ergasilidae is a widespread family of copepods and comprises many species .

the type genus is ergasilus .

with a few doubtful exceptions all ergasilids are parasitic on fishes .

ergasilidae

kento furui added the japanese common name
ニセエラジラミ科
to
ergasilidae
.
yin ( ergasilidae : copepoda ) . res bull sci panjab univ 39 : 161–168
( copepoda : ergasilidae ) a parasite of freshwater fishes . ii development in copepodite stage .
wilson , c . b . ( 1911 ) north american parasitic copepods belonging to the family ergasilidae .
, a new species of parasitic copepod ( cyclopoida : ergasilidae ) from the west coast of panama .
krøyer , 1863 ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) from the piauí river estuary , state of sergipe , brazil .
phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences .
the mesoparasitic genera of the ergasilidae ( copepoda ) : with descriptions of new species of paeonodes wilson and therodamas krøyer .
yin , w . y . ( 1956 ) studies on the ergasilidae ( parasitic copepoda ) from freshwater fishes of china .
ho and do , 1982 ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) , with descriptions of three new species . syst parasitol 49 : 89–112
, new species ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida : ergasilidae ) a gill parasite of a cichlid fish from the pacific coast of colombia .
phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences . - pubmed - ncbi
a novel microhabitat for parasitic copepods : a new genus of ergasilidae ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) from the urinary bladder of a freshwater fish .
the mesoparasitic genera of the ergasilidae ( copepoda ) : with descriptions of new species of paeonodes wilson and therodamas krøyer . - pubmed - ncbi
yin wy ( 1949 ) three new species and a new genus of parasitic copepods ( ergasilidae ) from chinese pond fishes . sinensia 20 : 32–42
markevich , 1937 ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) , with descriptions of two new species from the gills of grey mullet . j nat hist 35 : 1807–1819
the family ergasilidae has been reported ( or is assumed ) to occur in fresh waters . this taxon has been reported from midwestern states of north america .
a novel microhabitat for parasitic copepods : a new genus of ergasilidae ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) from the urinary bladder of a freshwater fish . - pubmed - ncbi
ho js , jayarajan p , radhakrishnan s ( 1992 ) copepods of the family ergasilidae ( poecilostomatoida ) parasitic on coastal fishes of kerala , india . j nat hist 26 : 1227–1241
song y et al . phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences . parasitol res . 2008 ; 102 : 299 - 306
ergasilidae , [ palearctic , nearctic , neotropical , afrotropical , oriental , australasian ; 173 species in 24 genera worldwide , 26 nearctic species in 5 genera ] ( boxshall & defaye , 2008 ) .
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database . ergasilidae burmeister , 1835 . accessed at : urltoken ; = 128571 on 2018 - 07 - 09
amado map , ho js , da rocha cef ( 1995 ) phylogeny and biogeography of the ergasilidae ( copepoda , poecilostomatoida ) , with reconsideration of the taxonomic status of the vaigamidae . contrib zool 65 : 233–243
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database . ergasilidae burmeister , 1835 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 128571 on 2018 - 07 - 09
bricker , k . s . , gannon , j . e . , roberts , l . s . & torke , b . g . ( 1978 ) observations on the ecology and distribution of free - living ergasilidae ( copepoda , cyclopoida ) .
motta amado , m . a . , ho , j . - s . & rocha , c . e . ( 1995 ) phylogeny and biogeography of the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) , with reconsideration of the taxonomic status of the vaigamidae .
boxshall g . a . , araujo h . m . p . , montu m . 2002 : a new species of ergasilus nordmann , 1832 ( copepoda , ergasilidae ) from brazil . crustaceana 75 : 269 - 276 go to original source . . .
song y & wang gt & yao wj , et al . ( 2008 ) . phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences . parasitology research , 102 , pp . 299 - 306 .
ho j . - s . , jayarajan p . , radhakrishnan s . 1992 : copepods of the family ergasilidae ( poecilostomatoida ) parasitic on coastal fishes of kerala , india . j . nat . hist . 26 : 1227 - 1241 go to original source . . .
amado m . a . p . , ho j . - s . , rocha c . e . 1995 : phylogeny and biogeography of the ergasilidae ( copepoda , poecilostomatoida ) , with reconsideration of the taxonomic status of vaigamidae . contrib . zool . 65 : 233 - 243
song y , wang gt , yao wj , et al . phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences . parasitol res 2008 ; 102 ( 2 ) : 299 - 306 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
hewitt g . c . 1978 : abergasilus amplexus gen . et sp . nov . ( ergasilidae ; parasitic copepoda ) from fishes in lake ellesmere , new zealand . n . z . j . mar . freshwater res . 12 : 173 - 177 go to original source . . .
song y et al :
phylogeny of freshwater parasitic copepods in the ergasilidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) based on 18s and 28s rdna sequences .
parasitology research , vol . 102 , no . 2 , 2008 , pp . 299 - 306 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
tavares l . e . r . , luque j . l . 2005 : ergasilus youngi sp . nov . ( copepoda , poecilostomatoida , ergasilidae ) parasitic on aspistor luniscutis ( actinopterygii , ariidae ) from off the state of rio de janeiro , brazil . acta parasitol . 50 : 150 - 155
paperna , i . & zwerner , d . e . , 1981 . host - parasite relationship of ergasilus labrachis kroyer ( cyclopidea , ergasilidae ) and the striped bass , morone saxatilis ( walbaum ) from the lower chesapeake bay . ann . parasitol . hum . comp . , 57 : 393–405 .
el - rashidy h . h , boxshall g . a . 2001 : biogeography and phylogeny of paraergasilus markevich , 1937 ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) with descriptions of two new species from the gills of grey mullet . j . nat . hist . 35 : 1807 - 1819 go to original source . . .
el - rashidy h . h . , boxshall g . a . 2002 : new species and new records of ergasilus nordmann ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) from the gills of grey mullet ( mugilidae ) . syst . parasitol . 54 : 37 - 58 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
malta jco , varella amb . ergasilus turucuyus sp . n . ( copepoda : ergasilidae ) das brânquias de acestrorhynchus falcatus ( bloch , 1794 ) e a . falcirostris ( cuvier , 1819 ) ( characiformes , characidae ) da amazônia brasileira . acta amazon . 1996 ; 26 ( 2 ) : 69 - 76 . [ links ]
suárez - morales , e . , & santana - piñeros , a . m . ( 2008 ) . a new species of ergasilus ( copepoda : cyclopoida : ergasilidae ) from coastal fishes of the mexican pacific . folia parasitologica , 55 ( 3 ) , 224 - 230 . doi : 10 . 14411 / fp . 2008 . 030 .
ty - jour ti - north american parasitic copepods belonging to the family ergasilidae t2 - proceedings of the united states national museum . vl - 39 is - 1788 ur - urltoken pb - smithsonian institution press , [ etc . ] cy - washington : py - 1911 sp - 263 ep - 400 do - 10 . 5479 / si . 00963801 . 39 - 1788 . 263 sn - 0096 - 3801 au - wilson , c b er -
@ article { bhlpart51980 , title = { north american parasitic copepods belonging to the family ergasilidae } , journal = { proceedings of the united states national museum . } , volume = { 39 } , copyright = { public domain . the bhl considers that this work is no longer under copyright protection . } , url = urltoken publisher = { washington : smithsonian institution press , [ etc . ] } , author = { wilson , c b } , year = { 1911 } , pages = { 263 - - 400 } , }
description , taxonomy and diagnosis the parasitic females ( the only known stage ) of the genera mugilicola and paeonodes are therodamasidae ( poecilostomatoida , the same suborder as ergasilidae ) , and characterised by a small head , embedded in the host integument ( both from the roof of the mouth ) , an unsegmented long neck and trunk bearing paired legs , and a minute abdomen . eggs are arranged in bunches . paeonodes has four pairs of thoracic legs , while mugilicola has three . the head in mugilicola is large , while in paeonodes only the clawed second antenna is readily distinguishable .
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urltoken
mclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
genus ergasiloides sars g . o . , 1909 accepted as ergasilus von nordmann , 1832
( of vaigamidae thatcher & robertson b . a . , 1984 ) thatcher , v . e . & b . a . robertson . ( 1984 ) . the parasitic crustaceans of fishes from the brazilian amazon . 11 . vaigamidae fam . nov . ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) with males and females of vaigamus retrobarbatus gen . et sp . nov . and v . spinicephalus sp . nov . from plankton . canadian journal of zoology 62 ( 4 ) : 716 - 729 , figs . 1 - 45 , tabs . 1 - 8 . ( iv - 1984 , french summary . ) [ details ]
boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
martin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
costello , m . j . ; emblow , c . ; white , r . ( ed . ) . ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 . muséum national d ' histoire naturelle : paris , france . isbn 2 - 85653 - 538 - 0 . 463 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of vaigamidae thatcher & robertson b . a . , 1984 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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martin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors
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song y 1 , wang gt , yao wj , gao q , nie p .
state key laboratory of freshwater ecology and biotechnology , and laboratory of fish diseases , institute of hydrobiology , chinese academy of sciences , wuhan , hubei province , 430072 , people ' s republic of china .
international journal that covers all branches of parasitology , including morphology , taxonomy , molecular biology , host - parasite relationships , parasite evolution , biochemistry , physiology and immunology .
alvarez - silva c . , miranda - arce g . , delara issasi g . , gomez - aguirre s . 2006 : zooplancton de los sistemas estuarinos de chantuto y panzacola , chiapas en epoca de secas y lluvias . hidrobiologica 16 : 175 - 182
amado m . a . p . , rocha c . e . 2001 : useful characters in identifying copepods of the genus ergasilus from plankton , with the description of male and female of e . sergipensis n . sp . hydrobiologia 450 : 149 - 157 go to original source . . .
boxshall g . a . , halsey s . h . 2004 : an introduction to copepod diversity . the ray society , london , 966 pp
boxshall g . a . , montu m . a . 1997 : copepods parasitic on brazilian coastal fishes : a handbook . nauplius 5 : 1 - 225
