lyclene hollowai is a moth of the family erebidae .

it was described by kirti and gill in 2009 and can be found in india ( gujarat ) .

the wingspan is about 22 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is pinkish red , the subbasal region irrorated with fuscous scales .

the hindwings are pinkish rufus .

lyclene hollowai

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lyclene hollowai ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene hollowai kirti & gill , 2009 ; acta zool . cracov . 52 b ( 1 - 2 ) : 112 ; tl : india , gurajat , saputara , 970m
lyclene cumseriata bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene labyrintha bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene lineidistincta bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene malayproducta bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene pectena bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene pingera bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene fruhstorferi aurivillius , 1894 ; ent . tidskr . 15 : 172 ; tl : java
lyclene undulata bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene valdenigra bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene venustula bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene biseriata ; [ mob7 ] : 344 , pl . 4 , f . 154 , 169
lyclene circumdata ; [ mob7 ] : 347 , pl . 4 , f . 163 , 168
lyclene cuneigera ; [ mob7 ] : 351 , pl . 4 , f . 181 , 184
lyclene peloa ; [ mob7 ] : 355 , pl . 4 , f . 204 , 207
lyclene xanthopera ; [ mob7 ] : 345 , pl . 4 , f . 156 , 170
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lyclene x - linea bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )
lyclene cuneifera ; [ mob7 ] : 352 , pl . 4 , f . 4a , 188 , 209
lyclene
synestramena ; [ mob7 ] : 357 , pl . 4 , f . 192 , 195
lyclene ( nudariina ) ; scott , zaspel , chialvo & weller , 2014 , syst . ent . 39 : 288
lyclene asaphes ; dubatolov & bucsek , 2014 , amurian zool . j . 6 ( 2 ) : 179 ( note )
lyclene cylletona ; dubatolov & bucsek , 2014 , amurian zool . j . 6 ( 2 ) : 180 ( note )
lyclene arcuata ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 40
lyclene congerens ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 40
lyclene conjunctana ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 40
lyclene dasara ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene goaensis ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene kishidai ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene lutara ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene metamelas ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene nebulosa ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene nubilalis ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene toxodes ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene uncalis ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene undulosa ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene atrigutta walker , 1862 ; j . proc . linn . soc . ( zool . ) 6 : 116 ; tl : sarawak
lyclene classeigera holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 351 , pl . 4 , f . 183 ; tl : sarawak , kuching , semongok
lyclene cuneifera walker , 1862 ; j . proc . linn . soc . ( zool . ) 6 : 113 ; tl : borneo , sarawak
lyclene distributa walker , 1862 ; j . proc . linn . soc . ( zool . ) 6 : 113 ; tl : borneo , sarawak
lyclene distributa ; [ mob18 ] , 45 ( note ) ; [ mob7 ] : 356 , pl . 4 , f . 202 , 215
lyclene angulinea holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 350 , pl . 4 , f . 206 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene apiseriata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 344 , pl . 4 , f . 153 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene peloa swinhoe , 1904 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 14 ( 84 ) : 420 ; tl : padang , sumatra
lyclene postseriata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 346 , pl . 4 , f . 158 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene radians moore , 1878 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 : 30 , pl . 3 , f . 2 ; tl : calcutta
lyclene unguifera holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 353 , pl . 4 , f . 193 ; tl : sabah , mt . kinabalu , 5500ft
lyclene obtusilinea holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 349 , pl . 4 , f . 174 , 179 ; tl : brunei , 1670m , bukit pagon
lyclene puncakica dubatolov & bucsek , 2014 ; amurian zool . j . 6 ( 2 ) : 180 ; tl : sulawesi selat , puncak , 27km w palopo
lyclene acutiseriata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 346 , pl . 4 , f . 161 , 166 ; tl : brunei , pengkalan batu agr . stn
lyclene angulifera holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 353 , pl . 4 , f . 187 , 210 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene excaviseriata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 345 , pl . 4 , f . 155 , 165 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene fusciramorum holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 355 , pl . 4 , f . 194 , 197 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene multiramorum holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 354 , pl . 4 , f . 191 , 196 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene pseudobunda holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 351 , pl . 4 , f . 171 , 182 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park
lyclene areolifera holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 352 , pl . 4 , f . 189 , 211 ; tl : n . borneo , mt . kina balu
lyclene goaensis kirti & gill , 2009 ; acta zool . cracov . 52 b ( 1 - 2 ) : 117 ; tl : india , goa , keri , 90m
lyclene kishidai kirti & gill , 2009 ; acta zool . cracov . 52 b ( 1 - 2 ) : 110 ; tl : india , kerala , chendruni , 70m
lyclene uncalis kirti & gill , 2009 ; acta zool . cracov . 52 b ( 1 - 2 ) : 111 ; tl : india , karnataka , medikeri , 1100m
lyclene obscurilinea holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 348 , pl . 4 , f . 173 , 176 ; tl : sabah , mt . kinabalu , mesilau , 1500m
lyclene poring holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 348 , pl . 4 , f . 160 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt . kinabalu
lyclene ashleigera holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 352 , pl . 4 , f . 180 , 185 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt . kinabalu
lyclene diehli dubatolov & bucsek , 2014 ; amurian zool . j . 6 ( 2 ) : 179 ; tl : nort sumatra , sindar raya , 98°57 ' e , 3°09 ' n
lyclene falciseriata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 346 , pl . 4 , f . 159 , 164 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt . kinabalu
lyclene kepica dubatolov & bucsek , 2013 ; tinea 22 ( 4 ) : 285 , f . 6 ; tl : cambodia , kep , 10 . 494°n , 104 . 296°e , 51m
lyclene mesilaulinea holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 349 , pl . 4 , f . 175 , 177 , 270 ; tl : sabah , mt . kinabalu , mesilau , 1500m
lyclene quadrata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 347 , pl . 4 , f . 162 , 167 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt . kinabalu
lyclene pudibunda ; [ mob7 ] : 350 , pl . 4 , f . 172 , 186 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene kosterini dubatolov & bucsek , 2013 ; tinea 22 ( 4 ) : 284 , f . 5 ; tl : cambodia , kampot , boko hill staion , 1030m , 10°37 ' 37
n 104°01 ' 33
e
lyclene kontumica dubatolov & bucsek , 2013 ; tinea 22 ( 4 ) : 285 , f . 7 - 8 ; tl : vietnam , ngoc linh , kon tum prov , 14°45 ' - 15°15 ' n ; 107°21 ' - 108°20 ' e
lyclene semifascia ; moore , 1882 , lepid . ceylon 2 ( 1 ) : 63 , pl . 103 , f . 7 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene zinchenkoi dubatolov & bucsek , 2013 ; tinea 22 ( 4 ) : 284 , f . 4 ; tl : thailand , phisanulok , 18km n nakhon , tail vil . , 426m , 17°15 , 7 ' n , ; 100°51 , 4 ' e
lyclene weidenhofferi cerný , 2012 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo 32 ( 3 / 4 ) : 121 ; tl : n . thailand , chiang mai , fang , doi ang khang , 1425m , 29°54 ' 10
n , 99°2 ' 28
e
lyclene humilis ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 32 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene linga ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 40 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene radians ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 37 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
lyclene spilosomoides ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 43 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene strigipennis ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 43 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43
lyclene dharma ; [ mob7 ] : 344 ( note ) ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 34 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 41
lyclene calamaria ; [ mob7 ] : 356 , pl . 4 , f . 203 , 214 ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 43 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 40
lyclene obsoleta ; [ mob7 ] : 355 , pl . 4 , f . 190 , 198 ; singh , singh , sharma & joshi , 2013 , proc . natl . acad . sci . india ( b ) 83 ( 1 ) : 34 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 42
asura acteola swinhoe , 1903 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 11 ( 65 ) : 501 ; tl : siam , muok - lek
asura intermedia marumo , 1923 ; j . coll . agric . imp . univ . tokyo , 8 ( 2 ) : 138 , pl . 3 , f . 2
india ( manipur , sikkim , tamil nadu , uttaranchal ) , ceylon , java , taiwan , japan . see [ maps ]
asura asaphes hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 451 , pl . 31 , f . 31 ; tl : borneo , sandakan
asura biseriata hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 458 , pl . 31 , f . 27 ; tl : borneo , sandakan
asura strigipennis ; barlow , 1982 , intr . moths of south east asia : 71
miltochrisa tibeta clara daniel , 1951 ; bonn . zool . beitr . 2 ( 3 - 4 ) : 312 ; tl : likiang
larva on artocarpus incisa moore , 1878 , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 : 30
india ( sikkim , assam , arunachal pradesh , nagaland ) , bhutan . see [ maps ]
= ; [ nhm card ] ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 854
asura creatina ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 454 ; [ nhm card ]
nw . himalays , sikkim , assam , nilgiris , sumatra , java . see [ maps ]
miltochrista gilva daniel , 1951 ; bonn . zool . beitr . 2 ( 3 - 4 ) : 316 , pl . 1 , f . 20 ; tl : n . yunnan , li - kiang
india ( punjab , sikkim , nagas , nilgiris , moulmein ) , burma , java . see [ maps ]
miltochrista ila ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 855 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 45
larva on solanum indicum hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 431
nudaria ? marginata walker , [ 1865 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 274 ; tl : s . india , coimbatore
setina nebulosa moore , 1878 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 : 35 ; tl : darjiling
miltochrista nubilalis hampson , 1894 ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 115 ; tl : ganjam
asura sp . 3 ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : ( part ) 3 , f . 13 , pl . 1 , f . 13
sikkim , assam , arunachal pradesh , himachal pradesh , calcutta . see [ maps ]
ceylon , burma , sikkim , assam , s . india . see [ maps ]
sikkim , assam , china ( chekiang , yunnan ) . see [ maps ]
china ( shanghai , chekiang ) , formosa , sikkim , assam , sumatra ? , java . see [ maps ]
= ; [ nhm card ] ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 855
asura synestramena hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 429 , pl . 30 , f . 2 ; tl : borneo , sandakan
miltochrista tibeta daniel , 1951 ; bonn . zool . beitr . 2 ( 3 - 4 ) : 311 , pl . 1 , f . 17 ; tl : tibet , batang
asura toxodes hampson , 1907 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 19 ( 111 ) : 233 ; tl : andamans
= ; [ nhm card ] ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 856
asura sp . 1 ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 3
tricholepis xanthopera hampson , 1907 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 19 ( 111 ) : 233 ; tl : singapore
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
on the lepidopterous fauna of andaman and nicobar group of islands ( india ) . family arctiidae
beiträge zur kenntnis der arctiidae ostasiens unter besonderer berücksichtigung der ausbeuten von dr . h . c . h . höne aus diesem gebiet . iii . teil : lithosiinae
beiträge zur kenntnis der arctiidae ostasiens unter besonderer berücksichtigung der ausbeuten von dr . h . c . h . höne aus diesem gebiet . iv . teil : nachträge
new lithosiinae ( lepidoptera , arctiidae : lithosiinae ) species collected by a . schintlmeister in indonesia
studien over indo - australische lepidoptera . iv . bijdrage tot de kennis der heterocera - fauna der ost - indische kolonien
reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
illustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 8 . the lepidoptera of heterocera of the nilgiri district
illustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 9 . the macrolepidoptera heterocera of ceylon
on the lepidoptera of japan and corea , pt ii . heterocera , sect . i
new species of heterocerous lepidoptera of the tribe bombyces , collected by mr . w . b . pryer chiefly in the district of shanghai
descriptions of new genera and species of lepidoptera heterocera collected by rev . j . h . hocking , chiefly in the kangra district , n . w . himalaya
die gross - schmetterlinge des palaearktischen faunengebietes . 2 . die palaearktischen spinner & schwärmer
lepidoptera van celebes verzameld door mr . m . c . piepers , met aanteekeningen en beschrijving der nieuwe soorten
natuurlijke historie . achtse afdeeling . lepidoptera door p . c . t . snellen , met eene inleiding door joh . f . snelleman . midden - sumatra
h . sauter ' s formosa - ausbeute : lithosiinae , nolinae , noctuidae ( p . p . ) , ratardidae , chalcosiidae , sowie nacträge zu den familien drepanidae , limacodidae , gelechiidae , oecophoriidae und heliodinidae
catalogue of the heterocerous lepidopterous insects collected at sarawak , in borneo , by mr . a . r . wallace , with descriptions of new species
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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retroculus lapidifer is a species of cichlid native to tropical south america , where it is found in the rivers of the southeastern amazon basin in brazil .

