the yellow-spotted amazon river turtle or yellow-spotted river turtle ( podocnemis unifilis ) is one of the largest south american river turtles .

it can grow up to 45 cm long and weigh up to 8 kg .

this species can be recognized by its black or brown oval carapace ( upper shell ) with distinctive low keels on the second and third scutes .

yellow spots on the side of its head give this species its common name .

these spots are most prominent in juveniles and fade with age .

females can be up to twice the size of males .

podocnemis unifilis is a type of side-necked turtles , so called because they do not pull their heads directly into their shells , but rather bend their necks sideways to tuck their heads under the rim of their shells .

side-neck turtles are classified as members of the suborder pleurodira .

these turtles are found in tributaries and large lakes of south america 's amazon basin .

during flood season , they may venture into flooded forests or floodplain lakes .

they feed on fruits , weeds , fish , and small invertebrates .

the females lay two clutches of eggs each year , each with four to 35 eggs in it .

they make their nests in sandy areas on the banks of rivers , where the eggs will hatch 66 to 159 days after they are laid .

the eggs are laid at the peak of dry season so the nest will not be washed away with the floods of the rainy season .

their average life span is 60 to 70 years .

podocnemis unifilis was one of the foreign species exploited by the american pet turtle trade in the 1960s .

importation of this species is now strictly regulated by federal law , but a captive , self-sustaining population exists in the united states — some groups in zoos , others in the hands of private collectors .

individuals of this species have lived more than 30 years in captivity .

yellow - spotted river turtle

the oldest known yellow - spotted amazon river turtle living in human care reached 23 years of age . they can live up to 70 years .
1 : we have a small group of very nice hatchling yellow spotted river turtles available . ( florida orders only ) :
da cunha , fernando lima rodrigues , rafael bernhard and richard c . vogt . 2014 . podocnemis erythrocephala , podocnemis expansa , podocnemis sextuberculata , podocnemis unifilis ( red - headed amazon river turtle , giant south american river turtle , six - tubercled amazon river turtle , yellow - spotted amazon river turtle ) coexistence . herpetological review 45 ( 2 ) : 319
fantin , c . et al . 2007 . primer note : microsatellite dna markers for podocnemis unifilis , the endangered yellow - spotted amazon river turtle . molecular ecology notes 7 : 1235–1238
cunha , fabio a . g . and richard c . vogt . 2014 . podocnemis unifilis ( yellow spotted amazon river turtle ) predation . herpetological review 45 ( 4 ) : 691 - 692
yellow - spotted amazon river turtles are native to the amazon river basin and can be found in the amazon and orinoco river systems in venezuela , eastern colombia , eastern ecuador , northeastern peru , the guianas , brazil and northern bolivia .
teófilo pignati , marina , wesley dáttilo and juarez carlos brito pezzuti . 2011 . podocnemis unifilis ( yellow - spotted river turtle ) nest predation . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 422 - get paper here
erickson , j . & i . l . kaefer 2015 . multiple leucism in a nest of the yellow - spotted amazon river turtle , podocnemis unifilis . salamandra 51 ( 3 ) : 273 - 276 - get paper here
p . unifilis , the yellow - spotted river turtle , can be a prolific breeder in captivity . in fact , both p . unifilis and p . expansa have been produced by the tens of thousands in farms in south america and millions of farmed yearlings have been released back into the amazon river and its tributaries over the last 20 years .
the genus podocnemis features six species of large river turtles found throughout south america . these impressive turtles have been elusive for turtle keepers in the united states due to legal restrictions . all species are protected as appendix ii species by cites ( convention on international trade in endangered flora and fauna ) and the giant river turtle , p . expansa and the yellow - spotted river turtle , p . unifilis are also on the u . s . endangered species list , which prevents their interstate travel as a commercial venture without captive born wildlife permits .
the yellow - spotted turtle has a domed and dark colored shell . they have yellowish - orange head markings . there is usually a single barbel on the chin . these side - necked turtles cannot retract their head into their shell . hatchlings have very obvious yellow spots on their heads , which shrink as they grow . males keep some of the yellow spotting ; females lose their spots altogether .
the yellow - spotted river turtle , p . unifilis , is found in the caribbean drainages of guyana , french guiana , venezuela , and colombia , the upper tributaries of the amazon river in colombia , ecuador , peru , northern bolivia , southern venezuela , and brazil . it is also established in parts of florida as a result of escaped or released pets .
* remember , each turtle order comes with a free starter sample of the same turtle diet your turtle has been raised on - this will last one small turtle a few weeks - to order larger quantities , see the lower left side of this page . *
one of south america ' s most delightful species , yellow spotted river turtles are outstanding tank turtles in their younger years , and eventually grow to be excellent pond turtles as adults . like yellow headed water bugs , these turtles swim like fish , enjoy deep tanks , love to bask , and put on an amazing under water show .
bärtsch , andré 1993 . wildlife as canon sees it : yellow - headed sideneck turtle . ( podocnemis unifilis ) . national geographic 183 ( 5 ) : unnumbered
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as with all aquatic species and especially those that reach such large adult sizes as yellow - spotted river turtles , these turtles are best kept as specimens for breeding or enjoying in a large pond situation . they are heavy and when held will scratch and claw to get away .
pignati , marina t . ; luana f . fernandes , priscila s . miorando , and juarez c . b . pezzuti 2013 . hatching and emergence patterns in the yellow - spotted river turtle , podocnemis unifilis ( testudines : podocnemididae ) , in the várzea floodplains of the lower amazon river in santarém , brazil . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2013 , vol . 12 , no . 1 : 127 - 133 . - get paper here
the yellow - headed sideneck turtle is found in calm waters and will occupy flooded forests , swamps and lagoons during high water and riverbeds in the dry season ( 2 ) .
the yellow - headed sideneck turtle is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
adrián naveda - rodríguez , rubén cueva , and galo zapata - ríos 2018 . space use of yellow - spotted river turtles ( podocnemis unifilis ) in yasuni national park , ecuador chelonian conservation and biology jun 2018 , vol . 17 , no . 1 : 37 - 43 . - get paper here
a long - lived turtle native to the amazon river , only the males and juvenile females have yellow head markings . they are considered vulnerable due to hunting , but the indigenous yekuana indians , who eat these turtles and their eggs , are now trying to hunt the turtles sustainably .
the yellow - spotted river turtle ( podocnemis unifilis ) inhabits the rivers , streams , lakes and wetlands of the amazon and orinoco river basins . this long - lived turtle takes long to reach sexual maturity and has low recruitment in most locations in amazon ( salera - júnior et al . 2009 ) . podocnemis unifilis has a long history of decline due to the use of its meat and eggs by riverine communities , as well as by pressure on its nesting habitats ( smith 1979 ; fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ; coway - gomez 2007 ) ; hence , it is on the global red list of threatened species as vulnerable ( iucn 2012 ) . therefore , predation mitigation of this amazonian turtle is a fundamental component in conservation programs . however , such activities when carried out often occur without good understanding of the nesting biology of these aquatic chelonians , whose nests have great risk of predation . the araguari river basin , in the central region of the state of amapá ( eastern amazon ) is an important area for p . unifilis breeding . in this region , deforestation , urban growth , gravel extraction from riverbeds , mining and dam construction are factors that may be influencing the breeding of yellow - spotted river turtle . thus , this study provided the first investigation on the characteristics of nesting and neonates of p . unifilis from the araguari river basin ( northern brazil ) .
as the main consumers of yellow - headed sideneck turtles , the indigenous yekuana indians are now trying to hunt the turtles sustainably . they have implemented a conservation program for the 12 main nesting sites of the turtle along the de ninchare river and these areas are now protected from poachers by armed guards . other conservation initiatives include rescuing clutches that are at risk of being flooded by rising rivers , as well as rearing yellow - headed sidenecked turtles commercially ( 2 ) .
this turtle is primarily found in the amazon and orinoco river systems in northern south america , including venezuela , eastern colombia , eastern ecuador , northeastern peru , the guianas , brazil , and northern bolivia ( 5 ) .
as a member of the most ancient genus of living turtles ( podocnemis ) , yellow spotted river turtles make one of the most interesting species to keep . they are primarily herbivores , but will also quickly take insects , mollusks and fruit . our hatchlings love pellets , cut fish , super worms and romaine lettuce . they prefer warmer temps , but our adult breeders weather brief temps in the 30s in deeper outdoor ponds .
a male yellow - spotted side - necked turtle courts a larger female by nipping at her feet and tail . a few weeks later , in the evening , the female lays about two dozen ( 20 to 30 ) hard - shelled , slightly elongated eggs in a shallow nest she has dug on the riverbank . the nest is about 26 centimeters deep and contains seven to 52 eggs , depending on female body size . the babies , which are slightly larger than a quarter , hatch out in a little over two months .
the yellow - headed sideneck turtle ( podocnemis unifilis ) gets its name from yellow spots on the olive green to brown head , which are most obvious in young turtles , and fade to almost nothing in females , but remain present in males throughout life . the carapace is domed with a raised ridge in the centre , known as a keel . the plastron is yellow and sometimes has dark blotches . the head is long with a distinct snout , and there is usually a single barbel on the chin . this turtle belongs to the suborder pleurodira , which contains the side - necked turtles , and has a long neck which can be withdrawn horizontally within the margins of the shell , leaving it partly exposed , rather than retracting it in a vertical ‘s’ bend as in turtles of the suborder cryptodira ( 4 ) .
authenticated ( 01 / 11 / 10 ) by ryan m . bolton , freshwater turtle ecologist , university of guelph , ontario , canada . urltoken
found in the major rivers and larger lakes of venezuela , colombia , peru and throughout the amazon basin in brazil , yellow spotted river turtles have been over collected by man for decades and are now one of the world ' s rarest turtles . this species has been given the highest level of international protection , prohibiting both wild collection and export for many years . only through the dedicated work of a few breeders is this species available in the us . because of these important and necessary protections , our hatchlings can only be ordered by florida residents .
the greatest threat to this species is hunting by indigenous people known as yekuana indians , as they previously regularly consumed the meat and eggs of this species . the number of poachers is thought to have increased in recent years , as demand for both turtle eggs and turtle meat increases ( 8 ) .
for p . unifilis from the araguari river basin in 12 nests , the mean incubation time was 64 . 5 ± 6 . 5 days varying from 61 to 80 days . similarly , for the same turtle species from solimões river ( am ) , the mean egg incubation time was 63 . 5 days ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ) . therefore , the spawning and incubation periods occurs during the dry season ( from august to november ) influenced by the low rainfall , temperature rise , while the eggs hatched at the beginning of the rainy season , with increased river levels . for p . unifilis , the incubation temperature influences the embryo development ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ) and the birth of hatchlings in rainy season facilitates its access to the river .
the yellow - headed sideneck turtle is diurnal and is most active in mid - morning and the afternoon . groups of turtles can be seen basking in the sun on logs or stones in the middle of rivers , and they may also lie on the shore . as ectothermic ( cold - blooded ) animals , this behaviour functions to warm their bodies ( 2 ) .
cole , m . and w . link . 1972 . podocnemis in captivity . int’l turtle and tortoise soc . j . 6 ( 2 ) : 12 - 14 .
podocnemis unifilis is distributed within bolivia ; colombia ; ecuador ; french guiana ; guyana ; peru ; suriname ; venezuela ; and bolivia ( tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group , 1996 ) .
for an “endangered species ,
p . unifilis has a vast range and a relatively healthy population in the river systems in which it occurs , even though the eggs of amazon river turtles have been collected by indigenous people as a food source for hundreds , or even thousands , of years . the meat and eggs of these turtles still appear in the markets today .
predation and alteration of microhabitats may represent high risk for nesting of amazonian turtles . this study aimed at investigating the nesting and body parameters of neonates of podocnemis unifilis in the araguari river basin , state of amapá , brazil . the spawning sites of this turtle were monitored along the falsino river ( a region with two reserves ) and in the urban area of the porto grande city along the araguari river , from august to december 2011 . a total of 180 nests were found and the nesting occurred from september to november , with prevalence in october . eggs hatching occurred in december . the mean incubation period was 63 . 5 ± 5 . 2 days and the eggs hatching success was 25 % . however , approximately 80 % of the nests had suffered predation mainly by humans , which occurred in both the protected areas of the reserves and the urban area . the pattern of nesting site choice was discussed . egg size was larger than that previously described for the same turtle species in the other regions . the body condition index of neonates indicated a good use of vitelline reserves . the results indicate the urgent need for strategic actions to conserve and maintain the natural stocks of this relatively vulnerable turtle in the region .
for p . unifilis from araguari river basin , a total of 324 eggs were found in 23 opened nests , with a loss of 12 eggs during search procedures . the mean number of eggs was 14 . 0 ± 6 . 0 , ranging from 4 to 26 eggs per nest . to evaluate the mean biomass of the eggs , 13 nests were considered ( table 3 ) . this mean number of eggs was lower than in p . unifilis from the lower amazonas river ( pignati and pezzuti 2012 ) , while the mean egg size was larger compared to this same turtle species from the samiria river ( fachin - terán 1993 ) and solimões river ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ) . however , these distinct results can be directly related to the different size of the breeders from these studies . in general , larger females of p . unifilis produce larger clutches ( pignati and pezzuti 2012 ) with larger eggs ( loehr et al . 2004 ; pignati and pezzuti 2012 ) compared to female turtles with lower body mass .
p . unifilis was a very important turtle in the pet trade in the united states in the 1960s . red - eared sliders were the baby turtles available in the summer and p . unifilis were available during the winter months . baby red - ears typically sold for 59 cents at the local dime stores and p . unifilis and the colombian slider , trachemys callirostris sold for 89 cents . protection under the endangered species act was established in 1970 and the turtle was regulated out of the hobby . interestingly , the colombian slider was “protected” by the endangered species act at the same time , preventing both species from being sold within the united states . there is no doubt in my mind that this regulation was done to protect the turtle farmers of the southeastern united states who were losing sales ( at least half of the year ) to foreign turtle farmers in south america .
tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group . 1996 . podocnemis unifilis . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2015 . 2 . http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 20 july 2015 .
carapace size and body mass of neonates of p . unifilis from the araguari river basin ( table 4 ) were similar to those described by fachín - terán and von mülhen ( 2003 ) and higher to those reported by pignati and pezzuti ( 2012 ) for this same turtle species . bci values of the neonates ( table 4 ) did not differ significantly ( t = 10 . 2 , p < 0 . 05 ) from the standard values ( bci = 1 . 0 ) , indicating good conditions in the yolk consumption , similar to that described for other turtle species ( loehr et al . 2004 ; lambrada - martagón et al . 2010 ) .
thorbjarnarson , j . b . , perez , n . and escalona , t . ( 1993 ) nesting of podocnemis unifilis in the capanaparo river , venezuela . journal of herpetology , 27 ( 3 ) : 344 - 347 .
de souza , r . r . and vogt , r . c . ( 1994 ) incubation temperature influences sex and hatchling size in the neotropical turtle podocnemis unifilis . journal of herpetology , 28 ( 4 ) : 453 - 464 .
mittermeier , r . a . , and r . a . wilson . 1974 . redescription of podocnemis erythrocephala ( spix , 1824 ) , and amazonian pelomedusid turtle . pap . avul . zool . , sao paulo 28 : 147 - 162 .
júnior , paulo dias ferreira and paulo de tarso amorim castro . 2006 . thermal environment characteristics of podocnemis expansa and podocnemis unifilis nesting areas on the javaés river , tocantins , brazil . chelonian conserv . biol . 5 ( 1 ) : 102 - 107
in captivity , the amazon river turtles require large , freshwater ponds with clean water and devoted care . they will reward keepers with interesting behaviors and perhaps even a few bright - eyed hatchlings that are amazing little jewels and some of the rarest turtles in herpetoculture .
in 23 opened nests , seven of them had reproductive success , with a mean of 3 . 2 eggs per nest without apparent development and 2 . 87 dead neonates per nest . the hatching was evaluated for 46 nests , considering also those nests that had been preyed upon ; out of these , 23 nests were opened soon after eggs were hatched and the other 23 nests were opened while the neonates were leaving the nest . however , the eggs success was low ( table 2 ) . measurements of diameter and depth of the nests of p . unifilis in this study were similar to those described for this species from samiria and loreto river ( fachin - teran 1993 ) , solimões river ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ) and javaés river ( ferreira - júnior and castro 2003 ) .
during the 2011 nesting season , 180 p . unifilis nests were found in the araguari river basin ( figure 1 ) . in august , only p . unifilis tracks were found on the beaches . the stage of egg - laying began on september 16 and lasted to november 10 , period in which the temperature was high and rainfall decreased in the region . in october , 60 . 5 % of the nests ( n = 109 ) were found , indicating the peak of oviposition . among the nests found in november , 49 ( 94 . 2 % ) were proved to be old ( laid at the time interval between field activities ) , and three were recent , including two laid during the previous nights ( days 08 and 09 of november ) . this indicates that the spawning stage extends up to november . in december , only old nests were found . similarly , for the same species of turtle from the curuá river in the state of pará ( eastern amazon ) , the nesting period occurred from october to november ( almeida et al . 2005 ) . however , for p . unifilis from javaés river in the state of tocantins , the nesting period occurred from july to september ( ferreira - júnior and castro 2003 ) . in state of amazonas , the nesting period means the end of august to september on the japurá and solimões rivers ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ) and from august to december on the purus river ( pantoja - lima et al . 2009 ) .
barbels fleshy projections near the mouth of some aquatic vertebrates . carapace the top shell of a turtle or tortoise . carrion the flesh of a dead animal . diurnal active during the day . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . molluscs a diverse group of invertebrates , mainly marine , that have one or all of the following ; a horny , toothed ribbon in the mouth ( the radula ) , a shell covering the upper surface of the body , and a mantle or mantle cavity with a type of gill . includes snails , slugs , shellfish , octopuses and squid . plastron the lower shell of a turtle or tortoise .
out of the 180 nests found in the araguari river basin , 20 % ( n = 36 ) remained intact , while 80 % ( n = 144 ) had losses . among these losses , in 75 . 5 % ( n = 136 ) of cases the eggs were collected by humans for consumption ; 1 . 7 % ( n = 3 ) were lost due to river overflow from flash flooding and 2 . 7 % ( n = 5 ) experienced predation by animals , which were observed attacking nests . such results indicate that the close proximity of p . unifilis nesting sites to the riverine and urban communities is the main determining factor for the loss of eggs and consequently , for turtle population density in the region . in addition , the reproductive efficiency of the wild population of p . unifilis may be affected by environmental and non - environmental factors . therefore , reproductive indices data obtained from this study are indispensable for future investigations of impacts on nesting and hatching .
peñaloza , claudia l . ; omar hernández , rodolfo espín , larry b . crowder , and guillermo r . barreto 2013 . harvest of endangered sideneck river turtles ( podocnemis spp . ) in the middle orinoco , venezuela . copeia mar 2013 , vol . 2013 , no . 1 : 111 - 120 . - get paper here
p . unifilis , p . erythrocephala and p . vogli are being kept in captivity but numbers of adults is small and captive breedings are rare . the few breeders working with large river turtles report that they are hardy , yet sadly only a handful of podocnemis are being kept and bred in the united states these days . captive - hatched specimens of p . unifilis , p . erythrocephala , and p . vogli are available at some of the larger reptile expos and shows each year ( mostly in florida and southern california ) and from some of the dealers on the internet who specialize in rare turtle species . so far , p . expansa has not been bred in the united states .
souza - alcântara , aderson de ; daniely félix da silva , and juarez carlos brito pezzuti 2013 . effects of the hydrological cycle and human settlements on the population status of podocnemis unifilis ( testudines : podocnemididae ) in the xingu river , brazil . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2013 , vol . 12 , no . 1 : 134 - 142 . - get paper here
in araguari river basin , the nesting of podocnemis unifilis troschel 1848 ( testudines , podocnemididae ) was studied along two stretches ( 35 km each ) . the first stretch is located on the falsino river , within the borders of the amapá national forest ( flona , ap ) and the state forest of amapá ( flota , ap ) , municipality of ferreira gomes . the second stretch is located on the araguari river , urban area of the municipality of porto grande , state of amapá ( figure 1 ) . from august to december 2011 , in monthly visits lasting 10 days each , all possible spawning sites of p . unifilis were monitored for identification and registration of their nests ( sisbio : 28856 - 1 ) . all spawning sites were georeferenced with the global positioning system ( garmin , etrex 30 , kansas , usa ) to plot a map with the aid of the program arcgis 10 . with the aid of a tape rule , measurements of length , width and maximum height of the beach in relation to the river were also determined . the vegetation height on the surrounding land was estimated , then defined with three scores : ( 1 ) grassy vegetation , regeneration , scattered trees up to 5 m ; ( 2 ) predominant tree species over 5 and up to 20 m ; ( 3 ) predominant tree species over 20 m in height . in addition , the spawning substrates were also classified into four types : sand , gravel , black earth , and dried leaves .
fachín - terán , augusto & richard c . vogt 2004 . estrutura populacional , tamanho e razão sexual de podocnemis unifilis ( testudines , podocnemididae ) no rio guaporé ( ro ) , norte do brasil [ population structure , size and sex ratio in podocnemis unifilis ( testudines , podocnemididae ) in the guaporé river phyllomedusa 3 ( 1 ) : 29 - 42 - get paper here
pignati , marina teófilo ; luana ferreira fernandes , priscila sairoski miorando , paulo dias ferreira , and juarez carlos brito pezzuti 2013 . nesting site and hatching success of podocnemis unifilis ( testudines : podocnemididae ) in a floodplain area in lower amazon river , pará , brazil . south american j . herp . dec 2013 , vol . 8 , no . 3 : 175 - 185 . - get paper here
climate change can potentially threaten turtle species as the sex of offspring is determined by the temperature at which they are incubated . should the temperature rise by two degrees celsius , the ratio of males to females could be severely skewed , and a rapid rise of four degrees celsius could possibly eliminate males altogether . turtles are seen as ‘indicator’ species that can reveal the effects of climate change on the natural world ( 9 ) .
lambrada - martagón , v ; rodriguez , l . c . m . ; gardner , s . c . ; escalona , v . h . c . ; savin , t . z . 2010 . health indices of the green turtle ( chelonia mydas ) along the pacific coast of baja california sur , mexico . ii . body condition index . chelonian conservation and biology , 9 : 173 - 183 . [ links ]
when they are kept outside , these turtles thrive in large backyard ponds , especially in warm climates . the few podocnemis keepers in the united states usually keep their turtles in fenced ponds or secure above - ground pools to prevent escape and to protect their turtles from predators and theft . recovered swimming pools have proven to be excellent enclosures for these large turtles . large enclosures , low ph , and warm , clean water are all a must for these turtles . they love to bask , so plenty of sturdy and accessible basking spots should be provided . as they are secretive and shy , they quickly plop into the water at the first sign of movement around them . they will often swim a short distance away and then quickly surface in case food is forthcoming . the addition of lots of plants , both floating and submerged , adds to the health and beauty of river turtle enclosures .
pignati , marina t . ; luana f . fernandes , priscila s . miorando , paulo d . ferreira , and juarez c . b . pezzuti 2013 . effects of the nesting environment on embryonic development , sex ratio , and hatching success in podocnemis unifilis ( testudines : podocnemididae ) in an area of várzea floodplain on the lower amazon river in brazil . copeia jul 2013 , vol . 2013 , no . 2 : 303 - 311 . - get paper here
in this study , all p . unifilis spawning sites were found along the river banks ( up to 30 m from the margin ) , on islands or on large rocks with a thin layer of sediment , both in the middle of the rivers . out of these 34 nesting sites , 12 % ( n = 5 ) showed all measurements between 50 and 210 m in length , 13 and 100 m in width , and 1 . 5 and 4 . 5 m in height - a concentration of the majority of nests found ( 71 . 7 % ) . the mean distance of the nests to vegetation was 2 . 5 ± 2 . 6 m ( 0 to 12 . 7 m ) , the mean distance of the nests to the river was 5 . 4 ± 3 . 6 m ( 0 . 2 to 17 . 1 m ) and the mean height of the nests to the river was 1 . 1 ± 0 . 45 m ( 0 . 2 to 3 . 5 m ) . there was a pattern for nesting on beaches that had surrounding vegetation height between 5 and 20 m . at these nesting sites , substrate analysis indicated that 78 . 3 % of the nests were deposited in sandy environment , 12 . 8 % in soil with gravel , 6 . 1 % in dry leaves and 2 . 7 % on the ground . the type of soil and vegetation are essential factors for habitat and microenvironment of the animals ' spawning , as these factors significantly influence the embryo development and neonate success , as well as sex determination and predation rates ( ferreira - júnior 2009a , b ) . for p . unifilis from the purus river ( am ) , the spawning sites were also close to vegetation in sandy areas and lower beach sites ( pantoja - lima et al . 2009 ) . however , the type of substrate can influence the hatching time of podocnemis species ( fachín - terán and von mülhen 2003 ; ferreira - júnior and castro 2003 ) .
male yellow - headed sideneck turtles court females by nipping at their feet and tails . during the evening , two weeks after mating ( 4 ) , the female lays an average of 20 to 30 eggs in a fairly shallow nest ( 6 ) , and these incubate under the heat of the sun for two months . the sex of the hatchlings is determined by the temperature at which they incubate . eggs incubated below 32 degrees celsius will hatch as males , and those incubated above 32 degrees celsius will be females ( 7 ) . just a few days after hatching , the young turtles begin to forage for food alone . food includes vegetable matter , grasses , fruits , leaves , carrion and molluscs . they are at risk of predation by humans , birds , snakes , large fish , frogs and mammals ( 4 ) .
upon leaving the nests toward the river , neonates were collected to determine the maximum length of the carapace , maximum width of the carapace , maximum length of the plastron , maximum width of the plastron , carapace - plastron distance , head width , maximum head length , interocular distance , and maximum height of the shell using a manual caliper . the body condition index ( bci ) was calculated from the values of maximum carapace length ( cm ) and body mass ( g ) and compared to standard values ( bci = 1 . 0 ) according to le - cren ( 1951 ) by using t - test ( p < 0 . 05 ) .
a few keepers of podocnemis choose to keep their animals inside to avoid any potential disasters from cold weather , predators , or theft . podocnemis are very sensitive to cold weather and will die quickly if chilled . many keepers strive to never allow their river turtles to drop below an air temperature of 65º to 70º f ( 18º to 21º c ) . this is obviously much easier to do in a controlled indoor situation , however , very large aquariums are required . aquariums and plastic tubs work well for smaller turtles and in most cases , larger tubs in the 4’ wide x 8’ long x 2’ deep range will be sufficient to hold a pair of adult specimens of the smaller species .
locating the nests of p . unifilis was performed visually from tracks in the sand left by females the night before . also , with the help of a 15 cm wooden stick that was inserted into the beach soil , regions were superficially stirred . after observation of the eggs near the soil surface , the nests were again covered ( fachín - terán 1993 ) . all nests found were georeferenced and labeled with the following information : number of the nest , date and time when the nest was found , geographic coordinates and estimation of the hatching date . moreover , this identification was performed discreetly and prudently to hinder the rapid discovery of these nests by the public . for this , a marker was kept at 1 m from each nest found . all nests were measured regarding the distance to the vegetation , distance to the river , and height to the river . after the p . unifilis eggs were laid , the randomly chosen nests were opened for counting the eggs , measuring total depth and opening diameter and determining the total mass , maximum length and maximum width of the eggs . for this procedure , eggs were handled carefully , avoiding rotation or direct exposure to the sun . successful nests were opened during the hatching stage to check for the clutch size ( number of eggs found in each nest ) , incubation duration , number of live and stillborn neonates , and quantification of unhatched eggs ( camillo et al . 2009 ) .
hatchling podocnemis can be set up in a 20 - gallon long aquarium with a filter and 8 - 10” of warm , clean water with plenty of driftwood and live plants added as décor and as a basking spot . it is vitally important to provide water that is low in ph and with plenty of tannins ( by adding oak leaves and oak logs to the water ) to keep the shells and eyes healthy . the young are much more carnivorous than adults and they feed on live food such as redworms , blackworms , mosquito larvae , and guppies . like snake - necked turtles of the genus chelodina , they can be delicate and reluctant to feed as hatchlings . the live worms and mosquito larvae usually fix this predicament quickly as the turtles are attracted to the wiggling movement and once feeding , are hardy and grow quickly . commercial turtle foods should be added to their diet as soon as they are feeding well . the live aquatic plants are important as they add variety to their diet and will become the foundation of their diet as they reach adulthood .
podocnemis unifilis troschel in schomburgk 1848 : 647 emys cayennensis schweigger 1812 : 298 emys terekay schinz 1833 ( fide pritchard & trebbau 1984 ) podocnemis unifilis — siebenrock 1902 podocnemis unifilis — frair et al . 1978 podocnemis unifilis — kahl et al . 1980 : 117 podocnemis cayennensis — david 1994 podocnemis unifilis — gorzula & señaris 1999 podocnemis cayennensis — bonin et al 2006
cayennensis : guyana , suriname , french guiana , venezuela , colombia , ecuador , peru , n bolivia ( after bonin et al . 2006 ) .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : zmb 142 , now lost ( fide king & burke 1989 ) .
nomenclature : vogt et al . ( 2013 ) proposed in iczn case 3587 to conserve the name podocnemis unifilis troschel 1848 . mittermeier and wilson ( 1974 ) and wermuth and mertens ( 1977 : 121 ) believed that emys cayennensis schweigger 1812 may be an older name applicable to this species . acting on fretey ' s ( 1977 ) information about the type specimens of emys dumeriliana and e . cayennensis , hoogmoed and gruber ( 1983 : 346 ) concluded that dumeriliana was an older available name for unifilis , and that cayennensis was a junior synonym of p . expansa . pritchard and trebbau ' s ( 1984 ) review showed the holotype of e . cayennensis , mhnh 8359 , is a p . unifilis and that action by the intl . comm . zool . nomencl . may be necessary to suppress the variously applied cayennensis in favor of the more stable unifilis ( after king & burke 1989 ) . habitat : freshwater ( rivers and tributaries )
abdala , v . ; manzano , a . s . & herrel , a . 2008 . the distal forelimb musculature in aquatic and terrestrial turtles : phylogeny or environmental constraints ? . j . anat . 213 : 159–172
bernarde , paulo sérgio ; , reginaldo assêncio machado & luiz carlos batista turci 2011 . herpetofauna da área do igarapé esperança na reserva extrativista riozinho da liberdade , acre – brasil . biota neotrop . 11 ( 3 ) : 117 - 144 - get paper here
bour , r . 2008 . global diversity of turtles ( chelonii ; reptilia ) in freshwater . hydrobiologia 595 : 593–598
catenazzi , a . , lehr , e . & von may , r . 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of manu national park and its buffer zone , amazon basin and eastern slopes of the andes , peru . biota neotrop . 13 ( 4 ) : 269 - 283
cisneros - heredia , d . f . 2006 . turtles of the tiputini biodiversity station with remarks on the diversity and distribution of the testudines from ecuador . biota neotrop . 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 - get paper here
cole , charles j . ; carol r . townsend , robert p . reynolds , ross d . macculloch , and amy lathrop 2013 . amphibians and reptiles of guyana , south america : illustrated keys , annotated species accounts , and a biogeographic synopsis . proceedings of the biological society of washington 125 ( 4 ) : 317 - 578 ; plates : 580 - 620 - get paper here
duellman , w . e . 2005 . cusco amazónico : the lives of amphibians and reptiles in an amazonian rainforest . comstock pub assoc .
duellman , w . e . , & salas , a . w . 1991 . annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of cuzco amazonico , peru . occas . papers mus . of natur . hist . , univ . of kansas , lawrence ( 143 ) : 13 pp . - get paper here
emmons , louise h . 2016 . observations on hard - ground nesting of podocnemis unifilis in bolivia . herpetological review 47 ( 2 ) : 186 - 189
ernst , c . h . and barbour , r . w . 1989 . turtles of the world . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c . - london
fabrezi , m . ; manzano , a . ; abdala , v . & zaher , h . 2009 . developmental basis of limb homology in pleurodiran turtles , and the identity of the hooked element in the chelonian tarsus . zoological journal of the linnean society 155 : 845–866
ferronato , b . et al . 2011 . new locality records for chelonians ( testudines : chelidae , podocnemididae , testudinidae ) from departamento de pasco , peru . herpetology notes 4 : 219 - 224 - get paper here
frair , w . ; mittermeier , r . a . ; rhodin , a . g . j . 1978 . blood biochemistry and relations among podocnemis turtles ( pleurodira , pelomedusidae ) . comp . biochem . physiol . 61b : 139 - 143 - get paper here
fretey , j . 1977 . les chéloniens de guyane française . 1 . etude préliminaire . thesis , university of paris . 201 pp .
gaffney , eugene s . ; peter a . meylan , roger c . wood , elwyn simons , and diogenes de almeida campos 2011 . evolution of the side - necked turtles : the family podocnemididae . bulletin of the american museum of natural history ( 350 ) : 1 - 237 - get paper here
gorzula , stefan & senaris , j . celsa 1999 . in : contribution to the herpetofauna of the venezuelan guayana . i : a data base . scientia guaianae , caracas , no . 8 [ 1998 ] , 269 + pp . ; isbn 980 - 6020 - 48 - 0
gray , j . e . 1871 . note on podocnemis unifilis . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 8 : 68 - 70 - get paper here
herz , m . 2014 . begegnungen mit schildkröten im venezolanischen bundesstaat amazonas . teil 1 : wasserschildkröten . reptilia ( münster ) 19 ( 110 ) : 52 - 59
hoogmoed , m . s . and gruber , u . 1983 . spix and wagler type specimens of reptiles and amphibians in the natural history musea in munich ( germany ) and leiden ( the netherlands ) . spixiana suppl . 9 : 319 - 415 - get paper here
huang , c . c . ; clark , h . f . 1969 . chromosome studies of the cultured cells of two species of side - necked turtles ( podocnemis unifilis and p . expansa ) . chromosoma 26 ( 3 ) : 245 - 253 .
kahl b , gaupp p & schmidt g 1980 . das terrarium . falken verlag , niederhausen ( germany ) , 336 pp .
knaack , j . 2004 . bemerkungen zur aktuellen situation der schienenschildkröten podocnemis expansa und podocnemis unifilis in bolivien . reptilia ( münster ) 9 ( 48 ) : 56 - 64 ( addendum in issue 5 : 12 ) - get paper here
krysko , k . k . ; enge , k . m . ; donlan , e . m . ; golden , e . z . ; burgess , j . p . & larson , k . w . 2009 . the non - marine herpetofauna of key biscayne , florida . herp . cons . biol . 5 ( 1 ) : 132 - 142 - get paper here
magalhães , marcela s . ; richard c . vogt , josé fernando m . barcellos , carlos eduardo b . moura , and ronis da silveira 2014 . morphology of the digestive tube of the podocnemididae in the brazilian amazon . herpetologica dec 2014 , vol . 70 , no . 4 : 449 - 463 . - get paper here
morato , s . a . a . ; calixto , p . o . ; mendes , l . r . ; gomes , r . ; galatti , u . ; trein , f . l . ; oliveira , f . s . ; ferreira , g . n . 2014 . guia fotográfico de identificação da herpetofauna da floresta nacional de saracá - taquera , estado do pará . curitiba : stcp engenharia de projetos ltda . ; porto trombetas : mrn – mineração rio do norte s . a . ; 213 p . - get paper here
moravec j . , aparicio j . 2004 . notes on the herpetofauna of nacebe ( provincia abuna , departamento pando , bolivia ) . journal of the national museum ( prague ) , natural history series 173 ( 1 - 4 ) : 13 - 28
noronha , r . c . r . ; l . m . r . barros , r . e . f . araújo , d . f . marques , c . y . nagamachi , c . martins , and j . c . pieczarka , 2016 . new insights of karyoevolution in the amazonian turtles podocnemis expansa and podocnemis unifilis ( testudines , podocnemidae ) molecular cytogenetics ( 2016 ) 9 : 73 , doi 10 . 1186 / s13039 - 016 - 0281 - 5
oliveira - ferronato , bruno de ; carlos ignacio piña , freddy cochachez molina , renato a . espinosa , and víctor r . morales 2013 . feeding habits of amazonian freshwater turtles ( podocnemididae and chelidae ) from peru . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2013 , vol . 12 , no . 1 : 119 - 126 . - get paper here
pritchard , p . c . h . , and p . trebbau . 1984 . the turtles of venezuela . ssar contributions to herpetology 2 : viii + 402 pp .
rivas , gilson a . ; césar r . molina , gabriel n . ugueto , tito r . barros , césar l . bar - rio - amorós & philippe j . r . kok 2012 . reptiles of venezuela : an updated and commented checklist . zootaxa 3211 : 1–64 - get paper here
schlüter , a . ; icochea , j . , & perez , j . m . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of the lower río llullapichis , amazonian peru : updated species list with ecological and biogeographical notes . salamandra 40 ( 2 ) : 141 - 160 - get paper here
schneider , larissa , john b . iverson and richard c . vogt . 2012 . podocnemis unifilis . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 890 ) : 1 - 33 - get paper here
siebenrock , f . 1902 . zur systematik der schildkrötengattung podocnemis wagl . anzeiger der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften , mathematisch - naturwissenschaftliche classe , wien , 27 : 104 - 106 - get paper here
troschel , f . h . 1848 . amphibien . in : m . r . schomburgk . reisen in britisch - guiana in den jahren 1840 - 44 . im auftrage sr . majestät des königs von preussen ausgeführt . theil 3 . versuch einer zusammenstellung der fauna und flora von british - guiana . leipzig , pp . 645 - 661 - get paper here
vogt , r . c . ; ferrara , c . r . ; bernhard , r . ; carvalho , v . t . ; balensiefer , d . c . ; bonora , l . ; novelle , s . m . h . 2007 . capítulo 9 . herpetofauna . p . 127 - 143 . in : rapp py - daniel , l . ; deus , c . p . ; henriques , a . l . ; pimpão , d . m . ; ribeiro , o . m . ( orgs . ) . biodiversidade do médio madeira : bases científicas para propostas de conservação . inpa : manaus , 244pp .
vogt , r . c . ; thomson , s . a . , rhodin , a . g . j . ; pritchard , p . c . h . ; mittermaier , r . a . & baggi , n . 2013 . case 3587 : podocnemis unifilis troschel , 1848 ( reptilia , testudines ) : proposed precedence over emys cayennensis schweigger , 1812 . bull . zool . nomenclature 70 ( 1 ) : 33 - 39 - get paper here
wermuth , h . , and r . mertens . 1977 . liste der rezenten amphibien und reptilien . testudines , crocodylia , rhynchocephalia . das tierreich . berlin . 100 : i - xxvii , 1 - 174
winkler , j . d . 2006 . testing phylogenetic implications of eggshell characters in side - necked turtles ( testudines : pleurodira ) . zoology 109 : 127 - 136
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
adult female p . unifilis grow to 28” ( 70 cm ) and males grow to approximately 14” but larger specimens are occasionally seen , especially when raised in captive conditions .
these turtles must certainly reach 20 to 25 years old in captivity when cared for properly , fed properly , and offered large enclosures with plenty of clean water . a few specimens of p . unifilis in private collections in california and florida are approaching 20 years old and show no signs of old age .
hatchling and young podocnemis enjoy a variety of live invertebrates such as black worms , redworms , and even crickets . adult podocnemis eat mostly fruit and aquatic vegetation . in captivity , many will accept a more omnivorous diet , including a mix of commercial pelleted food . care should be taken that any commercial diets they are fed are low in fat and protein . the basis of their captive diet can consist of a low - fat , low - protein commercial pelleted food ( with a lot of spirulina algae as a component ) mixed with water hyacinth , water lettuce , watercress , and duckweed . in addition , romaine lettuce , kale , carrot tops , and fruits such as banana , mango , figs , and melon can be added .
females lay from 15 to 40 eggs , depending on the size of the female . the eggs are incubated in perlite or a mixture of ½ damp play sand and ½ peat moss with a layer of damp sphagnum moss over the top . this acidic moss helps to erode the egg shell and makes hatching easier . i do this for all south american species . the eggs of this species may experience diapauses and may need to be cooled for one month ( 55° f ) to break this “resting stage . ” the pattern is typically – incubate for one month at 84° f , cool for one month at 55° f , and then return the eggs to the incubator at 84° f . keep humidity at 65 to 75 % during the entire process . there are reports that eggs of this species will hatch without the cooling period but i cool all eggs from south american species .
gurley , r . 2005 . keeping and breeding freshwater turtles . living art publishing . ada , ok .
neill , w . t . 1965 . notes on the five amazon species of podocnemis ( testudinata , pelomedusidae ) . herpetologica 21 : 287 - 297 .
pritchard , p . 1979 . encyclopedia of turtles . tfh publications , inc . neptune , nj .
pritchard , p . and p . trebbau . 1984 . the turtles of venezuela . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles .
vetter , h . 2005 . turtles of the world vol 3 : central and south america . edition chimaira , germany .
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the average adult length is 15 to 27 inches ( 38 to 69 centimeters ) , with females outgrowing males . adult males weigh 1 to 2 pounds ( 0 . 5 to 1 kilograms ) and females weigh 2 . 5 to 6 . 5 pounds ( 1 to 3 kilograms ) .
these turtles spend time basking along the riverbanks and in the calm waters of big rivers and streams . they avoid fast - moving waters .
they are omnivorous , feeding on both vegetation and small animals . they have also been known to occasionally use an inertial feeding mechanism to extract fine particulate matter from the water surface .
the turtles are fed fruits and vegetables at the smithsonian ' s national zoo .
mating season varies depending on location , but nesting has been recorded for most months of the year . the clutch size averages between 15 and 25 eggs but as many as 40 are possible .
the turtles are diurnal , meaning they are most active in mid - morning and afternoon .
the indigenous yekuana indians , who eat these turtles and their eggs , are now trying to hunt the turtles sustainably . the 12 main nesting sites of these turtles are now protected from poachers by armed guards .
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an errata assessment is required to generate a revised pdf without the range map which had been included in error ; no range map was available when this assessment was originally published .
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