cottoclinus canops is a species of labrisomid blenny endemic to the galapagos islands .

males of this species can reach a length of 4.5 centimetres ( 1.8 in ) sl while females can reach a length of 5.4 centimetres ( 2.1 in ) .

it is the only known member of its genus .

cottoclinus canops

cottoclinus canops j . e . mccosker , j . s . stephens and r . h . rosenblatt , 2003 intermediary blenny life vertebrata fish labrisomidae cottoclinus
mccosker , j . e . , stephens , j . s . and rosenblatt , r . h . , 2003 . , cottoclinus canops , a new genus and species of blenny ( perciformes : labrisomidae ) from the galßpagos islands . , proc . calif . acad . sci . , 54 : 155 - 160 .
mccosker , j . e . , j . s . stephens and r . h . rosenblatt , 2003 . cottoclinus canops , a new genus and species of blenny ( perciformes : labrisomidae ) from the galápagos islands . proc . calif . acad . scie . 54 ( 8 ) : 155 - 160 . ( ref . 75634 )
mccosker , j . e . , j . s . stephens and r . h . rosenblatt , 2003 . cottoclinus canops , a new genus and species of blenny ( perciformes : labrisomidae ) from the gal├ípagos islands . proc . calif . acad . scie . 54 ( 8 ) : 155 - 160 . ( ref . 75634 )
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
justification : this species is known only from two specimens collected four decades ago . there is no information available on the population status of the species , its habitat preferences or major threats . the species is a priority for further survey work , especially given the potential threats to this species from enso / climate change events within its potentially restricted distribution and shallow - water tidepool habitat . it is listed as data deficient .
this species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is known only from isla española in the galapagos islands ( mccosker et al . 2003 ) .
this species is known only from two specimens collected in 1964 . in january 2002 , a collecting trip surveyed tidepools contiguous with the type locality . although the original pool sampled in 1962 could not be accessed , surveyors were able to sample two pools within a kilometer of that site , and both pools were devoid of large fish ( mccosker et al . 2003 ) .
the habitat of this species is unknown , but the original specimens were collected from a tidepool .
there are no known conservation measures for this species . however , its likely distribution falls within the galápagos islands national park and unesco world heritage site .
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derived generic names cottus and clinus , referring to the cottid - like appearance of this blenny .
named for the normal structure of the cornea ; greek kanon for rule or standard , and ops for eye .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 4 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75634 ) ; 5 . 4 cm sl ( female )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 20 - 21 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 19 ; vertebrae : 35 . this species is moderately - sized and with the following characters : moderately elongated body ( 4 . 4 - 5 . 1 depth in sl ) ; slightly depressed bulbous heed ; fleshy lips ; posterodorsal corner of maxillary slips into a cheek pouch ; nasal , orbital and nuchal cirri small and fimbriate ; no scales on breast and belly ; scales are membranously expanded posteriorly to form pockets ; spinous dorsal fin rays , compared to its soft rays are nearly level , lower and less numerous ; only one anal fin spine ; interradial membrane of anal fin incised almost up to the base of each ray ; unbranched fin rays ; convex cornea , eyeball with no vertical bar and heavy pigmentation ; conical , stout and slightly recurved teeth ; medial teeth of dentary larger than the lateral ones ; with vomerine teeth , non on palatine ( ref . 75634 ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
the checklists are descriptive documents of the species that are part of a concrete taxonomic group or a group of species that are part of an specific analysis .
these documents have a structure that includes a list of the authors , a description of the taxonomic group or subject , and a list of the species that are part of the list .
the checklists aren ' t updated regularly , since they require revisions from groups of authors before their publication .
a complete set of a checklist include a pdf document and a table in csv format .
gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hernán vargas , howard l . snell .
nathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .
yves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .
frank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba yánez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andré aptroot .
anne guézou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo díaz , mark gardener .
gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .
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body moderately elongate ; head bulbous , slightly depressed ; eyes high on head ; lips fleshy , lower lip with free ventral flap connected to chin ; mouth short , ends at rear margin of pupil ; top rear corner of top jaw inserts in a cheek pouch ; teeth conical , stout , slightly curved , lower jaw with a pair of front canines , ~ 5 conical teeth along side , followed by small flattened teeth ; teeth on roof of mouth at front only ; nasal , eye and nape cirri small , branched , 1 pair on nape ; dorsal fin xx - xxi , 10 , spines lower than soft rays , about equal height , except last three , which are shorter and form a distinct notch between spines and rays ; anal fin i , 19 , soft rays thickened and with fleshy tips , membranes between soft rays notched nearly to base of rays ; all fin rays unbranched ; lateral line with 47 pored scales ; body scaled except on breast , belly , before pectoral and an area on nape extending back under first 4 - 5 dorsal spines ; rear of scales with membranous pockets .
color of preserved fish : light brown , with 3 - 4 diffuse bars on body ; head with many brown spots , top of eyeball dark , top lip with dark mark at rear , another in midside that extends down onto lower lip ; lower half of pectoral with dark rays ; tail fin with 3 bars .
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bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .
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body moderately elongate ; head bulbous , slightly depressed ; eyes high on head ; nasal , eye and nape cirri small , branched , 1 pair on nape ; mouth short , ends at rear margin of pupil ; top rear corner of top jaw inserts in a cheek pouch ; lips fleshy , lower lip with free ventral flap connected to chin , teeth conical , stout , slightly curved , lower jaw with a pair of front canines , ~ 5 conical teeth along side , followed by small flattened teeth ; teeth on center of roof only ; dorsal fin xx - xxi , 10 , spines lower than soft rays , about equal height , except last three , which are shorter and form a distinct notch between spines and rays ; anal fin i , 19 , soft rays thickened and with fleshy tips , membranes between soft rays notched nearly to base of rays ; all fin rays unbranched ; lateral line with 47 pored scales ; body scaled except on breast , belly , before pectoral and an area on nape extending back under first 4 - 5 dorsal spines ; rear of scales with membranous pockets .
( preserved fish ) light brown , with 3 - 4 diffuse bars on body ; head with many brown spots , top of eyeball dark , top lip with dark mark at rear , another in midside that extends down onto lower lip ; lower half of pectoral with dark rays ; tail fin with 3 bars .
known only from 2 individuals collected at española island , southern galapagos , in 1964 .


the meadow argus ( junonia villida ) is a butterfly in the family nymphalidae , commonly found in australia .

it is also known as albin 's hampstead eye in the united kingdom , where it has occurred only as an accidental import .

meadow argus

thanks for that tamara . quite a large number of adult meadow argus were present .
andrew brower marked
meadow argus
as trusted on the
junonia villida
page .
the meadow argus butterfly has brown wings with prominent blue eyespots surrounded by brown and orange rings .
this page contains information and pictures about meadow argus butterflies in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .
hans - martin braun added the english common name
meadow argus butterfly
to
junonia villida fabricius 1787
.
meadow argus butterfly , buderim , sunshine coast , queensland . photograph copyright : ozwildlife - all rights reserved . used with permission .
the adults of the meadow argus butterfly are seen in sydney throughout most of the year and migrate north in october or november .
meadow argus butterflies are often seen when we go for bush walking . we noticed that the butterfly set up its own territory by patching on ground . when there is another meadow argus butterfly or some other flying insect come in , it will chase them away .
caterpillars of the meadow argus butterfly are black and spiky , and feed on a variety of garden plants , both native and introduced .
we noticed an interesting fact about the meadow argus butterfly . when rests , the butterfly will sit in either four postures , depend on the situations .
we found the above different meadow argus butterflies on ground . theirs wings , mainly the part with eyespots , were broken . those eyespots may have save their life .
the brown argus and female common blue are very similar in appearance . the brown argus lacks the two extra spots on the underside of the forewing which are present on the common blue .
corvi zeman added the mongolian common name
монгол гүрвэл
to
eremias argus peters 1869
.
could add that northeast china range includes the amur basin at least as far as the amur steppe meadow .
c . michael hogan marked
distribution
as visible on the
eremias argus peters 1869
page .
description : if the meadow argus detects danger when it is sunny , it will display the eyespots on it ' s hind wings . however in the dark it will raise it ' s front wings to display different hidden eyespots .
i encountered this solitary meadow argus in the garden by the pear arbor at carrick hill estate in the adelaide hills . quite a territorial character , this butterfly flew aggressively at several passing monarch and cabbage white butterflies who strayed across its ‘patch’ .
) . the wet meadow patches were larger , had higher density of watercourses in their surroundings , taller vegetation , and more cover of invasive goldenrod . the wet meadow patches were also less isolated , as reflected in a higher hanski’s connectivity index (
jennifer hammock split the classifications by bolds resource for species - level taxa from eremias argus peters 1869 to their own page .
flying low to the ground , the brown argus has a silvery appearance , frequently stopping to perch or feed on flowers .
meadow argus appears mostly in the late summer early autumn months . it has the widest distribution for any butterfly , being found in all parts of australia extending to se asia and the pacific including png and fiji . the larvae feed on a huge range of plants both native and exotic .
the meadow argus is a brown butterfly with two prominent orange and black eye spots on each wing . they are usually seen within 1m of the ground , and are often seen at rest on the ground with wings open . in the tropics there is a paler dry - season colour variation .
we found this caterpillar ( above pictures ) on white hill top during later summer . the meadow argus caterpillars are black with short thick spines . they feed on plants openly by day and night . they are extremely slow moving . their host plains are a number of herbs including plantains , goodenia and scaevola .
we took the caterpillar home with some branches of its host plant as its food . we used a small glass bottle with water to keep the plant fresh . few days later , it pupated on the wall of the bottle . about 10 days later , a meadow argus butterfly came out from the pupa .
some butterflies , like the meadow argus , have big eye - spots on their wings . when they are at rest , they cover the eye spots by the front wings . when a predator , such as a bird , come close , the butterfly will suddenly show the eye spots , to scare it away .
the flight chart below is based on observations of the adult brown argus butterfly in warwickshire between 2005 and 2008 . peak periods are shown in dark green .
dryads were observed in only 9 patches of xerothermic grassland and 9 patches of wet meadow ( s1 file ) . the other 35 meadows were not occupied by the species . we recorded 149 adult butterflies in xerothermic grassland and 157 adult butterflies in wet meadow . the dryad’s mean relative abundance per 1 ha of transect in occupied patches was estimated at 435 . 6 ( ± 61 . 17 se ) in xerothermic grassland patches and 418 . 2 ( ± 178 . 90 se ) in wet meadow patches .
the scotch argus is common and widespread in scotland but has declined in the southern part of its range , especially in england where it is reduced to just two isolated sites .
a photographic slideshow displaying various images of the brown argus is currently in development . details of how you can supply your own photographs for display here will be made available soon .
dove ' s - foot crane ' s - bill ( geranium molle ) common stork ' s - bill ( erodium cicutarium ) the brown argus larvae may also feed on cut - leaved crane ' s - bill ( geranium dissectum ) , meadow crane ' s - bill ( geranium pratense ) , and hedgerow crane ' s - bill ( geranium pyrenaicum ) .
first sighting dates are based on records of brown argus submitted online . please note that these dates are not updated retrospectively to include records submitted to the branch recorder in other forms .
in warwickshire , the brown argus occurs in small numbers on a range of habitats including woodland clearings , heath land , disused railway lines , road verges , and set - aside fields .
the meadow argus caterpillar is black or brown , and spiky . the spikes are short , thick , and branched . there is even a pair on its black head . small blue - white spots dot the surface , and there are larger whitish marks underneath . there may also be yellow areas at the base of the spikes . there is a narrow yellow neck between the head and thorax .
meadow brown a brown and orange butterfly with black eye spots on the forewings . it is very common and widespread throughout the uk and can be found in a variety of habitats including parks and gardens .
the scotch argus occurs in damp , acid or neutral grassland up to 500 m in montane regions of scotland , and around the fringes of sheltered bogs , in woodland clearings , and young plantations .
brown argus butterflies will often roost communally in sheltered areas although this species is rarely seen in large numbers . . . usually only one or two individuals are encountered at a site at any one time .
yellow–xerothermic grassland patches ; blue–wet meadow patches ; red lines–boundaries of patches occupied by the dryad ; bolded red lines–boundaries of the species refugium , the skołczanka nature reserve . data are presented in the epsg coordinate reference system ( 32634 –wgs 84 / utm zone 34n ) .
this small butterfly is characteristic of southern chalk and limestone grassland but occurs in a variety of other open habitats as far north as north wales and yorkshire . it is a close relative of the northern brown argus , which is restricted to scotland and northern england .
the brown argus has chocolate brown wings with orange spots near the edge and fringed with white . there is a black spot in the centre of the upper wing . the undersides of the wings are grey / brown with white ringed black spots and orange markings .
the primary larval foodplants are bents ( various ) ( agrostis spp . ) , cock ' s - foot ( dactylis glomerata ) , downy oat - grass ( helictotrichon pubescens ) , false brome ( brachypodium sylvaticum ) , fescues ( various ) ( festuca spp . ) and meadow - grasses ( various ) ( poa spp . ) .
the adults have a silvery appearance as they fly low to the ground and they stop frequently either to perch or feed on flowers . they may be confused with common blue females , which also have brown upperwings but usually with some blue at the base . it is also very similar to northern brown argus which usually has no orange spots on forewing .
the meadow brown is one of our commonest and most widespread butterflies , and a familiar sight throughout the summer months . this species can be found in all parts of the british isles , with the exception of the most mountainous regions and shetland . this is a highly variable species with four named subspecies found in the british isles , although the differences between them are often subtle .
common rock - rose ( helianthemum nummularium ) is used almost exclusively on calcareous grasslands . in other habitats it uses annual foodplants , mainly dove ' s - foot crane ' s - bill ( geranium molle ) and common stork ' - bill ( erodium cicutarium ) . there are also recent reports of egg - laying on cut - leaved crane ' s - bill ( g . dissectum ) , meadow crane ' s - bill ( g . pratense ) , and hedgerow crane ' s - bill ( g . pyrenaicum ) .
] . vegetation height was the exception but we decided to keep this parameter because it performed relatively well as a predictor , including in the models that contained the two other factors with which it correlated . in the case of watercourse density , vegetation height , and cover of nectar plants , for which different effects might be expected in xerothermic grassland and wet meadow , we also tested their interactions with habitat type . however , we applied stepwise backward elimination of the nonsignificant interactions , and the final models retained only the statistically significant interactions .
we distinguished 53 habitat patches suitable for the species ; all of them were mapped from late august to early september with garmin 12xl gps units . meadows with predominant cover of sedges , bushes , geranium pratense or alien goldenrod were not taken into account . the patches of xerothermic grassland ( n = 27 ) were covered with vegetation of the festuco - brometea class or vegetation of thermophilous sandy grassland mainly resembling festuco - thymetum serpylli . the patches of wet meadow ( n = 26 ) included meadows with vegetation of the order molinietalia , mainly molinion vegetation of different quality , as well as relatively humid lowland hay meadows with arrehanterum elatius , phleum pratense and alopecurus pratensis . the majority of the habitat patches are unmanaged ; 15 patches were mown in the year of our study . the mowing regime in the region is consistent ; the same patches are mown each year , typically once a year in late june .
the general quality of the habitat patches and their vegetation composition were noted at points along the transects , established at randomly generated lengths along the transects ( 3–10 points per transect depending on transect length ) . the vegetation within a 1 . 5 - m radius was described for each point . five measurements of vegetation height , one at the central point and the other four 1 . 5 m apart to the north , south , east and west , were taken with a measuring tape to 1 cm accuracy . distance to the nearest shrub was measured to 10 cm accuracy . all nectar plant species within a 1 . 5 - m radius were counted and their ground cover was recorded . cover was scored on the following scale : 1 = < 10 % ; 2 = 10–20 % , … , 9 = 80–90 % and 10 = 90–100 % . all together , the vegetation was surveyed at 100 random points for xerothermic grassland patches and 110 points for wet meadow patches , once at each point . the vegetation study was done from mid - july to early august . for a few xerothermic habitat patches it was not possible to determine plant species composition because these patches were completely mown throughout this period .
table a . supported models describing the occurrence of the dryad in habitat patches . for each model we list the codes of the predictors included ( k ) , log - likelihood ( loglik ) , the akaike information criterion value ( aic c ) together its difference from the aic c of the best model ( delta ) , and akaike weight ( weight ) . predictor codes : 1 –patch size ; 2 – % of forest ; 3 –road density ; 4 –watercourse density ; 5 –mean distance from patch interior to edge ; 6 –patch connectivity ; 7 –distance from the skołczanka ; 8 –vegetation height ; 9 –shrub density ; 10 –goldenrod cover ; 11 –nectar plants cover ; 12 –habitat type ; 13 –mowing ; table b . supported models describing the abundance of the dryad in habitat patches . for each model we list the codes of the predictors included ( k ) , log - likelihood ( loglik ) , the akaike information criterion value ( aic c ) together its difference from the aic c of the best model ( delta ) , and akaike weight ( weight ) . predictor codes : 1 –patch size ; 2 – % of forest ; 3 –road density ; 4 –watercourse density ; 5 –mean distance from patch interior to edge ; 6 –patch connectivity ; 7 –distance from the skołczanka ; 8 –vegetation height ; 9 –shrub density ; 10 –goldenrod cover ; 11 –nectar plants cover ; 12 –habitat type ; 13 –mowing ; 14 –habitat type : nectar plant cover ; table c . basic characteristics of habitat patches of xerothermic grassland and wet meadow occupied or not occupied by the dryad in the study landscape ; table d . results of pca analysis giving environmental variable scores for each ordination axis . significant contributions are bolded .
when not feeding , the caterpillar hides under a leaf or at the base of the foodplant . the caterpillar can mature in about two weeks , growing to a length of about 4 cms .
to do so . the pupa is dark grey with white mottling . it is rough and has a knobbly
surface . it has the appearance of a dead crumpled leaf as it swings with the plant in the wind . its length is about 1 . 5 cms . the pupal period can be ten days , in february in melbourne , victoria .
the butterfly emerges after about two weeks . the male and female are similar in appearance . their wings have upper surfaces that are brown , with orange and white markings , and blue eye spots . the latter are blue spots surrounded by a dark brown ring , which is in turn enclosed by an orange circle . there is a large eye spot at the outer margin of each forewing , and two smaller eye spots on each hindwing . the
of each forewing also bears a small blue bar bordered on each side by orange .
underneath , the wings have similar markings to those on their upper surfaces , but against a pale brown background . the butterflies have a wingspan up to 5 cms .
the butterflies are readily attracted to flowers where they are very easy to catch , and are often seen sunning themselves on the ground with their wings open . the butterfly is very hardy . it has been reported to winter in the flinders ranges ( south australia ) during weather that was below freezing at nighttime .
the female lays her eggs singly on the leaf of a foodplant . eggs laid in captivity hatched in about four days . the eggs are green and barrel shaped , with a height of about 0 . 8 mm .
csiro publishing , melbourne 2000 , vol . 2 , pp . 574 - 576 .
issue 77 ( june 2015 ) , pp . 1 , 4 - 6 , 7 - 11 , 42 ,
wide range of food plants . often plantago in south east australia . also veronica , verbena , goodenia and many others
this butterfly is medium in size , brown in colour with eye - pattern on all the wings . there are also the orange and white marks on the top edge of its forewings . the butterfly is a rapid flyer in open space . they like to sunbathe with wings open . they usually fly close to the ground .
this butterfly is common in brisbane . we see them start flying around in august , become abundance in september .
when sunbathing , they like to rest on the ground on on grass close to the ground . they open their wings in flat and facing towards the sun . when we come close to within two meters , they rapidly fly to to another spot for sunbathing a few meters away . males defence their territory , which could be a small open circular area in diameter of a few meters .
when there are the sun light , the butterfly opens it wings in a relax posture . when it feels the danger , such as our approaching , it opens its front wings further to show the hidden eye - spots on its hind wings .
when there are no sun light , such as the sun shaded by the clouds , the butterfly close its wings . when it feels the danger , it raises its forewings to show the hidden eye - spots , this time , on its front wings . if the danger seems disappear , such as we stop moving , the butterfly rest back in the relax posture about a minute later .
eye - spots pattern is believed an importance defense mechanism of butterflies and moths . eye spot patterns are common in butterflies and moths . many species have this pattern on top side , underneath or both side of their front and hind wings . those spot help the butterflies to survive in two ways .
some other butterflies , like the evening brown , orange ringlet , and the blues , with only small eyespots . usually those spots are on the edge of their wings , the less critical part of their body . those spot are used to puzzle the predator to use it as target . if being attached , the butterfly just loss a small bit of wing edge and fly away . sometimes we find find a evening brown butterfly with a small triangular price of wing is missing , just like being bitten off by a bird .
junonia comprises of 33 species found variously in north and south america , africa , the oriental region , indonesia , new guinea , australia and the islands of the south pacific . there are 3 species in australia : hedonia , villida and orithya . the various members of the genus differ markedly in colour but have several characteristics in common , including prominent maculae in the discal cell of the forewing , and circular ocelli on the hindwings . in several species including villida and orithya there are also prominent ocelli on the forewings . all species have cryptic marbled undersides which resemble dry dead leaves .
occurs commonly throughout australia including tasmania , and is also found in java , bali , west irian , papua new guinea , samoa , fiji , the new hebrides and the cook islands .
this species inhabits disturbed ground including roadsides , fields , farmland , riverbanks , gardens and wasteland at elevations between sea level and about 1000m .
the green barrel - shaped eggs are laid singly on leaves of the foodplant . when fully grown the larva is either black or brown , peppered with tiny white dots , and adorned with short branched spikes . it is polyphagous , feeding for example on hygrophila ( acanthaceae ) , centaureum ( gentianaceae ) , portulaca ( portulacaceae ) , plantago ( plantaginaceae ) , evolvulus ( convolvulaceae ) , scaevola ( goodeniaceae ) , scabiosa ( dipsacaceae ) , verbena ( verbenaceae ) and epaltes ( asteraceae ) . the pupa is earthy brown mottled with black and grey . it is formed on the foodplant or a nearby plant , suspended by the cremaster from a stem or leaf .
both sexes are strongly attracted to a wide variety of flowers and are often prolific in disturbed flowery areas . they commonly bask on the ground or on boulders or fallen tree trunks .
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edwards , e . d . 1996 ,
nymphalidae
, ed . nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 4 , pp . 243 - 248 , 359 - 360 , csiro publishing , collingwood
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 37aaa98b - 79a4 - 42db - 8867 - 853bf49dca18
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 87e3e8a2 - cf72 - 4ede - bc1b - 9003f6003804
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cdf996f7 - c753 - 47f1 - a124 - e6b31102d940
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1e170703 - 1ef6 - 473b - a64e - 348e8e4642e4
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 301444
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vane - wright , r . i . & tennent , w . j . 2011 ,
colour and size variation in junonia villida ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) : subspecies or phenotypic plasticity ?
, systematics and biodiversity , vol . 9 , pp . 289 - 305
godart , j . b . 1819 ,
zoologie . vol . 9 pt 1 pp . 13–328 in latreille , p . a . & godart , j . b . encyclopédie méthodique
fabricius , j . c . 1787 ,
mantissa insectorvm sistens species nvper detectas adiectis characteribvs , genericis , differentiis , specificis , emendationibvs , observationibvs . tome ii
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found along a trail in brisbane forest park near enoggera reservoir . natural bushland vegetation .
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conceived and designed the experiments : kk . performed the experiments : kk . analyzed the data : kk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : kk pn . wrote the paper : kk . edited and improved the paper : kk pn . obtaining the data from gis maps : pn kk . data handling : kk pn .
this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .
the persistence of many species on the landscape scale is related to land use and landscape configuration , especially as they influence the distribution of resources affecting habitat quality [ 1 – 3 ] . fragmentation , leading to the loss of suitable habitat and to the deterioration of remaining habitat fragments , reduces the likelihood of species survival [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] . in europe , fragmentation is mainly the result of degradation of natural sites , invasions of alien species , and changes in agricultural practices leading either to landscape homogenization by large - scale agriculture or to natural succession due to abandonment of previously managed land , especially grassland [ 1 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] . assessing habitat suitability and making good habitats more accessible for target species of conservation interest are major tasks for conservation biology [ 8 – 12 ] .
the methodology of research on the spatial patterns of species distributions owes much to recent achievements of metapopulation and landscape ecology e . g . [ 13 – 15 ] . according to classic metapopulation theory , the landscape contains discrete habitat patches separated by a uniform inhospitable environment , called the matrix [ 16 – 18 ] ; the landscape is assumed to form a black and white mosaic , and other spatial effects are neglected [ 16 ] . on the other hand , landscape ecology and more sophisticated metapopulation concepts consider the spatial variation of habitat quality and landscape heterogeneity , including compositional and spatial structure heterogeneity [ 15 ] , [ 19 – 22 ] . from the perspective of particular species , the landscape may consist of a patchwork of various habitat types which offer different resources for foraging and reproduction [ 12 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] , and which differ in their suitability for species dispersal [ 13 ] , [ 20 ] .
the persistence of populations of a species is affected by dispersal , because many habitat patches do not contain all the essential resources or are too small to support viable populations [ 12 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 25 ] . the dispersal ability of a particular species depends on its mobility , but also on habitat quality , landscape structure and landscape connectivity [ 26 – 29 ] . low connectivity limits dispersal and may lead to a significant loss of genetic variation and even to local extinctions [ 26 ] , [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] . in classic metapopulation ecology , landscape connectivity is regarded as a property of the spatial structure of discrete habitat patches , while in landscape ecology , connectivity is seen as a property of the entire landscape [ 19 ] . landscape connectivity may be defined as the combined effect of landscape elements that facilitate or disrupt the movement of individuals between patches [ 28 ] . for example , a matrix dominated by forest significantly limits the dispersal of grassland butterflies , as indicated by low emigration from natal patches and higher mortality of dispersers , while open environments enhance their dispersal [ 20 ] .
successful outcomes of dispersal–such as colonization of vacant patches or , in declining populations , the rescue effect [ 32 ] –are also affected by the quality of the habitat patches reached by dispersing individuals . in the butterfly parnassius smintheus , both higher habitat quality and better connectivity of target patches resulted in a higher number of immigration events [ 33 ] . in specialist species with strict habitat requirements , the habitat quality of target patches may in fact be the key factor limiting colonization , more important than patch isolation [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] . for insects such as butterflies , the main element of habitat quality is the availability of forage and other required resources [ 36 ] . the feeding resource depends on the abundance and distribution of host plants for larvae and nectar plants for imagos [ 12 ] , [ 37 ] . other key factors include vegetation architecture and habitat components such as shrubs [ 24 ] , [ 36 ] . components such as invasive plants may also affect habitat quality [ 7 ] .
based on metapopulation theory , landscape ecology and resource - based habitat concept , we proposed four hypotheses to explain the patterns of dryad occupancy and abundance across local habitat patches . the occupancy pattern indicates the probability of patch colonization , while the abundance pattern indicates the probability of long - term persistence of newly established local populations . we predicted higher probability of occupancy and higher relative abundance of the focal species for habitat patches that ( 1 ) are of good habitat quality ( reflected in vegetation structure or resource abundance ) , ( 2 ) have advantageous spatial structure ( large area , high connectivity , low level of within - patch fragmentation ) , and ( 3 ) are surrounded by a more hospitable matrix , facilitating dispersal ( e . g . lower share of forest , lower road density , higher density of watercourses offering potential corridors ) , although a higher share of forest on patch edges may positively affect butterfly abundance . finally , ( 4 ) we expected a strong negative effect of distance from the recent species refugium on patch occupancy .
the presence and number of dryads were recorded using the standard pollard walk method [ 44 ] on transects 5 m wide in all habitat patches . the length of the transects depended on patch area and was fixed as follows : 50 m for very small patches ( < 0 . 25 ha ) , 100 m for medium - size patches ( 0 . 25–3 ha ) , 200 m for large patches ( 3–10 ha ) , and 500 m for very large patches ( > 10 ha ) . the transects were established as broken lines with ≤ 90° turning angles . three counts of butterflies were made in each patch between 28 july and 24 august , at approximately two - week intervals , between 11 : 00 and 17 : 00 hours on sunny , windless days . an observer moved along the transects at a steady pace of ca . 10 m per 1 min . to make the results comparable for patches ( and thus transects ) of different sizes , the butterfly abundance indices are expressed as number of butterflies recorded per transect area ( length × 5 m width ) .
from field investigations and analysis of gis maps in idrisi 2 . 0 software [
) . the first group contains variables describing patch habitat quality , such as vegetation height , goldenrod cover , nectar plant cover , shrub density , occurrence of mowing , and habitat type . the second group contains variables describing the spatial characteristics of habitat patches , such as area , fragmentation , connectivity , and distance from species refugium . for variables based on distance ( connectivity , distance from refugium ) , distance was measured from patch centroids . the third group contains variables reflecting landscape composition in the vicinity of a patch . these parameters , including road and watercourse density as well as the percentage of forest in patch surroundings , were calculated for 100 - m buffer zones around the patches . wider buffer zones could not be demarcated because of the short distance between patches ; wider buffers would greatly overlap in many cases , making the parameter values derived for them dependent throughout . the dryad is regarded as a sedentary species ; 100 - m buffer width is probably close to the upper dispersal limit for individuals of this species [
] . we also assessed the percentage of forest in 6 - m wide buffers around the patches , as a measure of the proportion of forest at patch edges , but this variable was not included in the analysis due to its strong correlation with the percentage of forest in the 100 - m buffers ( r = 0 . 841 , p < 0 . 001 ) . we also excluded several other parameters originally derived from gis maps , which turned out to be highly correlated with factors already included which performed better as predictors ; for example , we excluded the share of built - up areas in the 100 - m buffers ( correlated with road density ) or alternative measures of patch isolation such as distance to nearest other patch or distance to nearest occupied patch ( both correlated with connectivity ) .
parameters of habitat patches and their surroundings used as predictors in analyses of the occurrence and abundance patterns of the dryad butterfly .
parameters were classified as reflecting habitat quality ( q ) , habitat patch spatial structure ( s ) or characteristics of patch surroundings in 100 - m buffers ( b ) .
in analyzing the availability of selected plant types we first assessed their total cover for each random point , and then calculated mean values for the random points in each patch . in this study , by nectar plants we mean all species of groups clearly preferred by the dryad , as found in our earlier research on butterfly feeding preferences [ 24 ] as well as single species from other groups at which nectaring was observed ( without invasive goldenrod and apiaceae plants ) .
to describe habitat patch diversity we performed principal component analysis ( pca ) , a linear unconstrained ordination method [ 47 ] , using selected environmental variables . because pca is sensitive to numerical values and may lead to incorrect results [ 48 ] , all the variables were standardized by dividing the values of environmental variables for each patch by the means for all the habitat patches . we used permanova to test whether grouping factors ( habitat type , dryad presence - absence , and their interaction term ) have significant effects on patch characteristics [ 49 ] . the analysis used euclidean distance , which is more appropriate for standardized data [ 48 ] .
in the main analysis we tested the factors affecting the occurrence and abundance of the dryad in habitat patches . based on the species detection records from three consecutive counts along the transects , we calculated detectability using the occupancy model of mackenzie et al . [ 50 ] in the mark program [ 51 ] . the model gives estimates of species detection probability ( p ) and site occupancy rate ( the fraction of sites occupied by the species ) ( ψ ) , using a maximum likelihood approach . its rationale follows that of mark - release - recapture ( mrr ) surveys , but individuals are replaced by sites surveyed . at each site , species presence is checked several times , resulting in a site - specific species - detection history , with 1 indicating detection and 0 indicating non - detection . the crucial assumption is that the system is closed ; that is , there are no changes in species presence - absence patterns during the survey . our protocol ensured this by having all three transect counts done within the flight period of the dryad . although an optimal sampling design should consist of at least 20 sites and at least 5 sampling occasions , for butterflies 2 or 3 sampling occasions should be enough in view of their ease of detection [ 52 ] , [ 53 ] .
the outcome of the model revealed very high detectability , reaching 90 % for a single transect count . this means that the estimated proportion of occupied sites only marginally exceeded the proportion of patches in which the species was detected during the surveys : the chance that one more patch was actually occupied by the dryad was ca . 2 . 5 % . consequently , we treated the recorded presence - absence of the dryad as its true presence - absence . its abundance is expressed as the total number of individuals from three counts per 1 ha transect . to achieve normality of that parameter we applied cubic - root transformation in all the analyses . we found no spatial autocorrelation of local abundance of the dryad among the investigated patches .
in order to test the effects of habitat parameters on dryad occupancy and abundance in the occupied patches , we used model selection and model averaging procedures based on information theory [ 54 ] . we applied the akaike information criterion corrected for small sample size ( aic c ) to find the set of the most supported models among all possible models . we ranked all the models built according to their δaic c values , where δaic c is the difference between a given model and the one with the lowest aic c , and we defined as supported all the models with δaic c < 7 [ 54 ] ( tables a and b in s2 file ) . then we averaged the model results across all the supported models , using their akaike weights , which reflect the probability that a given model is the best one . we assessed the relative importance of each explanatory variable by calculating the cumulative akaike weights of models containing a particular variable [ 54 ] . in models built for dryad occupancy pattern , we adopted logistic regressions and binomial distributions of the dependent variable , while in those for species abundance pattern we used the general linear model ( glm ) approach and gaussian distributions of the dependent variable .
from the set of independent variables we excluded those highly correlated with others that performed better as predictors ( see above ) . the parameters tested in the models were only moderately correlated with each other , having pearson’s r below 0 . 5 (
as distance from the refugium turned out to be the predominant factor limiting species occurrence , with the farthest occupied patch lying ca . 2300 m away ( see results ) , we also conducted an additional analysis restricted to patches located within this threshold distance from the refugium . however , due to the small sample size ( only 5 unoccupied and 18 occupied patches ) it was not possible to fit multifactorial models , so we performed a model selection routine for models with only a single explanatory variable .
correlation analysis was performed in statistica 10 . 0 , pca in canoco for windows 4 . 5 [ 47 ] , and permanova analysis in past 3 . 01 [ 56 ] . model selection and averaging procedures were run in r 3 . 0 . 2 for windows using the stats and mumin packages [ 57 ] .
for the investigated environmental variables , four pca axes explained 87 . 8 % of the variance of habitat patch diversity . the first ordination axis explained 35 . 3 % , the second axis 25 . 6 % , the third axis 14 . 8 % and the fourth axis 12 . 1 % of overall variance .
plate a–first and second ordination axes ; plate b–first and third ordination axes ; squares–xerothermic grasslands ; circles–wet meadows ; filled symbols–occupied habitat patches ; open symbols–vacant habitat patches . key to variables : area–patch size , edge–mean distance from patch interior to edge , forest– % of forest , goldenrods–goldenrod cover , connectivity–patch connectivity , nectar plants–nectar plant cover , refugium distance–distance from the skołczanka reserve , roads–road density , shrubs–shrub density , vegetation height–vegetation height , watercourses–watercourse density
) ; more distant patches were vacant . shrub density , mowing and goldenrod cover may also play roles in the dryad’s occurrence . they all appeared in the models with the lowest aic
for details of the procedure ) . on the other hand , none of the above factors reached statistical significance in the model - weighted outcomes of the analysis , although the effect of shrub density was close to significant , and the analysis that included patches located up to 2300 m from the species refugium showed a strong positive effect of shrub density ( estimate = 24 . 120 ± 11 . 240 se ,
= 0 . 032 , cumulative weight = 0 . 91 ) and a slight positive effect of patch connectivity ( estimate = 0 . 541 ± 0 . 253 se ,
= 0 . 033 , cumulative weight = 0 . 06 ) on dryad occurrence .
table shows weighted average results for all models calculated using model akaike weights . significant results are bolded .
) . the effect of nectar plant cover was modified by its significant interaction with habitat type . in xerothermic grassland patches , dryad abundance was positively related to the availability of nectar plants , while in wet grassland patches it was negatively affected by the same factor ( table b in
here we demonstrated that colonization of the studied habitat patches by the specialist dryad butterfly is strongly limited by the distance from its recent species refugium , the skołczanka reserve . the second factor apparently facilitating colonization is shrub density , which positively affects dryad occurrence ; matrix composition appears to be of less importance . this implies that grasslands experiencing early successional stages of shrub intrusion are most suitable for the dryad . characteristics reflecting patch quality are likely to affect the persistence of already established populations by shaping their local abundance . generally , our results are in agreement with earlier findings on wetland butterflies from a similar study system [ 35 ] , but the relative importance of the factors was different . we found that habitat quality is less important than distance from the refugium in limiting colonization by the dryad butterfly . our results also suggest that the dryad has rather low dispersal ability .
the occurrence of the dryad was affected most directly by a single factor , distance from the skołczanka refugium . landscape structure , particularly the matrix surrounding the patches , did not affect its distribution . density of watercourses did not influence its occurrence either , contrary to our expectations , as waterways might be expected to act as corridors for butterfly dispersal . however , watercourse density in patch surroundings turned out to have a beneficial effect on habitat quality . it positively affected dryad abundance , suggesting that the dryad needs humid habitat fragments , especially in xerothermic grassland . sites with a more humid microclimate support the growth of grasses , which are foodplants of the dryad ; such habitat patches can be expected to support more viable local populations .
other factors reflecting habitat quality may also shape the dryad’s occurrence in different areas of its euro - siberian range [ 42 ] , especially in metapopulations that are in equilibrium rather than being shaped by recent colonization processes . a study of the dryad in japan revealed the importance of forest / grassland edges for facilitation of immigration [ 58 ] . this implies that , against our expectations , forests surrounding habitat patches do not necessarily function as a barrier to the dryad . in fact , akeboshi et al . [ 58 ] interpret this type of edge as a factor improving patch quality . it has been shown that the occurrence of many butterfly species is driven mainly by habitat quality factors , including management regimes , plant species composition and larval host plants [ 13 ] , [ 59 ] , [ 60 ] . habitat spatial structure parameters such as patch isolation or patch size , and barriers such as forests , are mostly unimportant in this respect [ 13 ] , [ 37 ] , [ 59 ] , [ 61 ] , although for some butterflies the spatial structure of habitats and the characteristics of the matrix have been found to matter [ 20 ] , [ 61 ] , [ 62 ] .
apart from habitat composition , factors describing habitat patch spatial structure also play some role for the dryad . its abundance increased with the increase of within - patch fragmentation , as indicated by the negative effect of mean distance of patch interior from patch edge , as well as with decreasing patch size . that the relative density of the dryad was greater in smaller and more fragmented patches may seem surprising at first glance , but it is rather typical for butterflies [ 66 ] . such a pattern apparently reflects the higher average quality of small occupied patches ; small low - quality patches are unlikely to support local populations , as predicted by metapopulation theory [ 16 ] . in addition , higher species density in small fragmented patches may reflect some positive influence of patch edges cf . [ 41 ] . we suggest that the dryad benefits from edges due to the presence of bushes and tall vegetation there , which in our earlier work was found to be used as resting sites [ 24 ] . we have observed dryads resting on patch boundaries with forest , scrub and reedbeds on hot days ( authors’ unpublished data ) . the higher dryad abundance in patches with higher within - patch fragmentation supports the behaviour - at - boundaries hypothesis , according to which habitat specialists tend to return more frequently to the interior of patches at habitat boundaries than a more mobile habitat generalist does [ 67 ] .
at landscape scale , the biggest threat to dryad populations inhabiting wet meadows is desiccation of these habitats through ill - conceived drainage work . land managers should prevent such work around dryad sites in order to maintain high watercourse density , and should monitor the soil moisture of these sites .
to safeguard metapopulations , the largest habitat patches should be preserved , as a means of ensuring the continuity of local populations [ 16 ] . it is likely that a source - sink system operates in our study area ; the smallest habitat patches may be too small to sustain viable local populations . due to differences in the conditions and distribution of resources , as well as differences in their influence on the dryad ( e . g . opposite effects of nectar plant cover on dryad abundance ) in contrasting habitat types , this source - sink dynamic , if it occurs , probably operates in only one habitat type cf . [ 71 ] .
on the other hand , as the smaller and more fragmented patches had higher dryad density , their role in metapopulation functioning should not be neglected . specialist species are thought to require habitats of good quality , with specific vegetation well developed and not overgrown with shrubs e . g . [ 72 ] , [ 73 ] . recently , yan chong et al . [ 74 ] demonstrated that cultivated and artificial greenery in an urban landscape supports lower butterfly community diversity than natural and semi - natural vegetation does .
our findings make it clear that even partially degraded patches of semi - natural grassland of lower quality ( invaded by goldenrod , having degraded plant species communities , having higher within - patch fragmentation ) are conducive to the persistence of species with specific habitat requirements . our work also underlines the importance of small open and shrubby patches in supporting dryad dispersal and presence , facilitating its long - term conservation . the same principles may apply in the conservation of other butterflies with similar requirements , such as hamearis lucina , eerebia aethiops or leptidea sinapis , which depend on small shrubby patches of grassland [ 75 – 77 ] . we conclude that such sites are essential for maintaining biodiversity , particularly in urban areas cf . [ 78 ] . small patches with convoluted edges may function as stepping - stones , facilitating species dispersal and turnover of individuals [ 79 – 81 ] , especially under conditions of positive density - dependent dispersal [ 82 ] , [ 83 ] .


aplastodiscus ibirapitanga is a species of frog in the family hylidae .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and rivers .

it tolerates some habitat modification and is not considered threatened .

aplastodiscus ibirapitanga

aplastodiscus ibirapitanga — faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 82 .
urltoken
aplastodiscus albofrenatus
( a . lutz , 1924 ) *
aplastodiscus albosignatus
( a . lutz and b . lutz , 1938 ) *
aplastodiscus arildae
( cruz and peixoto , 1987 ) *
aplastodiscus callipygius
( cruz and peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus cavicola
( cruz and peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus cochranae
( mertens , 1952 ) *
aplastodiscus ehrhardti
( müller , 1924 ) *
aplastodiscus flumineus
( cruz and peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus ibirapitanga
( cruz , pimenta , and silvano , 2003 ) *
aplastodiscus leucopygius
( cruz and peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus musicus
( b . lutz , 1948 ) *
aplastodiscus perviridis
a . lutz
in
b . lutz , 1950 *
aplastodiscus sibilatus
( cruz , pimenta , and silvano , 2003 ) *
aplastodiscus weygoldti
( cruz and peixoto , 1987 )
= = liste des espèces = = selon : *
aplastodiscus albofrenatus
( lutz , 1924 ) *
aplastodiscus albosignatus
( lutz & lutz , 1938 ) *
aplastodiscus arildae
( cruz & peixoto , 1987 ) *
aplastodiscus callipygius
( cruz & peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus cavicola
( cruz & peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus cochranae
( mertens , 1952 ) *
aplastodiscus ehrhardti
( müller , 1924 ) *
aplastodiscus eugenioi
( carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva , 2005 ) *
aplastodiscus flumineus
( cruz & peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus ibirapitanga
( cruz , pimenta & silvano , 2003 ) *
aplastodiscus leucopygius
( cruz & peixoto , 1985 ) *
aplastodiscus musicus
( lutz , 1949 ) *
aplastodiscus perviridis
lutz , 1950 *
aplastodiscus sibilatus
( cruz , pimenta & silvano , 2003 ) *
aplastodiscus weygoldti
( cruz & peixoto , 1987 ) = = publication originale = = * lutz , 1950 :
hylidae in the adolpho lutz collection of the instituto oswaldo cruz .
the duration of advertisement call was significant as well for abrunhosa et al . ( 2005 ) when studying the aplastodiscus albosignatus group . with the exception of aplastodiscus albosignatus and aplastodiscus ibirapitanga cruz , pimenta & silvano , 2003 , each species has unique call duration . it is important that remains clear that those two species are not sympatric and show different repetition rates and dominant frequencies ( see abrunhosa et al . 2005 ) .
hyla ibirapitanga cruz , pimenta , and silvano , 2003 , bol . mus . nac . , rio de janeiro , n . s . , zool . , 503 : 6 . holotype : mnrj 27202 , by original designation . type locality :
brasil : bahia : municipio de ibirapitanga , fazenda fazenda pedra formosa ( 13° 57′ s , 39° 27′ w , 270 m de altitude )
.
herein we redescribe the advertisement call of aplastodiscus arildae from an area near the type - locality and describe the advertisement call of a . weygoldti comparing them to previously described advertisemen t calls of other species of the genus aplastodiscus . we also describe the first distress call registered for the genus and some general notes of the genus aplastodiscus are given .
the fundamental harmonic of the herein studied species of aplastodiscus ranged 1100 - 1300 hz ( while a . weygoldti always presented 1300 hz ) .
this species was previously within the genus hyla but has recently been moved to the genus aplastodiscus ( faivovich , et al . , 2005 ) .
simpatry is only known for two species in the aplastodiscus albofrenatus group ; among a . musicus and a . arildae in teresópolis . aplastodiscus musicus , can only be found in altitudes above 1500 m in the parque nacional da serra dos órgãos ( parna / so ) in teresópolis , rio de janeiro state while a . arildae , is found in altitudes above 600 m in a widespread distribution .
for aplastodiscus arildae , call data of three captured individuals ( zufrj 9497 , 9498 e 9499 ; svl = 40 . 8 , 40 . 7 , 42 . 1 mm respectively ) and a not captured individual were analyzed .
carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva ( 2005 ) remarked that the species in the aplastodiscus albofrenatus group have a red - orange iris . in our observations , a . arildae and a . weygoldti presents a bi - colored iris characteristically with a ' ring ' ( for the pupil is elliptical ) . even though the internal ' ring ' has a smaller radius comparing to the other species of the genus similar to the species in aplastodiscus albosignatus group ( see abrunhosa et al . 2005 ) . this ring may be gray as affirmed by carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva ( 2005 ) for the aplastodiscus albosignatus group or presenting a lighter coloration in comparison to the external ring , tending to white .
in the hyla albosignata group according to the original publication . in the aplastodiscus albosignatus group of faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 82 .
the species in the aplastodiscus albofrenatus group have very similar advertisement calls that , according to lutz ( 1949 ) , sound like
water dripping in a bottle
, except a . musicus that sounds like
an old fashioned glockenspiel
, but it is still very similar to the other species advertisement calls .
as vocalizações de anuros são um importante mecanismo de isolamento pré - zigótico , e por isso seu estudo deve ser incentivado . neste artigo re - descrevemos o canto de anúncio de aplastodiscus arildae , de uma área mais próxima da localidade tipo e descrevemos o canto de anúncio de a . weygoldti comparando - os a cantos previamente descritos de outras espécies do gênero . ambas as espécies apresentam os cantos de anúncio simples , não - modulados , muito similares , mas significativamente diferentes no que diz respeito à duração da nota . descrevemos o primeiro
distress call
registrado para o gênero , o
distress call
de a . arildae , que não possui uma forma rígida e foi emitido apenas por um dos indivíduos coletados . notas sobre o gênero aplastodiscus são dadas .
all the species of the genus are very similar in many aspects , presenting as morphological sinapomorphies proportionally large internal metatarsal and metacarpal tubercles , bicolored iris and females with unpigmented eggs for species with known breeding behavior ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) , except for the aplastodiscus albofrenatus group that does not present bicolored iris as remarked by carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva ( 2005 ) .
aplastodiscus perviridis also presents three types of courtship calls ( haddad et al . 2005 ) that were not observed by us in neither of our studied species , but we were not able to presence the whole breeding behavior of those species . males of a . perviridis studied by haddad et al . ( 2005 ) shown four types of calls ( announcement + three different courtship calls ) , a . eugenioi studied by hartmann et al . ( 2004 ) showed three ( announcement + two ) and a . albofrenatus by bokermann ( 1967 ) presented two types ( announcement + one ) , a . weygoldti also presented the same two types of a . albofrenatus ( advertisement and territorial ) and a . arildae presented three types : advertisement , territorial and distress call . this is the first record of a distress call for the aplastodiscus genus .
aplastodiscus perviridis has a fundamental frequency of 910 - 1300 hz ( haddad et al . 2005 ) , a . albofrenatus is according to original sonogram ( bokermann 1967 ) is 1000 hz , a . eugenioi presents fundamental harmonic that ranges from 800 to 1200 hz ( hartmann et al . 2004 ) , a . ehrhardti 1300 - 1500 hz and the a . albosignatus group ranges 700 - 1040hz ( abrunhosa et al . 2005 ) .
aplastodiscus arildae advertisement call presented a mean duration of 26 . 5 ( ±4 . 5 ) ms with high concentration ( 17 % of variation around the average ) , while a . weygoldti calls presented a tendency of being longer , meaning 46 ( 10 . 1 ) ms presenting with a lower concentration ( 21 % of variation ) around the average . note duration for a . arildae ranged 20 - 31 ms against 40 - 50 ms for a . weygoldti ( tab . i ) .
the advertisement call of aplastodiscus perviridis , lutz , 1950 is a short modulated whistle with mean duration of 116 ms ( haddad et al . 2005 ) , a lot longer then both species of this study . this relation is also true when comparing the advertisement calls of the species herein studied with the call of a . eugenioi in picinguaba , são paulo with a mean duration of 85 . 64 ( ±16 . 77 ) described by hartmann et al . ( 2004 ) ( tab . i ) .
the data and specimens referring to aplastodiscus arildae were collected in parna / so , teresópolis , rio de janeiro state , during the period from may 2003 to march 2004 and those referring to a . weygoldti , were collected in municipality of domingos martins , espírito santo state , from september to october 1995 . the individuals can be found under the numbers 6350 ; 6477 ; 9497 ; 9498 ; 9499 and 9500 in the amphibian collection of the department of zoology of universidade federal do rio de janeiro ( zufrj ) .
for aplastodiscus weygoldti , call data of two individuals ( zufrj 6350 , 6477 ; svl = 40 and 38 mm respectively ) and a not captured individual were analyzed . note duration was , in average , 46 ( ±10 ) ms . the higher energy concentration ( dominant frequency ) was found in the second harmonic that was in average 2591 ( ±42 . 7 ) hz and fundamental frequency always ranged around 1300 hz . ( see figures 3 and 4 , tables i and ii ) . the number ( amount ) of harmonics was 6 ( ±3 ) , ranging two to ten with modal number of 7 ( n = 85 ) .
a distress call was emitted by one individual in captivity ( zufrj 9500 ) . this call has not a rigid form , with length varying according to stimuli , with an average of 19 ( nineteen ) harmonics at each 500 hz of fundamental harmonic . dominant frequency was 4670 . 25 ( ±3093 . 06 ) hz ranging from 1694 to 8629hz ( n = 6 notes ) . another call like this was heard in the field , during the day ( carvalho - e - silva , s . p . pers . obs . ) and this is the first record for this call type in the aplastodiscus albofrenatus group and for the genus ( figs 5 and 6 ) .
faivovich et al . ( 2005 ) made a cladistic review of the hylidae family removing several species from the genus hyla laurenti , 1768 . the hyla albofrenata group , composed of six species : hyla albofrenata lutz , 1924 ; hyla arildae cruz & peixoto , 1987 ; hyla ehrhardti müller , 1924 ; hyla eugenioi carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva , 2005 ; hyla musica lutz , 1949 ; and hyla weygoldti cruz & peixoto , 1987 ( cruz & peixoto 1987 , faivovich et al . 2002 , carvalho - e - silva & carvalho - e - silva 2005 ) , is now placed under the genus aplastodiscus lutz , 1950 ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) .
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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is known from southern and eastern bahia state and a single site in the municipio de minas novas , minas gerais state , brazil . its altitudinal range is approximately 90 - 300m asl . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest , especially in areas between known sites .
this species is known from both late secondary tropical forest , with small streams and deep leaf - litter . males are found vocalising under ( or mostly ) the leaf - litter , but exceptionally call from leaves and bushes above streams . females are found on leaves above the margins of streams . it is presumed that reproduction takes place in the backwaters of these fast flowing streams . many of the specimens were observed in secondary forest in fazendas ( farms ) .
the threats to this species are not known . it appears to tolerate a degree of habitat modification .
it has been collected in the reserva particular do patrimônio natural estação veracruz , the parque nacional pau brasil , the parque nacional descobrimento and the reserva particular do patrimônio natural ecoparque de una .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
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victor g . d . orrico i , ii , iii ; ana maria p . t . carvalho - e - silva ii ; sergio p . carvalho - e - silva iii
i corresponding author ii laboratório de biossistemática de anfíbios , universidade federal do estado do rio de janeiro . avenida pasteur 458 , prédio da biologia , sala 402 , 22290 - 240 rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro , brasil . e - mail : victordill @ urltoken ; atelles @ urltoken iii departamento de zoologia , instituto de biologia , universidade federal do rio de janeiro . caixa postal 68044 , 21944 - 970 rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro , brasil . e - mail : sergio @ urltoken
the study of anuran advertisement calls is important because calling is considered a significant premating isolating mechanism ( pombal et al . 1995 , martins & jim 2003 , 2004 ) , even though all important factors for anuran mate choice are not yet known ( wollerman & wiley 2002 ) . it seems that this mechanism evolves fine tuning of a functional system ; but , to achieve species isolation trought calls , major changes are not required ( heyer 1980 ) . in order to discriminate two different species , one or more different trait , or combinations of traits , in vocalization is needed ( cardoso & viellard 1990 , bush et al . 2002 , wollerman & wiley 2002 ) .
it was used a sennheiser me - 80 directional , active microphone , a sony wmdc6 tape recorder and cassette tapes tdk chrome 90 minutes to recorde the species in field . the records were made at night , during the moments of higher call activity , and during the breeding season ( may to february ) . the specimens recorded were collected and their snout - vent length ( svl ) measured with a 0 . 1 mm caliper .
in this work we analyzed temporal ( note duration and repetition rates ) and spectral traits ( dominant frequency , fundamental frequency and number of harmonics ) . since both species have simple advertisement calls , possessing only a single note with one pulse repeated through time ( see duellman & pyles 1983 ) , the term
note
is used as synonym of
pulse
in this work .
the technical terms used in this work were adapted of those used in duellman & pyles ( 1983 ) , cardoso & vielliard ( 1990 ) , heyer et al . ( 1990 ) , littlejohn ( 2001 ) and martins & jim ( 2003 ) .
the data was analyzed with the program cool edit v . 96 ( syntrilium co . ) , digitalized with a sampling rate of 44100 points in 16 bits mono . since by definition harmonics are infinite , for practical reasons , only frequencies presenting peaks above - 48 db were measured . all data were compared using
t - student
test with 0 . 05 % of significance ( 5 % alpha ) ( zar 1984 ) .
another type of call , similar to advertisement , but forming a complex call made of three to five notes ( similar to bufo laurenti , 1768 bufonidae advertisement calls , but with a higher pitch ) was heard , but not recorded . we classified this call as a territorial call , for it was only heard in great choir activity ( n > 15 approximately ) . this type of call was also registred for a . albofrenatus ( bokermann 1967 ) and a . eugenioi ( hartmann et al . 2004 ) , but was not recorded by bokermann ( 1967 ) , only remarked , and hartmann et al . ( 2004 ) didn ' t classify the call within any call types .
individual zufrj 9497 was recorded while calling in the central cup of a bromeliad ( vriesia sp . ) and was the only animal calling when captured . all other individuals were in chorus situations but with different densities of heard calling males . the context of chorusing individual zufrj 9499 was smaller ( n = 3 ) than the context of chorusing individual zufrj 9498 ( n > 15 ) .
the note duration of advertisement call had an average note length of 26 . 5 ( ±4 . 5 , n = 129 ) ms and did not show a constant number of harmonics , in average 6 ( ±2 ) , ranging three to ten and modal number of 6 ( n = 99 ) . the largest energy concentration was found in the second harmonic ( = dominant harmonic ) that was in average 2413 ( ±167 . 8 ) hz and fundamental frequency ranged 1100 - 1300 hz . ( see figures 1 and 2 , tables i and ii ) .
wollerman & wiley ( 2002 ) studying recognition error possibilities in dendropsophus ebracattus ( cope , 1874 ) , realized that only the duration of the primary note of the advertisement call carried recognition information for this species . cardoso & vielliard ( 1990 ) found that hypsiboas punctatus ( schneider , 1799 ) and h . lanciformis ( cope , 1871 ) had similar frequency traits for their advertisement calls , but h . lanciformis call could be recognized by its lower duration .
martins & jim ( 2004 ) found that during the beginning of chorus activities or in isolated male callers of hyla jimi napoli & caramaschi , 1999 ( now dendropsophus jimi ) , and h . elianeae napoli & caramaschi , 2000 ( now dendropsophus elianeae ) the repetition rates are lower , but during chorus , those rates , as well as the number of notes per call , are higher .
the emission of notes with different temporal traits in chorus situation can be related to the maintenance of individual space among active neighbor males ( martins & jim 2003 ) . our t - student tests showed that repetition rates in our data , were unique even between the individuals of a . weygoldti recorded together , thus we are able to infer that repetition rates are actively adjusted for each chorus situation .
this phenomenon has already been observed for other species within hylidae family : dendropsophus nanus ( boulenger , 1889 ) , dendropsophus sanborni ( schmidt , 1944 ) , ( martins & jim 2003 ) , scinax argyreornatus ( miranda - ribeiro , 1926 ) and s . rizibilis ( bokermann , 1964 ) ( pombal et al . 1995 ) . it is also known for , at least , two others species within leiuperidae bonaparte , 1850 family : engystomops pustulosus ( cope , 1864 ) and e . petersi jiménez de la espada , 1872 ( ryan & rand 2001 ) .
for future works , we strongly recommend that chorus situation should be elicited when describing amphibian advertisement calls .
in a general matter , the number of harmonics were or too variable ( variation coefficients = 3 . 5 - 40 . 03 % for a . arildae and 23 . 5 - 42 . 58 % for a . weygoldti ) to assure a specific relationship .
even though heyer ( 1980 ) affirms that morphological resemblance indicates a high level of filetic relationship , straughan ( 1973 ) says that parallelism and convergence problems may appear just like any other character , so , homologies can ' t be based only in vocalizations because similar calls can be produce by completely different apparatus and vice versa .
to itamar a . martins , luis n . weber , adriano l . c . pinto , roberta r . pinto , luiz a . p . gonzaga e sergio r . dos santos .
bokermann , w . c . a . 1967 . notas sobre cantos nupciais de anfíbios brasileiros . i . ( anura ) .
cardoso , a . & j . vielliard . 1990 . vocalizações de anfíbios anuros de um ambiente aberto , em cruzeiro do sul , estado do acre .
carvalho - e - silva , a . m . p . t . & s . p . carvalho - e - silva . 2005 . new species of the
faivovich , j . ; c . a cruz & o . l . peixoto . 2002 . the identity of
faivovich , j . ; c . f . b . haddad ; p . c . a . garcia ; d . r . frost ; j . a . campbell & w . c . wheeler . 2005 . systematic review of the frog family hylidae , with special reference to hylinae : phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision . bulletin of the american museum of natural history ,
littlejohn , m . j . 2001 . patterns of differentiation in temporal properties of acoustic signal of anurans , p . 102 - 120 .
lutz , b . 1949 . anfíbios anuros da coleção adolpho lutz . ii . espécies verdes do gênero
pombal jr , j . p . ; r . p . bastos & c . f . b . haddad . 1995 . vocalizações de algumas espécies do gênero
ryan , m . j . & a . s . rand . 2001 . feature weighting in signal recognition and discrimination by túngara frogs , p . 86 - 101 .
straughan , i . r . 1973 . evolution of anuran mating calls bioacoustical aspects , p . 321 - 327 .
wollerman , l . & r . h . wiley . 2002 . possibilities for error during communication by neotropical frogs in a complex acoustic environment .
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