the agulhas long-billed lark ( certhilauda brevirostris ) , also known as the agulhas lark or agulhas longbill is a small passerine bird .

it is an endemic resident breeder in the western cape , south africa .

its restricted range is centred on the agulhas arable farmlands , from east of the hottentots-holland mountain range to mossel bay , and occupies a maximum of 15,000 km ² .

agulhas long - billed lark

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agulhas long - billed lark , overberg , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker © ]
the agulhas long - billed lark is mainly seen singly or in pairs in the wild .
agulhas long - billed lark ( certhilauda brevirostris ) is a species of bird in the alaudidae family .
this taxon is now lumped within cape long - billed lark ( certhilauda curvirostris ) .
english : long - billed lark ; french : alouette à long bec ; german : langschnabellerche ; spanish : alondra picuda .
the cape long - billed lark was originally placed in the genus alauda ( as a . curvirostris ) .
the agulhas long - billed lark is a southern african bird that belongs to the alaudidae bird family group which includes birds such as larks , sparrowlarks .
the agulhas long - billed lark is endemic to the southern african region which means that this bird is only found in this region and nowhere else in the world .
the description for the agulhas long - billed lark ( latin name certhilauda brevirostris ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the certhilauda brevirostris can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of and the detailed description of this bird is on page 880 . you will find a picture of the agulhas long - billed lark on page 928 .
the cape long - billed lark ( certhilauda curvirostris ) , also known as the cape lark , cape longbill or long - billed lark is a species of lark in the family alaudidae . it is found in south - western africa . its natural habitats are semi - arid karoo shrub and subtropical dry shrubland and subtropical or dry lowland and highveld grassland . this lark is also found in croplands , farmlands and coastal fynbos .
ryan pg , bloomer p . 1999 . the long - billed lark complex : a species mosaic in southwest africa . the auk 116 : 194–208 .
the agulhas long - billed lark is a monogamous bird which means that the bird finds and breeds with one partner for the rest of its life . the bird lays between 2 to 3 eggs and they are coloured undescribed .
karoo long - billed lark ( as c . c . damarensis , c . c . bradshawi , c . c . subcoronata and c . c . gilli ) .
ryan , peter g . , and paulette bloomer .
the long - billed lark complex : a species mosaic in southwestern africa .
auk 116 ( 1999 ) : 194–208 .
ryan , p . g . and bloomer , p . 1999 . the long - billed lark complex : a species mosaic in south - western africa . auk 116 : 194 - 208 .
the agulhas long - billed lark has a height of 21 cms and weighs around 45 gms . the head is coloured brown while the bill is coloured black . the certhilauda brevirostris has a white coloured throat , pink legs and a brown coloured back . the eyes are brown .
following the taxonomy applied to hbw alive , derived from the hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world , this taxon is now lumped within cape long - billed lark ( certhilauda curvirostris ) .
english : hoopoe lark , bifasciated lark ; french : sirli du désert ; german : wüstenläuferlerche ; spanish : alondra ibis .
restricted - range and biome - restricted species that are common in the iba include cape spurfowl pternistis capensis and cape bulbul pycnonotus capensis . locally common species include cape sugarbird promerops cafer , orange - breasted sunbird anthobaphes violacea , agulhas long - billed lark , cape siskin and cape clapper lark , while southern black korhaan , karoo korhaan , hottentot buttonquail and striped flufftail are uncommon .
the population of the agulhas long - billed lark ( certhilauda brevirostris ) is estimated to be around 1 , 000 mature individuals . estimates for sclater ' s lark ( spizocorys sclateri ) are much higher , but the population is severely fragmented throughout namibia and south africa . finally , the population of the latakoo lark in southeastern africa could decline drastically during the following decades due to habitat loss . as a result , these three species are considered to be near threatened .
ryan , p . g . and spottiswoode , c . n . 2003 . long - billed tailorbirds ( orthotomus moreaui ) rediscovered at serra jeci , northern mozambique . ostrich 74 : 141 - 145 .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . agulhas long - billed lark ( certhilauda brevirostris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
ryan , p . g . 1996 . barlow’s lark ; a new endemic lark for southern africa . africa : birds and birding 1 ( 4 ) : 65 - 70 .
20–24 cm ( male on average 12–19 % larger than female , with greatest difference in bill length ) ; 40–60 g . largest lark in s africa , with long decurved bill , . . .
english : black - crowned finch - lark , pallid finch - lark ; french : moinelette à frout - blanc ; german : weißstirnlerche ; spanish : aloudra gottión de corouna negra .
globally threatened species are cape cormorant , damara tern , chestnut - banded plover , african black oystercatcher , lesser flamingo , blue crane , denham ' s bustard , southern black korhaan , secretarybird , martial eagle polemaetus bellicosus , black harrier and hottentot buttonquail . regionally threatened species are african marsh harrier , lanner falcon falco biarmicus , african grass owl , greater flamingo , caspian tern , karoo korhaan eupodotis vigorsii , agulhas long - billed lark , striped flufftail and greater painted - snipe .
and korea . in southern france and north africa east of libya , sympatric with thekla lark .
rouget m . 2003 . measuring conservation value at fine and broad scales : implications for a diverse and fragmented region , the agulhas plain .
endemic to south africa , only occurring in the western cape ' s agulhas plain , from the bot river to caledon east to mossel bay . it generally prefers recently ploughed fields , shrubland punctuated with renosterbos ( dicerothamnus rhinocerotis ) and dwarf karoo shrubland on clay substrate . it avoids mountain fynbos , so its distribution is separated from that of the karoo and cape long - billed larks by mountain ranges .
mangnall mj , crowe tm . 2003 . the effects of agriculture on farmland bird assemblages on the agulhas plain , western cape , south africa .
ryan , p . g . 2014 . long distance flyers face tough times . sanparks times ( march ) : 22 .
smaller than males . bill very long , slender , and slightly decurved . plumage sand - colored above , underside white , throat and breast with dark spots , similar in both sexes . wings long and broad with conspicuous black - and - white pattern , comparable to that of african subspecies of hoopoe ( upupa epops ) . this lark was first described as a hoopoe , and its original scientific name means
hoopoe with legs of a lark .
ryan , p . g . 2001 . sa agulhas pelagic trip : 9 - 11 august . sandwatch 13 ( 2 ) : 10 - 12 .
in mainly insectivorous larks , the male is larger and has a longer bill than the female . this is most conspicuous in the greater hoopoe , the long - billed lark , and their relatives , which use their slender and decurved bills for digging in the ground in search of insect larvae . sexual dimorphism in bill and body size also occurs in the bar - tailed lark ( ammomanes cincturus ) and gray ' s lark ( a . grayi ) , which feed mainly on seeds . such differences in size enable both sexes of the same species to exploit different food resources within the same habitat .
english : short - toed lark ; french : alouette calandrelle ; german : kurzzehenlerche ; spanish : terrera grande .
english : shore lark ; french : alouette hausse - col ; german : ohrenlerche ; spanish : alauda cornuda .
lombard at , cowling rm , pressey rl , mustart pj . 1997 . reserve selection in a species‐rich and fragmented landscape on the agulhas plain , south africa .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . cape long - billed lark ( certhilauda curvirostris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
ryan , p . g . 2006 . the long haul . africa : birds and birding 11 ( 2 ) : 52 - 59 .
just past malgas , the route joins the gravel road that leads to potberg and the de hoop nature reserve , and ultimately to the town of bredasdorp . the remnant patches of indigenous scrub near this junction are good for clapper lark , and the stretch from here to bredasdorp ( especially around the main de hoop turn - off ) is excellent for stanleys bustard . if you wish to return to the n2 , you can turn right at the fork 1 km later ( see map p . 58 ) , and follow another gravel road to swellendam , along which there are also good numbers of agulhas long - billed lark and blue crane . the latter is a fairly common sight throughout this region .
english : clotbey lark ; french : alouette de clotbey ; german : knackerlerche ; spanish : alondra de pico grueso .
riley , steve .
crested lark using ' anvil ' .
british birds 82 ( 1989 ) : 30–31 .
exhibits similar behaviour but also sings during its ascent , whereas the crested lark sings either at altitude or on the ground .
pence gq , botha ma , turpie jk . 2003 . evaluating combinations of on - and off - reserve conservation strategies for the agulhas plain , south africa : a financial perspective .
ryan , p . g . 1996 . resurrecting barlow’s lark . africa : environment and wildlife 3 ( 4 ) : 10 .
ryan , p . g . 2015 . does size and buoyancy affect the long - distance transport of floating debris ? environmental research letters 10 : 084019 .
ryan , peter g . , ian hood , paulette bloomer , joris komen , and timothy m . crowe .
barlow ' s lark : a new species in the karoo lark certhilauda albescens complex of southwest africa .
ibis 140 ( 1998 ) : 605–619 .
four species are classified as vulnerable because of their restricted and unprotected ranges and small populations . the ferruginous or red lark ( certhilauda burra ) breeds in the cape province only , where habitat fragmentation continues . archer ' s lark ( heteromirafra archeri ) is known only from two small areas in somalia , where it was recorded last in 1955 . only a few specimens and observations of degodi lark ( mirafra degodiensis ) and sidamo bushlark ( heteromirafra sidamoensis ) are known from different localities in ethiopia . information about breeding range and population size is even more scanty for friedmann ' s lark ( mirafra pulpa ) from northeastern africa , obbia lark ( spizocorys obbiensis ) from somalia , and williams ' s lark ( mirafra williamsi ) from kenya , making it almost impossible to assess the extent of the threat to their extinction .
the rugged coastline within the agulhas national park and at the southern tip of africa draws thousands of people to the point where many contest that the warm indian ocean meets with the cold atlantic .
in most species the female builds the nest alone . however , in the calandra lark ( melanocorypha calandra ) and oriental skylark ( alauda gulgula ) , as well as several species within the ammomanes , calandrella , and galerida , both sexes are involved in nest building . the male of the chestnut - backed sparrow - lark ( eremopterix leucotis ) presents spider webs to its mate , which applies them to its nest . ritualized nest building behavior as part of the courtship display is reported from two species . the male of the rudd ' s lark ( heteromirafra ruddi ) walks in front of the female with its bill full of nest material , and the male of the thick - billed lark offers the female small pebbles used for nest building .
ryan , p . g . , hood , i . , bloomer , p . , komen , j . and crowe , t . m . 1998 . barlow’s lark : a new species in the karoo lark complex of southwest africa . ibis 140 : 605 - 619 .
the crested lark ( galerida cristata ) is a species of lark distinguished from the other 81 species of lark by the crest of feathers that rise up in territorial or courtship displays and when singing . common to mainland europe , the birds can also be found in northern africa and in parts of western asia and china . it is a non - migratory bird , but can occasionally be found as a vagrant in great britain .
variety of habitats , mainly open areas with sparse vegetation , also cultivated land and other man - made semideserts such as railways , airfields , and wastelands . where it co - occurs with the thekla lark , the crested lark occupies the plains , the thekla inhabits rocky and bushy slopes .
ryan , p . g . 2005 . the long and the short of it : are flamingos modified grebes ? africa : birds and birding 10 ( 6 ) : 11 .
the situation is critical for the raso lark ( alauda razae ) and rudd ' s lark . the former species is endemic to the uninhabited islet of raso ( cape verde islands ) , and its population is very small ( 92 birds counted in 1998 ) . accidentally introduced predators are therefore a serious threat to eggs and nestlings . a rapid population decline of rudd ' s lark could be prevented by protecting its breeding range in south africa .
maphisa , d . h . , donald , p . f . , buchanan , g . m . and ryan , p . g . 2009 . habitat use , distribution and breeding ecology of the globally threatened rudd’s lark and botha’s lark in eastern south africa . ostrich 80 : 19 - 28 .
according to the iucn , several lark species are in need of special protection . ash ' s lark ( mirafra ashi ) is known only from six specimens collected in 1981 in a very small range in somalia . because its minute population seems to decline , this species is classified as endangered . botha ' s lark ( spizocorys fringillaris ) is also endangered . it is patchily distributed within south africa , and its population is declining due to habitat destruction by agriculture .
many larks satisfy their thirst and maintain body weight by drinking dew when water is not available . various species , including the black , desert , gray ' s , and stark ' s lark , as well as the black - crowned and black - eared sparrow - lark , drink brackish or even salty water .
of the horned lark ( eremophila alpestris ) and temminck ' s lark ( e . bilopha ) possess a contrasting colored pattern of breast and head , and they have tiny elongated feathers above their eyes that form conspicuous horns . however , the breeding plumage of the male black lark ( melanocorypha yeltoniensis ) is entirely black . the males of the seven known sparrow - larks ( eremopterix ) have black underparts and a species - specific black - and - white pattern on their head . only the male black - eared sparrow - lark ( e . australis ) is totally black - headed ; females of all these species are colored as larks in general .
with imitations of other bird songs and calls . because of this behavior , the mongolian lark ( melanocorypha mongolica ) is called
hundred melodies
in china and is a favored cage bird in east asia . the latakoo or melodious lark ( mirafra cheniana ) is known to imitate 57 different bird species—even ducks , guineafowl , and bee - eaters—and single males can be distinguished by the set of birds they imitate . some species , such as the crested lark , may even imitate human whistling .
ryan , p . g . and boix - hinzen , c . 1999 . consistent male - biased seabird mortality in the patagonian toothfish long - line fishery . auk 116 : 851 - 854 .
male 7 . 5–7 . 9 in ( 19–20 cm ) ; female 6 . 3–6 . 7 in ( 16–17 cm ) ; weight unknown . males clearly larger than females , but sexes do not differ in respect to plumage color or pattern . plumage brown - grayish , heavily streaked , breast marked with dark spots . species reminiscent of a thrush with a long , decurved bill . hind claw is long and straight .
larks are characteristic birds of the open landscapes like grasslands , steppes , stony plains , and heaths . most larks prefer areas with sparse vegetation . some species , including the wood lark and flapped lark ( mirafra rufocinnamomea ) , depend on a mixture of vegetation types within the same habitat , such as grasses for nest - building and scattered bushes and small
feeds on termites , grasshoppers , beetles , and ants , as well as on seeds and berries . uses long bill for digging . since sexes differ in size of bill , they probably exploit different food resources .
crawford , r . j . m . , ryan , p . g . and williams , a . j . 1991 . seabird consumption and production in the benguela and western agulhas ecosystems . south african journal of marine science 11 : 357 - 375 .
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like all gazetted protected areas , agulhas national park and de mond nature reserve are guided by detailed management plans and annual plans of operation . however , conservation action is not limited to the formally protected areas , and the well - managed nuwejaars wetland special management area , soon to be gazetted as a protected environment , contributes substantially to conservation in the region , as does the agulhas biodiversity initiative , which helps to coordinate the activities of multiple organisations at a landscape scale . environmental education and awareness campaigns have played a role in the work of groups such as the overberg crane group and agulhas biodiversity initiative to reduce the threats to biodiversity from agricultural production . together with a more enlightened approach to sustainable farming , they have helped provide a platform for conservation and agriculture to co - exist .
jones , m . g . w . and ryan , p . g . 2014 . effects of pre - laying attendance and body condition on long - term reproductive success in wandering albatrosses . emu 114 : 137 - 145 .
strategies , such as ants , darkling beetles , stink bugs , and millipedes . rarely , flying insects are taken in aerial pursuit . the bill can be used for digging and probing . depending on their diet , more or less insectivorous and granivorous species can be distinguished , but seasonal changes occur ; the crested lark , wood lark , and skylark take fewer seeds during breeding season than in winter . all larks feed arthropods to their young , only stark ' s lark ( eremalauda starki ) feeds a high proportion of unripe grass seeds , even to newly hatched chicks .
7 . 1–7 . 5 in ( 18–19 cm ) ; male 0 . 9–1 . 9 oz ( 27–55 g ) ; female 0 . 6–1 . 7 oz ( 17–47 g ) . extensively streaked brown plumage , crown feathers can be raised to a short crest ; bill stronger than bill of wood lark ; sexes alike . most common lark species within its western palearctic part of distribution .
ryan , p . g . and bloomer , p . 1997 . geographic variation in red lark certhilauda burra plumage , morphology , song and mitochondrial dna haplotypes . ostrich 68 : 31 - 36 .
cockroft , v . h . , peddemors , v . m . , ryan , p . g . and lutjeharms , j . r . e . 1990 . cetaceans associated with agulhas current rings in the southern ocean . south african journal of antarctic research 20 : 64 - 67 .
the iba boundary extends inland from de mond nature reserve to beyond the confluence of the nuwejaars river and zoetendalsvlei and then in a north - westerly direction to the junction of the r43 and r319 , c . 5 km south of bredasdorp . it turns westward and continues to the small town of elim , following the northern border of the nuwejaars wetland special management area . this special management area , which stretches down to agulhas national park , is an innovative approach to land management that combines commercial agriculture with conservation . it covers c . 45 000 ha in total , with a core conservation area of 22 000 ha , and it includes zoetendalsvlei , voëlvlei and waskraalvlei . beyond elim , the iba boundary continues westward past baardskeerderbos before turning south - west to the coast , meeting it at franskraal and thus including the smaller uilenkraals estuary . the boundary turns east , following the rugged southern cape coastline past cape agulhas , the southernmost tip of africa , and back to de mond nature reserve . the iba thus incorporates agulhas national park , which was proclaimed in september 1999 and has grown over the years to cover c . 21 000 ha of the agulhas plain region .
its plumage is downy but sparse and appears whitish . the distinct crest from which the crested lark gets its name is conspicuous at all times but is more pronounced during territorial or courtship displays and when singing .
hayman , peter ; burton , philip ( 1979 ) .
crested lark
. the birdlife of britain ( 2nd ed . ) . london : mitchell beazley publishers limited . p . 80 . isbn 0855330872 .
the iba consists of a mix of protected and unprotected land within an agricultural matrix . approximately 21 000 ha fall within agulhas national park , another 45 000 ha are in the nuwejaars wetland special management area , and the remainder of the formally protected land is in capenature ' s de mond nature reserve . the critical habitats – the heuningnes estuary and the agulhas plain wetland system – are therefore under some form of protection . de mond state forest was established in 1975 to preserve the heuningnes estuary and adjoining coastal fynbos vegetation . the estuary and dunes on either side are a ramsar site , designated in 1986 .
ratcliffe , norman , luis r . monteiro , and cornelis j . hazevoet .
status of raso lark alauda razae with notes on threats and foraging behaviour .
bird conservation international 9 ( 1999 ) : 43–46 .
mills , m . s . l . and ryan , p . g . 2005 . modelling impacts of long - line fishing : what are the effects of pair - bond disruption and sex - biased mortality on albatross fecundity ? animal conservation 8 : 359 - 367 .
in all larks , both sexes feed the chicks and eat or remove their feces . after eight to 13 days , before they are able to fly , lark chicks leave the nest , still supplied with food by their parents . if the female starts a second brood , the male cares for the young alone . steyn observed cooperative breeding in the spike - heeled lark ( chersomanes albofasciata ) ; three adults fed two chicks in one nest in the karoo .
7 . 1–7 . 9 in ( 18–20 cm ) ; male 1 . 4–1 . 8 oz ( 39–51 g ) ; female 1 . 1–1 . 6 oz ( 30–47 g ) ; one of the largest lark species , females
vagrants the overberg wheatbelt further has the reputation for producing an increasing number of vagrant species . fairly recent records include species such as the lark - like bunting , black - headed canary , eurasian hobby , sand martin , red - billed quelea , european and lilac - breasted rollers , red - backed shrike , lesser grey shrike and grey wagtail . rare cuckoo species recorded are african , black and common cuckoos . larger species noted include goliath heron , african openbill and abdim ' s and marabou storks . the arrival of a vagrant palmnut vulture further caused a stir in birding circles recently .
ryan , p . g . , bouwman , h . , moloney , c . l . , yuyama , m . and takada , h . 2012 . long - term decreases in persistent organic pollutants in south african coastal waters detected from beached polyethylene pellets . marine pollution bulletin 64 : 2756 - 2760 .
nel , d . c . , taylor , f . , ryan , p . g . and cooper , j . 2003 . population dynamics of wandering albatrosses diomedea exulans at sub - antarctic marion island : long - line fishing and environmental influences . african journal of marine science 25 : 503 - 517 .
invasive alien vegetation represents a major threat to the biodiversity of the agulhas plain . this vegetation was actively planted in the past to facilitate land stabilisation , but it has encroached over large areas , transforming habitat and causing water loss in the wetland systems . in addition , fires occur more frequently than is natural , leading to a reduction in the abundance of certain fynbos elements .
larks usually have short legs , but they are fairly long in alaemon and certhilauda . larks have strong feet . the hind claw is much longer than the toes , especially in species living on soft soil . however , the hind claw is shorter in larks that live on hard ground or are fast runners such as alaemon .
techow , n . m . s . m . , o ' ryan , c . , robertson , c . j . r . and ryan , p . g . 2016 . the origins of white - chinned petrels killed by long - line fisheries off south africa and new zealand . polar research 35 : 21150 .
larks inhabit extreme regions such as deserts , semideserts , and arctic tundras , and areas varying in altitude from about sea level to high mountains . the horned lark , for example , breeds at 14 , 750 ft ( 4 , 500 m ) in the rocky mountains , and the skylark and tibetan lark ( melanocorypha maxima ) breed at 14 , 450 ft ( 4 , 400 m ) and 15 , 100 ft ( 4 , 600 m ) in the himalayas , respectively . generally , such extreme habitats are left after the breeding season .
5 . 1–5 . 5 in ( 13–14 cm ) ; male 0 . 7–1 . 0 oz ( 21–28 g ) ; female 0 . 6–0 . 9 oz ( 17–26 g ) . small lark with dull , cryptic plumage , no streaks on chest . bill short and finchlike . sexes alike .
most lark species occur in africa , and many have a discontinuous area of distribution and a limited range . such distribution patterns , in combination with a highly sedentary lifestyle that prevents gene flow between separated populations , are important preconditions for speciation . for example , southwestern africa is inhabited by six sedentary and closely related certhilauda species ; the short - clawed lark ( c . chuana ) is probably the sister taxon to a group consisting of five species which were thought to be conspecific until 1999 . they are allopatric species ; they do not interbreed as their ranges neither overlap , nor are they in contact .
ryan , p . g . , hood , i . , bloomer , p . and komen , j . 1995 . barlow’s lark - a near endemic to the sperrgebiet . pp . 54 - 55 in pallett , j . ( ed . ) the sperrgebiet : namibia’s least known wilderness . namdeb , windhoek .
the whole of the overberg region is good raptor country ; regularly seen species include secretarybird , martial eagle , lesser kestrel and black harrier . common and characteristic species of the agricultural lands are white stork , black crow , southern thick - billed and red - capped larks , capped wheatear , orange - throated longclaw , pied starling , pin - tailed whydah , yellow canary and , particularly in stubble fields , cloud cisticola ( p . 57 * ) .
ryan , p . g . 1996 . identifying problem species : the karoo lark complex ( karoo , red , dune and barlow’s larks ) . in : sinclair , j . c . and hockey , p . a . r . the larger illustrated guide to birds of southern africa . struik , cape town . pp . 423 - 424 .
in central europe , larks are regarded as harbingers of spring , and they were honored by the ancient greeks as mediators between heaven and earth , and by the celts as being beneficial for their harvest . their melodious and long song , especially that of the skylark , is celebrated in verse by poets , and shakespeare called the lark
the herald of the morn
in romeo and juliet . skylarks were successfully naturalized in australia in the 1850s , in new zealand and on the hawaiian islands in the mid 1860s , as well as on vancouver island , british columbia , in 1903 ( although declining seriously in the 1990s ) . skylarks were also released at other places in north america , but they were not able to build up stable populations and thus became extinct .
nel , d . c . , ryan , p . g . , nel , j . l . , klages , n . t . w . , wilson , r . p . , robertson , g . and tuck , g . n . 2002 . foraging interactions between wandering albatrosses diomedea exulans breeding on marion island and long - line fisheries in the southern indian ocean . ibis 144 : e141 - e154 .
guillaumet , alban ; pons , jean - marc ; godelle , bernard ; crochet , pierre - andre ( 2006 ) .
history of the crested lark in the mediterranean region as revealed by mtdna sequences and morphology
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 645–56 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 01 . 002 .
at the same time in the northern hemisphere , the bering land bridge , the continental shelf between siberia and alaska , was exposed . the horned lark spread from asia into north america along this land bridge . its recent breeding range in north america reaches from northern alaska to the gulf of mexico , and a separated population established itself on the andean slopes of bogotá , colombia .
sherley , r . b . , botha , p . , underhill , l . g . , ryan , p . g . , van zyl , d . , cockroft , a . c . , crawford , r . j . m . , dyer , b . m . and cook , t . r . in press . defining ecologically - relevant scales for spatial protection using long - term data on an endangered seabird and local prey availability . conservation biology
most larks swallow whole seeds , which are crushed in their stomach using grit . indigestible remains are ejected as small pellets . larks in the genera calandrella , eremopterix , and melanocorypha de - husk seeds in a finchlike manner , fixing the grain between the tongue and palatine and breaking it up . crested larks , wood larks , and skylarks remove husks from seeds by beating them against the ground . they use the same technique for removing the legs and wings of large insects . like the song thrush ( turdus philomelos ) , greater hoopoe larks crack the shells of snails using stones like an anvil . the same behavior was observed once in the crested lark in morocco , but never in central europe . the greater hoopoe lark also frequently drops snails onto stones until their shells break .
ryan , p . g . , shepherd , l . d . , masello , j . f . , tennyson , a . j . d . , cherel , y . , calderón , l . , dilley , b . j . , massaro , m . , moodley , y . , weimerskirch , h . , cuthbert , r . j . , miskelly , c . m . and quillfeldt , p . subm . the taxonomic status of pachyptila macgillivrayi and the newly - discovered medium - billed prion on gough island . ostrich
monogamous . only lark species building nests frequently on top of low shrubs , up to 24 in ( 60 cm ) above ground . also building cup - shaped nests on ground . two to four eggs incubated by female for about 14 days . both parents feed young , which leave nest after 12–13 days , before being able to fly . young remain for at least one month with parents .
figures for europe are less varied , with estimates putting the number of breeding pairs at between 3 , 600 , 000 and 7 , 600 , 000 , or between 7 , 200 , 000 and 15 , 200 , 000 individuals . in europe , trends since 1982 have shown an overall decline in the population of the species , resulting in the assumption that the crested lark is in decline globally .
6 . 7 in ( 17 cm ) ; male 1 . 3–1 . 8 oz ( 37–52 g ) ; female 1 . 3–1 . 7 oz ( 37–48 g ) ; not as large as skylark , more robust , with stronger bill and longer crest . uniformly dull - colored plumage , upper - parts and breast heavily streaked , sexes alike . very similar to thekla lark , its sibling species .
the colonization of australia by the australasian bushlark ( mirafra javanica ) and of north america by the horned lark happened in the pleistocene at the latest . during pleistocene glacial periods , sea level was much lower than today . sumatra , kalimantan , and java ( sunda shelf ) were therefore part of asiatic mainland , and new guinea was connected to north australia via the torres land bridge , forming the dispersal route of the australasian bushlark .
song is performed during aerial song - displays while males circle about their territories . some species rise almost vertically from ground or perch and ascend up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) or more before gliding or dropping with closed wings back to the ground . continual hovering and singing is characteristic for the skylark . several lark species frequently utter their songs from the ground and elevated perches such as stones , tops of bushes , or trees .
larks are of african origin , and that their first radiation took place on this continent . madagascar was colonized once by the african ancestor of the madagascar lark ( mirafra hova ) . today , several mirafra larks occur in asia . however , it is not possible to say how many species colonized asia independently , since it is unknown whether the group of asiatic mirafra species is monophyletic , i . e . , evolved from one common ancestor .
the crested lark reached central europe from southwestern and eastern europe later than the skylark and was widespread in the sixteenth century , but receded during the little ice age in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . however , it spread into central europe again from the middle of the nineteenth century onward , helped by global warming and man - made habitats such as roads and railway stations . crested larks even reached scandinavia in 1900 , but became extinct in the 1990s , possibly because of climatic change .
all lark nestlings have a characteristic brightly colored gape , with one black spot inside the tip of the upper and lower mandible . there are two black spots on the base of the tongue in ammomanes , some certhilauda , and mirafra ; and an additional third spot on the tip of the tongue in alauda , calandrella , some certhilauda , eremophila , galerida , and lullula . after hatching , larks are covered with scanty down on their foreheads , napes , backs , shoulders , wings , and thighs .
5 . 9 in ( 15 cm ) ; male 0 . 7–1 . 2 oz ( 21–35 g ) ; female 1 . 1–1 . 2 oz ( 30–35 g ) ; smaller and more slender than skylark and crested lark . plumage buff brown , upperparts and chest streaked , distinguished from other larks by broad , white supercilium which continues to nape . black - and - white pattern of alula ( first digit of wing ) feathers very conspicuous . crown feathers can be raised to a small crest .
larks ( alaudidae ) are distinguished from other songbirds by several characters . the back of the tarsus is rounded and covered with individual horny scutes on its rear side ; unlike in all other oscines , where the back side of the tarsus is generally covered with one single and sharply edged scute . the lark ' s syrinx has no pessulus , or small cartilaginous knob at the point of fusion of the bronchiae . the pessulus is present in all other passeriform birds , with the exception of funarioidea and a few tyrannid species .
6 . 7 in ( 17 cm ) ; male 1 . 8–1 . 9 oz ( 52–55 g ) ; female 1 . 6 oz ( 45 g ) . strong lark with large head . short but massive bill most conspicuous . blunt , toothlike projection on middle of lower mandible fits into notch on upper mandible . upperparts uniformly pink / gray - brown , chest to vent with large black spots , sides of head blackish , throat and eye - ring white ; plumage of females of less contrasting color and not so heavily streaked .
relationships within the passeri remain uncertain . larks are predominantly ground - dwelling birds ; they evolved , however , from more arboreal ancestors . the recapitulation of arboreal habits can be observed during the development of juvenile larks . when leaving the nest before they can fly , they first hop on the ground like thrushes , but are able to walk within a few days just like their parents . strong indications for their long adaptation to terrestrial habits are their courtship display and nest building on the ground , egg - rolling behavior , and distraction - display . when alarmed , larks first squat onto the ground , trusting their cryptic plumage to hide them instead of flying away .
crowe , t . m . , ryan , p . g . , essop , m . f . , brooke , r . k . , hockey , p . a . r . and siegfried , w . r . 1994 . species as the ' currency ' of conservation : the karoo / dune / red lark complex of south - western africa . pp 229 - 234 in forey , p . l . , humphries , c . j . and vane - wright , r . i . ( eds ) systematics and conservation evaluation . clarendon press , oxford .
as far as one knows , courtship behavior is displayed on the ground . the male hops and steps around the female in upright posture spreading and cocking its tail - feathers . the undertail - coverts are presented to the female ( they are entirely black in the black and the black - crowned sparrow - lark ) . the wings are drooped and also spread to some degree quivering slightly . the crown feathers are raised even in species without elongated crest feathers . during display , the male utters song fragments . occasionally , the male presents food items to its mate immediately before copulation ( courtshipfeeding ) .
the wetland systems and inland lakes of the nuwejaars wetland special management area and agulhas national park are connected by the nuwejaars river and act as a reservoir , absorbing excess water flow . although the voëlvlei system usually drains into the nuwejaars river , during periods of flooding the opposite occurs and the river ' s waters fill voëlvlei . then , as the flooding subsides , the flow reverts to its normal direction . the nuwejaars river empties into zoetendalsvlei and when this system is full it overflows into the heuningnes river , which in turn feeds the heuningnes estuary . the entire catchment area is relatively small at 1 401 km 2 . the estuary drains the flat , low coastal plain of the zoetendals valley . the nuwejaars river marshes consist of a series of wetlands on the farms heuningrug and wiesdrif on the west bank of zoetendalsvlei . the primary wetland area is found between heuningrug and wiesdrif .
4 . 5–4 . 9 in ( 11 . 5–12 . 5 cm ) ; male 0 . 5–0 . 6 oz ( 14–16 g ) ; female 0 . 4 oz ( 12 g ) ; one of the smallest lark species . sparrow - larks , like finches or sparrows , have a proportionally large head and a strong conical bill . sexes are dimorphic with respect to plumage color . female mainly pale brown and streaked , male with white forehead , cheeks , sides of neck , and collar of nape . crown , stripe through eye to base of bill , and lower border of cheek black . underparts entirely black , upperparts grayish brown .
the heuningnes estuary comprises an extensive bay with sand , mudflats and tidal salt marsh . a causeway 1 . 3 km from the ocean obstructs tidal flow considerably in the upper reaches of the estuary and at 12 km upstream the tidal influence is marginal . a result of the obstruction is that only the final 2 - km stretch of the estuary shows typical estuarine features , such as strong tidal activity and clear water with a high salinity . a significant characteristic of the lower estuary , which formed after the mouth was kept open artificially , is a large inner delta . the flatness of the area causes the estuary channel to meander irregularly over the sandy plain between the two dune ridges . long periods of precipitation can cause extensive flooding , whereas at other times the river flow can be insufficient to keep the mouth open .
most of the catchment is on privately owned farmland . several impoundments in the form of irrigation dams and weirs have been constructed on the kars river . any further damming of the tributaries could have serious implications for the flow of fresh water into the heuningnes estuarine system . the causeway in the intertidal zone , 1 . 3 km upstream of the mouth , obstructs tidal exchange and has altered the character of the upper estuary , which now resembles a slack and turbid river . when the estuary was in its natural state , water would dam up behind the dune barrier , forming a 2 . 5 - km - long lagoon between the dune ridges . during floods , the barrier would be breached , opening up the mouth . the estuary mouth probably moved considerably , shifting by up to 2 km along the beach . whenever the mouth closed , extensive flooding occurred in the agricultural hinterland , destroying crops and causing the widespread loss of topsoil .
larks range in size from the size of a finch to that of a thrush , i . e . , 3 . 9–9 . 0 in ( 10–23 cm ) and weight 0 . 4–2 . 6 oz ( 12–73 g ) . in some species males are larger and heavier than females . the plumage is usually inconspicuous , the upper - parts being heavily streaked or unmarked , with a general brownish to grayish color . the plumage is often adapted to the color of local soil so that many larks are remarkably camouflaged . nonmigrating species with large breeding ranges extending over many habitats with different soil types tend to contain several subspecies that differ in color . the underparts are usually light and without any pattern . several species have crown feathers which they can raise to a crest ; most conspicuous is the crested lark ( galerida cristata ) and its congenerics . in most species both sexes look very similar . even both sexes
for years considered conspecific with c . semitorquata and c . subcoronata before this complex was broken into five species # r , including race brevirostris of present species ; however , brevirostris is at s end of a cline of diminishing bill size ( statement in hbw accidentally reversed ) , and diagnostic characters minor , with song reportedly the same # r # r . range of race curvirostris overlaps narrowly with c . subcoronata in n ( on e edge of namaqualand coastal plain n of port nolloth ) , and that of race brevirostris may overlap with c . subcoronata in breede valley . three subspecies recognized .
reichenow , 1916 – coastal plain from extreme sw namibia s to w south africa ( s to r olifants ) .
in s ( nominate race ) , male song , in display - flight or from low perch or ground , “whi - peeeooo . . .
short coastal scrub ( strandveld ) and dune vegetation , usually where open areas of sandy soil . . .
diet poorly known ; mostly insects , e . g . beetles ( coleoptera ) and caterpillars , also a few seeds . forages by walking on ground , searching at . . .
breeds aug–oct . usually in pairs throughout year . male sings in all months , at peak intensity in late winter - spring in association . . .
not globally threatened . locally common . occurs always at relatively low densities , c . 1 pair / 10 ha . although much of its coastal habitat in n of range has been disturbed by . . .
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recent molecular phylogeny of this family # r —the most comprehensive attempted to date—has recommended novel arrangements for several species and genera , including the resurrection of a number of abandoned genus - group names .
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
all members of genus with exception of c . chuana formerly treated as a single species , but recent research indicates that they are genetically , morphologically and vocally distinct . present species and c . curvirostris appear to be sister - species ( ranges apparently separated by cape fold mountains , but boundary in gouda - tulbagh area not well known ) , and genetic data suggest that they are closely related to c . semitorquata . possibly overlaps in range with c . subcoronata in breede valley . monotypic .
18–21 cm ; 35–48 g . has pale supercilium and eyering ; buffish - brown with darker streaks above ; pale buffish - white below , dark streaks from breast down to flanks ; . . .
male song 2 notes of roughly even duration , “tsuuee peeooo” , initial note softer and . . .
occurs in fallow fields and recently ploughed fields ; appears to avoid areas that are farmed . . .
food mostly insects , some seeds . forages on the ground ; sometimes digs with bill , or uses feet to pull at vegetation .
eggs laid in sept–oct , young fledge in oct–nov . male aerial display close to ground , then rising and falling vertically 10 . . .
not globally threatened . currently considered near - threatened . fairly common but local . has very small range , covering maximum of only 15 , 000 km2 . much of its range has been . . .
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recording taken with iphone and no modification . cooperative bird was already sitting on fence post when we drove up and continued to sing even with our presence .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
it mainly eats insects supplemented with seeds , digging with its bill to expose food items or pulling vegetation with its feet .
the nest is a cup of dry grass , lined with rootlets and fine leaves and typically placed on the ground beneath a shrub .
it lays 2 - 3 eggs , usually in the months from september - october .
hockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .
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as a dedicated conservationist , peter chadwick has 30 years strategic and operational conservation experience in terrestrial and marine protected area management . he has worked within all of the major biomes in southern africa as well as having provided expert conservation advice at a global level . his conservation and wildlife photography is a natural extension to his conservation work where he has numerous opportunities to capture photographs that showcase the beauty and complexity of the outdoors . peter’s photography is internationally recognized , with this work appearing globally in a wide range of print and electronic media .
a great collection here peter - great to also see . . .
at this moment , only dreams , but it is on my . . .
good stuff peter ; i wish you all the best in . . .
fantastic photo ' s which bring home the terrible reality that we . . .
south africa has a network of 21 marine protected areas ( mpas ) around our coastline . collectively they protect a wide range of marine habitat types and biodiversity . . . .


lampropeltis getula holbrooki , commonly known as the speckled kingsnake or black pepper snake , is a nonvenomous subspecies of kingsnake , which is endemic to the united states .

lampropeltis getula holbrooki

lampropeltis getula holbrooki stejneger 1902 lampropeltis getulus holbrooki — allen 1932 lampropeltis getulus holbrooki — burt 1935 lampropeltis getula holbrooki — crother 2000 : 64 lampropeltis getula holbrooki — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 421 lampropeltis holbrooki — pyron & burbrink 2009 lampropeltis holbrooki — crother et al . 2012 lampropeltis getula holbrooki — laita 2013 lampropeltis holbrooki — wallach et al . 2014 : 358
the speckled kingsnake , lampropeltis getula holbrooki , is the only subspecies found in iowa .
coluber getulus linnaeus 1766 : 382 herpetodryas getulus — schlegel ophibolus getulus — baird & girard 1853 : 85 coronella getulus — duméril , bibron & duméril 1854 : 616 coronella getulus var . pseudogetulus – jan 1865 ophibolus getulus — cope 1875 : 11 ophibolus getulus — garman 1884 : 68 ophilobus [ sic ] getulus — cope 1892 : 335 triaeniopholis arenarius werner 1924 triaenopholis [ sic ] arenarius werner 1924 ( fide smith 1928 ) lampropeltis getula sticticeps barbour & engels 1942 lampropeltis getulus goini neill & allen 1949 : 101 lampropeltis getulus brooksi barbour 1919 lampropeltis getula floridana blanchard 1919 lampropeltis getulus sticticeps — lazell & musick 1981 lampropeltis getula — stebbins 1985 : 191 lampropeltis getula — conant & collins 1991 : 205 lampropeltis getula — liner 1994 lampropeltis getula getula — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 413 lampropeltis getula floridana — crother 2000 : 64 lampropeltis getula floridana — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 416 lampropeltis getula floridana — hallmen 2005 lampropeltis getula meansi krysko & judd 2006 lampropeltis getula meansi — skubowius 2009 lampropeltis getula — pyron & burbrink 2009 lampropeltis getula goini — renner in berg 2013 lampropeltis getula floridana — laita 2013 lampropeltis getula — wallach et al . 2014 : 357
leclere , jeffrey b . 1995 . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 26 ( 2 ) : 110 - get paper here
steen , d . , l . smith . 2009 . eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) home ranges exhibit limited overlap .
zweifel , r . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula .
cohen , henry . 2014 . lampropeltis holbrooki ( speckled kingsnake ) longevity . herpetological review 45 ( 1 ) : 61
mcallister , chris t . and henry w . robison . 2010 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 41 ( 3 ) : 380 - get paper here
phillips , christopher a . ; petzing , john e . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here
renner , d . 2013 . die gesprenkelte kettennatter , lampropeltis getula holbrooki – eine unterschätzte schönheit . reptilia ( münster ) 18 ( 103 ) : 60 - 64 - get paper here
williams , avery a . 2016 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis holbrooki ( speckled kingsnake ) . herpetological review 47 ( 2 ) : 262
wund , m . , m . torocco , r . zappalorti , h . reinert . 2007 . activity ranges and habitat use of lampropeltis getula getula ( eastern kingsnakes ) .
mcallister , c . t . 2016 . lampropeltis holbrooki ( specked kingsnake ) diet / ophiophagy . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 479 - 480 .
brisbin , i . 1968 . evidence for the use of post anal musk as an alarm device in the kingsnake lampropeltis getula .
krysko , k . 2002 . seasonal activity of the florida kingsnake lampropeltis getula floridana ( serpentes : colubridae ) in southern florida .
van peenan , p . , t . birdwell . 1968 . coccidian parasites of the california nanded kingsnake , lampropeltis getula californiae .
hubbs , brian 2009 . common kingsnakes , a natural history of lampropeltis getula . tricolor books , tempe az , 436 pp .
the seven subspecies of lampropeltis getula cover the majority of the southern half of the u . s . , found from california to florida
groves , john d . 2014 . lampropeltis getula ( common kingsnake ) diet . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 516 - 517
schmidt , d . 2004 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getula . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 64 pp . - get paper here
that ' s exactly what i did :
shawnee
kingsnake , lampropeltis getula holbrooki x nigra . does it matter if i list holbrooki or nigra first ? just asking technically / scientifically , does one subsp . hold rank over the other ( perhaps list the one named first ) ? ? again , just curious not for the project but just to know .
williams , p . , l . brisbin . 1978 . responses of captive - reared eastern kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getula ) to several prey odor stimuli .
wund , m . , m . torocco , r . zappalorti , h . reinert . 2007 . activity ranges and habitat use of lampropeltis getula getula ( eastern kingsnakes ) . northeastern naturalist , 14 / 3 : 343 - 360 .
blanchard , frank n . 1932 . a clutch of eggs of the speckled king snake , lampropeltis getulus holbrooki ( stejneger ) . copeia 1932 ( 2 ) : 98 - get paper here
manning , glenn j . , thomas j . belford , brad birchfield , jeremy r . sloan and james u . van dyke . 2015 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula splendida x holbrooki ( desert / speckled kingsnake intergrade ) . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 574
clark , r . 2013 . cannibalism in the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) . sonoran herpetologist 26 ( 3 ) : 55 . - get paper here
based on mitochondrial dna evidence , ecological niche modeling , morphology , and historical precedence , pyron and burbrink ( 2009 ) determined that the traditionally recognized lampropeltis getula comprises five distinct species : l . getula , l . nigra , l . holbrooki , l . splendida , and l . californiae . crother et al . ( in crother 2012 ) accepted this taxonomic change .
burkett , doug ; painter , charles w . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula splendida . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here
klueh - mundy , sarabeth and mirtl , jason 2016 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula nigra ( eastern black kingsnake ) herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 630
skubowius , b . 2009 . haltung und nachzucht der kettennattern , lampropeltis getula , floridas . draco 10 ( 37 ) : 56 - 62 - get paper here
konvalina , john d . , stanley e . trauth , christopher s . thigpen and samuel a . schratz . 2015 . lampropeltis holbrooki ( spreckled kingsnake ) diet . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 645
lampropeltis getula , when adults , measure between 46 - 91 . 5 cm ( 18 - 36 in ) , though l . g . holbrooki is known to grow longer than l . g . splendida ( 183 cm ( 6 ft ) vs . 154 . 5 cm ( 5 ft ) ) .
thanks guys . nobody
grading
me and it really doesn ' t matter . i guess i like just like to be accurate and was also curios for myself . lampropeltis getula holbrooki x nigra it is . p . s . is there a rule in naming intergrades which subspecies is named first ?
to cite this page : bartz , s . 2012 .
lampropeltis getula
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
van peenan , p . , t . birdwell . 1968 . coccidian parasites of the california nanded kingsnake , lampropeltis getula californiae . parasitology , 58 : 349 - 354 .
collins , joseph t . ; sapienza , david c . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here
young , cameron a . ; iverson , john b . 1997 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 28 ( 1 ) : 52 - get paper here
boundy , jeff . 2011 . book review : common kingsnakes - a natural history of lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 453 - 455 - get paper here
zweifel , richard g . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . journal of herpetology 31 ( 3 ) : 459 - 461 - get paper here
brisbin , i . 1968 . evidence for the use of post anal musk as an alarm device in the kingsnake lampropeltis getula . herpetologica , 24 / 1 : 169 - 170 .
slevin , joseph r . 1950 . a remarkable concentration of desert snakes [ lampropeltis getula yumensis californiae nigrita ] . herpetologica 6 ( 1 ) : 12 - 13 - get paper here
krysko , k . l . 2002 . seasonal activity of the florida kingsnake lampropeltis getula floridana ( serpentes : colubridae ) in southern florida . american midland naturalist 148 : 102 - 114 .
thums , m . 2004 . die schwarze mexiko - kettennatter ( lampropeltis getula nigrita ) im terrarium . reptilia ( münster ) 9 ( 49 ) : 72 - 75 - get paper here
i agree , and that snake looks like an obvious intergrade between nigra and holbrooki . further south holbrooki range farther and farther east of the river . the new taxonomy has little to do with these phenotypes though . all the speckled kings in mississippi would be considered nigra . no one likes it .
common name : speckled kingsnake generic name : lampropeltis getulua holbrooki ( stejneger , 1902 ) adult length : 36 - 48 inches complete range : southwestern illinois to southern iowa , south to e . texas , and east to southwestern alabama .