bush g . a . , lafferty k . d . , lotz j . m . , shostak a . w . 1997 : parasitology meets ecology on its own terms : margolis et al . revisited . j . parasitol . 83 : 575 - 583 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
el - rashidy h . h . , boxshall g . a . 1999 : ergasilid copepods ( poecilostomatoida ) from the gills of primitive mugilidae ( grey mullets ) . syst . parasitol . 42 : 161 - 186 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
fajer - avila e . j . , garcia - vasquez a . , plascensia - gonzalez h . , rios - sicairos j . , garcia l . m . , betancourt m . 2006 : copepods and larvae of nematodes parasiting the white mullet mugil curema ( valenciennes , 1836 ) : indicators of anthropogenic impacts in tropical coastal lagoons ? environ . monit . assess . 122 : 221 - 237 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
fitzsimmons k . 2000 : tilapia aquaculture in mexico . in : b . a . costa - pierce and j . e . rakocy ( eds . ) , tilapia aquaculture in the americas , vol . 2 . the world aquaculture society , baton rouge , louisiana , united states , pp . 171 - 183
lin c . - l . , ho j . - s . 1998 : two species of ergasilid copepods parasitic on fishes cultured in brackish water in taiwan . proc . biol . soc . wash . 11 : 15 - 27
moravec f . , santana - pineros a . m . , gonzalez - solis d . , torres - huerta a . m . 2007 : a new species of spirophilometra ( nematoda : philometridae ) from the yellowfin snook centropomus robalito ( osteichthyes ) in southern mexico . folia parasitol . 54 : 215 - 219 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
roberts l . s . 1969 : ergasilus cerastes sp . n . ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) from north american catfishes . j . parasitol . 55 : 1266 - 1270 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
roberts l . s . 1970 : ergasilus ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) - revision and key to species in north america . trans . am . microsc . soc . 89 : 134 - 161 go to original source . . .
thatcher v . e . , boeger w . a . 1983 : the parasitic crustaceans of fishes from the brazilian amazon . 4 . ergasilus colomesus n . sp . ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) from an ornamental fish colomesus asellus ( tetraodontidae ) and aspects of its pathogenicity . trans . am . microsc . soc . 102 : 371 - 379 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
thatcher v . e . , boeger w . a . 1984 : the parasitic crustaceans of fishes from the brazilian amazon . 9 . ergasilus callophysus sp . n . ( copepoda : cyclopoida ) from callophysus macropterus . proc . helminthol . soc . wash . 51 : 326 - 330
valles - rios m . e . , ruiz - campos g . , galaviz l . 2000 : prevalencia e intensidad parasitaria en mugil cephalus ( pisces : mugilidae ) del rio colorado , baja california , mexico . rev . biol . trop . 48 : 498 - 501
violante - gonzalez j . , aguirre - macedo m . l . 2007 : metazoan parasites of fishes from coyuca lagoon , guerrero , mexico . zootaxa 1531 : 39 - 48
violante - gonzalez j . , aguirre - macedo m . l . , mendozafranco e . 2007 : a checklist of metazoan parasites of fish from tres palos lagoon , mexico . parasitol . res . 102 : 151 - 161 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .
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jennifer hammock split the classifications by nmnh invertebrate zoology resource from ergasilus to their own page .
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host preferences may differ in populations from different geographical regions ; l . hardingi throughout africa is associated with cichlidae , in l . bangweulu and l . meru they principally infect chrisichthys mahusi and also rarely synodontis nigromaculatus . alongside widely distributed species , there are species which are not only host specific but apparently also restricted to one lake ; l . bagri , l . tuberosa , and l . inflata ( fryer , 1959 , 1968a ) .
the gill adapted lernaeids , lamproglena and lamproglenoides species from african fish are all endemic , each species occurring in representatives of different families : l . monodi ( in cichlids ) , l . hemprichii ( in the genus hydrocynus , characidae ) and l . clariae ( in clarias spp . ) are the most widely distributed ( fryer , 1968a ) .
description , taxonomy and diagnosis the rod - shaped , unsegmented , or partly segmented parasitic stage lernaeid female is anchored , with the aid of a specialised holdfast organ , to the host skin or buccal mucosa . larval stages , copepodites and copepod - shaped males are attached to the gills .
differentiation to lernaeid genera and to species in the genus lernaea is based mainly on the morphology of the holdfast organ ( anchors ) of the parasitic females . the growth and branching of the latter , however , is greatly affected by the consistency of the tissue into which the holdfast organ is anchored . infrageneric taxonomy may often be controversial , as intraspecific variations often overwhelm interspecific differences in the holdfast organ structure ( fryer , 1961a ) .
head with 2–3 ( rarely 4 ) pointed or swollen horns , the trunk may thicken gradually towards its posterior end .
head horns are soft , short and rounded ; “neck” elongated ; posterior part of the body ( trunk ) abruptly thickened and flattened dorso - ventrally .
head with 4 horns , with 2 posterior horns directed symmetrically backward to form a 90 degree angle . a lateral outgrowth extends from the “neck” region ; it may be , however , located in very close proximity to the head to become functionally part of the anchor complex .
head with anterior short protruberences ; the neck is very long and the trunk abruptly thickening .
attach to gills ; parasitic females retain copepodid features ; segmentation , and large mouth parts , with cephalothorax always less than half total length , second antenna small and weak , maxilipeds with terminal claws , thoracopods present , but sometimes fewer than 4 pairs . copepodites and males are reminiscent to those of lernaea .
copepodites of lernaeaids attached to gills are readily differentiated from ergasilid parasitic females in lacking the hook ( spine ) type terminal segment of the second antenna .
life cycle and biology parasitic females of l . barnimiana of l . george produce egg sacs containing 75–205 eggs . at 21–25°c , hatching occurs after 2 days . hatched nauplii moult into second stage nauplii within 19 hours , and further moult to the third stage nauplius ( metanauplius ) within 42 hours after hatching . free , infective copepodite stages appear 97 hours after hatching . the latter survive up to 4 days in the absence of host fish .
copepodites preferentially attach to fish gills and , less readily , to the walls of the buccal cavity or the skin . copepodites undergo four successive moults , while increasing in size from 0 . 3–0 . 4 mm to 0 . 6–0 . 8 mm . in fifth stage copepodites sexual dimorphism becomes apparent , with females being larger than males ( 0 . 8–0 . 9 vs 0 . 7–0 . 85 mm ) .
yashuv ( 1959 ) noted considerable variability in the development time of the various stages as well as in the life span of the anchored female . in addition to aquatic conditions , variations were related to the nature of the interaction between parasite and host . repeated or prolonged infestation stimulated an accelerated host inflammatory response and ulceration around anchored females , which hastened their evacuation in being denied firm attachment and nutrition . such processes have been suggested to be linked with activation of non - specific or specific defence mechanisms ( shields & goode , 1978 ) .
in the east african lakes , different fish species serve as preferential hosts for copepodites and adult lernaea . copepodites of l . cyprinacea , infecting cichlid fish in l . victoria at the adult female - stage , develop in bagrus docmac . b . docmac of l . george and b . bayad of l . albert host copepodites of l . barnimiana , whose adult female stages attach to barbus altianalis , cichlids and lates albertianus ( thurston , 1969 , 1970 ) .
copepodites , however , are opportunistic in their host preferences and in the absence of preferential hosts ( in ponds and experimentally ) , both larval development and female stage infection will take place in the same individual or conspecific hosts .
other species and populations of lernaea also seem to be less fastidious in their choice of hosts for larval development than for their adult stages . adult females of l . cyprinacea in l . kinneret preferentially infect cyprinid fish , while copepodites may also be found on cichlid fish ( paperna , 1964b ) .
the life history of lamproglena and lamproglenoides follows the same pattern as other lernaeids , with at least two stages of copepodites attached to gills . males are lost after fertilisation . lamproglenids appear to develop and mature on the same host species .
pathogenicity of lernaeids largely depends on their host size and their attachment site preferences . infection by a single or 2–3 females is very damaging or even deadly to young or small fish ( < 40 mm long ) . parasites may anchor in the liver , the intestine or the brain ( paperna & thurston , 1968 ) . in the sardine - like engraulicypris ( rastrineobola ) , even one specimen of l . tuberosa or l . inflata was a serious encumbrance ( fryer , 1968a ) . the ubiquitous skin lernaeids , such as l . cyprinacea and l . hardingi and some populations of l . barnimiana , cause severe damage only in heavy infections .
epizootiology the prevalence of natural infections even in large water bodies such as lakes reached 94 % in mormyrus longirostris infected by afrolernaea longicollis and 56 % in b . meridionalis infected with l . bagri . l . albertianus was frequently ( 50 % ) infected with l . barnimiana in l . albert but free of such infection in lakes kyoga and victoria . heavy infections of l . barnimiana were also frequent in b . altianalis in the victoria nile ( up to 106 per fish ) . nevertheless , in most fish populations infection was overdispersed , with few individuals attracting larger numbers of parasites ( 66 l . cyprinacea in the buccal cavity of o . variabilis , from l . victoria ; 55 l . bagri in b . meridionalis in l . malawi ) ( fryer , 1968a ) .
heavy infections are not infrequent in israeli fish farms , mainly in carp , they are less frequent in asian carps and occur rarely in cichlids . there are also some records of epizootic infection in grey mullet grown in freshwater ponds ( yashuv , 1959 ; sarig , 1971 ) . infection with adult l . cyprinacea is also common in native cyprinid fishes and gambussia affinis from natural habitats , while being absent from cichlids and clarias lazera ; copepodites occur also in cichlids ( paperna , 1964a ) .
infections of l . cyprinacea were reported from oreochromis mossambicus and o . niloticus introduced to culture in southeast asia ( kabata , 1985 ) . l . lophiara , parasitic on central african cichlids has been identified in thailand from o . mossambicus and various other indigenous and exotic fishes ( kabata , 1985 ) .
recently the insecticide dimilin ( r ) ( philips - dupar , netherlands product ) was found effective against adult females at concentrations of 0 . 03–0 . 05 ppm . this insecticide has not been cleared for use with food fish and its degradation in the environment is slow so that contaminated waters should not be released until at least 30 days after treatment .
an alternative strategy is treatment directed to suppress lernaeid infection through eradication of copepodite stages by repeated treatments of ponds with dipterex ( 0 . 25 ppm ) and bromex ( 0 . 12 ppm ) . treatments are repeated to coincide with the duration of larval metamorphosis from early copepodite to adult stage , which is temperature dependent . recommended time intervals for treatment of l . cyprinacea copepodites are : 12 days at 20°c , 9 days at 25°c , 7 days at 30°c , 5 days at 35°c . below 20°c one monthly treatments will be sufficient .
parasites , host species affected and geographical range paeonodes lagunaris is known only from the buccal cavity of sarotherodon melanotheron , from sakumo lagoon in southern ghana ( van banning , 1974 ; pauley , 1974 ) .
mugilicola smithae occurs on anguilla mossambica , in south africa ( jones & hine , 1978 ) .
achtheres micropteri has been introduced with its host micropterus salmoides into south africa ( fryer , 1968a ) .
sciaenophilus pharaonis ( syn . s . inopius ) was reported from labeo niloticus and l . forskalii from the nile in egypt ( humes , 1957 ) .
achtheres micropteri is a lernaepodid copepod . females are permanently attached to the inner surface of their host gill arches by a specially modified leg , the first maxilliped .
segmentation and thoracic legs disappear in the mature stages . egg sacs are claviform , in a bunch . males are dwarfed and attached to females .
sciaenophilus pharaonis is a gill adapted caligiid , with the flattened cup shaped head reduced and enlarged and elongated thoracic and abdominal segments .
life cycle and biology the life histories of paeonodes lagunaris and mugilicola smithae , are unknown but are apparently reminiscent to that of ergasilids ( 18 . 1 ) .
in achtheres , larvae hatch into a free swimming first copepodite stage , at the second copepodite stage they attach to fish by an attachment filament and develop into adults . after mating , males cling to females ( hoffman , 1967 ) .
the life history of sciaenophilus pharaonis is unknown , but should be the same as other caligiids , e . g . copepodites hatch from eggs , attach to gills and develop into chalimi stages attached to the gill tissue by a specially formed filament . the chalimi undergo several moults until they transform into adult males and females ( raibaut , 1985 ) .
pathology and epizootiology all these copepods seem to have little damaging effect on their host fish at the infection levels observed ( all were natural infections ) .
paeonodes , mugilicola and sciaenophilus are marine copepods adapted to brackish water habitats , or carried with their host into inland waters ( sciaenophilus ) . p . lagunaris infection on s . melanotheron is highest ( 100 % , mean 5 . 3 per fish ) during the heavy rainy season when salinity ( and temperature ) of the lagoon water is low ( < 10 to 20 ppt ; < 26°c ) , and declines ( up to 17 % , with mean of 1 per fish ) as salinities and temperatures are elevated ( 30 to 45 ppt , 27–8°c ) ( pauley , 1974 ) . infestation of m . smithae occurs in elvers ( in 0 . 6–3 % ) of the southeastern cape rivers , and only very rarely in glass eels ( 0–0 . 3 % ) ( jones & hine , 1978 ) .
achtheres micropteri , introduced with the black bass ( micropterus salmoides ) remained confined to its exotic host ( fryer , 1968a ) .
description , taxonomy and diagnosis argulids ( “fish lice” ) are dorso - ventrally flattened and covered dorsally by a rounded or horseshoe shaped carapace . ventrally positioned head appendages are developed for attachment , four thoracic segments each bear a pair of bifid swimming legs . the abdomen is comprised of a single bi - lobed unit which contains testes or a round seminal receptacle .
only one species of dolops is present in africa , it differs from argulus in having the second maxilla armed with a hook rather than a sucker , characteristic of the latter .
chonopeltis are usually the smallest ; head appendages are feeble and rudimentary , the mouth tube found in the other argulids is absent , whereas the cup - like sucker of the second maxilla is distinctly developed . the carapace is reduced in size and width . unlike the above argulids , which are active swimmers , chonopeltis is not capable of swimming if removed from the host .
for species diagnosis of argulus and chonopeltis readers should refer to relevant publications ( fryer , 1956 , 1959 , 1961b , 1968a , 1977 ; avenant - oldewage , 1991 ) .
eggs are deposited in masses on substrates in the water and may become covered by a gelatinous substance . argulid species vary in the number of eggs they produce , in total ( 20–600 ) and per each batch ( fryer , 1968a ; hoffman , 1977 ) . egg strings laid by a . japonicus contained 5–226 eggs , and each female laid 1–9 strings ( shafir & van as , 1986 ) . newly hatched argulids either resemble modified nauplii ( in a . japonicus ) , or more often , are already transformed to “juvenile adults” ( in a . africanus and other spp . and in d . ranarum ) . in chonopeltis the larvae are intermediate between nauplii - type and “juvenile adult” ( fryer , 1968a ) .
dolops ranarum females deposit up to 566 eggs ( fryer , 1959 ) ; eggs are heavily yolked . eggs develop to hatching 25–35 days at 24°c ( fryer , 1964 ) . at 20°c , hatching occurs after 57 days ( avenant et al . , 1989 ) . eggs do not hatch simultaneously ; at 24°c , the time between hatching of the first and last egg is about 10 days .
another important factor in distribution of argulids is their tolerance to water quality , in particular dissolved oxygen . d . ranarum , the only branchiuran possessing haemoglobin , seems to be capable of withstanding low levels of dissolved oxygen and to survive on siluriforms and lungfish which enter eutrophic , deoxygenated habitats . d . ranarum seems to be capable of surviving on mud aestivating fish ( fryer , 1968a ) .
a . africanus were as numerous as , or even outnumbered , d . ranarum in scaled fish , notably cichlids ( in 55 % of t . esculenta and in 29 % of t . variabilis ) . in lake albert , a . africanus is absent and replaced with a . cunningtoni and a . rhiphidiophorus which heavily infect both smooth skinned siluriforms , scaled cichlids and l . albertianus . in other lakes , other species may produce massive infestations . in l . tanganyika dead specimens of auchenoglanis occidentalis were completely covered by a . striatus and a . inciscus ( fryer , 1968a ) .
in southern africa d . ranarum occurs predominantly on two hosts , c . gariepinus and o . mossambicus ( overall prevalence in surveyed impoundments in transvaal , 24 % of 793 and 26 % of 2356 examined fish of the two species respectively ) . infection is less frequent in eutropius depressirostris and species of labeo and barbus . natural infections are usually low ( about six per fish ) and only exceptionally high ( up to 35 , in c . gariepinus , in a dam where prevalence was as high as 88 % ) .
a . japonicus introduced to southern africa on carp and / or goldfish , is today an omnipresent parasite of both carp and native fish ; species of barbus and labeo , clarias gariepinus and occasionally also cichlid fish . in some dams and lakes , prevalence of infection in cyprinids and in catfish can reach 93–100 % and 78 % respectively , with 10 to over 250 parasites per fish ( kruger et al . , 1983 ) . extremely heavy infections of a . japonicus occurred in winter on c . gariepinus trapped in dams , restricted ( and stressed ? ) by the low ambient temperatures ( 8–13°c ) ( kruger et al . , 1983 ; shafir & van as , 1985 ) .
control both organohalogen and organophosphate insecticides effectively kill agulids with reliable safety margins to fish ( safety indices of 12–20 ) ( sarig , 1971 ) . use of lindane was abandoned because of its residual effects , risking humans and environmental safety as well as the resistance acquired by argulids following repeated treatments ( lahav et al . , 1962 ) . insecticides in current use are malathion and dipterex ( dylox , masoten , neguvon ) applied to ponds at a dose of 0 . 25 ppm ( safety index of 12 for carp and tilapia ) , or bromex ( dibrom , naled ) at a dose of 0 . 12 ppm ( safety index of 32 ) ( sarig , 1971 ) . pyrethrum extracts were tested with success , but were never introduced into routine use ( yashuv , pers . comm . ) .
species affected and geographical range isopoda are parasites of marine fish and infections have been reported in euryhaline fish in estuaries . nerocila orbignyi , a common parasite of marine and estuarine fish , including grey mullets ( trilles , 1965 ) was reported to infect sarotherodon galilaeus in a nile delta lake ( wunder , 1962 ) .
a few species of cymothoid isopods ( lironeca spp . ) occur in african freshwater fish ( apparently as marine relics ) in the congo basin and in l . tanganyika ( in a cichlid , a clupeid and a citharinid ) ( fryer , 1965a , b , 1968a , b ) .
opportunistic euryhaline cymothoids of several families and genera infect farmed fish in southeast asia , including cultured tilapia ( by aliotropus typus , a egidae ) ( kabata , 1985 ) .
description , taxonomy and diagnosis isopoda are the largest crustaceans found on fish ( 20–50 mm long ) . the body consists of three regions , the head is unsegmented and bears two pairs of antennae , a pair of variable sized eyes and a mouth . the maxilliped covers all other mouth parts , a second region , the peraeon , of 7 segments , each with a pair of legs ( peraeopods ) and a six segmented pleon , with pairs of pleopods , except the last which together with biramous uropods form a swimming tail pleotelson .
the rather uniform morphology makes identification , even to family and genera , difficult . a key and description of individual genera is provided by kabata ( 1985 ) .
life cycle and biology the ‘cymothoid’ isopods attach to fish early in life and pass through a male stage before becoming female . the presence of a mature female prevents male stage specimens from further development . both males and females remain permanently attached to the fish . egg and larval development takes place in a special brood - pouch on the females ventrum . another group , the ‘gnathiid’ isopods , are marine and only parasitic during the larval stage .
movements ( kabata , 1985 ) . the opportunistic nerocila orbignyi is haematophage , and massive infection led to death of cage cultured dicentrarchus labrax ( euzet & raibaut , 1985 ) . there is a record of mortality of farmed milkfish ( chanos chanos ) in the philippines infested with aliotropus typus ( kabata , 1985 ) .
members of the genus lchthyoxenus become enclosed in a pouch - like cavity in its host ' s ( various southeast asian cyprinids ) body wall . the epithelial lining of the pouch wall undergoes degradation and large pouches could exert pressure on the viscera ( kabata , 1985 ) .
control not practised . organophosphate insecticides used for other piscine crustaceans are likely to be effective .
ahne , w . , 1985 . argulus foliaceus l . and piscicola geometra l . as mechanical vectors of spring viraemia of carp virus ( svcv ) . j . fish dis . , 8 : 241–242 .
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avenant , a . m . & van as , j . g . , 1986 . observation on the seasonal occurrence of the fish ectoparasite dolops ranarum ( stuhlmann 1891 ) ( crustacea : branchiura ) in the transvaal . s . afr . j . wildlife res . , 16 : 62–64 .
avenant , a . , van as , j . g . & loots , g . c . , 1989 . on the hatching and morphology of dolops ranarum larvae ( crustacea : branchiura ) . j . zool . lond . , 217 : 511–519 .
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fryer , g . , 1965a . crustacean parasites of african freshwater fish mostly collected during the expeditions to lake tanganyika , and to lakes kivu , edward and albert by the institute royal des science naturelle belgique . bull . inst . r . sci . nat . belg . , 41 : 1–22 .
fryer , g . , 1965b . a new isopod of the genus lironeca parasitic on a cichlid fish of lake tanganyika . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 81 : 376–384 .
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fryer , g . , 1977 . on some species of chonopeltis ( crustacea , branchiura ) from the rivers of the extreme south - west cape region of africa . j . zool . , 182 : 441–445 .
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hoffman , g . l . , 1976 . the anchor parasite ( lernaea elegans ) and related species ( parasites of freshwater fish . vi . miscellaneous . ) . us department of the interior , fish and wildlife service , fish disease leaflet 46 ( november ) .
hoffman , g . l . , 1977 . argulus , a branchiuran parasite of freshwater fish . united states department of the interior , fish disease leaflet 49 .
humes , a . g . , 1957 . two new caligoid copepods from egyptian fish . j . parasitol . , 43 : 201–208 .
jones , j . b . & hine , p . m . , 1978 . a new species of mugicola parasitic on south african elvers ( copepoda , therodamasidae ) . zool . afr . , 13 : 213–219 .
kabata , z . , 1970 . crustacea as enemies of fish . book 1 , snieszko , s . , axelrod h . r . ( ed . ) , diseases of fish , t . f . h . publications , jersey city , n . j .
kabata , z . , 1985 . parasites and diseases of fish cultured in the tropics . taylor & francis .
kruger , i . , van as , j . g . & saayman , j . e . , 1983 . observation on the occurrence of the fish louse argulus japonicus thiele , 1900 in western transvaal . s . afr . j . zool . , 18 : 408–410 .
lahav , m . & sarig , s . , 1964 . observation on the biology of lernaea cyprinacea l . in fish ponds in israel . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 16 : 77–86 .
lahav , m . & sarig , s . , 1968 . ergasilus sieboldi nordmann infestation of grey mullet in israel ' s fish ponds . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 19 : 69–80 .
lahav , m . , sarig , s . & shilo , m . , 1964 . the eradication of lernaea in storage ponds of carp through destruction of the copepodid stage by diptertex . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 16 : 87–94 .
lahav , m . , shilo , m . & sarig , s . , 1962 . development of resistance to lindane in argulus population of fish ponds . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 14 : 67–76 .
landsberg , j . h . , 1989 . parasites and associated diseases of fish in warm water culture with special emphasis on intensification . in : shilo , m . & sarig , s . ( ed . ) fish culture in warm water systems : problems and trends . crc press inc . boca raton , flo . pp . 195–252 .
mbahinzireki , g . b . , 1980 . observation on some common parasites of bagrus docmac forskahl ( pisces : siluroidea ) of lake victoria . hydrobiol . , 75 : 273–280 .
paperna , i . , 1964a . the metazoan parasite fauna of israel inland water fishes . bamidgeh ( bull . fish cult . israel ) 16 : 3–66 .
paperna , i . , 1964b . parasitic crustacea ( copepoda and branchiura ) from inland water fish of israel . israel j . zool . , 13 : 58–68 .
paperna , i . , 1968 . ectoparasitic infections of fish of volta lake , ghana . bull . wildl . dis . ass . , 4 : 135–137 .
paperna , i . , 1969 . parasitic crustacea from fish of the volta basin and south ghana . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 80 : 208–216 .
paperna , i . , 1991 . diseases caused by parasites in the aquaculture of warm water fish . annual rev . fish dis . , 1 : 155–194 .
paperna , i . & lahav , m . , 1971 . new records and further data on fish parasites in israel . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 16 : 77–86 .
paperna , i . & overstreet , r . m . 1981 . parasites and diseases of mullets ( mugilidae ) . in : oren , o . h . ( ed . ) aquaculture of grey mullets . ibp 26 , cambridge university press , u . k .
paperna , i . & thurston , j . p . , 1968 . report on ectoparasitic infections of freshwater fish in africa . bull . off . int . epizoot . , 69 : 1192–1206 .
paperna , i . & zwerner , d . e . , 1976 . parasites and diseases of striped bass , morone saxatilis ( walbaum ) from the lower chesapeake bay . j . fish biol . 9 : 267–287 .
pauly , d . , 1974 . on some features of the infestation of the mouth - breeding fish tilapia melanotheron ruppel , 1852 by the parasitic copepod paeonodes lagunaris van banning . beaufortia ( zool . mus . uni . amsterdam ) , 22 ( no . 287 ) : 9–15 .
raibaut , a . , 1985 . les cycle evolutifs des copepodes parasites et les modalites de l ' infestation . ann biol . , 25 : 233–274 .
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shariff , m . , 1981 . the histopathology of the eye of bighead carp , aristichthys nobilis ( richardson ) , infested with lernaea piscinae harding , 1950 . j . fish dis . , 4 : 161–168 .
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shimura , s . , inoue , k . , kudo , m . & eugusa , s . , 1983 . studies on effects of parasitism of argulus coregoni ( crustacea : branchiura ) on furunculosis of onchorhynchus masou ( salmonidae ) . fish pathol . , 18 : 37–40 .
thurston , j . p . , 1969 . the biology of lernaea barnimiana ( crustacea , copepoda ) from lake george , uganda . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 80 : 15–33 .
thurston , j . p . , 1970 . the incidence of monogenea and parasitic crustacea on the gills of fish in uganda . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 82 : 113–130 .
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van banning , p . , 1974 . a new species of paeonodes ( therodamasidae , cyclopoida ) a parasitic copepod of the fish tilapia melanotheron from the sakumo lagoon , ghana , africa . beaufortia ( zool . mus . univ . amsterdam ) , 22 ( no . 286 ) : 1–7 .
wunder , w . , 1962 . nerocila orbignyi ein proterandrischer hermaphrodit und parasitischer isopode auf tilapia galilaea im see borullus in aegypten . zool anz . , ( suppl . 1 ) 25 : 140–151 .
yashuv , v . a . , 1959 . on the biology of lernaea cyprinacea in fish ponds . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 11 : 80–89 .
yashuv , v . a . , 1972 . efficacy of mullet growth in fish ponds . bull . fish cult . israel ( bamidgeh ) , 24 : 12–25 .
plate 27 . parasitic crustacea : ( p . 199 ) a . heavy ergasilus lizae infection of gills of pond reared mugil cephalus , israel ( courtesy s . sarig ) . b . carp tail with heavy lernaea cyprinacea infection , israel . c . l . hardingi attached to tail of oreochromis niloticus , uganda . d . released adult female l . cyprinacea ( courtesy l . basson ) . e . haemmorhagic lesions around l . cyprinacea attached to carp skin . f . heavy invasion of barbus holubi by argulus japonicus , transvaal , south africa ( courtesy l . basson ) .
plate 28 . parasitic crustacea continued : ( p . 200 ) g . argulus africanus from bagrus docmac , northern l . victoria ( sem × 64 ) . h . dolops ranarum , of same host and locality as a ( sem × 47 ) . i . eggs of argulus japonicus ( live , by courtesy of s . sarig ) . j . eggs of dolops ranarum ( live , by courtesy of a . avenant - oldewage ) . k . a . japonicus from farmed carp , israel ( live , by courtesy of s . sarig ) . i . d . ranarum inside the mouth of clarias gariepinus , from transvaal , south africa ( by courtesy of l . basson ) . m . histological section of bagrus docmac skin at d . ranarum attachment area showing proliferation and displacement of the epithelium and haemmorhagic inflammation in the dermal layer .
fig . 8 . parasitic copepoda : ( p . 202 ) a . ergasilus lizae ( 1 . 1 mm . long ; after ben hassine , 1983 ) . b . antennae of ergasilus cunningtoni ( 0 . 97 mm , after capart , 1944 ) . c . ergasilus kandti ( 0 . 7 mm long ; after capart , 1944 ) . d . ergasilus latus ( from cichlid fishes ) ( 0 . 9 mm long , after fryer , 1960 ) . e . paraergasilus minutus ( from cichlid fishes ) ( 0 . 35–0 . 45 mm long , after fryer , 1956 ) . f . afrolernaea longicollis , whole ( 15 mm long ) and head ( after fryer , 1964 ) . g . lernaeagiraffa heterodicola ( 19 mm long , after fryer 1965a ) . h . dysphorus torquatus ( 15 mm long , after fryer , 1965c ) i . lamproglena intercedens ( 5 mm long , after fryer , 1965c ) . j . lamproglena monodi ( 3 . 4 mm long , after capart , 1944 ) . k . paeonodes lagunaris ( 4 . 6–6 . 8 mm long , after van banning , 1974 ) . l . achtheres micropteri ( 2–7 mm long , after hoffman , 1967 ) .
fig . 9 . parasitic copepoda continued and branchiura : ( p . 203 ) a . lernaea barnimiana ( 9 mm long ) . b . same , with a - symmetric anchor ( after fryer , 1961a ) . c , d . anchors of lernaea cyprinacea from jaws of oreochromis spp . from lake victoria ( after fryer , 1961 ) . e . lernaea hardingi ( 10 mm long ) . f . opistholernaea laterobranchialis ( 14 mm long , after fryer , 1959 ) . g . lernaea palati ( 8 mm long , after fryer , 1956 ) . h . lernaea lophiara anchors ( after harding , 1950 ) . i . lernaea barili , anchors ( after harding , 1950 ) . j . development of lernaea cyprinacea ( from common carp , israel ) : 1–2 . nauplii ; 3 . free copepodite ; 4–6 . copepodites attached to gills . 8 . premature males and females ; 9 . mature male ; 10 . early metamorphosing female . k . sciaenophilus pharaonis ( 12 mm long , after humes , 1957 ) . l , m . chonopeltis brevis ( 8 . 5 mm long , after fryer , 1960 ) . n , o . argulus brachypeltis , 9 . 9 mm long , after fryer , 1965c ) .


leanchoilia is a arachnomorph arthropod known from cambrian deposits of the burgess shale in canada and the chengjiang biota of china .

it was about 5 centimetres ( 2.0 in ) long and had long , whip-like feelers mounted on frontal arm-like appendages .

its internal organs are occasionally preserved within the substrate in three dimensions .

two species are tentatively accepted today : the type species l. superlata and the recently revalidated l. persephone .

they may however be examples of sexual dimorphism .

55 specimens of leanchoilia are known from the greater phyllopod bed , where they comprise 0.1 % of the community .

leanchoilia

scientists don ' t know for sure how leanchoilia found its prey because no eye fossils have been found .
leanchoilia was probably good prey because it ' s small and it didn ' t have anything that could really hurt a predator .
leanchoilia – from the scottish name leanchoil , the name given to a now defunct railway station on the canadian pacific railway southwest of field in yoho national park .
butterfield , n . j . 2002 . leanchoilia guts and the interpretation of three - dimensional structures in burgess shale - type fossils . paleobiology , 28 : 155 - 171 .
description : leanchoilia superlata is an unusual arthropod found in the burgess shale fauna of british columbia . it is a member of a group of “great appendage arthropods” known as opabinids after the bizarre opabinia from the burgess shale . it is possibly also known from utah and greenland , and has an older relative leanchoilia illecebrosa found in the chengjiang biota of china .
liu , y . , x . - g . hou , and j . bergström . 2007 . chengjiang arthropod leanchoilia illecebrosa ( hou , 1987 ) reconsidered . gff , 129 : 263 - 272 .
leanchoilia superlata ( lee - an - coy - lee - ah sue - per - lah - tah ) . after leanchoil , a railroad station 17 miles sw of field + superlata ( l . ) = the utmost degree . )
garcía - bellido , d . c . and d . collins . 2007 . reassessment of the genus leanchoilia ( arthropoda , arachnomorpha ) from the middle cambrian burgess shale , british columbia , canada . palaeontology , 50 : 693 - 709 .
leanchoilia was a strange creature with whip - like appendages that it might have slung around to grab prey . it was about 2
long and was very common . the name is pronounced lee - an - coy - lee - ah .
this fossil is very common in the raymond quarry , which lies not very far above walcott ' s burgess shale site . consequently , the extra wealth of material facilitated this detailed reconstruction ( shown in this beautiful drawing by marianne collins ) . prominent are large , frontal appendages with long extended whiplike extensions . since leanchoilia was apparently blind ( no eye - like structures have yet been found ) , these appendages helped locate food and keep leanchoilia informed about its surroundings . its usual size was about two inches . generally classed as an arthropod ( which is a very large group ) , leanchoilia is placed among the arachnomorph ( i . e . , spider - like ) subgroup , along with chelicerates , like present day scorpions and extinct trilobites .
this fossil is very common in the raymond quarry , which lies not very far above walcott ' s burgess shale site . consequently , the extra wealth of material facilitated this detailed reconstruction ( shown in this beautiful drawing by marianne collins ) . prominent are large , frontal appendages with long extended whiplike extensions . since leanchoilia was apparently blind ( no eye - like structures have yet been found ) , these appendages helped locate food and keep leanchoilia informed about its surroundings . its usual size was about two inches . generally classed as an arthropod ( which is a very large group ) , leanchoilia is placed among the arachnomorph ( i . e . , spider - like ) subgroup , along with chelicerates , like present day scorpions and extinct trilobites . urltoken
the phylogenetic position of leanchoilia is controversial . some studies align it with the arachnomorphs , a group including trilobites and chelicerates ( wills et al . , 1998 ; cotton and braddy , 2004 ) , while others group leanchoilia with alalcomenaeus , yohoia and isoxys together in the megacheira , the “great appendage” arthropods ( hou and bergström 1997 ) . megacheirans have been suggested to either be stem - lineage chelicerates ( chen et al . , 2004 ; edgecombe , 2010 ) , or the stem - lineage euarthropods ( budd , 2002 ) .
bruton , d . l . and h . b . whittington . 1983 . emeraldella and leanchoilia , two arthropods from the burgess shale , middle cambrian , british columbia . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , series b , 300 : 553 - 582 .
discussion from appendix 1 in zhao et al . 2012 = apiocephalus elegans luo & hu , 1999 = leanchoilia asiatica luo & hu , 1997 = dianchia mirabilis luo & hu , 1997 = yohoia sinensis luo & hu , 1997 = zhongxinai speciosa luo & hu , 1997
leanchoilia superlata was first described by walcott in 1912 , and later revised by simonetta ( 1970 ) , who added the second and third species l . persephone and l . protagonia . l . superlata was later restudied in detail by bruton and whittington ( 1983 ) and garcía - bellido and collins ( 2007 ) , who included in their study an analysis of l . persephone . the three - dimensionally preserved gut of leanchoilia was analyzed by butterfield ( 2002 ) . a more detailed description of l . protagonia was provided by briggs et al . ( 2008 ) who also identified l . superlata from the cambrian sediments of utah .
description : this unusual arthropod is known as leanchoilia . the taxon is known from a number of locations the diversity of soft - tissue fossils is astonishing : algae , medusiforms , sponges , priapulids , annelid - like worms , echinoderms , arthropods ( including trilobites ) , hemichordates , chordates , and the first agnathan fish make up just a small fraction of the total . numerous problematic forms are known as well , some of which may have represented failed attempts at diversity that did not persist to the present day .
the contrast between the specimen and the matrix has been enhanced by a chemical process that removed some of the matrix overburden . before photos below show the difference such treatment makes . since the specimen is typically covered with resistant mica and is composed of the carbonized remains of the animal , it is inert to the treatment . the result you see here is all natural . there has been no paint added to bring out detail . this wonderful example shows incredible detail for a specimen more than a half billion years of age as the cambrian explosion was in full bloom . notice the upturned “snout , ” the sweeping appendages , body segments , and gut trace as well as the gill filaments of the biramous swimming appendages . the speciomen displays the characteristic sheen for which burgess specimens are famous . additionally , there is a partial second example to be seen at the lower right . it occurs at a slightly lower horizon than the main specimen , and shows only a small portion of the anteriormost part of the specimen , including a partial appendage . leanchoilia superlata is also quite rare in the burgess shale : for each 1000 burgess specimens only 2 are leanchoilia ; even fewer are as complete in this excellent fossil .
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holotypes – usnm 57709 ( l . superlata ) , usnm 155651 ( l . persephone ) , usnm ( 155648 ) ( l . protagonia ) in the national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc , usa .
burgess shale and vicinity : l . persephone from walcott quarry and raymond quarry on fossil ridge , as well as other sites on mount stephen and mount field ; l . protagonia from the walcott quarry .
other deposits : l . illecebrosa from the lower cambrian chengjiang biota ( liu et al . , 2007 ) ; l . ? sp . protagonia , and l . ? hanceyi from the middle cambrian of utah ( briggs et al . , 2008 ) .
middle cambrian , bathyuriscus - elrathina zone ( approximately 505 million years ago ) .
burgess shale and vicinity : the walcott and raymond quarries , fossil ridge . additional localities are known on mount field and mount stephen – tulip beds ( s7 ) .
other deposits : l . superlata , , from the middle cambrian of utah ( briggs et al . , 2008 ) .
the body is convex in cross section and is widest in the posterior part of the trunk . the largest animal recorded is 12 cm long , including appendages . the head shield has a pointed anterior with a distinct upward - curving snout . the lateral edges of the head shield are serrated with short spines . the head bears a pair of frontal appendages , often referred to as “great appendages , ” each consisting of three branches terminating in long flexible flagella , followed by two pairs of appendages that are segmented and branch into two ( biramous ) , with large and flat outer gill blades . two pairs of simple eyes are present below the head shield and the mouth was positioned just behind the base of the great appendages .
the trunk is composed of 11 segments with two dorsal angular peaks ( or carinae ) along the midline . the trunk also appears serrated , with each segment having short spines along the edges . each segment bears one pair of biramous appendages similar to the ones on the head . the inner branch of the limb attaches to a small coxa with no spines and has small elongate spines along its podomeres , with the last terminating in small claws . the telson is triangular and is fringed on both sides with 11 long and straight lateral spines . serially repeated three dimensional structures along the body have been interpreted as mid - gut glands preserved in phosphate . l . persephone and l . protagonia lack a frontal snout and have shorter great appendages , with the latter having an elongate telson with six pairs of long spines . l . persephone and l . superlata have been interpreted as potential sexual variants ( see garcía - bellido and collins , 2007 )
l . superlata is rare in the walcott quarry ( 0 . 1 % of the community , caron and jackson , 2008 ) but is abundant in the raymond quarry , with more than 1 , 200 specimens known from that site . l . persephone occurs in both localities but represents only a fraction of the number of l . superlata specimens . l . protagonia is extremely rare and is currently known from two specimens in the walcott quarry .
the large gill branches could have been used for respiration as well as for swimming . the lack of strong sclerotization of the limbs and strong hinge joints suggest that this animal was not adapted for walking . the flagellae of the great appendages are thought to be sensory organs . the great appendages would have presumably folded backwards below the trunk while the animal was swimming , and pointed forwards when the animal was resting or feeding . the distal claws and the leg branches could have been used to dig through the superficial level of the mud and to bring particulate matter or small prey items towards the mouth . more recently , the presence of mid - gut glands , eyes , and spines along the limbs have also been interpreted as potential evidence for scavenging or predatory habits . the animal would have probably swum just above the sea bottom in search of food .
briggs , d . e . g . , b . s . lieberman , j . r . hendricks , s . l . halgedahl and r . d . jarrard . 2008 . middle cambrian arthropods from utah . journal of paleontology , 82 : 238 - 254 .
budd , g . e . 2002 . a palaeontological solution to the arthropod head problem . nature , 417 : 271 - 275 .
caron , j . - b . and d . a . jackson . 2008 . paleoecology of the greater phyllopod bed community , burgess shale . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , 258 : 222 - 256 .
chen , j . y . , d . waloszek and a . maas . 2004 . a new ' great - appendage ' arthropod from the lower cambrian of china and homology of chelicerate chelicerae and raptorial antero - ventral appendages . lethaia , 37 : 3 - 20 .
cotton , t . j . and s . j . braddy . 2004 . the phylogeny of arachnomorph arthropods and the origin of the chelicerata . transactions of the royal society of edinburgh : earth sciences , 94 : 169 - 193 .
edgecombe , g . d . 2010 . arthropod phylogeny : an overview from the perspectives of morphology , molecular data and the fossil record . arthropod structure and development , 39 : 74 - 87 .
hou , x . and j . bergström . 1997 . arthropods of the lower cambrian chengjiang fauna , southwest china . fossils and strata , 45 : 1 - 116 .
simonetta , a . m . 1970 . studies on non trilobite arthropods of the burgess shale ( middle cambrian ) . palaeontographia italica , 66 ( new series 36 ) : 35 - 45 .
walcott , c . 1912 . cambrian geology and paleontology ii . middle cambrian branchiopoda , malacostraca , trilobita and merostomata . smithsonian miscellaneous collections , 57 ( 6 ) : 145 - 228 .
wills , m . a . , d . e . g . briggs , r . a . fortey , m . wilkinson and p . h . a . sneath . 1998 . an arthropod phylogeny based on fossil and recent taxa , p . 33 - 105 . in g . d . edgecombe ( ed . ) , arthropod fossils and phylogeny . columbia university press , new york .
this photograph shows at least one clear , feathery limb along the body , plus the thin , triple lobster - like claws , although the whiplike appendages are obscured .
maybe those antennae sensed movement in the water , and that ' s how it found whatever it was that it ate .
i wouldn ' t write off that schoenmann / clarkson hypothesis ( even though those antennae seem pretty well developed , and i at least can ' t think of any other function for them except to sense motion ) , because it would be unusual for an animal ( at least one capable of motion ) to evvolve blind in an environment in which it might have seen . but i suppose what we really need with all of these creatures are some pre - burgess shale missing links , so . . .
i think those antennae may have been used for two uses : sensing prey and predators and maybe digging up their prey . but no one knows for sure .
i started this blog when i was seven years old and now i ' m thirteen . i retired this blog a few years ago , but i still check on it and you can still contact me . i might even post again !
art started writing this blog at age seven and completed the majority of the work before he turned nine . he did his own research and for a long time dictated the blog entries to me , his mother . i typed exactly what he said and did my best to spell everything correctly .
for a glimpse into the early blogging process , check out the video below .
this specimen is a member of the “great appendage arthropods” known as the opabinids after opabinia from the burgess shale fauna . other members from chengjiang are jianfengia and alalcomenaeus ( see my other offerings for examples ) . the exceptional detail of the appendages are readily apparent in this fine specimen , and are indicative of the fact that this was a strong swimmer . this is an exceptional juvenile specimen , preserved here as a part / counterpart pair .
target 1 banished card ; return it to the gy . once per chain , when a trap card is activated while this card is in your gy : special summon this card as a normal monster ( aqua / water / level 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( this card is not treated as a trap . ) if summoned this way , this card is unaffected by monster effects , also banish it when it leaves the field .
ciblez 1 carte bannie ; renvoyez - la au cimetière . une fois par chaîne , lorsqu ' une carte piège est activée tant que cette carte est dans votre cimetière : invoquez spécialement cette carte comme un monstre normal ( type aqua / eau / niveau 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( cette carte n ' est pas traitée comme une carte piège . ) si elle est invoquée de cette façon , cette carte n ' est pas affectée par des effets de monstre , et aussi , bannissez - la lorsqu ' elle quitte le terrain .
wähle 1 verbannte karte ; lege sie auf den friedhof zurück . einmal pro kette , wenn eine fallenkarte aktiviert wird , solange sich diese karte in deinem friedhof befindet : beschwöre diese karte als spezialbeschwörung als normales monster ( typ aqua / wasser / stufe 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( diese karte wird nicht als fallenkarte behandelt . ) falls diese karte auf diese art beschworen wird , bleibt sie von monstereffekten unberührt , zusätzlich verbanne sie , wenn sie das spielfeld verlässt .
scegli come bersaglio 1 carta bandita ; falla ritornare nel cimitero . una volta per catena , quando viene attivata una carta trappola mentre questa carta è nel tuo cimitero : evoca specialmente questa carta come mostro normale ( tipo acqua / acqua / livello 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( questa carta non viene considerata come una carta trappola . ) se viene evocata in questo modo , questa carta è immune agli effetti dei mostri , inoltre bandiscila quando lascia il terreno .
escolha 1 card banido ; devolva - o para o cemitério . uma vez por corrente , quando um card de armadilha for ativado enquanto este card estiver no seu cemitério : invoque este card por invocação - especial como um monstro normal ( tipo aqua / água / nível 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( este card não é considerado como um card de armadilha . ) se invocado desta forma , este card não é afetado por efeitos de monstro e , além disso , bana - o quando ele deixar o campo .
selecciona 1 carta desterrada ; devuélvela al cementerio . una vez por cadena , cuando una carta de trampa es activada mientras esta carta esté en tu cementerio : puedes invocar esta carta de modo especial como un monstruo normal ( aqua / agua / nivel 2 / atk 1200 / def 0 ) . ( esta carta no se trata como una trampa ) . si es invocada de esta forma , esta carta no es afectada por efectos de monstruos , y además destiérrala cuando deje el campo .
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body organized into head and trunk ( fig . 1c , d ) . the cephalic shield ( fig . 2a ) , with a short rostrum in the front , comprises four appendage - bearing segments . the eyes are not apparent . the trunk , like that of adult l . illecebrosa ( fig . 1a , b ) , comprises 11 segments followed by a dagger - shaped terminal end piece , presumably the telson . there is no evidence of post - embryonic segment addition in megacheirans such as l . illecebrosa ( contra ( ref . 17 ) , their figure 11 ) .
( a ) dorsolateral view of adult l . illecebrosa ( yklp 11082 ) ; ( b ) lateral view of adult l . illecebrosa ( yklp 11083 ) ; ( c , d ) part and counterpart of larval l . illecebrosa ( yklp 11084a , b ) . cs , cephalic shield ; sga , short great appendage ; rs , rostrum ; te , terminal end piece . scale bars , 2 mm .
( a ) counterpart ( yklp 11084b ) , incorporating information from the part ( yklp 11084a ) . arrows mark articulation between third claw element of short great appendage and flagellum . small letters with arrowheads point to areas of which close - ups were made . ( b ) part , flagellum of distal claw element ; arrows mark short setae arising disto - medially from each flagellomere . ( c , d ) counterpart , distal claw element . at least ten setae ( marked in cyan in d ) arise from the median margin of the claw element 3 ( c3 ) . no distal hook - like spine ( arrow ) is present in contrast to the adult ( fig . 3a ) . ( e ) counterpart , endopod of appendage 4 ; arrows mark setae . ( f ) part , appendage 9 showing well - preserved endopod and exopod . further abbreviations : ap , appendage ; c , claw element , en , endopod ; ex , exopod ; fl , flagellum ; ts , trunk segment . scale bar : ( a ) 500 μm , ( b – d ) 200 μm , ( e ) 180 μm , ( f ) 300 μm .
the first post - ocular head segment bears a pair of uniramous sga with a basal peduncle and distal multichela ( claw ) 10 comprising two and three elements , respectively ( fig . 2a ) . the most distal finger ( claw element 3 ) of the multichela carries a flagellum . presumably the other fingers also had flagella , but these are not preserved ( we cannot exclude the possibility that they only developed later in ontogeny , further differentiating larva and adult ) . each of the articles of the preserved flagellum carries a short medio - distal seta ( fig . 2b ) . claw element 3 is about 840 μm long and about 140 μm wide at the base , that is , about six times as long as wide ( fig . 2c ) . it bears a series of at least ten tiny spine - like armatures ( < 100 μm long ) along its medial margin , about 50 μm apart ( fig . 2c , d ) . these armatures point medially to medio - distally ; successively more distal examples make a progressively lower angle with the claw element .
each trunk tergite is associated with a pair of biramous appendages similar to those posterior to the sga in the head . they consist of a basipod , which carries an elongate endopod medio - distally and a paddle - shaped bipartite exopod latero - distally , the latter bearing around 14 long setae along its lateral and distal margins ( fig . 2e , f ) .
( a , b ) close - up of the sga in fig . 1b . the spine - like armature observed on the sga of the larva is absent here in the adult . the hook - like spine ( arrow ) of claw element 3 is elongate compared with that of the larva ( fig . 2c ) . ( c , d ) close - up of the sga in fig . 1a . the sga of this adult specimen does not bear any spine - like armatures either ( here distal part broken off , thus hook - like spine missing ) . a and c are composite - fluorescence images ; b and d were photographed under cross - polarized light . abbreviations as before . scale bars , 1 mm .
( a ) larva . the flagella , supposedly present but not observed on the specimen , are shown fading out . ( b ) adult . not to scale .
the ontogeny of early crustaceans and even representatives of extant groups in the cambrian is quite well known 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , but evidence for larval stages of other arthropod groups remains rare . even trilobite ontogenies are known only on the basis of the dorsal hard parts ( refs 25 , 26 , 27 and references therein ) . our knowledge of the ontogeny of other cambrian megacheirans is limited to yohoia tenuis from the burgess shale 28 . specimens of y . tenuis range in length from about 6 to 20 mm . here too the number of body segments remains the same and the only significant morphological change is in the great appendage . in contrast to l . illecebrosa , the appendage becomes more robust during ontogeny . thus , niche differentiation seems to have been less pronounced in y . tenuis than in l . illecebrosa . however , the largest known stage in y . tenuis is only about three times as large as the smallest , whereas the larger specimens of l . illecebrosa are more than 4 . 5 times the size of the larva . hence , the difference between unknown earlier larval stages and adult y . tenuis may have been greater .
this preliminary evidence suggests that niche differentiation may have been greater between the larvae of megacheiran species than the adults . thus , the ecological niches of the larvae differed not only from that of the adult but also from those of the larvae of closely related species . this interpretation emphasises that the cambrian ecosystem already included species with complex life cycles and distinct niche differentiation .
all investigated specimens of l . illecebrosa ( yklp 11082–11084 ) are housed at the yunnan key laboratory for palaeobiology , yunnan university , kunming , china .
all specimens were collected from the yu’anshan member of the heilinpu formation ( cambrian series 2 , stage 3 ) at ericaicun village , haikou , yunnan province , china .
specimens were documented as a composite - fluorescence image with a keyence bz - 9000 fluorescence microscope . a stack was recorded for each image detail and fused to a sharp image with combinezm / zp ; all fused images were combined to a single high - resolution image with microsoft image composite editor or the photomerge function of adobe photoshop cs3 ( ref . 29 ) . the specimen shows no fluorescence , in contrast to the surrounding matrix . such inverse fluorescence is characteristic of chengjiang fossils 28 . part and counterpart were projected onto each other to achieve a composite view of all the morphological detail available .
these specimens were documented as composite images under polarized light to enhance the contrast between specimen and matrix 30 .
for the three - dimensional reconstructions in fig . 4 the freely available software blender was used .
how to cite this article : liu , y . et al . a 520 million - year - old chelicerate larva . nat . commun . 5 : 4440 doi : 10 . 1038 / ncomms5440 ( 2014 ) .
y . l . thanks george s . boyan , lmu munich , and j . t . h . and c . h . thank j . matthias starck , lmu munich , for support . y . l . is funded by the graduate school of systemic neuroscience ( gsn ) , lmu . j . t . h . is supported by the german research foundation ( dfg ha 6300 / 3 - 1 ) . the study was supported by the national natural science foundation of china ( u1302232 , 41372031 ) . we are grateful for freely available software such as combinezm / zp , microsoft image composite editor , openoffice and blender .
y . l . collected and prepared specimens of l . illecebrosa . y . l . , j . t . h . and c . h . took photographs and j . t . h . and c . h . prepared the reconstructions in figure 4 . all the authors analysed data , discussed results and wrote the manuscript .
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the cuban pygmy owl ( glaucidium siju ) is a species of owl in the family strigidae that is endemic to cuba .

its natural habitats are dry forests , moist forests and heavily degraded former forest .

the pygmy-owl is the most frequently observed of cuba ’s owls .

they breed in tree holes formerly used by woodpeckers .

there are three known subspecies of the cuban pygmy-owl : glaucidium siju siju , glaucidium siju vittatum , and glaucidium siju turquinensis .

cuban pygmy owl

cuban pygmy owl . cuban pygmy owl . the website of everything , 2010 . web . 15 sept . 2015 .
cuban pygmy - owl ( glaucidium siju ) . cuban pygmy - owl ( glaucidium siju ) . 2005 . web . 29 sept . 2015 .
birdlife of cuba : cuban pygmy owl . international expeditions . 26 july 2015 . web . 29 sept . 2015 .
cuban pygmy owl ( glaucidium siju ) . planet of birds . 7 sept . 2011 . web . 15 sept . 2015 .
cuban pygmy - owl is one of the two endemic owls found in cuba . it is also the smallest owl found in the country . there are two color forms of the cuban pygmy - owl . the gray - brown form is by far the most regularly seen although there is also an uncommon rufous form . of the three small owls found in cuba the other endemic bare - legged owl is much larger and has , as its name implies , long bare legs . burrowing owl is another small owl found in cuba but it is rarely found in the trees where the pygmy - owl would be seen .
the cuban pygmy owl is endemic to cuba ( cuban pygmy owl ) . they have the most limited range ( ginn ) . on the icun list , they are considered of least concern ( birdlife ) . the habitat destruction and disturbance are the primary threats to this owl , and this inhibits the productivity of breeding and the overall survival of the bird species ( eberly ) . cuban pygmy owls do not migrate , since it is endemic it never leaves cuba ( konig ) .
kirwan , guy m . cuban pygmy - owl ( glaucidium siju ) – neotropical birds . overview . cornell lab of ornithology , 2010 . web . 15 sept . 2015 .
cuban pygmy owls can live comfortably in dry or tropical forests as well as in more terrestrial habitats such as farmlands and plantations . this makes it pretty easy to come across these birds when you ' re traveling through the lush countryside with international expeditions . plus , unlike many other owl species , the cuban pygmy owl is not strictly nocturnal . these birds will hunt for food pretty much whenever it suits them , whether the sun ' s up or it is the middle of the night . their menu is eclectic considering they are strictly carnivores . the diet of the cuban pygmy owl consists mostly of insects , lizards and smaller birds .
very little research is published on this owl . here you can find photos , calls , and discussion about this endemic and beautifully colored owl .
little is known about this owl despite it being so common on cuba . it is assumed to be like most pygmy - owls in its ecology . it tends to be even more trusting of people than other pygmy - owls showing up in housing areas and gardens . this is saying quite a lot considering the general bold pygmy - owl standards . unlike most pygmy - owls this species will vocalize right into the evenings . we have heard this also with central american pygmy - owls but it is not typical of the pygmy - owls . it seems to be much more common with this species .
cuban pygmy - owl is widespread and the most common owl found on cuba . it is endemic to cuba and hence found nowhere else . there are three subspecies found in cuba that vary substantially in size . of the two color forms the gray - brown form is the most prevalent . the rufous color form is very uncommon .
egg laying is mostly in march and april although courtship begins as early as december . cuban pygmy - owl is a cavity nester commonly observed in old woodpecker holes in palm trees . the typical clutch size is 3 to 4 eggs that the female incubates .
johnson , sibylle . pygmy owls . beauty of birds . web . 29 sept . 2015 .
cuban pygmy owls are just one of the birds you may encounter when you travel to cuba . many other birds call the island nation home , making it an exciting destination for nature enthusiasts and bird watchers alike .
16–17 cm ; male 47–68 g , female 66–102 g . small pygmy - owl ; crown , head sides and back greyish - brown with white spots ; eyebrows whitish to cinnamon ; nape . . .
the cuban pygmy - owl is a handsome pygmy - owl . like almost all owls the female is larger than the male . aside from this she is more rufous - brown than the male who tends to be grayer . other than these differences the sexes are the same . like all pygmy - owls the cuban pygmy - owl has “false eyespots” which are two black spots edged with white on the upper margins at the back of the head . these are said to resemble eyes at the back of the head and evolved to help ward off predators from sneaking up from behind the owl ! eyes and bill are yellow . brown overall color with rufous tones and white bars / spots on the back . round head is spotted white on the crown . undersides are white with thick brown streaks / spots . white to grayish feathering around the eyes and chin . brown to cinnamon wash on upper chest . feathered legs additionally set this species apart from the other occurring small owls . the rufous form is similarly marked with more subdued white markings and an overall rufous color .
holt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enríquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . & kirwan , g . m . “cuban pygmy - owl ( glaucidium siju ) . ” handbook of the birds of the world alive , 2014 . web . 15 sept . 2015 .
lin , wen - loung , si - min lin , and hui - yun tseng . “colour morphs in the collared pygmy owl glaucidium brodiei are age - related , not a polymorphism . ” ardea . ( 2014 ) : 90 - 95 . bioone . web . 27 sept . 2015
the diminutive cuban pygmy owl lives exclusively on cuba , but they make their homes in a variety of forest habitats across the caribbean island . the iucn red list classifies this species as one of least concern , which means there is a healthy number of these endemic winged creatures living all over the island of cuba . so there ' s a good chance you ' ll spot at least one of these tiny birds when you join ie’s people - to - people cuba tour .
david f . desante . “molt patterns and age and sex determination of selected cuban landbirds . ” journal of field ornithology . 30 apr . 2003 . bioone online journals . web . 15 sept . 2015 .
ginn , howard . little , pygmy and elf owls . owls of the world : their evolution , structure and ecology . new york : e . p dutton & , 1973 . 164 - 85 . print .
g . siju makes its homes in forest habitats across cuba ( birdlife ) . it can live in dry forests , moist forests , and heavily degraded former forests ( website of everything ) . they live from sea level up to 1500 m . ( weick ) . they are specialist owls that will use small portions of the available habitat , and they may require specific management in areas of high forest destruction ( ibarra ) . if resources in an area are weak , you will not find many g . siju owls , they will attempt to find better habitats ( ibarra ) . they are the most common of the cuban owls ( planet of birds ) . even though the g . siju is the most common , they can often be difficult to spot ( eaton ) . the cuban pygmy owl can also be seen in the isle of pines or isla de la juventud ( mikkola ) . the g . siju is locally common , but not well studied ( mikkola ) .
holt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enríquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . , kirwan , g . m . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . cuban pygmy - owl ( glaucidium siju ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the diet of this small owl has not been well studied . hunts from a perch dropping down on prey . mostly feeds on small reptiles and large insects such as beetles , grasshoppers , and crickets . will also take small mammals , frogs , and birds .
three subspecies have been described . they are fairly easy to determine by range alone . the nominate , most common , and widespread subspecies , g . s . siju is found on across the entire main island of cuba . one other subspecies , g . s . turquinense , is found only above 5 , 250 feet on pico turquino , the highest mountain on cuba , on the south - west end of the island . it is darker and brownish - gray as oppose to the brown color of nominate g . s . siju . a third subspecies , g . s . vittatum , is the resident pygmy - owl on the isle of pines . it is larger , more heavily barred above , and grayer overall . on the extreme north - west guanahacabibes peninsula the pygmy - owls are larger . it has been suggested they are also of the g . s . vittatum subspecies .
these birds have very distinct features that will make it easy to spot them , even though there are other species of owls that live in cuba . the bird ' s chest is mostly white with vertical bars of alternating light and dark brown patches . in fact , this almost - striped appearance extends to the bird ' s shoulders and wings . the top of its head is dark chocolate brown with flecks of white that look almost like sesame seeds atop a bun , and this pattern continues on the cheeks and neck . if you see the owl from behind , you may think you ' re staring into a set of very angry , dark eyes . however , these are simply a defense mechanism to scare off predators and make it easier to pick the bird out from the crowd . it also has a set of large , bright yellow eyes that match its thin yellow beak and feathered talons .
g . siju are more active in the day than many other owl species ( birdlife of the caribbean ) . they are not strictly nocturnal ( birdlife ) . g . siju are easily seen and heard in the day time , they are considered diurnal ( kirwan ) . g . siju do not hoot , like most owls ( wildlife of caribbean ) . their whistle sounds like a “jiu” at short intervals , or rapidly repeated ( holt ) . when in alarm , both sexes give a rapid and accelerating series of high pitched squeaky sounding notes ( kirwan ) . the male’s song is a series of equally spaced single notes at intervals of 4 seconds . the notes are a “tew tew tew” sound ( konig ) . the female’s song is more rapid “weweehittittrr” , this rapid call can also be heard from the males ( konig ) . both sexes can also give a call that sounds like a series of bell - like ringing , like a whoip or pop ( mikkola ) . the call of g . siju is most often heard at the break of dawn , or at dusk ( walkinshaw ) . g . siju is strictly carnivorous , eating insects , lizards , small mammals , or other small birds ( holt ) .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
g . siju mates primarily in the dry season ( holt ) . the females will lay 3 - 4 white eggs , and the female will incubate the eggs ( holt ) . g . siju uses abandoned nests to nest in , or will also use natural tree cavities ( johnson ) . while mating , the male’s wings vibrate rapidly ( walkinshaw ) . g . siju has 3 subspecies ( kirwan ) . one of theses subspecies is g . s . vittatum , which is endemic to the isle of pines ( mikkola ) . the fact that the g . s . vittatum is so different from the g . siju , but so close in geological nature ( mikkola ) . g . s . vittatum are more distinctly barred ( weick ) . the wing of the males is 95mm , the females 102 - 110mm ( weick ) . in g . s vittatum , the females are still larger than the males ( weick ) . juveniles have downy plumage with unmarked backs , streaked underpants , and indistinct crown spots . juveniles with this description can be aged in the hatching year ( pyle ) . birds in active molt can be aged after the hatching year , and birds that are not molting , and have no juvenile plumage cannot be reliably aged ( pyle ) . juveniles resemble adults , except for their unspotted crown ( mikkola ) .
konig , claus , and friedhelm weick . owls of the world : a photographic guide . second edition : yale university press , 2008 . print .
mikkola , heimo . owls of the world : a photographic guide . buffalo : firefly , 2012 . print .
eaton , stephen w . “wood warblers wintering in cuba” the wilson bulletin . ( 1953 ) : 171 . web . 8 oct 2015 .
eberly , chris . “defending the stepping stones of migration . ” ( n . d . ) : n . pag . american birding . 2002 . web . 27 sept . 2015 .
ibarra , josé tomás , et al . “occurrence patterns and niche relationships of sympatric owls in south american temperate forests : a multi - scale approach . ” forest ecology & management 331 . ( 2014 ) : 281 - 291 . wildlife & ecology studies worldwide . web . 29 sept . 2015 .
perrone , michael jr . “adaptive significance of ear tufts in owls” the condor . 83 . 4 . ( 1981 ) . jstor . web . sept . 2015 .
pyle , peter , amy mcandrews , pilar velez , robert l . wilkerson , rodney b . seigel , and
raffaele , herbert , james wiley , orlando garrido , allan keith , and janis raffaele . “species accounts and color plates . ” birds of the west indies . princeton university press , 2003 . 16 - 203 . jstor . web . 27 sept . 2015 .
raffaele , herbert a , james w . wiley . “birds . ” wildlife of the caribbean . princeton university press , 2014 . 100 - 95 . jstor . web . 27 sept . 2015 .
walkinshaw , lawrence h . , and bernard w . baker . “notes on the birds of the isle of pines , cuba . ” the wilson bulletin . sept 1946 . jstor . web . 27 sept 2015 .
weick , friedhelm . “owls ( strigiformes ) annotated and illustrated checklist” . springer berlin heidelberg , 2006 . springerlink . web . 27 sept . 2015 .
garrido , 2002 – pico turquino , in sw santiago de cuba province of se cuba .
whistle - like “jiu” at short intervals , or repeated “jiu , jiu , jiu , jiu” , . . .
coastal , deciduous and montane forest , forest edges , second growth , and open areas with scattered . . .
little quantitative information . said to feed mostly on insects and small reptiles and also to take small mammals , birds and perhaps frogs . . .
poorly known . breeds in dry season . lays in abandoned nest of other bird ( especially woodpecker ) or in natural tree cavity ; clutch size 3 . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . considered fairly common to common , although little information on species’ biology , and no conclusive comments can . . .
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recent study of genetic data indicated that , while this genus is monophyletic , a major division exists between new world species and most of the old world taxa # r , with proposal that latter be separated in genus taenioglaux . as a consequence , old world species , with exception of first four below ( g . passerinum , g . brodiei , g . perlatum and g . tephronotum ) , have been placed in taenioglaux by some recent authors # r ; here considered more appropriate at present time to await further research and more extensive sampling of taxa .
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bird heard after dinner , location a short walk from milly ' s restaurant in playa larga ; later another , more distant bird began responding . recording filtered to remove very high / low frequency noise , mostly wind and sea .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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canon 7d mark ii with canon 100 - 400mm f / 4 . 5 - 5 . 6l is ii usm test bird photography .
this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : glaucidium siju . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .