the firetail gudgeon ( hypseleotris galii ) is a species of gudgeon native to eastern australia , where it is found in freshwater streams .

gale 's carp-gudgeon is an alternate common name .

hypseleotris galii

a firetail gudgeon , hypseleotris galii , from the clarence river system , bonalbo , new south wales . source : jason coughran / fishbase . license : all rights reserved
firetail gudgeon ( hypseleotris galii ) is an attractive small gudgeon growing to around 5cm . it generally frequents lakes and ponds with lots of aquatic vegetation . some of these fish were filmed congregating at manly dam for more information on firetail gudgeons see : urltoken caab taxon code : 37429025
female firetail gudgeons can be easily distinguished from other species of hypseleotris by the black area around the vent . this area is usually brown in males .
carassiops galii ogilby , 1898 , proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 22 ( 4 ) : 788 . type locality : botanic garden ponds , sydney , nsw .
the firetail gudgeon is a small native australian fish that occurs in freshwater coastal streams . during the breeding season the fins of males become bright red - orange .
the firetail gudgeon has a compressed body , two dorsal fins and a small , oblique mouth that reaches to below the front of the eye .
the colouration of the species varies with age , habitat and season . the body is generally grey to bronze with black scale margins . during the breeding season males can be almost black , with intense red - orange fins . there is often a black bar above the pectoral fins base and a faint stripe along the side of the body .
female firetail gudgeons grow to 4 cm in length and males grow to 5 . 5 cm .
the firetail gudgeon is endemic to australia . it is found from southern queensland to southern new south wales .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
allen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications . pp . 240 .
larson , h . k . & d . f . hoese . 1996 in mcdowall , r . m . ( ed ) freshwater fishes of south - eastern australia . reed books . pp . 247 .
merrick , j . r . & g . e . schmida . 1984 . australian freshwater fishes . biology and management . john r . merrick . pp . 409 .
a small greyish to bronze gudgeon with dark scale margins , especially along the midsides ( may appear as a faint midlateral stripe ) , a silvery belly that appears orange to pink in gravid females , and often a black bar above the pectoral fin base . during the breeding season males may become almost black with intense red - orange fins . females have transparent fins and a black spot around the anus . eastern water dragons feeding on firetail gudgeons in sydney , new south wales . video of firetail gudgeons in manly dam , sydney . firetail gudgeons in a bait trap .
known only in eastern australia from baffle creek , queensland , to sydney , new south wales . the species is thought to have been introduced to the sydney region , and was also introduced to bolgu island in the torres strait . inhabits freshwater streams , ponds , swamps and drains , usually around vegetation .
colour varies according to habitat , time of year and age of the individual fish . the colouration of the species varies with age , habitat and season . body generally grey to bronze or almost black , with a black bar on the side above the pectoral fin base , covering the upper two thirds of base , becoming narrower and paler ventrally ; faint stripe from black bar to tail base ; scales edge in black ; belly paler . fins clear to dusky ; basal two thirds of dorsal and anal fins darer than margins ; large fish with dusky bases and reddish orange margins ; caudal fin clear to reddish orange .
feeds mostly on insects , larvae and small crustaceans such as cladocerans and ostracods .
oviparous , spawning from october to january . females lay 5 - 8 batches of 200 - 440 eggs under stones , leaves or shells . the male parent guards the eggs until the larvae hatch after 3 - 5 days .
although the species was at one time thought to have been translocated to sydney from queensland by james d . ogilby ( 1907 ) , it is native to sydney .
allen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .
dove , a . d . m . & p . j . o’donoghue . 2005 . trichodinids ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from native and exotic australian freshwater fishes . acta protozool . 44 : 51 - 60 .
hoese , d . f . , larson , h . k . & llewellyn , l . c . 1980 . family eleotridae : gudgeons . pp . 169–185 19 figs in mcdowall , r . m . ( ed . ) freshwater fishes of south - eastern australia . sydney : a . h . & a . w . reed 208 pp . figs .
lake , j . s . 1978 . australian freshwater fishes . melbourne : thomas nelson 160 pp . 140 figs .
larson , h . k . & hoese , d . f . 1996 in mcdowall , r . m . ( ed . ) freshwater fishes of south - eastern australia . reed books . 247 pp .
leggett , r . & merrick , j . r . 1987 . australian native fishes for aquariums . artarmon : j . r . merrick publications 241 pp . 142 figs .
ogilby , j . d . 1907 . notes on exhibits . proc . r . soc . qld . 20 : 27–30 .
pusey b . , kennard m . & arthington a . 2004 . freshwater fishes of north - eastern australia . csiro publishing , collingwood australia . 684 pp .
waite , e . r . 1904 . a review of the eleotrids of new south wales . rec . aust . mus . 5 ( 5 ) : 277–286 figs 34–36 .
greek , hypselos = high + the name of a nile fish , eleotris ( ref . 45335 )
oceania : coastal drainages of eastern australia from fraser island , queensland to eden in southern new south wales .
maturity : l m 3 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5259 ) ; 4 . 0 cm tl ( female )
occurs in streams , ponds , swamps and drains , usually among aquatic weeds . juveniles feed on zooplankton while adults on insects , larvae and small crustaceans . breeds between october and january in response to rising water temperatures . male colouration intensifies at this time . eggs are laid underneath rock ledges , logs or leaves and are guarded and fanned by the male parent until hatching , 3 - 5 days later ( ref . 44894 ) .
female lays adhesive eggs on the roof of a rocky ledge . male guards and fans the nest until hatching takes place after 3 - 5 days .
allen , g . r . , 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . ( ref . 5259 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01023 ( 0 . 00426 - 0 . 02456 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 28 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 45 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 200 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
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if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
yearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,
codes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases
, pp . 15 pp . + appendices
ogilby , j . d . 1898 ,
on some australian eleotrinae . part 2
, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 22 , no . 4 , pp . 783 - 793
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5acea9f7 - d191 - 47c9 - 91e2 - de4d95eb71c1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f90ee41c - 1c79 - 4a5b - a0d8 - 94a8e389bc49
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 344683
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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: small goby with fused ventrals and large dorsal fin ; body colour is yellowish with black speckling and a hint of blue in dominant males ; unpaired fins are black and edged in blue - white , except for the first dorsal which is yellow edged and has a large metallic blue dot in the centre .
natural habitat : demersal ; freshwater ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 . 0 - 19 . 0 ; occurs in pools , permanent waterholes and streams associated with artesian springs and bores and subject to high evaporation and thus the water conditions vary considerably with rain and evaporation levels across the habitat . climate : temperate ; 10 - 35°c , with low night temperatures in winter ; high ground temperatures in summer . conservation status : not in iucn red list .
threats : unknown size : 6 . 0 cm tl . ; females smaller than males .
: freshwater that is moderately hard , ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh 9 . 0 - 19 . 0 , and contains some salt but not brackish . ideal temperature range is 20 - 22°c . adaptable , easy to keep and breed ; short lived at higher temperature range .
: fine gravel substrate with rocky hiding places ; some floating cover such as duckweed .
feeds on insects , crustaceans , filamentous algae and detritus . will take flake foods and frozen or dried live foods .
: males have blue / black second dorsal fin , edged in white , which is larger than in female ; males have larger mouth than females ; females lack colouring of male and show a prominent black spot on the first dorsal fin .
egg layers on substrate ( hidden ) ; guarders ; male guards eggs in a clutch . males will mate with a number of females in his brooding hollow ( in crevices and under rocks ) . fry may be eaten in close quarters .
: acquired : one pair , 10 / 19 / 2001 . initially set up in a small tank with cut flower pot hide .
there are two very similar species , the northern purple spotted gudgeon and the southern purple spotted gudgeon . the former is still common in its range , while the latter species is endangered , having become extinct over most of its southern range , especially in south australia and victoria .
southern purple spotted gudgeon - mogurnda adspersa ( castelnua , 1878 ) chequered gudgeon , trout gudgeon .
: small elongate , large mouthed gudgeon , with golden brown body colour and purple - magenta spotting laterally and on the tail ; two prominant eye stripes diagonally backwards from the eye and a parallel third strip on the operculum . has two dorsal fins , of which the second is the larger and edged in yellow / green or white ; anal fin edged in blue - white ; short ventral fins resemble those of a goby but are not conjoined .
this fish rarely swims continuously . longer distances accomplished by a series of jerky darts .
distribution : endemic to australia , in the murray - darling system of victoria , new south wales and queensland ; perhaps south australia ; originally its distribution extended into northern victoria where it had been presumed extinct since the 1930 ' s . recently re - discovered in the cardross lakes ( an irrigation drainage basin system ) near mildura in northern victoria ; also found in eastern coastal drainages north of the clarence river , new south wales . introduced widely in dams .
natural habitat : benthopelagic , freshwater ; climate : subtropical ; 16 - 20°c ; 14°s - 36°s . inhabits slow - flowing or still waters , among weed . conservation status : rare across its range ; endangered in victoria . a protected species in the queensland , burnett river catchment area ; listed for conservation in other areas . breeding programs are active in s . a and victoria . threats : competition with introduced species ; habitat destruction ; rising salinity in the river murray - darling system ; pollution from agricultural run - off . . size : 14 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ) ; at maturity , female at 4 . 9 cm , male at 4 . 5 cm . water requirements : freshwater ; ph range : 7 . 0 ; dh range : 10 . 0 - 20 . 0 ; temperature range 15 - 24°c . tank habitat : still , hard , freshwater ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 7 . 4 ; planted and with rocky hiding places .
: feeds on worms , dragonfly larvae , midge and mosquito larvae , crustaceans and small fishes . an ambush predator , lying motionless on bottom until suitable prey approaches . eats feral mosquitofish ( gambusia spp . ) ; will eventually take pellet foods ; does best on live foods .
sexually dimorphic : males may have a slightly more pronounced
bump
on the head and the male urinogenital papilla is pointed whereas that of the female is shorter .
: external dioecism ; guarders and tenders , with pair spawning in rivers and ponds at 19 - 34°c in dec . - feb , during one , clear , seasonal peak per year . a single cluster of demersal eggs laid on a solid substrate , often close to vegetation . male swims around female with all fins erect and opercula expanded . this courting behavior may continue for some days . male cleans spawning site and pairs with a gravid female . eggs deposited in clusters on solid objects such as rocks , wood , broad leafed plants . female deposits about 30 eggs and then rests while male fertilizes them . she then continues to lay another batch . after producing about 280 - 1300 eggs , the female moves away and the male remains to fan and guard the eggs until hatching , which takes about 7 - 9 days . remove parent once fry are hatched .
: this species is not recommended for private fish keeping but is bred in conservation programs in species only tanks . the following species is recommended for aquarists .
northern purple spotted gudgeon - mogurnda mogurnda ( castelnua , 1878 ) australian chequered gudgeon , trout gudgeon .
: small elongate , trout - like gudgeon , with greenish body colour and purple - magenta spotting laterally and on the tail , pinkish colouring on the operculum ; five prominant
facial
stripes diagonally backwards from the eye and a cross the operculum .
has two dorsal fins , of which the second is the larger and edged in yellow / green or white ; anal fin edged in blue - white ; short ventral fins resemble those of a goby but are not conjoined .
: widely distributed across northern australia and southern new guinea . australian range extends from cape york , adjacent to the gulf of carpentria , to the gulf drainages , arnhem land in the northern territory , western australia as far west as fitzroy river . also found in the lake eyre drainage , n . t . , qld . , s . a . .
map shows former australian range of the northern purple spotted gudgeon in red . note the northern sa population .
benthopelagic , freshwater creeks , billabongs and streams ; found in dams and bores ; found in murky waters as well as clear waters , with wide physiochemical tolerances .
can withstand short periods of low oxygen levels , water temperatures from 5°c to at least 32°c and salinities up to 10 , 000 parts per million .
: best in cool to warm , moderately hard feshwater , temperature 20 - 27°c ( will tolerate slow drop in temperature to 5°c . tolerates a wide range of water parameters .
: large tank , gravel bottom ( u / g filtration adequate if acidification is monitored ) with very little water movement . provide planted areas , retreats and cover .
: mainly carnivorous , feeds on a variety of insects and crustaceans , molluscs , other fish , worms and some plant material . takes live foods , frozen foods and flakes in captivity .
: some slight sexual dimorphism - males more vividly coloured and with a pronounced
bump
on the head ; sexing is generally difficult except in breeding season . see below : -
: i caught this species in billabongs along the adelaide river , nt , during 1970 - 71 and kept them in the school ' s aquaria with rainbows . this species makes a delightful subject and does well with rainbowfish in a large tank . acquired : 1 pair , jan . 2001 . breeding began 26 october , 2001 .
to breed this pair , i placed them in a small , covered 28 litre tank ( a plastic storage box , actually ) , with water depth about 30 cms and the tank bare except for floating java fern and half a coconut shell . filtration was via a mature sponge filter . the fish were fed on live foods and frozen beef heart and left undisturbed except for feeding and partial water changes each week . the female was courted by the male in a more vigourous chase than described above , but not violent . the first batch of spawn was laid inside the coconut shell . free swimming fry were seen 6 days after spawning . subsequent spawning sites were on the walls and bottom of the tank . they produced several broods during the summer months , from october 2001 to march 2002 .
for the first two weeks , the fry are very small and were fed on infusoria ,
green water
rich in rotifers and single - celled algae , and microworms then on newly hatched brine shrimp . they were gradually introduced to powdered dry foods over the next few weeks . there was a marked difference in growth rate among individuals in the batch , with some fish taking brine shrimp and very fine beef - heart mix at one month of age and others still requiring very fine foods .
class : actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) . order : perciformes ; family : eleotridae ( sleepers ) ; small , olive / bronze gudgeon with grey lateral stripe and reddish tail ;
the colouration of his species varies with age , habitat and season . the body is generally grey to bronze with black scale margins . during the breeding season males can be almost black , with intense red - orange fins . there is often a black bar above the pectoral fins base and a faint stripe along the side of the body .
distribution : australia : coastal drainages of eastern australia from fraser island , in queensland to eden in southern new south wales . introduced to dams ; now widespread in australia .
: demersal ; warm temperate freshwater . occurs in streams , ponds , swamps , usually among aquatic weeds ; also found in dams , irrigation canals and drains .
: freshwater , ph 6 . 5 - 8 ; temperate ; 10°c - 30°c ; lives longer at lower temperature range 15°c - 24°c ; adequate filtration provided by u / g systems or sponge filters with low water flow ; water changes essential to keep nitrate levels low .
: freshwater , with rocky cover and plants , best kept in pairs in small aquaria ; adapts well to a quiet aquarium , and can be kept with small rainbowfish .
: omnivorous ; an ambush feeder , feeding mainly on insects and small crustaceans .
by the black area around the vent . this area is usually brown in males .
: dioecism ; guarders and nesters ; female lays adhesive eggs on the roof of a rocky ledge . male guards and fans the nest until hatching takes place after 3 - 5 days .
: important fish for mosquito control within its natural range . i have kept them but they are not an active species .
toxotes jaculatrix ( pallas 1767 ) syn . toxotes jaculator , archerfish ; rifle fish . toxotes chatareus ( hamilton , 1822 ) large scaled archerfish ; seven - spot archerfish .
laterally compressed , deep bodied fish with an arrow - head - like outline ; body colour white , with black bars or spots above the lateral line . very active . diagnosis of species :
dorsal spines ( total ) : 4 - 4 ; dorsal softrays ( total ) : 11 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 - 3 ; anal soft - rays : 15 - 17 .
c . f . toxotes charateus - dorsal spines ( total ) : 5 - 6 ; dorsal softrays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 - 3 ; anal soft - rays : 15 - 17 . t . charateus grows larger , to 40 . 0 cm sl ( male / unsexed ) ; max . weight : 750 . 0 gms .
distribution : asia and oceania : from india eastward to the philippines , and south to indonesia , vanuatu , solomon islands , papua new guinea , and northern australia . australia : rivers and estuaries of northern australia : darwin , alligator , mary , katherine , daly , roper and adelaide rivers ; gulf of carpentaria drainage area ; rivers of north eastern australia .
i loved watching these active fishes in the daly and adelaide rivers , n . t . they are always on the move , scanning the areas above and on the water , for insects .
size : a large fish to 30 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ) . water requirements : tropical freshwater to brackish water in estuaries ; brackish water is best for these fish . tank habitat : medium to very large tank with free swimming spaces is essential ; surface area is more important that depth but tank not too shallow ; cover is essential . some floating cover may help easily frightened individual fish . the water must be well oxygenated and have very good biological filtration . archerfish also tolerate water movement .
diet : predatory on small frogs , fish , and crustaceans , as well as insects , which it shoots down with a well directed jet of water . jumps to retrieve prey . adapts to frozen foods and floating high protein pellets . sexing : no information . reproduction : no information . tank community : a very large tank with rainbows and the less aggressive mbuna works well , although archer fish do not do well with aggressive species in confined space . scats and monos may work ; archerfish are relatively shy , take fright easily and jump : they are best kept away from fin nipping species and smaller fish that may make a nice meal . t . chatareus requires considerably more room than t . jaculatrix . incompatible species : aggressive fishes ; larger archerfish ; fin nippers ; arowanas . importance : fisheries : minor commercial ; aquarium : commercial . sold fresh in markets . [ information source : index of freshwater fishes sv . toxotes jaculatrix . ] comments : both toxotes jaculatrix and t . chatareus can be kept with large rainbows as a
dither fish
; they does best in brackish water environment .
: a shoaling species . laterally compressed , deep bodied fish with a small head ; body colour barred golden to brassy yellow , white ventrally , with darker bars and black spots over the body ; vertical eye stripe and some facial stripes . small mouth .
distribution : indo - west pacific ; off shore reefs and estuaries and rivers : australian distribution in estuaries and lagoons of the indo - pacific coast .
natural habitat : benthopelagic ; freshwater ; brackish ; marine environments . climate : tropical ; 22 - 30°c . found in harbours , lagoons and estuaries , venturing into freshwater during periods of flooding and high rainfall . conservation status : not in iucn red list .


priochilus captivum is a species of neotropical spider wasp in the family pompilidae .

it is native to central and south america .

it was first described by the danish zoologist johan christian fabricius in 1804 .

priochilus captivum

nesting biology and sex ratio in a neotropical spider wasp , priochilus captivum ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) .
starr c . k . 2012 . nesting biology and sex ratio in a neotropical spider wasp , priochilus captivum ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) . tropical zoology 25 : 62 - 66 . [ links ]
auko , t . h . , silvestre , r . & pitts , j . p . 2013 . nest camouflage in the spider wasp priochilus captivum ( fabricius , 1804 ) ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) , with notes on the biology . tropical zoology 26 : 140 - 144 . [ links ]
examination of more than 700 cells of the mud - nesting spider wasppriochilus captivum ( pompilidae ) in trinidad , west indies showed a nesting success rate of about 85 % , unusually high for a solitary wasp . examination of prey remains from unsuccessful cells showed that almost all prey were jumping . . .
priochilus and balboana are smaller genera , with only 21 and six described species , respectively ( f . fernandez , pers . comm . ) . however , this is probably an underestimate , based on our qualitative assessment of the diversity of unassigned specimens present in collections . priochilini is distinguished by ( 1 ) lacking malar space ; ( 2 ) having the propodeum with an angled declivity ; and ( 3 ) having males with short pronotum , which slopes abruptly . the natural history of balboana remains unknown , whereas priochilus species use mud pellets to build aerial nests ( evans & shimizu , 1996 ; auko , silvestre & pitts , 2013 ) similar to those of ageniellini ( pepsinae ) .
the remaining pompilids are split into two large , well - supported lineages , clades c and d . clade c ( pp = 1 . 0 ) comprises species of pompilinae , as defined by pitts et al . ( 2006 ) , but excluding chirodamus holiday . we recognize three major lineages within clade c : clades g , h , and i . the sister relationship of clade g and h is poorly supported ( pp = 0 . 51 ) ; clade g is monotypic and includes only sericopompilus , whereas clade h is formed by ( balboana + priochilus ) ( pp = 0 . 82 ) . clade i ( pp = 1 . 0 ) includes most of the pompilinae sensu stricto taxa .
sericopompilus howard + priochilus fabricius + balboana form an early - branching lineage ( clades g and h ) within the pompilines sensu lato . although the placement of this lineage with respect to clade i ( remaining pompilinae ) was uncertain , clade i is a well - supported , separate lineage ( fig . 1 ) . the taxa of clades g and h have unique morphology and behaviour amongst the pompilinae , which would justify elevating both clades to subfamily level . however , we abstain from defining these as different subfamilies until further data are available ; instead , we propose the tribes sericopompilini and priochilini . it is possible that future studies will provide the necessary support to consider these taxa as subfamilies with unique evolutionary histories .
the estimated age of crown - group pompilidae was recovered as 43 . 3 mya [ 95 % highest posterior probability density ( hpd ) = 112 . 2–27 . 1 ] , i . e . in the mid palaeogene–eocene ( fig . 1 ) . the internal age estimates indicate that extant species of the most diverse groups , e . g . pepsinae and pompilinae , began to diverge during the late eocene , about 38 . 6 mya ( hpd = 65 . 1–19 . 4 ) . the diversification of extant ctenocerinae ( clade a ) began around 29 . 8 mya ( hpd = 53 . 3–12 . 2 ) , similar to ceropalinae ( 31 . 0 mya , hpd = 54 . 8–14 . 7 ) , ( sericopompilus + balboana + priochilus ) ( 31 . 3 mya , hpd = 52 . 7–15 . 3 ) , and pompilinae sensu stricto ( 28 . 8 mya , hpd = 52 . 7–15 . 3 ) ( table 3 ) . crown - group notocyphus emerged more recently ( 25 . 5 mya , hpd = 45 . 4–11 . 3 ) , whereas crown - group pepsinae emerged earlier ( 34 . 7 mya , hpd = 58 . 3–17 . 0 ) , as compared with other major clades ( table 3 ) .
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laboratório de ecologia de hymenoptera , faculdade de ciências biológicas e ambientais , universidade federal da grande dourados , rodovia dourados - itahum , km 12 , cidade universitária , caixa postal 533 , 79804 - 970 dourados - ms , brasil . henriqueauko @ urltoken
five new associations of parasitoids in potter wasps ( vespidae , eumeninae ) . new associations of host and parasitoids involving potter wasps : toxophora leucon and pleurochrysis sp . were found parasitizing cyphomenes anisitsii , chrysis sp . ( gr . intricans ) was found parasitizing minixi suffusum , plega beardi was found parasitizing montezumia pelagica sepulchralis and macrosiagon sp . was found parasitizing pachodynerus nasidens .
eumeninae is the most diverse group of vespidae , with 3 , 579 species in 210 currently recognized genera in the world ( brothers & finnamore 1993 ; west - eberhard et al . 1995 ; sarmiento & carpenter 2006 ; pickett & carpenter 2010 ) . brazil harbors a significant richness of these wasps , with 277 species and 31 genera described . however the biology of these species in general is poorly known ( carpenter & marques 2001 ; pickett & carpenter 2010 ; hermes et al . 2013 ) .
adults of eumeninae feed on nectar while the larvae are predators . females build the nest that can be dug , made with mud or even occupying pre - existing cavities , and hunt caterpillars to provide food for the larvae ( evans 1956 ; krombein 1979 ; carpenter & marques 2001 ; hunt et al . 2003 ) .
among the natural enemies of eumeninae there are birds , ants ( ecitoninae ) , bats and parasitoids ( west - eberhard et al . 1995 ) . insect parasitoids develop feeding on immature stages of other arthropoda , usually killing the host ( doutt 1973 ; godfray 1994 ) . hymenoptera is the group with most representatives among parasitoids , being responsible for 75 % of the species , but this behavior also appears in other orders as diptera , coleoptera , lepidoptera , trichoptera , neuroptera and strepsiptera ( krombein 1967 ; askew 1971 ; quicke 1997 ) .
the records presented here were made in two localities from mato grosso do sul state , mid - western brazil ; both located in the chacoan sub - region , cerrado province ( morrone 2014 ) . we collected four nests of eumeninae , built with mud and set on shrubs , in the municipality of dourados ( 22°11 ' 41 ' ' s ; 54°55 ' 45 ' ' w ) ; and one mud nest in parque nacional da serra da bodoquena ( 20°44 ' 24 ' ' s ; 56°44 ' 13 ' ' w ) . the nests were brought to the universidade federal da grande dourados , and kept at approximately 26°c . voucher specimens are deposited at the museu de biodiversidade ( mubio - universidade federal da grande dourados ) , mato grosso do sul , with the exception of one specimen of diptera that was deposited in the mzusp collection .
four species of eumeninae were recorded as hosts to five species of parasitic insects ( table i ) . the first nest of cyphomenes anisitsii ( brèthes , 1906 ) was collected in january 2009 , measuring 1 , 7 cm x 3 , 8 cm ( diameter / length ) . at 21 march 2009 the first wasp ( ♂ ) emerged , and the three other wasps ( ♀ ) emerged after an interval of 48 hours each . finally on 31 march 2009 a bombyliidae ( diptera ) , toxophora leucon séguy , 1930 ( fig . 1a ) , emerged four days after the last wasp had emerged . the second nest of c . anisitsii was collected in november 2011 , measuring 1 , 5 cm x 3 , 5 cm ( diameter / length ) . one cuckoo wasp ( ♂ ) , pleurochrysis sp . ( fig . 1b ) , emerged on 20 december 2011 . the potter wasp c . anisitsii emerged three days after the parasitoid .
one nest of minixi suffusum ( fox , 1899 ) was collected in april 2012 , and measured 1 . 3 cm x 1 . 2 cm ( length / diamenter ) . the wasp chrysis sp . ( gr . intricans ) ( ♂ ) ( fig . 1c ) emerged two weeks later in the lab , and 48 hours later the wasp m . suffusum emerged . one individual of m . suffusum ( ♂ ) was found dead in the nest .
on february 2014 we collected one nest of pachodynerus nasidens ( latreille , 1812 ) , containing tree cells , with 1 . 7 cm x 0 . 8 cm ( length / diameter ) each . the first insect that emerged was a potter wasp ( ♀ ) , and after a few hours a parasitoid beetle rhipiphoridae ( coleoptera ) , macrosiagon sp . , emerged ( fig . 1e ) . one male of p . nasidens failed to complete development and died in the nest .
species of toxophora have been found parasitizing the genera ancistrocerus , stenodynerus , pachodynerus , euodynerus , and monobia ( krombein 1967 ) . the genus cyphomenes is here recorded for the first time . toxophora leucon was previously record in the municipality of corumbá , ms by cunha et al . ( 2009 ) .
plega is restricted to the americas , with four species recorded from brazil ; p . beardi was only recorded for the amazon region , in para state ( penny 1982 ; penny & costa 1983 ; maia - silva et al . 2013 ) . the larvae of plega feed on immature stages of hymenoptera , as for example the eumenine genus zethus and eusocial bees in brazil , and crabronid wasps of the genus trypoxylon and the bee genus hylaeus in trinidad ( smith 1863 ; penny 1982 ; penny & costa 1983 ; linsley & mac - swain 1955 ; ohl 2004 ; buys 2008 ; hook et al . 2010 ; maia - silva et al . 2013 ) . this is the second record of plega beardi , and the first record of montezumia as host of plega .
beetles of the genus macrosiagon have already been recorded using eumenine wasps and cockroaches as host in the oriental , palearctic , nearctic and australasian regions ( krombein 1967 ; callan 1981 ; mathews & gonzález 2004 ; batelka & hoehn 2007 ; batelka 2013 ) . hunt ( 1993 ) already supposed that macrosiagon could be hosted by p . nasidens .
there are few records of insect parasitoids of eumeninae in south america , but it seems that , with the exception of hymenoptera , most groups have generalist habits , using different wasp species as hosts ( krombein 1967 ) . knowledge of the natural enemies of eumeninae can help in the interpretation of their nesting behavior , which in turn , acts as key part to understanding the evolution of social behavior , since these wasps range from solitary to primitively social ( hermes et al . 2013 ) .
our thanks go to : dr . bolívar r . garcete - barrett , dr . marcel g . hermes , daercio a . a . lucena , and dr . lynn s . kimsey for determination of species of wasps ( eumeninae , chrysididae ) ; dr . dalton amorin and dr . carlos lama for determination of species and for the picture of diptera . we thanks carlos campaner for coleoptera determination and renato josé machado for mantispidae determination . we thank vander carbonari and rafael crepaldi for collecting some of the nests , and carlos d ' apolito for revising the manuscript .
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caixa postal 19030 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : + 55 41 3266 - 0502 sbe @ urltoken
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an investigation of the mechanisms underlying nest construction in the mud wasp paralastor sp . ( hymenoptera : eumenidae )
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cecilia waichert , juanita rodriguez , marius s . wasbauer , carol d . von dohlen , james p . pitts ; molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) : redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family , zoological journal of the linnean society , volume 175 , issue 2 , 1 october 2015 , pages 271–287 , urltoken
spider wasps ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) are solitary , predatory insects that provision their offspring with spiders as the sole food source . the family contains approximately 4855 described species grouped into 125 genera ( aguiar et al . , 2013 ) and four subfamilies ( pitts , wasbauer & von dohlen , 2006 ) . although the family has a cosmopolitan distribution , species diversity is highest in tropical regions ( wasbauer , 1995 ) .
spider wasps exhibit a wide array of nesting and foraging behaviour . females hunt spiders in short flights or while crawling along trails . they usually nest in burrows prepared by scraping soil backward with their forelegs ( evans & shimizu , 1996 ; kurczewski , 2010 ; kurczewski & edwards , 2012 ) , but some species use spider burrows ( williams , 1928 ) , pre - existing cavities ( kurczewski , 1981 ) , or construct aerial nests from mud ( evans & shimizu , 1996 ; barthélémy & pitts , 2012 ) . prey - carrying mechanisms also vary considerably throughout the family ; these include pulling , pushing , carrying , or flying with the spider to the nest ( evans & yoshimoto , 1962 ) .
consensus phylogenetic reconstruction for pompilidae resulting from two bayesian markov chain monte carlo runs performed in beast . beast posterior probability ( pp ) values are displayed on nodes . colours indicate the subfamilial boundaries proposed in the text . letters indicate supported and discussed clades resulting from the analyses : a , ctenocerinae ; b , notocyphinae + ceropalinae ; c , pompilinae ; d , pepsinae ; e , notocyphinae ; f , ceropalinae ; g , sericopompilini ; h , priochilini ; i , remaining pompilinae ; j , ( ageniellini + cyphononyx ) + sister clade ; k , ( ageniellini + cyphononyx ) + sister clade ; l , ageniellini + cyphononyx .
tribal classification of pompilidae has been similarly contentious , with no consensus reached as yet . some tribes have had as many as seven different names in the past , and the monophyly of most tribes has never been tested . for example , bradley ( 1944 ) divided pompilinae into seven tribes : aporini , ctenocerini , epipompilini , pompilini , pedinaspini , allocharini , and allocyphononychini . allocharini and allocyphononychini were transferred to pompilini by evans ( 1951 ) . ctenocerini included taxa currently classified as both aporini and ctenocerinae , whereas epipompilini was elevated to subfamily level by shimizu ( 1994 ) and transferred to ctenocerinae by pitts et al . ( 2006 ) . similar problems abound in other subfamilies , and the taxonomic confusion extends to the generic level . fernández ( 2006 ) suggested that several genera in pompilidae are probably not natural groups and are in need of taxonomic revision .
herein , we conducted a molecular phylogenetic study to address the lack of consensus in higher - level pompilidae classification . this work was based on a comprehensive sampling of genera and geographical areas , and four nuclear molecular markers . our aims were to ( 1 ) determine the phylogenetic relationships of major lineages within pompilidae , ( 2 ) estimate the ages and ancestral areas of these lineages , and ( 3 ) test the validity of prior subfamily classifications . in addition , we briefly discuss the generic classification of pompilidae and point to areas needing further studies .
outgroup taxa were chosen based on previous studies indicating ( sapygidae + mutillidae ) ( brothers & carpenter , 1993 ; pilgrim et al . , 2008 ) and ( pompilidae + mutillidae ) + a paraphyletic bradynobaenidae ( johnson et al . , 2013 ) as sister taxa of pompilidae . taxa selected were : ephuta grisea bradley and timulla divergens mickel ( mutillidae ) ; typhoctoides aphelonyx brothers ( chyphotidae ) ; and sapyga centrata say and sapyga pumila cresson ( sapygidae ) .
dna was extracted from the entire individual after puncturing the top of the mesosoma ( small−medium specimens ) , or from two to three legs ( large individuals ) . extractions were performed with a roche high pure pcr template purification kit ( roche diagnostics corp . , indianapolis , in ) following the manufacturer ' s protocol .
the nuclear genes elongation factor - 1 α f2 copy ( ef - 1α ) , long - wavelength rhodopsin ( lwrh ) , rna polymerase ii ( pol2 ) , and the d2–d3 regions of the 28s ribosomal rna ( 28s ) were amplified from each individual by pcr . double - stranded amplifications were performed with 20 μl reaction volume containing genomic dna ( 10 ng ) , 1 . 5 mm mgcl 2 , 0 . 2 mm of each deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate , 1 μm of each primer , 2 units of qiagen taq ( qiagen , valencia , ca ) , and buffer supplied by the manufacturer . in some reactions , gotaq ( promega , madison , wi ) was used in the following amounts : 6 μl double - distilled h 2 o , 10 μl gotaq green master mix , and 1 mm of each primer . the optimal cycling parameters varied for each primer pair used .
molecular markers were chosen based on phylogenetic investigations in other hymenoptera families ( e . g . danforth , fang & sipes , 2006 ; pilgrim et al . , 2008 ) . primers from previous studies and modified primers were used ( table 1 ) . all pcr products were sequenced in forward and reverse directions at utah state university ' s center for integrated biosystems and were assembled into complete contigs using sequencher 4 . 1 ( gene codes corp . , ann arbor , mi ) .
28s , d2–d3 regions of the 28s ribosomal rna ; ef - 1α , elongation factor - 1 α f2 ; lwrh , long - wavelength rhodopsin ; pol2 , rna polymerase ii .
sequences were aligned using geneious alignment ( geneious 6 . 1 ) followed by manual refinement . introns of lwrh and ef - 1α markers were removed from the alignment . the model of molecular evolution was determined for each gene by codon position using partition finder 1 . 01 ( lanfear et al . , 2012 ) . single - gene phylogenies were estimated in a bayesian framework implemented in mrbayes 3 . 2 ( ronquist et al . , 2012 ) to check for topological incongruences . single - gene matrices were then concatenated using geneious 6 . 1 to produce a combined - gene matrix . the models of molecular evolution were determined for the combined data by gene and codon position using partition finder 1 . 01 , and then analysed in mrbayes 3 . 2 ( see partitions and models in table 2 ) . bayesian analyses included four independent runs with three heated chains and one cold chain in each run . the markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) chains were set for 100 000 000 generations and sampled every 10 000 generations . trace plots and effective sample size ( ess ) were examined in tracer v . 1 . 5 to determine mcmc mixing and convergence . trees from the first 25 % of the samples were removed as burn - in . a consensus of the post - burn - in trees was visualized in figtree v . 1 . 3 . 1 ( urltoken ) .
g , gamma ; gtr , general time - reversible ; i , proportion of invariant sites ; jc , jukes−cantor ; k80 , kimura 2 - parameter ; sym , symmetrical model .
maximum - likelihood ( ml ) analysis was performed using raxml , under the gtrcat model carried out at the cipres website ( urltoken ) ( stamatakis , 2006 ; stamatakis , hoover & rougemont , 2008 ) . for this analysis , the combined alignment was partitioned by gene . rapid - bootstrap heuristic searches were calculated to estimate support levels from 100 replicates .
we recovered four , large , well - supported clades ( a , b , c , and d ; fig . 1 ) . within these four major clades , two contained additional lineages that are supported by morphology , behaviour , and / or by phylogenetic support measures ( e , f , g , h , and i ; fig . 1 ) , as presented below .
the basal split in pompilidae is formed by the african species of ctenocerinae , clade a ( sensu arnold , 1932b ) vs . all remaining taxa . african ctenocerinae , here represented by trichosalius ( arnold ) , ctenocerus dahlbom , paraclavelia haupt , and pseudopedinaspis brauns , were well supported as monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 99 ) ; however , their position as sister group to the remaining pompilidae was weak ( pp = 0 . 72 ) . the neotropical and australian ctenocerinae genera ( lepidocnemis haupt and maurillus smith , respectively ) were independently nested amongst pepsinae genera .
the second major split is between clade b and the remaining pompilids . clade b is composed of notocyphus smith , ceropales latreille , and irenangelus schulz . this clade is further divided into two well - supported lineages : e ( notocyphus ) ( pp = 1 . 0 ) and f ( irenangelus + ceropales ) ( pp = 0 . 93 ) .
a summarized phylogeny from figure 1 transformed to show newly proposed subfamilial relationships in pompilidae ; dashed line represents posterior probabilities below 90 % . for each node a colour circle corresponds to the area with highest probability resulting from the bayesian binary markov chain monte carlo analysis . ranges with probabilities of less than 10 % are reported as black . the bottom circles represent the area code and ancestral area range assigned in the model : a , australian ; b , oriental ; c , ethiopian ; d , neotropical ; e , nearctic .
kleptoparasite , takes its host from another wasp ; idiobiont , parasitoid that prevents further development of the host ; koinobiont , parasitoid that allows further development of the host .
there are probably more genera than the number presented here in geographical areas where the taxa are understudied .
the biology of most ctenocerine species remains unknown , but morphology suggests that they are parasitoids of trap - door spiders ( waichert & pitts , 2011 ) . in addition , a female ctenocerinae has been collected from the nest of a trap - door spider ( arnold , 1932a ) , and ctenocerinae specimens have been reared from trap - door spiders in the laboratory ( evans , 1972 ) . furthermore , ctenocerines have converged on morphology similar to aporini ( pompilinae ) , a group known to parasitize trap - door spiders . aporini spider wasps have been observed using the spider burrow as a nest ( jenks , 1938 ) , thus reducing the nesting sequence by eliminating carrying and nest building steps .
owing to the recent divergence of pompilidae lineages , their current distribution patterns cannot be attributed to continental drift . therefore , the current geographical distribution of spider wasps appears to have resulted from several dispersal events at different geological times , rather than as a consequence of vicariant processes . recent historical biogeography analyses of more recently diverged spider wasp groups support this pattern ( rodriguez , von dohlen & pitts , 2015 ) . spider - wasp dispersal events occurred during a time span of ∼40 mya and expanded spider - wasp distribution from a single biogeographical area to a cosmopolitan distribution .
pompilinae , the most diverse subfamily , originated around 34 mya , possibly in the neotropical and / or nearctic region . the diversification of most of the clades apparently occurred between 13 and 29 mya during the late oligocene to early miocene . pepsinae taxa show a similar range of diversification dates and similar geographical origin , but origins of more genera in this subfamily appear to have occurred earlier in the history of the subfamily .
our analyses did not recover the monophyly of ctenocerinae . the neotropical lepidocnemis and the australian maurillus are nested within different nonctenocerine lineages with high support . the morphological similarities of these and the african ctenocerine genera must now be interpreted as convergent traits . four australian taxa assigned to ctenocerinae by evans ( 1972 ) ( cteniziphontes evans , apoclavelia evans , maurillus , austroclavelia evans ) and the three genera discussed by waichert & pitts ( 2011 ) ( abernessia arlé , lepidocnemis , hypoferreola ashmead ) are herein transferred to pepsinae on the basis of the molecular phylogeny and of morphology .
notocyphinae is monotypic and defined by the character states discussed above . the other genus included in notocyphini by townes ( 1957 ) , minotocyphus , is a small oriental group with morphological resemblance to notocyphus ( townes , 1957 ; wahis , 1981 ) . wahis ( 1981 ) discussed several character states that separate minotocyphus from notocyphus , such as having the fore wing with the vein cul deflected downward at the base and the second sternite with a sulcus that curves towards the apex of the metasoma . minotocyphus is currently placed in pompilinae ( wahis , 1981 ) ; we were not able to obtain suitable samples for this study .
pompilinae has been historically the most diverse group in pompilidae . although several diagnostic character states apparently define this group , its classification and taxonomic composition have been a continuing topic of discussion for systematists . notocyphus and chirodamus were previously included in pompilinae ( pitts et al . , 2006 ) . epipompilus was previously classified as pompilinae ( harris , 1987 ) , until it was elevated to epipompilinae ( shimizu , 1994 ) , and then transferred to ctenocerinae ( pitts et al . , 2006 ) . cordyloscelis arnold was also considered a member of pompilinae ( arnold , 1935 ) .
our analyses recovered a lineage ( clade i ) composed of most of the genera traditionally placed in pompilinae . the large pompiline lineage excluded several contentious genera , namely cordyloscelis , chirodamus , notocyphus , and epipompilus . our analyses placed chirodamus and cordyloscelis within pepsinae . several clades within the large pompiline lineage received high support and could be good candidates for tribal revisions .
three species of sericopompilus are found in north america and one in australia ( evans , 1950 ) . evans ( 1950 ) suggested that the disjunct distribution and lack of morphological specialization indicate that sericopompilus is an old lineage within pompilinae . evans ( 1966 ) further proposed , without formal cladistic analysis , that sericopompilus was related to poecilopompilus howard and episyron schiödte , but had retained ‘ancestral conditions’ compared with these genera . shimizu ( 1994 ) placed sericopompilus as sister to ( austrochares banks + parabatozonus yasumatsu + poecilopompilus + batozonellus arnold + episyron schiødte ) . later , shimizu ( 1997 ) concluded that agenioideus ashmead should be considered sister to sericopompilus , a conclusion supported by pitts et al . ( 2006 ) . our analyses suggest that sericopompilus is possibly an old lineage within this subfamily ( clade g ) , as suggested by evans ( 1950 ) .
sericopompilus have slender bodies , long wings ( wasbauer , 1995 ) and are distinguished from pompilinae by having the apical tarsal segments without spines beneath and all claws of both sexes dentate ( evans , 1966 ) . little is known about hunting and nest behaviour of sericopompilus but sericopompilus apicalis ( say ) has been observed nesting in holes in the ground ( evans , 1950 ) .
our results recovered a monophyletic pepsinae in the relaxed - clock analysis only , with good support . most of the deeper relationships within this clade were not supported , whereas several lineages of more recent origin were highly supported . the molecular phylogeny supports the assignment of the controversial genera , discussed above , as members of pepsinae . epipompilus is monophyletic , although its position within pepsinae is ambiguous . it has a disjunct distribution , with species found in the neotropics and australasia . in our molecular phylogeny and in a morphological phylogenetic study ( e . f . santos , pers . comm . ) , epipompilus is recovered as two major clades , one neotropical and the other australasian . epipompilus hunt spiders inside their burrows and permanently paralyse them before oviposition ( pollard , 1982 ) .
our analyses also support minagenia and chirodamus s . l . as members of pepsinae . minagenia is strongly supported as monophyletic , but its position within pepsinae is uncertain . species of minagenia differ from other pepsinae by having a straight stinger , a compressed metasoma , bifid claws and the veins 2 r - m and 3 r - m continuously curved outward and with similar appearance . they are ectoparasitoids , paralysing their prey only temporarily . our results also confirm roig alsina ' s ( 1989 ) division of chirodamus into several genera ( to the extent that we have sampled these taxa ) .
several genera represented in our analyses were not recovered as monophyletic . in pompilinae , both agenioideus and arachnospila kincaid are paraphyletic . generic validation and phylogenetic relationships of pompilinae will be discussed in more detail elsewhere ( j . rodriguez , c . d . von dohlen & j . p . pitts , unpubl . data ) . in pepsinae , hemipepsis is paraphyletic , with a neotropical clade nesting within epipompilus and minagenia , and an old world clade sister to leptodialepis . caliadurgus , priocnemis , and sphictostesthus have species nesting within different clades ; in addition , auplopus and ageniella are paraphyletic . the relationships and the status of genera in ageniellini will be discussed in detail elsewhere ( c . waichert , c . d . von dohlen & j . p . pitts , unpubl . data ) .
dipogon was divided into five genera by lelej & loktionov ( 2012 ) : dipogon , deuteragenia , nipponodipogon ishikawa , stigmatodipogon ishikawa , and winnemanella krombein . the divisions were based on morphological phylogenetic analyses of 13 species . our study included only representatives of deuteragenia and dipogon ; the latter genus nested within deuteragenia . thus , we did not recover deuteragenia as a monophyletic genus , as suggested by lelej & loktionov ' s ( 2012 ) analyses .
we are grateful to curators for loans from ufes for useful specimens . we acknowledge j . warnock , t . w . hammer , a . ermer , and s . tashnizi for assistance on molecular procedures ; dr f . fernandez and dr e . f . santos for sharing valuable information ; the ernest mayr travel grant in animal systematics awarded to c . w . to visit the r . wahis collection ; the dissertation improvement grant from the office of research and graduate studies at usu awarded to c . w . ; and r . wahis for kindly identifying several specimens . we are thankful to the anonymous reviewers , who helped to improve the manuscript . this work was supported by the national science foundation award deb - 0743763 to j . p . p . and c . d . v . d . , and by the utah agricultural experiment station , utah state university , and approved as journal paper number 8696 . c . w . is supported by cnpq process # 249917 / 2013 - 0 .
a taxonomic study of the nearctic spider wasps belonging to the tribe pompilini ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) . part 1
a taxonomic study of the nearctic spider wasps belonging to the tribe pompilini ( hymenoptera : pompilidae ) . part 2 . genus anoplius dufour
elemente einer systematischen aufteilung der macromerinae m . ( hymenoptera - sphecoidea ) : fam . pompilidae , subfam . macromerinae
la posicion sistematica de los grupos hasta ahora incluidos en chirodamus haliday sensu lato y revision de pompilocalus gen . nov . ( hymenoptera pompilidae )
bulletin of the experiment station of the hawaiian sugar planters ' association . entomological series
figure s1 . consensus phylogenetic reconstruction for pompilidae resulting from two bayesian markov chain monte carlo runs performed in mrbayes and 100 bootstrap replicates through a maximum - likelihood ( ml ) search . bayesian posterior probabilities ( pp ) of nodes shown as the first value , ml bootstrap pseudoreplicates ( bp ) shown as the second value . asterisk ( * ) indicates nodes not recovered in the analysis . only bp > 50 % and pp > 0 . 5 are displayed on nodes .
figure s2 . chronogram for pompilidae derived from a bayesian analysis employing a relaxed molecular clock ( bottom ) . asterisks below branches indicate calibration nodes . branch lengths are drawn proportional to time and 95 % intervals for the ages of select nodes are indicated by horizontal bars .
figure s3 . ancestral area reconstruction obtained from a bayesian binary markov chain monte carlo ( bbm ) approach . the bottom right box represents the area code and ancestral area range assigned in the model : a , australian ; b , oriental ; c , ethiopian ; d , neotropical ; e , nearctic ; f , palaearctic . for each node a colour circle corresponds to the area with highest probability resulting from the bbm analysis . ranges with probabilities of less than 10 % are reported as black . asterisks designate nodes used to calibrate the beast analysis .
table s1 . voucher and collection information for specimens used in the molecular analyses , and genbank accession number for sequences .
table s2 . genera of spider wasps used in the analyses and current range distribution . areas are coded as follows : a , australian region ; b , oriental region ; c , ethiopian region ; d , neotropical region ; e , nearctic region ; f , and palaearctic region .
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five new associations of parasitoids in potter wasps ( vespidae , eumeninae ) . new associations of host and parasi - toids involving potter wasps : toxophora leucon and pleurochrysis sp . were found parasitizing cyphomenes anisitsii , chrysis . . . more
five new associations of parasitoids in potter wasps ( vespidae , eumeninae ) . new associations of host and parasi - toids involving potter wasps : toxophora leucon and pleurochrysis sp . were found parasitizing cyphomenes anisitsii , chrysis sp . ( gr . intricans ) was found parasitizing minixi suffusum , plega beardi was found parasitizing montezumia pelagica sepulchralis and macrosiagon sp . was found parasitizing pachodynerus nasidens .
plagiolabra von schulthess has only two recognized species and both were only recorded previously from argen - tina and paraguay . the two species of the genus were collected in brazil for the first time , indicating that the biota of mato . . . more
plagiolabra von schulthess has only two recognized species and both were only recorded previously from argen - tina and paraguay . the two species of the genus were collected in brazil for the first time , indicating that the biota of mato grosso do sul has elements of the chacoan province , thus indicating the importance for conservation of this area which is the only representative of the chaco biome in brazil .
we describe , for the first time , the nesting behaviour of an eragenia spider wasp , eragenia congrua , based on field observations in the brazilian amazon . this species was observed nesting in holes at the base of the trunk of a jacaranda . . . more
we describe , for the first time , the nesting behaviour of an eragenia spider wasp , eragenia congrua , based on field observations in the brazilian amazon . this species was observed nesting in holes at the base of the trunk of a jacaranda copaia tree and provisioning nests with both amputated and non - amputated species of undetermined corinna sp . ( corinnidae ) spiders . the spiders are carried forward and grasped at the base of the chelicerae . nesting is gregarious with females nesting in the same small area on successive days .
the highly diverse hymenoptera fauna in neotropical forests has been the focus of many studies investigating the structure of ecological communities , particularly in the last ten years . studies on the biogeography and diversity of . . . more
the nest of minixi suffusum offers a rare form of mimicry : bird dropping masquerading of the nest by the potter wasp was recorded in mid - western brazil , in the municipality of dourados ms . nesting biology of m . suffusum and the material . . . more
the nest of minixi suffusum offers a rare form of mimicry : bird dropping masquerading of the nest by the potter wasp was recorded in mid - western brazil , in the municipality of dourados ms . nesting biology of m . suffusum and the material involved in the action of the camouflage were observed . eleven nests were sampled , with a total of 38 cells . use of uric acid for staining the cell was evident in all nests . the way that the wasp stains the cells was observed . substrate nest site , seasonality , larvae biology , sex ratio , prey and parasitoids of m . suffusum were reported . nest camouflage may be related to defense against natural enemies .
abstract the highly diverse hymenoptera fauna in neotropical forests has been the focus of many studies investigating the structure of ecological communities , particularly in the last ten years . studies on the biogeography and diversity . . . more
the belle detector at the kekb electron - positron collider has collected almost 1 billion y ( 4s ) events in its decade of operation . super - kekb , an upgrade of kekb is under construction , to increase the luminosity by two orders of magnitude . . . more
the belle detector at the kekb electron - positron collider has collected almost 1 billion y ( 4s ) events in its decade of operation . super - kekb , an upgrade of kekb is under construction , to increase the luminosity by two orders of magnitude during a three - year shutdown , with an ultimate goal of 8e35 / cm ^ 2 / s luminosity . to exploit the increased luminosity , an upgrade of the belle detector has been proposed . a new international collaboration belle - ii , is being formed . the technical design report presents physics motivation , basic methods of the accelerator upgrade , as well as key improvements of the detector .
field techniques for the study of ground - dwelling ant : an overview , description , and evaluation .
we present here , for the first time , data on species richness and abundance of subterranean ant assemblages in southern brazil , based on a research on the subterranean ant fauna in 9 sites in seara , west of santa catarina state , in the . . . more
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4 key laboratory of zoological systematics and evolution , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing , p . r . china ,
* e - mail : ed . grubierf - inu . erutan @ baats . leahcim
conceived and designed the experiments : ms amk . performed the experiments : ms . analyzed the data : ms mo . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ms mo cdz amk . contributed to the writing of the manuscript : ms mo cdz amk . described the species : mo .
this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .
natural selection of life - history strategies results in increased individual fitness by ensuring successful reproduction , but reproductive strategies in animals vary widely [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] . while r - strategists produce a high number of offspring with limited survival chances , offspring of k - strategists have much higher survival chances at the cost of limited reproductive potential . hymenoptera show a broad variation in reproductive potential , making them ideal models to study reproductive strategies [ 3 ] . typical for most insects , a single female of sawflies and parasitic wasps , which represent the earliest branches in the phylogeny , can lay hundreds of eggs during her lifetime , but the more advanced solitary nest - provisioning hymenoptera can rarely lay more than a dozen ( reviewed in o’neill [ 3 ] ) with some species having even lower reproductive rates [ 4 ] .
in this paper we describe deuteragenia ossarium sp . nov . from south - east china . the species is unique not only in the genus deuteragenia but also in pompilidae and all other cavity - nesting wasps by showing a novel and unique nest - protection strategy , the construction of a vestibular cell filled with dead ants .
necessary permits to conduct field work were obtained from the administration bureau of the gutianshan national nature reserve .
in 2008 , the ‘bef - china’ project established a total of 27 study plots across the entire gnnr , each comprising 30 m×30 m , along gradients of tree species richness and forest age that we worked on in this study . for detailed descriptions of the study plots including maps , geological information and exhaustive botanical details we refer to bruelheide et al . [ 17 ] .
nests of solitary cavity - nesting wasps were collected in the 27 plots with trap nests from september 2011 to october 2012 . in each plot , two wooden posts with four trap nests , each consisting of a plastic tube ( length : 22 cm , diameter : 12 . 5 cm ) filled with
) . trap nests were placed at approximately 1 . 5 m height to provide standardized nesting sites for cavity - nesting solitary wasps
) were collected and a fungicide that is non - toxic to hymenoptera ( folicur , bayer cropscience , monheim , germany ) was applied with a hand sprayer to prevent molding in the humid climate of the gnnr . nests were taken to the laboratory , opened , and reared in glass test tubes closed with cotton wool (


day star ( 1875 – 1893 ) was the winner of the 4th annual kentucky derby held at churchill downs on may 21 , 1878 .

he was a chestnut colt that was foaled in kentucky and was sired by star davis ( by the successful glencoe ) .

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“the first essential for the child’s development is concentration . the child who concentrates is immensely happy . ” - dr . maria montessori
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