this fish was first described in 1855 by the french naturalist francis de laporte de castelnau , who studied the fauna of south america while crossing the continent from rio de janeiro to lima in an expedition starting in 1843 and lasting five years .

retroculus lapidifer

retroculus lapidifer . freshly caught specimen from the rio das mortes , brazil . photo : u . werner .
an adult of retroculus lapidifer in the aquarium of frank warzel [ germany ] . photo by frank warzel .
eggs of retroculus spp . are adhesive and quickly become covered in sand grains .
although retroculus spp . do feed from the substrate they are not strictly benthivorous .
steindachner , f . ( 1911 ) über eine neue brasilianische myleus - art und gibt eine neuerliche beschreibung von retroculus lapidifer castelnau nach exemplaren beiderlei geschlechter . akademie der wissenschaften wien , 48 , 342–347 .
gosse , j . p . ( 1971 ) révision du genre retroculus ( castelnau , 1855 ) ( pisces : cichlidae ) désignation d ' un néotype de retroculus lapidifer ( castelnau , 1855 ) et description de deux espèces nouvelles . bulletin de l ' institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 47 , 1–13 .
retroculus eigenmann & bray , 1894 . ann . n . y . acad . sci . , 7 , p . 614 ( type by monotypy retroculus boulengeri eigenmann & bray ) . gender masculine .
moreira , s . s . & zuanon , j . ( 2002 ) dieta de retroculus lapidifer ( perciformes : cichlidae ) , peixe reofílico do rio araguaia , estado do tocantins , brasil . acta amazonica , 32 , 691–705 .
gosse , j . - p . , 1971 - bulletin de l ' institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique 47 ( 43 ) : 1 - 13 révision du genre retroculus ( castelnau , 1855 ) ( pisces , cichlidae ) désignation d ' un néotype de retroculus lapidifer ( castelnau , 1855 ) et description de deux espèces nouvelles .
moreira , s . s . and j . zuanon , 2002 - acta amazonica 32 ( 4 ) : 691 - 705 dieta de retroculus lapidifer ( perciformes : cichlidae ) , um peixe reofílico do rio araguaia , estado do tocantins , brasil .
holotype for retroculus lapidifer catalog number : usnm 152111 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes preparation : photograph ; radiograph collector ( s ) : c . hartt locality : brazil , south america
retroculus lapidifer first appeared in europe in 1987 , brought back from the rio das mortes by enthusiastic german aquarists , including uwe werner and rainer stawikowski . the first color photos appeared in their book ( 1988 ) , which we in the states got later that year . shortly thereafter ( nini schultz remembers it as late summer 1988 ) , retroculus lapidifer and r . xinguensis were shipped sporadically out of belem / santarem along with the magnificent pleco - type catfish from this area and the biotodoma sp . “red fin” discussed earlier .
the species belonging to the genus retroculus – currently three species are described scientifically , one additional species is still undescribed – have ever been extremely rarities in the aquarium hobby . finally we are able to offer once more the beautiful retroculus lapidifer from brazil . the fish have ideal sizes ( 7 - 9 cm ) , but are , however , available in very limited numbers only .
moreira , s . s . & zuanon , j . 2002 . dieta de retroculus lapidifer ( perciformes : cichilidae ) , um peixe reofílico do rio araguaia , estado de tocantins , brasil . acta amazonica 32 ( 4 ) : 691 - 705 . [ links ]
despite the similarity to the species of geophagus , retroculus are no closer relatives of these cichlids . retroculus are members of a cichlid subfamily – the retroculinae – on their own and are regarded to be the most basal living cichlids of the new world .
there is some debate amongst us as to whether , in fact , hers are retroculus xinguensis , because their coloration was quite different from the published photos of r . lapidifer and the fish i’ve had . to the best of my knowledge , no spawning accounts have yet appeared in german print . de castelnau ( 1855 ) reported the propensity of this fish to construct pebble nests , hence the name lapidifer ( “bearer of stones” ) , so they may well prove to be substrate spawners .
retroculus should be kept always in groups ( four specimens or more ) , otherwise they become very shy . the ground of the tank should be made mainly from fine sand , which is use by the fish quite often to search for food . feeding retroculus is not difficult at all , for almost any usual fishfood is taken readily . the water should be soft and slightly acidic ( ph 5 , 5 – 6 , 8 ) . in the wild , water temperatures between 21 . 5 and 35°c have been measured in the biotopes of retroculus , but in aquaria it is best to keep them between 22 and 28°c . the temperature may be 2° higher for breeding attempts . retroculus lapidifer becomes about 20 - 25 cm long .
newman , l . , 2007 - cichlid news 16 ( 1 ) : available online at : urltoken keeping and breeding retroculus xinguensis gosse 1971 .
retroculus lapidifer : dorsal fin xv - xvii . 10 - 11 , a . iii . 6 - 7 . scales in a lateral row 36 - 39 . gill rakers 10 - 13 . caudal fin without vertical stripes retroculus xinguensis : dorsal fin xvi - xvii . 10 - 12 . a . iii . 6 - 7 . scales in a lateral row 37 - 41 . gill rakers 10 - 12 . caudal fin with distinct vertical stripes . retroculus septentrionalis : dorsal fin xiv - xv . 10 - 11 . a . iii . 6 - 7 . scales in a lateral row 34 - 37 . gill rakers 13 - 15 . caudal fin with distinct vertical stripes .
it took c . tate regan , in 1906 , to actually open up the specimen of r . boulengeri and note the peculiar lobe on the first gill arch that spelled “geophagine . ” it was also regan who synonymized r . boulengeri with de castelnau’s lapidifera and referred to it formally as retroculus lapidifer . subsequent students of south american cichlid fish followed regan’s lead .
retroculus lapidifer does indeed hop about the aquarium and , while it most assuredly can swim ( they chase constantly and do take freeze - dried krill off the surface ) , they seem most at home perched on their broad pelvic fins hopping from spot to spot as they take mouthfuls of sand , presumably searching for food . and that behavior is remarkable in itself .
since that time , two other species , xinguensis and septentrionalis , both described by gosse in 1971 , have been installed in the genus retroculus in a paper from whence i have taken the preceding history . r . lapidifer is known from brazil , in particular the rio das mortes in the matto grosso . r . xinguensis ( pronounced in portuguese , shin - gwen’ - sis ) is described from waters of the rio xingu in eastern brazil . retroculus septentrionalis is described from the rio oyapock in french guiana , but apparently is restricted there and not generalized throughout the guyanas .
the swimming bladder of retroculus is much reduced , so they are not able to hover free in the water column . in nature , these fish dwell near by rapids . in case of danger they flee in the strongest current where almost no other fish can follow . when the danger is gone , retroculus rest in very quite or standing water . a good current is thus necessary in the tank ( this is also necessary due to the fact that retroculus are very sensitve against pollution ) , but the fish need also resting places .
retroculus : from the latin retro , meaning ‘back , behind’ , and oculus , meaning ‘eye’ , in reference to the position of the eye in the posterior portion of the head .
regan , c . t . ( 1906 ) a revision of the south american cichlid genera retroculus , geophagus , heterogramma , and biotoecus . annals and magazine of natural history , 17 , 49–66 .
lapidifer : from the latinate prefix lapid - , derived from the ancient greek λῐ́θος ( líthos ) , meaning ‘stone’ , and - ifer , from the ancient greek φέρω ( phérō ) , meaning ‘bearing , carrying’ . presumably in reference to this species’ breeding behaviour .
retroculus lapidifer was first described as chromys lapidifera by de castelnau ( 1855 ) . de castelnau apparently did not report on the morphology of the gills , so guenther ( 1862 ) promptly moved it to heckel’s genus acara . a bit later , steindachner ( 1875 ) , apparently never having seen the fish with his own eyes , nevertheless suggested that it bore a close affinity to satanoperca acuticeps and should be placed in satanoperca ( or geophagus , depending on your taxonomic stance ) .
retroculus spp . are primarily benthivorous , but also feed readily on items suspended in the water flow , small fishes , etc . , in addition to sifting mouthfuls of substrate through the gills to extract edible items .
although retroculus share with the real eartheaters the characteristic lobed first gill arch , they do not have rakers on the free edge of their gill arches , the morphological character responsible for “sifting” in the geophagines . gosse ( 1971 ) suggests that retroculus are near relatives of both geophagus ( broadly defined ) and the last fish we will discuss , acarichthys heckelii ( see below ) . now that we’ve got the science done , let’s talk about the fish !
between chasing and sifting they often stop and pose on the driftwood in their aquarium before hopping off and doing retroculus things . for this reason , i proposed the name “goby” eartheater for these remarkable fish ( leibel 1989 ) .
retroculus is regarded as the earliest diverging lineage of neotropical cichlids and sister taxon to the genus cichla , with this clade considered basal to the remaining neotropical cichlids . despite the apparent resemblance , it is not a member of the putative subfamily geophaginae .
rarely available in the hobby , r . lapidifer is only infrequently imported . it requires oxygen rich water . a sandy substrate should be provided and clean water is a requirement . r . lapidifer can be differentiated from other members of its genus by an absence of stripes on the caudal fin . they may bury themselves up to their eyes in sand if suddenly startled . in the aquarium , spawning starts only after a oval pit is excavated . this is usually to the glass of the aquarium . up to 200 eggs are laid and have a bit if an adhesive nature . although they are not attached to a stone or to the glass of the aquarium . quite often the pair will create a new nest with rocks and pebbles . the eggs will be transferred there and a layer of sand will be spat on top of the eggs . after 96 hours the eggs will hatch . r . lapidifer are highly protective parents .
retroculus ; : latin , retro = backwards , on the back side + latin , oculus = eye ; the relative posterior position of the eye in the head as compared to other cichlids xinguensis : in reference to the type locality , rio xingu .
as you can tell from my narrative , i finally lost mine after more than one year of growth . unfortunately , besides the four or so shipments over the past two years , no retroculus have appeared this year . i’d love to get them again .
landim , m . i . , c . r . moreira , and c . a . figueiredo , 2015 - zootaxa 3973 ( 2 ) : 369 - 380 retroculus acherontos , a new species of cichlid fish ( teleostei ) from the rio tocantins basin .
retroculus acherontos is described from the rio tocantins basin , brazil . it is distinguished from all congeners by the presence of a nuchal hump in large specimens , an irregular black blotch located on the middle of the anterior soft dorsal - fin rays , fewer pectoral - fin rays ( 15–16 ) , a deeper body , a convex ventral profile , a more transversely convex ventral surface of the body , and by chest scales similar in size to the scales on the side . an expanded diagnosis for the genus retroculus is provided .
there are several more fish that qualify as eartheaters , although the details of their gill morphology suggest that they are more distant relatives . these include members of the genera biotodoma , retroculus and acarichthys . the subject of this installment on eartheaters will be these “honorary” eartheaters .
it can be distinguished from congeners by the following combination of characters : dorsal - fin with 16 - 17 hard rays , 10 - 11 soft rays ; anal - fin with 3 hard rays , 6 - 7 soft rays ; 37 - 41 scales in the midlateral series ; 10 - 12 gill rakers , absent on the fifth ceratobranchial ( vs . present in r . lapidifer and r . septentrionalis ) ; anterior series of papillae on the vomero - palatine apparatus irregular , occasionally forming a second series ( vs . absent in r . septentrionalis , regular in other species ) ; conspicuous dark bars on the caudal - fin ( vs . absent in r . lapidifer , faint and slender in r . acherontos ) .
retroculus , especially the young , spend most of their time sifting sand . while this might not be considered “obligate” , i would say it is their primary method of feeding , borne out by the recorded diet . like any cichlid , they adapt quickly to different food availability in the aquarium .
what’s particularly intriguing about these fish is their behavior . all of the retroculus species hail from shallow rapids . as is true for cichlid fish from analogous habitats , for example teleogramma in zaire and teleocichla in brazil , there has apparently been a reduction in the swim bladder and concomitant adoption of goby - like “hopping” locomotion .
at about two weeks post - spawning , the fry had become highly mobile and the pebble nest was abandoned . lee siphoned off most of the 200 to 250 fry and moved them to a rearing aquarium . he left about 60 fry with the parents . at about three weeks the adults began exhibiting courtship behaviors again . he was able to successfully rear and distribute his f1 retroculus xinguensis , increasing the chances that this very beautiful and interesting cichlid will be available in the hobby as potentially more easily managed tank - reared stock . meanwhile , he has successfully spawned his retroculus xinguensis several more times , indicating that his initial success wasn’t just luck .
the scientific name “lapidifer” means “stone - bearer” , for it was known already in 1855 that these fish build nests for spawning which are made from small stones . each stone is carried to nest with the mouth by the parent fish . retraoculus have spawned now and then in aquaria already , it was also possible to raise some of the offspring , but to the best of my knowledge a complete natural breeding success has not been reported yet .
this point of view was formalized by eigenmann and bray ( 1894 ) in their catalog of south american fishes . these authors erected the genus retroculus for their new species boulengeri and suggested , again , affinities with geophagus without mentioning anything about the presence or absence of an epibranchial lobe ( why no one looked is a mystery to me ! ) . they also didn’t mention de castelnau’s lapidifera .
retroculus was originally diagnosed by eigenmann and bray ( 1894 ) , and this was expanded by landim et al . ( 2015 ) due to their new species r . acherontos displaying less - specialised morphological features than congeners , specifically a less depressed body , less acute snout , more anterior eye , rounded ventral body shape , and ventral scales which are not distinctively smaller than the flank scales .
retroculus spp . are unsuitable for the standard community aquarium , and should be maintained in a set - up designed to resemble a flowing river . the substrate should be composed of soft sand mixed with small pebbles if the aim is to breed the fish ( see ‘reproduction’ ) . rocks , boulders , roots , branches , and aquatic plants can also be added , although the latter should be hardy species which can be grown attached to items of décor .
in november of 2004 , lee moved the 10 fish to a 300 - gallon ( 96 x 30 x 24 ) tank , set up and maintained as above . their tankmates varied and included either s . leucosticta or another eartheater , g . brachybranchus . by april of 2004 , eight months after receiving them , the retroculus had grown to approximately 4 . 5 to 6 . 7 inches in total length . a dominance hierarchy became established , with the largest , most brightly colored fish ( presumably a male ) as the dominant fish . lee witnessed the onset of courtship - like behavior including reciprocal lateral displays and fin flaring .
in the preceding six installments of this series , we have considered the south american eartheaters , former members of the genera geophagus and gymnogeophagus as previously understood pre - kullander . you will recall that the geophagine lineage was distinguished by the presence of a distinct lobe on the first gill arch , as well as rakers on the margins of the gills that allow for the sifting of substrate for food that lent the vernacular name “eartheater” to these freshwater fishes .
, erected chiefly for it on the basis of its anomalously short snout . unfortunately , the name
biotodoma translates to “living home” and was apparently chosen to describe what these authors believed to be the reproductive behavior of b . cupido , namely mouthbrooding . nice try ! we now know that b . cupido is a substrate spawner ( wickler 1966 ; cichocki 1976 , 1977 ; schultz 1990 ) ! in fact , as gosse’s ( 1975 ) revision suggested , there are more differences than simple snout length separating biotodoma from geophagus : biotodoma spp . have two supraneurals ( dorsal fin skeletal elements ) compared with one , and while biotodoma do have the gill lobe , it is not as prominent as that of geophagus or satanoperca ( kullander 1985 ) . kullander ( 1985 ) suggests that biotodoma is more closely related to geophagus ( i . e . , the “surinamensoids” ) than to satanoperca ( i . e . , the “juruparoids” ) .
biotodoma cupido hails from amazonia and thus is a not uncommon contaminant of shipments from peru or brazil ( manaus ) , often mixed in with satanoperca or geophagus from these areas . young specimens are generally thin , bedraggled , gray , nondescript fish with the characteristic mid - flank ocellus ( black spot ringed in white ) and the vertical eye - cheek “bandit” stripe — their only selling points .
biotodoma wavrini is similar in markings and colorational history . however , b . wavrini is an elongated version of b . cupido , and while it too has a flank ocellus , the spot is located below the upper lateral line , near the midline of the body , whereas in b . cupido , the ocellus is positioned on and above the upper lateral line , just below the soft dorsal fin . as is true of b . cupido , b . wavrini is usually imported as young , bedraggled , gray individuals , but the positioning of the ocellus is the diagnostic that will enable you to distinguish the two species . additionally , b . wavrini is collected in the guyanas and the orinoco , so look for it in shipments from guyana and venezuela / colombia .
when it matures , and it does so just as slowly and painstakingly as b . cupido , b . wavrini takes on an overall iridescent blue cast with the same facial vermiculations and bandit eye - cheek stripe . the tail is produced into very long lyrate filaments that vary in color from white to blue . additionally , in exceptional species , there are radial blue / white stripes in the rest of the tail . a truly elegant animal !
the other biotodoma “species” are simply variants on the theme and can be sorted easily into cf . cupido versus cf . wavrini based on the positioning of the flank ocellus . i direct you to the excellent photos in stawikowski and werner ( 1988 ) of some of the various color varieties . the differences seem to be mainly adult coloration as a reflection of where the fish was collected .
one geographic variant that may well prove to be a distinct species has been imported recently from the rio tocantins / rio xingu area and has been sold as biotodoma sp . “red fin santerem” or “red fin tocantins” in the trade over the last two years . this fish seems to be a “cupido” - type given the positioning of the ocellus . however , the body sports a series of double vertical bars extending from the lateral line down to the ventrum , and the tail of mature fish is produced into dramatic upper and lower filaments edged in white , with the radial striping of b . wavrini .
schultz ( 1990 ) describes them thusly : “their bodies and fins are painted with various pastel shades of blue , green and yellow . the males have red in their caudal fins . their gorgeous coloration varies greatly in accordance with their mood . ” i’ve seen ( and kept ) them and she’s correct . this is definitely a fish worth having , and the only biotodoma spawned in america to date ( schultz 1990 ; see below ) .
in the aquarium , biotodoma are best treated like satanoperca . that is , keep them clean and hot ! according to cichocki ( 1976 , 1977 ) , who observed these fish in the wild , b . cupido inhabits very soft ( less than 1 dh ) , acidic ( ph of 5 to 6 ) , warm ( 80 to 84 degrees fahrenheit ) water . attention to quality is highly appropriate here , so consider a variety of filtration options .
because they pick rather than sift , they are fine in a planted aquarium . in fact , they seem to prosper under these conditions . they tend to be somewhat scrappy , so provide some shelter for individuals in the form of bogwood , flowerpots or pvc tubing .
both cichocki ( 1976 , 1977 ) , based on field observations of breeding pairs , and loiselle ( 1967 ) , based on aquarium observations , have suggested that mature b . cupido are sexually dimorphic with respect to the blue , vermiform facial markings . males are reported to have blue lines , whereas females have spots . i have always found this characteristic less than reliable in assigning gender to my colonies of biotodoma .
although i’ve yet to spawn any biotodoma species , what i would describe as courtship behavior ( head - tail wagging , genital butting , etc . ) has taken place between fish whose supposed sex was not predicted by their facial markings . then again , i’ve never spawned them . nini schultz ( 1990 ) , who has , confirms the “lines” versus “spots” dimorphism . so , if you have a large number of individuals to select from in your dealer’s aquarium ( that’ll be the day ! ) , pick “lines” and “spots” to assure both sexes . it certainly couldn’t hurt .
mrs . schultz’s fish grew from 2 to 4 inches ( with the females ½ inch less ) in approximately nine months in a 125 - gallon community , including young discus , rainbowfish and a variety of catfish . she removed a pair , sexed by the “line / spot” method , into a 30 - gallon aquarium and began to condition them . after a few weeks of conditioning , the male began to move gravel and actively court the female , without injuring her .
soon after a partial water change , the pair laid 100 small light - pink eggs directly on the bottom glass in the center of a pit dug into the gravel . cichocki ( 1976 , 1977 ) described spawning in elongated pits in the wild . although the female tended the spawn , the eggs vanished . two more such inconsequential spawnings occurred at one - month intervals , and the pair was returned to the 125 - gallon community aquarium . there , they eventually spawned , with both parents tending and guarding the spawn . at no time did they uptake the eggs or fry for incubation . eventually , the wrigglers disappeared .
the pair was then moved to a 55 - gallon aquarium where , again , they began excavating the gravel . each time they dug a pit , mrs . schultz put a flat stone at the bottom as a receptacle . finally , they spawned and the female chased the male away and kept him at bay . several hours later , the female began to eat the eggs , so the stone on which they had been laid was removed to a 5 - gallon aquarium with aeration and acriflavine . the eggs hatched and were free - swimming at five days .
the fry were too small to take newly hatched brine shrimp , so they were fed dried egg yolk for the first few days . mrs . schultz was able to raise about 35 fry from this spawning and noted that their growth was slow . she has had several more spawnings since . the water conditions at spawning were ph — 6 . 4 , hardness — 120 parts per million , and temperature — 80 degrees fahrenheit . quite a feat ! hopefully her approach can be used with advantage in spawning b . cupido and b . wavrini . one ingredient she doesn’t mention , and which i’m sure figures largely in the rearing and spawning of these fish , is patience .
here is one of the mythical fishes of the hobby . my first encounter with it was a reproduction of the hand - colored print of
from the original description by de castelnau ( 1855 ) , which appeared in loiselle’s ( 1980 ) review of the eartheaters . at that time , no one — at least no one in the aquarium hobby — had set eyes on live specimens of this fish . the print depicted a curious fish that looked more perch - like than geophagine . i could only wonder how this fish could be an eartheater .
given the de castelnau ( 1855 ) painting , i was not prepared for the live fish ! the fish , in fact , looks like a geophagus that has been stretched : they are long and low . the lips are relatively huge even for an eartheater , and underslung , despite de castelnau’s painting . the body color is a pleasing iridescent violet , with metallic , random gold spotting and a few sparse iridescent - blue facial vermiculations — in particular , a pair of oblique stripes passing below the eye . the tail is heavily scaled ( as de castelnau said ) and there is a black “ tilapia - spot” on the soft dorsal fin that comes and goes . in all , quite a lovely and curious animal .
they hop up , orient themselves head down — with mouth open — and drop into the sand like a pile driver , propelled by gravity and their own body weight . they come up with a mouthful of sand and blow it out their gills like a typical eartheater . how they sift it without gill rakers , i’ll never know .
the imported fish have all been in the 2 - to 4 - inch range , and while mine actively courted at 5 to 6 inches , they probably had a ways to go . gosse ( 1971 ) cites a record 235 - millimeter standard length ( that’s without the tail ) male , so they obviously can grow to total lengths of more than 10 inches . in fact , nini schultz , who is the only american aquarist i know of who kept hers more than one year , raised a supposed pair to about 7 inches . they courted but never spawned .
this time i’d house them in a 100 - plus - gallon , 5 - or 6 - foot aquarium with a trickle filter and lots of power filters / heads to simulate the rapids and increase oxygenation of the water . i’d also try keeping them at lower temperatures — about 70 to 75 degrees fahrenheit . i believe “clean” and “well - oxygenated” are the operative terms here . the fish never were any problem to feed — they took everything and grew well . they were reasonable fish for community aquariums and , despite sparring with each other , kept hopping fast enough to avoid serious harm . here’s one fish to dream about .
mueller and troschel ( 1848 ) , a fish i dubbed heckel’s “thread - finned” acara ( leibel 1984 ) . this fish was originally placed in heckel’s genus
the reason was simple . these acara - like fish have feebly developed gill lobes and a few rakers along the margins of the gill arches . so a . heckelii has affinities to both aequidens ( no lobe ) — broadly defined — and to geophagus ( distinct lobe ) , and is viewed as an evolutionarily transitional species . in fact , it looks like a chimeric cichlid with aspects of both acaras and eartheaters .
for awhile , the genus acarichthys was occupied by two species . you may recall from part 6 of this series that “aequidens” geayi was bumped by sven kullander into the genus acarichthys , but kullander giveth and he taketh away . the “geayoids” are now grouped in their own genus guinacara , erected for them by kullander and nijssen ( 1989 ) . interestingly , in kullander’s ( 1985 ) review of peruvian cichlids , he suggests that , in fact , a . heckelii does not have a lobe on its first gill arch ( ! ) , but that the abundance of other geophagine characters suggests a closer affinity with the eartheaters than any other group . obviously , i agree for reasons more of the gut than the mind — a . heckelii looks and acts like an eartheater — and so i consider it here in this installment .
what’s really spectacular about this fish is its finnage . the unpaired fins are spotted in hyaline white dots and the last five to six rays of the soft dorsal fin are spectacularly produced and tipped in bright red , sweeping back past the tail in fine specimens ( hence , the suggested common name : heckel’s thread - finned acara ) . the tail fin is produced to filaments on its upper and lower margins and the anal and ventral fins are bright orange - red , spotted in blue . these are dynamite “best - in - show” fish when reared in isolation .
acarichthys heckelii is a fish that used to be available only as a contaminant , usually mixed in with geophagus sp . “surinamensis , ” usually from guyana , or with satanoperca leucosticta . in fact , a . heckelii was described as geophagus thayeri by steindachner ( 1875 ) , a name that was later ( and obviously ) synonymized . strangely enough , that’s also the name under which both a . heckelii and g . sp . “surinamensis” were often sold in the trade .
those of us interested in the fish had to “piece together” colonies as single fish trickled in . not that they are rare in the wild . on the contrary , lowe - mcconnell ( 1964 , 1969 ) reported that these are one of the most common of cichlid fish in guyana . they are also spread throughout the amazon drainage . there just wasn’t any demand in the hobby . that changed with the publication of a number of articles on this fish ( rasmussen 1983 ) , including my own ( leibel 1984 ) .
in addition , with the “secret” of their propagation now revealed , some success was had breeding them in fish ponds in florida . these days , a . heckelii is available both as wild imports — imported and sold under their correct name ( at much higher prices , i might add ! ) — and as pond - reared juveniles . this development is certainly a welcome one .
i am proud to say that i was , perhaps , the second person to spawn this fish . the first account was that of baran ( 1981 ) in germany . as you shall see , the problem was not the delicacy of the fish , but its rather unique style of reproduction . fred cichocki , then a graduate student under robert rush miller at the university of michigan , reported in his doctoral dissertation ( 1976 ) the peculiar reproductive habits of this fish based on hours of snorkeling in guyana .
acarichthys heckelii is , apparently , a tunnel - spawning cichlid fish ! females compete for territories and dig tunnels down into the mud bottom . cichocki describes these as having almost vertical entry shafts that grade into horizontal tunnels of 5 - to 20 - inch lengths , which lead to a larger , central nuptial chamber where the eggs will actually be laid . there may be several openings to this central chamber and several blind side chambers . the entire arrangement is strangely reminiscent of gopher excavations .
once the tunnel complex has been excavated , ripe resident females actively solicit males who happen by ( “hey , big fins , why don’t you come down and see me sometime ? ” ) . once a male is selected and he accepts , the pair court and defend their three - dimensional territory . following a protracted courtship , whose components cichochki ( 1976 ) exhaustively detailed , between 1000 and 2000 eggs ( ! ) are laid on the roof and walls of the “underground” nuptial chamber .
fanning the clutch is the female’s job , while the male runs perimeter defense topside . following hatching and free - swimming stages , the parents continue to guard their fry using the burrows as a kind of “mouthbrooding shelter” — the fry stream into the tunnels when signalled of approaching danger by the parents . the fry eventually disperse to grow in the weeds near shore . once vacated , the burrow may be claimed by another ripe female , who will defend and use it .
egad ! how to duplicate this in the aquarium ? i just couldn’t handle the thought of 2 feet of garden soil in the bottom of a 150 - gallon aquarium . aware of the postulated relationship of guinacara geayi , a cave - spawner , and a . heckelii , i thought that a giant overturned flowerpot ( nuptial chamber ) with a hole knocked out as the entrance might do the trick . as i was to learn later , after the fact , baran’s ( 1981 ) spawning occurred in an inverted 10 - inch diameter candy jar . i should add , at this point , that the fish in question were adults of nearly 6 - inch length and that i conditioned them on a rich diet of frozen and prepared fish foods , with unlimited quantities of live red earthworms predominating .
although acarichthys heckelii is a relatively undemanding aquarium resident , they can be unpredictably combative . i went through more “compatible” pairs that became singletons when the male , one morning — for no apparent reason — woke up on the wrong side of the flowerpot and liquidated his mate . hopefully , ensuing generations of pond - bred fish have proven less bellicose .
to make a long story considerably shorter ( and you can read the original long story if you choose : leibel 1984 , 1987 ) , a combination of frequent massive water changes — coupled with purposefully fluctuating temperatures between 78 and 96 degrees fahrenheit — finally triggered a spawning . the female pasted a thousand or so eggs — no kidding — on the sides and ceiling of the 12 - inch diameter pot . within 24 hours of the spawning , i noticed that several hundred of the eggs had detached from the pot and were rolling around in the bottom of the pit the pair had dug , with the flowerpot as the focal point .
i siphoned these out and reared them in a sponge filter hatcher of my own design . the fish ultimately ate the rest of the eggs , but the ones i removed proved fertile and the young were raised on newly hatched brine shrimp with no incident . the youngsters grew slowly at first , but once weaned onto dry food they grew rapidly from then on .
juvenile a . heckelii are conspicuous for the previously mentioned “camouflage” pattern and for the flag - like black and white marking on the first few rays of the dorsal fin . cichocki ( 1976 ) reports that underwater this marking is fluorescent and can be seen for many meters . it probably acts as a semaphore that promotes the schooling of these very gregarious , highly social juveniles . oh , if only they stayed that friendly !
these captive - raised offspring were distributed throughout the cichlid fish hobby . my good friend and expert breeder , dolores schehr of detroit , raised up a flock and got successful spawnings using a large - diameter piece of pvc tubing , stood on end . the parents never reared the fry , but she was able to snatch the tube from the aquarium and raise a second generation . i understand that some of these grandchildren ended up in florida , where they provided part of the nucleus for the pond - reared stock currently available .
i must add that i never repeated the spawning of wild a . heckelii , though i tried . beginner’s luck . i have heard of several recent successful spawnings of this fish and am hopeful that it will soon be established as a staple in the hobby in much the same way that gymnogeophagus balzanii is .
. however , as a true addict , i must do so gradually . in another installment of goin’ south we will consider some aspects of mouthbrooding as a reproductive strategy , and then follow that up with an article on “dwarf” eartheaters of the genus
interested in learning more about cichlid fish are encouraged to join the american cichlid association . many of the reference materials from
, the journal of the american cichlid association , are available to members only through their back issues sales program . for additional information please forward a stamped , self - addressed envelope to glenn eaves , aca membership chair , p . o . box 32130 , raleigh , nc 27622 .
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according to e . marin la meslée , for a time his private secretary , the count lived with a brazilian mistress and her young son . tall and slightly stooped , laporte was ' a man of simple tastes who perhaps neglected his appearance ' and so was thought eccentric . to many he seemed mean and aloof but he was generous and warm - hearted to those who knew him well and a gifted raconteur .
g . p . whitley , ' laporte , françois louis nompar de caumont ( 1810–1880 ) ' , australian dictionary of biography , national centre of biography , australian national university , urltoken published first in hardcopy 1974 , accessed online 10 july 2018 .
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
citation : lópez - fernández h , arbour j , willis s , watkins c , honeycutt rl , winemiller ko ( 2014 ) morphology and efficiency of a specialized foraging behavior , sediment sifting , in neotropical cichlid fishes . plos one 9 ( 3 ) : e89832 . urltoken
copyright : © 2014 lópez - fernández et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : funding for this project was provided by the nsf undergraduate mentoring in environmental biology program ( grant # 0203992 ) , nsf deb grant # 0516831 to kow , rlh and hlf , and by an nserc discovery grant to hlf . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
adaptive divergence of morphology and behavior has long interested biologists because it provides evidence of biological diversification in response to natural selection . in particular , food intake has an obvious and direct effect on fitness , and as a consequence , foraging behavior has received considerable attention . modern teleost fishes are particularly good models for comparative research on foraging ecology because the mechanics of their functional morphology are relatively well understood ( e . g . [ 1 ] – [ 5 ] ) . studies of fish feeding generally focus on functional morphology and biomechanics of prey capture in the water column ( e . g . [ 6 ] – [ 8 ] ) , but comparatively little attention has been given to taxa specialized for benthic invertebrate feeding [ 9 ] , [ 10 ] .
species examined in a linear discriminant function analysis of ecomorphology of sediment - sifting and non - sifting cichlids .
we adjusted the c matrix ( evolutionary variance - covariance matrix ) which summarizes the shared evolutionary history between species pairs [ 24 ] such that an individual within a species shares equal evolutionary history with all other members of that species . an example of the c matrix and modified c matrix is given below for 3 species , each of which has 2 individuals in matrix c n . although , realistically , members of different populations or sub - species may not share equal evolutionary history , we feel this is a reasonable assumption given the evolutionary time - scales being considered in these analyses and the fact that all tested fishes are full to half siblings ( see [ 15 ] ) . we also found that the mean of the residuals calculated using c n were identical to the residuals calculated using c and the mean species character values and therefore c n and c produce consistent results at least at the species level .
a geophagus cf . brachybranchus , b ‘ geophagus ’ steindachneri , c mikrogeophagus altispinosus , d satanoperca daemon , e thorichthys ellioti ( picture shown is of the congeneric t . cf meeki ) , f amatitlania siquia , g hypsophrys nematopus . phylogeny and times of divergence follow lópez - fernández et al . [ 15 ] .
for each trial , weighed chironomid larvae were evenly spread across the bottom of a “20 - gallon - long” ( 75 . 7 l , bottom area = 2 , 250 cm 2 ) , all - glass aquarium . clean pool - filter sand of uniform grain - diameter was either left bare ( 0 cm substrate depth ) or carefully spread over the chironomid larvae at a uniform depth ( 1 , 2 or 3 cm ) . freshly prepared water ( see above ) was added to the tank without disturbing the sand ( a plastic tray was temporarily placed over the sand during filling and gently removed afterwards ) . during trials , an airstone provided aeration . both holding and experimental tanks were maintained in the aquarium room at a temperature between 26–28°c .
linear discriminant function analysis ( lda ) of morphological attributes in 27 species of neotropical cichlids .
lda produced an axis of variation that effectively separated non - sifters ( top panel ) from specialized sediment - sifting species ( bottom panel ) by their morphological attributes . among sediment - sifters , the model distribution to the left represents individuals “misclassified” by the lda analysis as non - sifters , including thorichthys ellioti ( 5 / 5 ) , mikrogeophagus ramirezi ( 4 / 4 ) and biotodoma wavrini ( 1 / 5 ) . images marked with an “ * ” depict genera used in feeding efficiency experiments .
phylogeny - corrected ancova showed a significant difference in mean feeding performance between sediment - sifting and non - sifting taxa ( f 1 , 164 = 48 . 46 , p < 0 . 0001 ) , and feeding performance varied significantly with sand depth as a covariate ( f 1 , 164 = 33 . 38 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . there was a significant interaction between feeding behavior and sand depth ( f 1 , 164 = 9 . 81 , p < 0 . 01 ) , with sediment sifters having a significantly more negative relationship between feeding performance and depth ( fig . 3 ) . we observed that the difference in mean feeding performance ( between sifters and non - sifters ) could have occurred by chance under a brownian motion process ( p = 0 . 069 ) , but both the effect of depth on feeding performance and the interaction between feeding behavior and sand depth differed significantly from that generated under a random walk , bm evolutionary process ( both p = 0 . 001 ) . the difference in the relationship between feeding performance and depth in sediment - sifters ( decrease in performance with depth ) versus non - sifters ( performance roughly equal across depths ) is therefore unlikely to have occurred simply as an artifact of shared evolutionary history among the taxa examined .
mean consumption of chironomid larvae buried at 0 , 1 , 2 , or 3 - sifting ( 2 species ) and sediment - sifting ( 5 ) neotropical cichlids .
species exhibited significantly different mean feeding performance under a phylogeny - corrected ancova ( f 6 , 154 = 17 . 5 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . feeding performance varied significantly with sand depth ( f 1 , 154 = 42 . 2 , p < 0 . 0001 ; s2 ) , and there was a significant interaction between species and sand depth on feeding performance ( f 6 , 154 = 3 . 62 , p < 0 . 01 ) . however , the difference in mean feeding performance between species could have occurred under bm evolution ( p = 0 . 218 ) . while sand depth still represented a significant covariate compared to bm evolution expectations ( p = 0 . 001 ) , the interaction of sand depth and species on feeding performance was marginally non - significant ( p = 0 . 067 ) compared to bm expectations . therefore , changes in feeding performance with depth were more strongly associated with feeding behavior ( which was significantly different from bm expectations ) than with taxonomy ( which was not significantly different from bm expectations ) .
mean foraging efficiency declined with increasing sand depth for sediment - sifting species ( fig . 3 , s2 ) . amatitlania siquia and hypsophrys nematopus revealed small differences in mean foraging efficiency in relation to sand depth , with no overall trend , and the standard deviation of mean foraging efficiency increased with sand depth for hypsophrys ( fig . 4 ) . this unusual pattern for hypsophrys was associated with a foraging strategy that was unique among species tested . hypsophrys dug large pits using its mouth to move sand by grasping or suctioning , followed by ejection of the particles ; and also by performing sweeping movements with its body and fins to excavate large pits in the sand . chironomid larvae exposed within a pit were consumed individually without any obvious ingestion of sand . a second experiment tested the effect of clumped versus even - dispersed chironomid larvae on the foraging efficiency of hypsophrys : there was a significant effect of dispersion pattern ( f 1 , 40 = 4 . 89 , p < 0 . 033 ) and sand depth ( f 3 , 40 = 3 . 07 , p < 0 . 039 ) , and their interaction was non - significant ( f 3 , 40 = 1 . 61 , p < 0 . 202 ) . the mean foraging efficiency was nearly the same for clumped and evenly dispersed chironomid larvae at 0 and 1 cm sand depth , but mean foraging efficiency was greater for evenly - dispersed food items at 2 and 3 cm ( fig . 4 , circles ) .
even ( filled circles ) versus clumped ( empty triangles ) distributions . the horizontal line indicates weight loss of chironomid larvae in control tanks .
illustration of morphometric measurements used in this paper . a . body and head measurements . b . lower pharyngeal jaw measurements . c . first gill arch measurements . all measurements as linear distances between points . abbreviations follow those given in “ methods ” section . see text for descriptions .
mean consumption of chironomid larvae buried at 0 , 1 , 2 , or 3 cm depth by seven species of neotropical cichlid fishes .
r code for function “phyl . resid . intra” which carries out a phylogenetic size correction for more than one individual per species / tip . see methods and supplementary file for details .
r code for function “phyl . lda” which carries a linear discriminant analysis and compares the results to a set of brownian motion simulated values . the function can include more than one individual per species / tip . see methods and supplementary file for details .
r code for function “phylanova . intra” which performs and anova / ancova analysis by comparing the results to a set of brownian motion simulated values . the function can include more than one individual per species / tip . see methods and supplementary file for details .
we thank donald c . taphorn ( mcng ) and roberto e . reis ( mcp ) for the loan of specimens in their care . valuable assistance with laboratory trials and fish husbandry was provided by cassidy crane , alexandra mcevoy , and lisa berryhill .
conceived and designed the experiments : hlf scw kow . performed the experiments : hlf scw cw kow . analyzed the data : hlf jha kow scw . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : hlf jha kow rlh . wrote the paper : hlf jha scw kow rlh . designed r code used in analyses : jha .
liem k ( 1980 ) adaptive significance of intra - and interspecific differences in the feeding repertoires of cichlid fishes . american zoologist 20 : 295–314 .
lauder gv ( 1982 ) patterns of evolution in the feeding mechanism of actynopterygian fishes . american zoologist 22 : 275–285 .
barel cdn ( 1983 ) towards a constructional morphology of cichlid fishes ( teleostei , perciformes ) . netherlands journal of zoology 33 : 357–424 .
wainwright pc ( 1996 ) ecological explanation through functional morphology : the feeding biology of sunfishes . ecology 77 : 1336–1343 .


sophronia santolinae is a moth of the family gelechiidae .

it was described by staudinger in 1863 .

it is found in spain .

the larvae feed on santolina rosmarinifolia .

sophronia santolinae

sophronia santolinae staudinger , 1863 ; stettin ent . ztg 24 ( 7 - 9 ) : 270 ; tl : san ildefonso , spain
sophronia grandii hering , 1933 ; boll . lab . agar . bologna 5 : 105
sophronia ascalis gozmány , 1951 ; folia ent . hung . 4 ( 3 ) : 17
sophronia marginella toll , 1936 ; ann . mus . zool . polon . 11 : 405
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sophronia aquilex meyrick , 1926 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 23 : 331 ; tl : cape province , montagu
sophronia catharurga meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 34 ; tl : palestine , akka
sophronia finitimella rebel , 1905 ; ann . nat . mus . wien 20 : 213 ; tl :
erdschias - gebiet
sophronia alaicella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 116 ; tl : alai
sophronia roseicrinella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 87 ; tl : kerrville , texas
sophronia teretracma meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 353 ; tl : texas , alpine , 5000 - 7500ft
sophronia curonella standfuss , 1884 ; stettin ent . ztg 45 ( 4 - 6 ) : 193 ; tl : italy , apennines , 4000 '
sophronia primella busck , 1907 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 8 ( 3 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : western usa
sophronia acaudella rebel , 1903 ; ann . nat . mus . wien 18 : 333 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : slivno
sophronia mediatrix zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 377 , pl . 5 , f . 130 ; tl : bogota
sophronia albomarginata li & zheng , 1998 ; acta ent . sinica ( 3 ) : 306 , 309 ; tl : xinjiashan , fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m
sophronia orientalis li & zheng , 1998 ; acta ent . sinica ( 3 ) : 307 , 309 ; tl : xinjiashan , fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m
harpipterix chilonella treitschke , 1833 ; in ochsenheimer , schmett . eur . 9 ( 2 ) : 36
tinea humerella denis & schiffermüller , 1775 ; ank . syst . schmett . wienergegend : 137
larva on ( non - finnish ) artemisia campestris , helichrysum spp . , achillea spp . , thymus spp . , antennaria spp .
tinea illustrella hübner , 1796 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : 46 , pl . 23 , f . 158
parahumerella amsel , 1935 ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 20 ( 2 ) : 297
larva on santolina rosmarinifolia staudinger , 1863 , stettin ent . ztg 24 ( 7 - 9 ) : 270
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
lepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes
systematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . hübner ' s sammlung europäischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )
zeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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west palaearctic ( austria , croatia , czech , germany , hungary , macedonia , romania , slovakia and slovenia ) .
west palaearctic ( austria , bulgaria , czech , germany , hungary , russia , slovakia and ukraine ) .
west palaearctic ( albania , austria , bosnia and herzegovina , czech , hungary , italy , romania and slovakia ) .
west palaearctic ( ukraine ) . [ fe : s . marginella may be a synonym of s . consanguinella . ]
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the red-crested woodpecker is a species of bird in the family picidae .

it is endemic to the island of java in indonesia .

hemicircus concretus and hemicircus sordidus were previously lumped together as h. concretus .

red - crested woodpecker

nobody uploaded sound recordings for red - crested woodpecker ( hemicircus concretus ) yet .
large woodpecker with a heavy bill . males have a bright red crest and a red stripe on the cheek .
large woodpecker with white stripes on the face continuing down the neck and a red crest . females have a red crest like the males but don ' t have the red cheek stripe .
very large woodpecker with mostly black body . female has gray - black forecrown and red crest ; she lacks the red mustache mark of the male . often feeds in one spot for long periods as it works to get insect larvae from under bark or inside wood .
late one summer afternoon i strolled along the cycle path leading from the shoreline and behind the zoo until i found the entrance to the refuge and a display map showing the walks and viewing points . there were some mallards and jay on the small beach ; and a ruby - throated humming bird and red crested woodpecker in the trees outside the . . .
often forages on fallen logs , using heavy bill to dig into rotten wood for carpenter ants and other insects . males have fully red crown and red mustache stripe .
13–14 cm ; 27–32 g . very small and compact woodpecker , with slender neck , large head and extremely short , rounded tail . male has red forehead , crown and crest ; . . .
winkler , h . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . red - crested woodpecker ( hemicircus concretus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the pileated woodpecker is a very large woodpecker with a long neck and a triangular crest that sweeps off the back of the head . the bill is long and chisel - like , about the length of the head . in flight , the wings are broad and the bird can seem crowlike .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . uncommon throughout range . believed to be declining as a result of habitat loss . a relatively poorly known woodpecker ; requires . . .
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
pileated woodpeckers are mostly black with white stripes on the face and neck and a flaming - red crest . males have a red stripe on the cheek . in flight , the bird reveals extensive white underwings and small white crescents on the upper side , at the bases of the primaries .
nestlings beg loudly from nest entrances . both sexes feed the young . adult female has gray - black forecrown and lacks red mustache stripe of male .
iucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .
hitherto treated as conspecific with h . sordidus , but differs in having entire crown and crest red ( not just red on crown , with grey crest ) , with paler , more fiery hue and thicker , less glossy or streaky texture ( 3 ) ; proportion of buff - white to black in wings much reduced ( 2 ) ; sooty - grey vs greyish - olive face , neck and underparts ( 1 ) ; slightly longer wings and tail ( effect size for wing length 2 . 13 ; score 2 ) . monotypic .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : hemicircus concretus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
hemicircus concretus and h . sordidus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as h . concretus following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : although this species occurs in secondary forest , forest edge , gardens and plantations , the overall population is nevertheless suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) .
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w & c java ; also recorded in e java # r , # r , # r .
open evergreen forest , especially evergreen secondary forest , and forest edge , also gardens and . . .
mostly insects ; some fruit also recorded in diet . singly , in pairs , sometimes in groups ; joins mixed - species flocks . forages in treetops , . . .
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contrary to what the distribution map shows , this species also occur in e java with several records , especially in ijen plateau and alas purwo national park .
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molecular data indicate that this genus is sister to all other genera in subfamily picinae # r # r , such a relationship being supported by recent cladistic analysis of 69 morphological and behavioural characters # r .
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in flight shows white underwings and a white stripe in the upperwings . flies with a distinctive , vaguely crowlike style .
digs deeply into soft wood , leaving distinctive rectangular excavations . powerful blows of the bill can be audible from far away .
pileated woodpeckers drill distinctive rectangular - shaped holes in rotten wood to get at carpenter ants and other insects . they are loud birds with whinnying calls . they also drum on dead trees in a deep , slow , rolling pattern , and even the heavy chopping sound of foraging carries well . their flight undulates like other woodpeckers , which helps separate them from a crow’s straight flight path .
pileated woodpeckers are forest birds that require large , standing dead trees and downed wood . forests can be evergreen , deciduous , or mixed and are often old , particularly in the west . in the east they live in young forests as well and may even be seen in partially wooded suburbs and backyards .
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black shouldered kites welcomed us in their haven followed by laughing doves , purple heron , spotted owl , spotbill ducks , chinese coots , our own teal ducks , snake birds , egrets , pond herons and many more . the rickshaw pullers who were our guides amazed me by their vast knowledge of these birds which i havent studied ever in my life science classes . only drawback were . . .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : yes 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 3 . artificial / terrestrial - plantations suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 4 . artificial / terrestrial - rural gardens suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no
del hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; sargatal , j . 2002 . handbook of the birds of the world , vol . 7 : jacamars to woodpeckers . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain .
this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .


leptophobia caesia , the bluish white , is a butterfly in the pieridae family .

it is found from mexico to ecuador .

adults have black markings on the upperside .

the underside of the hindwings is yellow .

the larvae feed on podandrogyne pulcherrima .

leptophobia caesia

leptophobia caesia is found from costa rica to ecuador . there are 4 subspecies .
no one has contributed data records for leptophobia caesia tenuicornis yet . learn how to contribute .
all leptophobia are high altitude species , and are variously distributed from costa rica to bolivia and argentina . leptophobia eleone is found from colombia to bolivia .
leptophobia caesia ; ypm ent 731149 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; el valle de nubes , 12 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest near gate to potrero ; kirby w . brown
leptophobia caesia ; ypm ent 731990 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; el valle de nubes , 12 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest near gate to potrero ; kirby w . brown ; 1960 - 01 - 19
the underside hindwings are yellow in caesia , bright reflective silver in penthica , dull brown in cinerea , and a silky greenish white in eleone .
leptophobia caesia ; ypm ent 731151 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; foot trail to el valle de nubes , 10 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest ; k . brown , d . veirs ; 1960 - 03 - 17
all leptophobia are high altitude species , and are variously distributed from costa rica to bolivia and argentina .
another species with very different dorsal and ventral views . this is the unusual colouring for a leptophobia .
leptophobia caesia ; ypm ent 731152 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; el valle de nubes , 12 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest near brown ' s cabin ; k . brown , d . veirs ; 1960 - 03 - 13
leptophobia caesia ; ypm ent 731153 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; el valle de nubes , 12 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest near brown ' s cabin ; k . brown , d . veirs ; 1960 - 03 - 02
the genus leptophobia comprises of 20 currently known species . three of these have only recently been discovered ( 2000 - 2003 ) .
the genus leptophobia comprises of 20 currently known species . three of these have only recently been discovered ( 2000 - 2003 ) and are as yet unnamed .
most leptophobia species have a white or creamy ground colour but a few including the typical form of eleone are bright primrose yellow . the pale cream form of eleone illustrated here is unusual .
all the species have black markings on the upperside , which vary in extent from species to species - eloene for example is yellowish with black margins , aripa is white with a black apex , and caesia is bluish with broad suffused blackish borders and a diagonal blackish sub - apical band .
this is a most unusual leptophobia which i have only seen at this location . it was the last full day here that i finally managed a photo of one this trip . i had seen some but they rarely settle within reach .
other leptophobia species are known to use capparidaceae , brassicaceae and tropaeolaceae as larval foodplants . these plants contain mustard oils so it seems likely that the larvae would be noxious to birds , and that these properties are transmitted to the adult butterflies .
in the neotropical region there are a total of 192 representatives of the subfamily pierinae .
species have black markings on the upperside but these vary in extent from species to species .
his is a cloudforest species found in the vicinity of streams and small rivers at altitudes of between about 1000 - 2400 metres . the butterflies fly throughout the year .
the eggs are spindle - shaped , yellowish in colour , and laid either singly or in clusters of up to 20 , according to species . the caterpillars are green , sometimes with blue or orange markings , and are slightly hairy . they live gregariously in groups of mixed instars . it is interesting also to note that according to devries the larvae are able to walk on the surface film of water .
he butterflies are usually encountered singly in the vicinity of streams and waterfalls . they
fly low over the ground with a rapid erratic zigzag flight . males imbibe mineralised moisture from seepages , road surfaces and the shores of shallow streams .
both sexes visit lantana , impatiens , nasturtium and various other flowers for nectar .
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this species is found in cloudforest , usually in the vicinity of streams or rivers at elevations between about 1300 - 2000 metres .
this species is usually encountered in two ' s and three ' s in the vicinity of streams and waterfalls . it flies in the mid - canopy but males sometimes descend to imbibe mineralised moisture at the edge of streams .
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confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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i was getting back to the lodge on the final downhill leg and took my last butterfly photos of the day .
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magneuptychia gigas ; ypm ent 407294 ; central america ; panama ; chiriqui province ; el valle de nubes , 12 mi . nw rovira by trail , forest near gate to potrero ; kirby w . brown ; 1960 - 01 - 19
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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