michaeli , a . s . , newman , j . c . & barrett , k . 2018 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula ( eastern kingsnake ) . herpetological review 49 : 77 .
smith , philip w . 1956 . a blotch - count gradient in snakes [ lampropeltis triangulum syspila calligaster getula getulus niger ] . herpetologica 12 ( 2 ) : 156 - 160 - get paper here
pyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . lineage diversification in a widespread species : roles for niche divergence and conservatism in the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . molecular ecology 18 : 3443–3457
davenport , stephen r . ; stuart , james n . ; sias , don s . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula californiae . herpetological review 29 ( 1 ) : 53 - get paper here
lazell , j . d . & musick , j . a . 1981 . status of the outer banks kingsnake , lampropeltis getula sticticeps . herpetological review 12 ( 1 ) : 7 - get paper here
i would use the old taxonomy . nobody likes the new taxonomy . i believe that the new taxonomy would recognize that as being just a lampropeltis nigra . no intergrades . if i remember right they only recognize holbrooki as being west of the mississippi .
knepton , j . 1951 . reproduction by a king snake lampropeltis getulus getulus , linneaus .
lampropeltis g . splendida is found in the grasslands and wetter portions of the desert . roads through areas of agriculture often produce l . g . splendida when driven at night during the summer months . lampropeltis g . holbrooki is found in wetter habitats , typically seeking shelter under logs and in debris piles found in places such as swamps and stream valleys .
winne , c . , j . wilson , b . todd , k . andrews , j . gibbons . 2007 . enigmatic decline of a protected population of eastern kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula , in south carolina .
pyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . systematics of the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ; serpentes : colubridae ) and the burden of heritage in taxonomy . zootaxa 2241 : 22 - 32 - get paper here
pyron , r . a , and f . t . burbrink . 2009 . systematics of the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ; serpentes : colubridae ) and the burden of heritage in taxonomy . zootaxa 2241 : 22 - 32 .
martin , daniel j . , cameron l . aldridge , celina bycenski , beth a . wittmann , devin l . jacobs , jake r . milford and larissa l . bailey . 2015 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis holbrooki ( speckled kingsnake ) . herpetological review 46 ( 1 ) : 62
godley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2016 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden project simus , fl - get paper here
in recent years , it ' s been going back and forth between being its own species of kingsnake [ lampropeltis elapsoides ] or a type of milk snake [ lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides ] ,
said savitzky .
nemuras , k . 1966 . additional records of lampropeltis getulus getulus and lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata in anne arundel county , maryland . bull . maryland herp . soc . 2 ( 3 ) : 5 - get paper here
krysko , k . l . ; judd , w . s . 2006 . morphological systematics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in the eastern united states . zootaxa 1193 : 1 - 39 . - get paper here
boback , scott ; link , shelly ; bergman , enoch ; hill , ben ; montgomery , chad ; hobert , justin ; mackessey , stephen p . 1996 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 213 - get paper here
winne , c . , j . wilson , b . todd , k . andrews , j . gibbons . 2007 . enigmatic decline of a protected population of eastern kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula , in south carolina . copeia , 2007 / 3 : 507 - 519 .
we left the eastern kingsnake phenotype behind as we traveled further southward on the florida peninsula . near lake okeechobee we found ourselves amidst hordes of the brown and cream kingsnakes then known as florida kingsnakes . today they are recognized as the florida peninsula intergrade kingsnake ( lampropeltis g . getula x lampropeltis g . floridana ) and are thought of by most as snakes of the sod fields and sugarcane .
bergman , enoch ; montgomery , chad ; childers , theresa ; manzer , jerry d . ; sifert , james ; hill , ben ; mackessy , stephen p . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here
godley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2017 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden herpetological monographs 31 ( 1 ) : 47 - 68 . - get paper here
lara - gongora , guillermo ; beaman , kent r . ; grismer , l . lee ; lawler , howard e . 1993 . lampropeltis getula californiae ( california kingsnake ) . méxico : sonora . herpetological review 24 ( 2 ) : 67 - 68 - get paper here
price , a . , j . lapointe . 1981 . structure - functional aspects of the scent gland in lampropeltis getulus splendida .
winne , c . t . , j . d . willson , b . d . todd , k . m . andrews , and j . w . gibbons . in press . enigmatic decline of a protected population of eastern kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula . copiea 2007 ( 3 ) : 507 - 519 .
blaney , richard m . 1973 . lampropeltis . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 150 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here
krysko , kenneth l . ; leroy p . nuñez , catherine e . newman , brian w . bowen 2017 . phylogenetics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in eastern north america . j hered . : esw086 . doi : 10 . 1093 / jhered / esw086 - get paper here
blom , m . 2003 . algemene verzorging en kweek van lampropeltis en elaphe soorten . lacerta 61 ( 1 ) : 32 - 39 - get paper here
seufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus . herpetofauna 2 ( 6 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here
thissen , r . & hansen , h . 2001 . königsnattern - lampropeltis . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 172 pp . - get paper here
the many ( 7 ) different subspecies , however , are discerned by the kind and amount of yellow coloring appearing on the black background and varying amount of yellow pattern . there are only two subspecies found in texas , l . g . holbrooki and l . g . splendida .
seufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus teil 2 . herpetofauna 2 ( 7 ) : 31 - 32 - get paper here
meierkord , r . 2010 . haltung und zucht der kalifornischen kettennatter , lampropeltis californiae . reptilia ( münster ) 15 ( 82 ) : 52 - 55 - get paper here
blaney , r . m . 1977 . systemtics of the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus ( linnaeus ) . tulane studies in zoology and botany . 19 : 47 - 103 .
price , a . , j . lapointe . 1981 . structure - functional aspects of the scent gland in lampropeltis getulus splendida . copeia , 1981 / 1 : 138 - 144 .
allen , e . rross ; neill , wilfred t . 1954 . juveniles of brooks ' kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus brooksi . copeia 1954 ( 1 ) : 59 - get paper here
hoser , r . t . 2012 . a three - way division of the new world genus lampropeltis fitzinger , 1843 . australasian j . herpetol . 12 : 54–57 . - get paper here
neill , wilfred t . ; allen , e . ross 1949 . a new kingsnake ( genus lampropeltis ) from florida . herpetologica 5 ( 5 ) : 101 - 106 - get paper here
blanchard , frank n . 1919 . two new snakes of the genus lampropeltis . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 70 ) : 1 - 11 - get paper here
conant , roger 1934 . observations on the eggs and young of the black king snake , lampropeltis getulus nigra ( yarrow ) . copeia 1934 ( 4 ) : 188 - 189 - get paper here
blaney , richard m . 1977 . systematics of the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus ( linnaeus ) . tulane studies in zoology and botany 19 ( 3 - 4 ) : 47 - 103 - get paper here
blanchard , frank n . 1920 . a synopsis of the king snakes : genus lampropeltis fitzinger . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 87 ) : 1 - 7 - get paper here
dessauer , herbert c . & pough , f . h . 1975 . geographic variation of blood proteins and the systematics of kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getulus ) . comp . biochem . physiol . 50b : 9 - 12
continent : middle - america north - america distribution : usa ( new jersey , delaware , maryland , virginia , north carolina , south carolina , georgia , florida , alabama , arizona ) getula : s new jersey to n florida , west to the appalachians and s alabama . type locality : ‘carolina’ ( linnaeus 1766 ) , restricted to charleston , sc by klauber ( 1948 ) . floridana : s florida . intergrades with getula over much of florida . meansi : florida ( eastern and sw apalachicola lowlands between the apalachicola and ochlockonee rivers and south of telogia creek , franklin and liberty counties .
lazell , james d . , jr & musick , j . a . 1973 . the kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus sticticeps , and the ecology of the outer banks of north carolina . copeia 1973 ( 3 ) : 497 - 503 - get paper here
zweifel , r . g . and norris , k . s . 1955 . contributions to the herpetology of sonora , mexico : descriptions of new subspecies of snakes ( micruroides euryxanthus and lampropeltis getulus ) and miscellaneous collecting notes . american midland naturalist 54 : 230 - 249 - get paper here
austin , james d . ; gregory , patrick t . 1999 . relative roles of thermal and chemical cues in the investigative behavior of prey in colubrid ( elaphe guttata and lampropeltis getulus ) and boid ( python regius ) snakes . herpetological natural history 6 ( 1 ) : 47 - 50 [ 1998 ]
lampropeltis splendida is found throughout the majority of the state . the zone of intergradation between the two subspecies , in texas , is from the panhandle , along the red river valley , south through the cross timbers and blackland prairies to the gulf coast marshes , and exclusive of the piney woods found to the east .
oviparous . kreutz ( 2005 ) reports hybrids between elaphe ( = pantherophis ) guttata and lampropeltis getulus californiae , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . pyromelana , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . triangulum sinaloae / nelsoni , and between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . zonata !
usa ( new jersey , delaware , maryland , virginia , north carolina , south carolina , georgia , florida , alabama , arizona , oklahoma ) subspecies not recognized any more ( see comment ) : floridana : s florida . intergrades with getula over much of florida . getula : s new jersey to n florida , west to the appalachians , west virginia and s alabama . type locality : ‘carolina’ ( linnaeus 1766 ) , restricted to charleston , sc by klauber ( 1948 ) . goini : florida panhandle ; type locality : “chipola river valley at wewahitchka , gulf county , florida” ; meansi : florida ( eastern and sw apalachicola lowlands between the apalachicola and ochlockonee rivers and south of telogia creek , franklin and liberty counties . type locality : apalachicola national forest on fh - 13 ca . 3 . 2 km w sr 67 , liberty county , florida , united states .
kingsnakes are members of the family colubridae and the subfamily colubrinae . colubrid snakes are a large family of nonvenomous snakes found around the world , including north america . kingsnakes are members of the genus lampropeltis . in greek , this means
shiny shields ,
according to urltoken . the name is appropriate for the genus , which is known for its well - defined , glossy scales .
lavender albino ( st . bernard parish ) photo : kj lodrigue , jr .
the speckled kingsnake is often called the
salt - and - pepper
snake . this snake is easily recognized by the light spots covering a black body . the body is almost always solid black and the spots range from yellow - orange through creamy yellow to ivory white . there are spots on almost every scale . it is not uncommon for the spots to form thin , light crossbars on the dorsal surface , making the snake look somewhat banded .
the semi - banded specimens are the most common pattern form throughout the range of speckled kingsnakes . areas around lake charles , la , and alexandria , la , tend to produce specimens with the least amount of banding . animals with little or no banding pattern are often refered to as
multipspeckled .
although most wild caught speckled kingsnakes will calm down in captivity , this subspecies has a reputation for being more aggressive than others . from personal experience , about 40 % of our wild caught individuals will try to bite and emit a foul smelling musk that you won ' t soon forget . the other 60 % range in attitude from extremely docile to justwiggly when held . with frequent handling , though , most will calm down and make as fine a
pet
as any other kingsnake . however , captive bred pets are strongly recommended over wild collected ones .
there are a few varieties of this snake available from breeders . the albino has been on the market for some time now . it is a very attractive solid white snake with yellow spots .
lavender albinos
are also available . as an adult , they are a light purplish - black with light spots and red eyes . this variety originated from a wild caught snake from south louisiana . rumors are out there that a white - sided and striped speckled kingsnakes are out there with select breeders now .
usa ( s iowa , missouri , arkansas , louisiana , mississippi , oklahoma ; isolated record in nw kentucky . intergrades with splendida from nebraska to texas ) type locality : ‘valley of the mississippi’ ( holbrook 1842 ) , restricted to hot springs , arkansas ( schmidt 1953 ) .
specific epithet is a patronym honoring john edwards holbrook , a prominent american herpetologist of the 19th century , known as the ‘father of north american herpetology’ .
allen , morrow j . 1932 . a survey of the amphibians and reptiles of harrison county , mississippi . american museum novitates ( 542 ) : 1 - 20 - get paper here
burt , charles e . 1935 . further records of the ecology and distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the middle west . american midland naturalist 16 ( 3 ) : 311 - 336 - get paper here
crother , b . i . 2000 . scientific and standard english names of amphibians and reptiles of north america north of mexico , with comments regarding confidence in our understanding . herpetological circular 29 : 1 - 82
crother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92
dixon , james r . 2000 . amphibians and reptiles of texas , second edition . texas a & m university press , 421 pp .
stejneger , l . 1902 . the reptiles of the huachuca mountains , arizona . proc . us natl . mus . 25 [ 1902 ] : 149 - 158 - get paper here
tennant , a . & bartlett , r . d . 2000 . snakes of north america - eastern and central regions . gulf publishing , houston , tx , 588 pp .
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
werler , john e . & james r . dixon 2000 . texas snakes . university of texas press , 544 pages
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
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urltoken
mealworms , crickets , dubia , more . . . available now at new york worms !
speckled kingsnakes are a dark brown or black coloration over most of the body . yellow dots are spaced , normally one per scale , along the top of the snake . juveniles tend to be a dark olive - green color . this fades to a purer black as the snake ages . albinos and hypomelanistics have been wild - caught as of now . albinos lack the black pigmentation but retain the yellow speckling . hypomelanistics retain the yellow speckling , but are an overall chocolate brown color . .
two spots in the center of the head and 2 to 4 yellow lines on the edges of the dorsal surface of the head are normally present .
the dorsal pattern consists of yellow spots on the dark background . in many areas , the dorsal spots become expanded laterally to form 39 to 94 irregular bands . this is the basic pattern of all juvenile speckled kingsnakes . speckled kingsnakes from eastern mississippi and western alabama tend to have a more regular pattern with symmetrical spots . speckled kingsnakes from southeastern louisiana and southwestern texas tend to lack all banding pattern as adults . the pattern of random speckles ( one per scale ) on these animals have been called multispeckled animals .
the underside is normally lite yellow with alternating dark blotches . some specimens , especially those from southwest louisiana and southeast texas , may have a reddish - yellow ventral coloration with alternating dark blotches .
speckled kingsnakes are found throughout louisiana , mississippi , arkansas , and missouri . they intergrade with desert kingsnakes in texas , western oklahoma , and southwestern kansas . in southern alabama the intergrade with eastern kingsnake . intergrades with the black kingsnake occurs in northern alabama , western tennessee , western kentucky , southern illinois .
this subspecies of kingsnakes utilize a wider variety of habitat types than most of the related subspecies . speckled kingsnakes can be found in freshwater and brackish swamps , bottomland hardwood forests , prairie streams , and upland forests . however , these snakes are probably most abundant in wetter habitats .
speckled kingsnakes are usually sited sunning themselve on stream - sidesor crossing roads during the warmer monthes . a common place to find them is near camps , old houses , and barns . many are encountered while cleaning up woodpiles , stacks of firewood , or sheets of tin .
prey : captive specimens do extremely well on a diet composed entirely of captive produced domestic mice . starting hatchling speckled kingsnakes on pinky mice may be problematic , though . scenting techniques have proven to be effective . wild juvenile speckled kingsnakes feed mainly on young snakes , particularly various garter snakes . small mammals , frogs , skinks , anoles , and geckos will also be consumed .
adults feed mainly on mice and rats ; snakes ( both venomous and nonvenomous ) will be consumed . since kingsnakes are partially immune to the venom of native snakes , rattlesnakes , cottonmouths , and coral snakes make up a portion of the diet . watersnakes make up a substaintial part of their diet . other speckled kingsnakes also are consumed . birds and their eggs are also readily consumed . an occasional fish may be eaten .
wild - caught specimens range from completely docile to aggressive monsters . most start off calm , but almost all will calm down in captivity . captive produced animals normally are calm throughout their life . since these tend to be aggressive feeders , care should be taken at feeding time . do not handle the animal at feeding time or maintain 2 together at any time . as with most of the snakes in this subfamily , speckled kingsnakes will rattle their tail when aggitated . these snakes will readily musk and defecate when first caught or frightened as a defense mechanism .
breeding is accomplished by following the normal recipe for north american colubrids . the snakes should be cooled down to 50 to 65f for 8 to 12 weeks . the snakes should not be fed for 14 days prior to this cooldown period . this is to allow all of the food to pass through the snakes gut . the temperature should then be lowered over 10 days . light should also be reduced during this period . after the cooldown period , the reverse process should be done . once feeding recommences , the snakes should shed within a month . placing the female with the male should result in breeding activity . 7 to 17 eggs should be laid 5 to 7 weeks later . it should take about 60 days for them to hatch at 83f . the young will be 7 to 9 inches .
conant , r . and j . collins . 1991 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america . houghton mifflin co . , boston .
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this is a speckled kingsnake that i caught and took a little vid of . not the greatest vid , but just a bit about it .
kingsnakes are snakes i like to see in the wild , but for more than 20 years now , have had no interest in keeping in captivity . however , in the 60s and 70s , when my breeding facility was more than a full - time enterprise , we bred almost every taxon then available . as i divested myself of the responsibility of captive care ( i got tired of cleaning cages ) , the vast collection was divvied up between other breeders . i thought that my days of tree viper , rat snake and kingsnake care was a permanent thing of the past .
i startled myself about a year ago when i woke up one morning and intoned , “i think i’d like to get a classic pair of apalachicola lowland kingsnakes . ” i was very careful that my wife patti didn’t hear the intonation , for she , even more than i , is long past the cage - cleaning stage of her life .
once i started to think about it , the thought became a quest , and within days the quest had taken on a life of its own . i found that it would be necessary to better define the search by posing and answering some questions ( i . e . , what did the term “classic” signify ? was it a color ? a pattern ? was it physical appearance ? or was it something more ? ) .
as i pondered that , another problem surfaced . would i begin the quest by looking for the kings in the wild ( i knew after about 30 years of trying and failing that this would be a real knock - your - head - against - the - wall exercise in futility ) or would i look for captive - bred examples ?
i now wanted both morphs and instead of needing one or two snakes , i needed three or four . with that in mind i was able to stop wondering whether i should try to find these snakes in the field or try to find captive - bred examples simply by prorating the time factor . because i had found only one of these secretive snakes in 30 - plus years of looking , to find four would take me about 125 years .
i started looking for the snakes in the classified ads of reptiles and on the internet . maybe it was just the wrong time of the year , but that didn’t initially work well . there were plenty of apalachicola lowlands kingsnakes available ( even if they were being advertised as “blotched” and “goin’s” kingsnake ) , but the word classic entered again into the search . it seems that over the years , hobbyists had replaced classic with the term flame . today , breeders seem to be trying their hardest to genetically engineer an apalachicola lowland kingsnake that resembles a milk snake in color . this is definitely not classic in my mind .
then i happened to think of chris mcquade and sheila rodgers , who had gotten some of my from - the - wild breeding stock more than 20 years earlier . over the years they had kept the lineage alive , viable and had a couple of babies available . these were vaguely striped , but almost patternless . suited me . so i got the babies and relearned that i liked them better in these later years than when i had first worked with the morph . i then decided i actually did want a pair of the blotched ones so i went back to chris and sheila . i should have stopped right there .
strangely , eastern , speckled , black and intergrade kings with genes yet unsullied are readily available in herpetoculture . certainly there are albinos and other morphs , but many with normal genes have not yet been overlooked .
the florida king was once an easily found animal . gordy and i would begin encountering florida kingsnakes in andytown , florida , which was at the southeast junction of routes 84 and 27 . if you walked the road shoulder eastward from andytown , you could see 25 water snakes of various kinds and a half dozen big , yellow and tan florida kings , and maybe an indigo too .
the scenario stayed that way for years . however , the everglades were eventually drained , roads appeared , habitat disappeared and to find the kingsnakes you had to go further and further south .
the last place i found these kings in numbers was along a series of canals south of florida city , and it is my understanding that much of that habitat has now been destroyed . the light yellow and olive - tan kingsnakes were never actually restricted to the extreme southern peninsula as many thought , but it was there , amidst the manchineel and buttonbush , that they were the most abundant .
i hunted for the apalachicola lowland kingsnake with my friend ed vetter . nada . i hunted it again and again with my friend ron sayers . zip . and my friend carl may and i plied the apalachicola national forest for years . zero . then , early one sunny afternoon in late april , as carl and i wandered through the forest , there in the tangled grasses near a bridge abutment laid an apalachicola lowland kingsnake . it was carl’s first ( he’s since found a second one ) , my first and only , and i never even got a picture good enough to commemorate the event .
usfws will render a decision on the narrow headed garter snake and the northern mexican garter snake in fiscal year 2014 .
opheodrys vernalis were hatched as part of breeding program in conjunction with lake county forest preserve district .
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common kingsnakes are one of the only kingsnake species found throughout most of north america . there are seven subspecies of
( eastern kingsnake ) is found on the east coast of north america from southern new jersey and southeast pennsylvania to the eastern parts of west virginia , southwest to mobile bay , alabama , and east through northern florida .
( florida kingsnake ) is found on the peninsula of florida south to dade county .
( speckled kingsnake ) is found in southwestern illinois , eastern iowa , and south central alabama .
( black kingsnake ) is found west of the appalachian mountains and east of the mississippi river ; this includes the region from west virginia to southern ohio , southeastern illinois , and northern alabama .
( outer banks kingsnake ) is found only in north carolina from cape hatteras to cape lookout .
( black desert kingsnake ) can be found in southern arizona and northwestern mexico . subspecies overlap and interbreed in several different regions across north america .
( bartlett and bartlett , 2005 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mattison , 1995 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
varies so greatly across subspecies , each will be described in turn . one measure they all share is the length of hatchlings : 20 to 28 cm at hatching . adult eastern kingsnakes (
) can reach a length of 61 to 153 cm . they are large , solid , glossy black snakes with yellow ( sometimes white ) crossbars extending the length of the snake . the head is solid black with several yellow or white spots decorating the head scales . speckled kingsnakes (
) can reach a length of 51 to 132 cm as adults . they are black with yellow “specks” on and throughout its scales . the underside is pale yellow to white with some of the black scales curling around the sides . california kingsnakes (
) can reach lengths of 91 to 106 cm . they have white crossbars intercepting black patches along the length of the back . the head is normally white with a black top and a few black scales on the side . adult florida kingsnakes (
) can be 106 to 138 cm long . the only major difference between florida kingsnakes and eastern kingsnakes has 60 crossbands , whereas eastern kingsnakes have only 30 . the underbelly is pale yellow with alternating patterns of black scales in a “zigzag” pattern . black kingsnakes (
) , reach 91 to 122 cm and are rarely totally black . they normally have traces of approximately 50 to 95 faint crossbars of yellow or white spots . outer banks kingsnakes (
) can reach 123 to 153 cm . they can be easily mistaken for other subspecies including eastern , speckled , and florida kingsnakes . they have yellow crossbars and yellow “specks” between the crossbars , as well as a mostly pale yellow underbellies with some black scales extending to the sides . black desert kingsnakes (
) can reach lengths of 106 to 132 cm . they are black and glossy with approximately 75 thin yellow crossbars . this subspecies also has yellow spots on the black scales that extend to the sides of the snake .
snake eggs have a large amount of yolk that contains the fats and the carbohydrates necessary for embryo development . towards the final stages of development , the fetal snake absorbs the yolk . additionally , some of the calcium for the egg’s shell is extracted by the embryo and is used to form its skeleton . after the skeleton is formed , the shell becomes thinner and more flexible . oxygen exchange decreases over time , which in turn urges the hatchling to break out of the egg , using the deciduous egg
tooth
on the nose .
after common kingsnakes hatch , they stay in the nest until they shed their skin for the first time . this normally takes about a week . the hatchlings then disperse . information about post - hatching is scarce . common kingsnakes reach sexual maturity at approximately half their potential maximum size from 60 to 92 cm . in captivity , they can reach sexual maturity much sooner because of an abundant food source and limited parasites and disease .
male common kingsnakes compete for females . if two males are in the same area they will both raise their heads , necks , and fore parts of their bodies and entwine them . males then try to press each other to the ground . the losing male will retreat and lay coiled in a prone position with his head flat to the ground . the victorious male will return to the female who waits nearby and copulate . males are able to find females through pheromone trails . when mating , males lie atop females and bite their necks . males then coil their tails under the females until their cloacas align . the male uses his hemipenis to enter the females’ cloacae . copulation can last for several minutes to several hours .
common kingsnakes mate in the spring , allowing females time to lay their eggs when the weather is still warm enough for proper incubation . their gestation period is about 60 days . in warmer climates ( e . g . florida ) , courtship can begin as early as march . in northern portions of the range , courtship is delayed until april or may .
a female may produce a single clutch from multiple mates . females may also produce more than one clutch per season as a result of more than one mating . the female chooses the nesting site , which can include rotting logs and stumps , as well as sawdust piles . common kingsnakes breed yearly and have been known to produce more than one clutch per season . the breeding season is between march and august . the average number of offspring is 10 eggs per clutch ( range 3 to 24 ) . average gestation period for female kingsnakes is 60 to 62 days ( range 50 to 80 days ) . hatchlings can weigh between 9 and 14 grams . females reach sexual maturity at 2 to 4 years . males reach sexual maturity at age 1 to 4 .
breeding interval yearly , common kingsnakes have been known to produce more than one clutch per season .
after copulation the male will leave the female and not return to help with parental care . after the female lays her eggs she will disperse and not return to the nest .
little information is available on the longevity of wild common kingsnakes . most available information is from captive snakes . ernst and barbour ( 1989 ) found that the oldest wild common kingsnake was 9 years old ( reported in 1937 ) . anage reported that the longest living kingsnake in captivity was 33 . 3 years old .
common kingsnakes are diurnal . their annual activity period is between late march or early april to october and early november . they hibernate during the winter in caves , rock crevices , mammal burrows , hollow logs , and in old stumps . during the cooler days of the spring and fall they can be found out during the day sunning themselves . common kingsnakes spend a majority of their day under leaf litter and other debris ( 79 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) and the rest of the time is spent traveling , basking , and hunting ( 21 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) . common kingsnakes are not restricted to the ground , they can climb trees and swim quite well . combat between males is common ( during mating season ) .
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; krysko , 2002 ; mattison , 1995 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
a recent study proposed that common kingsnakes have home ranges of 330 to 350 square meters and can take up to 103 days to cover distances across their small ranges .
adult common kingsnake diet varies across subspecies and is very broad , but published reports are available for a few representative subspecies . eastern kingsnakes and florida kingsnakes feed mainly on other snakes , including venomous snakes (
) . they also eat other non - venomous snakes , birds , vertebrate eggs , lizards , mice , and rats . california kingsnakes prey on mice , gopher snakes (
) . common kingsnakes have several defenses against potential predators . the most common is hissing , striking , “s” shaped striking pose , biting , and flight . they flee when threatened , rather than hold their ground . they are also able to spread a pungent musk that serves as an alarm substance to other common kingsnakes in the area . the banded and striped pattern of california kingsnakes , and other subspecies , disguises their movement and body outline when they are fleeing from a predator . their coloration may make them cryptic in leaf litter and against other backgrounds .
common kingsnakes are beneficial for the ecosystem . they help keep rodent and frog populations in balance as well as other snakes like rattlesnakes (
) . they are also prey for larger snakes and predatory birds and mammals . snider and bawler ( 1992 ) conducted a study to find if parasites were the cause of common kingsnake declines in florida . they found suggestions of parasite activity but no direct evidence . van peenan and birdwell ( 1968 ) found evidence of several species of parasites affecting common kingsnakes . these include apicomplexan species (
( snider and bawler , 1992 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; oldak , 1976 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; van peenan and birdwell , 1968 ; winne , et al . , 2007 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
) . they play an important role in controlling populations of venomous snakes , which can pose a threat to humans .
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; winne , et al . , 2007 )
common kingsnakes are listed as a “species of concern” on the u . s . federal list . this may be because florida kingsnakes ,
, are in decline . reasons for declines include anthropogenic causes through extensive pet trade , road fatalities , and habitat loss . invasive fire ants (
( mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
sarah bartz ( author ) , radford university , rachelle sterling ( editor ) , special projects , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
in deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .