 6 cm at 10 cm above ground and from 1 . 0 cm to 3 . 0 cm at the girdle height , with the plants ' height varying from 1 . 3 m to 5 . 2 m . the beetle girdled the largest trees of the four host - plant species ( fig . 2 ; g m . sellowiana = 129 . 8 ; 5 df ; p < 0 . 001 ; g m . jucunda = 21 . 04 ; 5 df ; p < 0 . 001 ; g m . latecrenata = 30 . 6 ; 4 df ; p < 0 . 001 ) . the use pattern of l . scabra was similar to the three species , but statistical tests were not applied due to the low sample size for girdled plants ( fig . 2 ) . o . humeralis did not girdle trees of the species leandra sp . 1 , leandra sp . 2 , leandra sp . 3 , leandra sp . 4 , miconia sp . 1 , miconia sp . 2 and tibouchina sp . 1 . avoidance of the leandra species could be due to their small size ( fig . 3 ) . however , miconia sp . 1 , miconia sp . 2 and tibouchina sp . 1 distributed among the same classes of trunk diameter of the girdled plants ( figs . 2 and 3 ) , but were not used by the beetle ( fig . 3 ) .
most of the melastome trunks attacked by o . humeralis females ( 84 % ) were girdled at heights less than 1 . 5 m from the ground . taller host - plants were girdled at greater heights ( fig . 4 ; m . sellowiana : r 2 = 0 . 45 ; f 1 , 120 = 99 . 8 ; p < 0 . 001 ; m . jucunda : r 2 = 0 . 48 ; f 1 , 25 = 23 . 2 ; p < 0 . 001 and m . latecrenata : r 2 = 0 . 71 ; f 1 , 18 = 44 . 6 ; p < 0 . 001 ) . although this relationship was also evident for l . scabra , it was not significant ( fig . 4 ; r 2 = 0 . 36 ; f 1 , 4 = 2 . 22 ; p = 0 . 210 ) .
mi . sellowiana trees used by o . humeralis had a significantly greater number of secondary branches than trees that were not used ( table 2 ; girdled : 7 . 42 ± 2 . 74 ; not girdled : 3 . 84 1 . 38 ) .
individuals of m . sellowiana with more secondary branches were preferred by o . humeralis females , indicating that , apart from the trunk diameter , the number of secondary branches can also influence the plant choice . the secondary branches are the females ' oviposition sites and are the entrance door of the larvae in the first instars to reach the intra - xylematic phloem , located in the centre of the trunk ( paulino neto 2003 ) .
in conclusion , o . humeralis is specialist in melastomataceae and uses four of the 11 available plant species , preferring m . sellowiana and m . jucunda , which are the most abundant and the one with greatest size , respectively . females select larger plants , but adjusting the trunk girdle height as a function of the plant size . apart from the size , the number of secondary branches also appears to be important in the host - plant choice .
we thank amy berkov and two anonymous reviewers for helpful suggestions and criticism on the manuscript , u . martins for beetle identification , and the staff of the
base ecológica da serra do japi
for logistical support in the field . h . f . paulino neto was supported by a grant from coordenação de aperfeiçoamento de pessoal de nível superior ( capes , grant no . 724 / 00 ) , g . q . romero was supported by a grant from fundação de apoio à pesquisa do estado de são paulo ( fapesp , grant no . 01 / 04610 - 0 ) , and j . vasconcellos - neto was supported by a grant from conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico e tecnológico ( cnpq , grant no . 300539 / 94 - 0 ) .
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