fusus is a genus of small to large sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family fasciolariidae , the spindle snails and tulip snails .

fusus as a name for a genus of gastropods has confusingly been used three times .

these names are , in whatever taxonomical sense , now invalid .

this page is kept for historical reasons .

the name of the genus fusus bruguière , 1789 is invalid as it is a junior homonym of fusus helbling , 1779 .

( placed by the iczn on the official index by opinion 1765 , 1994 , bulletin of zoological nomenclature , 51 ( 2 ) : 159 ) .

the accepted name is fusinus rafinesque , 1815 the genus fusus helbling , 1779 , has also been placed on the official index by opinion 1765 ( 1994 , bulletin of zoological nomenclature 51 ( 2 ) : 159-161 ) , i.e. it can not be used as a valid name .

the type species of fusus helbling is murex intertextus helbling , 1779 ( = fusus intertextus helbling , 1779 ) , and it belongs in the family colubrariidae .

fusus helbling , 1779 ( mollusca , gastropoda ) has been suppressed , and fusinus rafinesque , 1815 and colubraria schumacher , 1817 are conserved . iczn 1993 . opinion 1765 .

bulletin of zoological nomenclature , 51 ( 2 ) : 159-161 czn 1993 . opinion 1765 .

bulletin of zoological nomenclature , 51 ( 2 ) : 159-161 the genus fusus röding , 1798 ( type species = fusus cynara röding , 1798 = turbinella angulata ( lightfoot , 1786 ) ) is a junior homonym of fusus helbling , 1779 .

it has also been placed on the official index of the iczn by opinion 1765 and is an invalid name .

fusus

ciliate , competitors , plankton , t . fusus , tiarina , tiarina fusus , zooplankton
variety thyone fusus var . chinensis yang , 1937 accepted as thyone fusus chinensis yang , 1937
variety thyone fusus var . mediterranea madsen , 1941 accepted as thyone fusus mediterranea madsen , 1941
taxonomy madsen ( 1941 ) referred the mediterranean specimens of tyone fusus to a new subspecies t . fusus mediterranea .
taxonomy madsen ( 1941 ) referred the mediterranean specimens of tyone fusus to a new subspecies t . fusus mediterranea . [ details ]
the fusus coli of the rabbit as a pacemaker area . - pubmed - ncbi
worms - world register of marine species - fusus fenestratus w . turton , 1834
worms - world register of marine species - fusus abyssorum p . fischer , 1884
species fusus bellus c . b . adams , 1852 accepted as bailya anomala ( hinds , 1844 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of fusus bellus conrad , 1833 )
species fusus cingulatus e . a . smith , 1904 accepted as urosalpinx sperata ( cossmann , 1921 ) accepted as hadriania sperata ( cossmann , 1921 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of fusus cingulatus bronn , 1831 ; fusus speratus is a replacement name )
variety thyone fusus var . papuensis théel , 1886 accepted as thyone papuensis théel , 1886
ceratium fusus is similar to ceratium inflatum , but ceratium inflatum has hypotheca and epitheca that narrow abruptly into horns . ceratium fusus narrows gently into horns ( montagnes 2006 ) .
( invalid : junior homonym of fusus helbling , 1779 . see nomenclatural note below . )
species fusus branscombi clark w . , 1849 accepted as comarmondia gracilis ( montagu , 1803 )
( invalid : junior homonym of fusus helbling , 1779 . see nomenclature note below . )
growth and grazing rates of the prostomatid ciliate tiarina fusus on red - tide and toxic algae .
species fusus taeniatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1880 accepted as neptunea cumingii crosse , 1862
species fusus amblyterus r . b . watson , 1886 accepted as troschelia berniciensis ( king , 1846 )
worms - world register of marine species - thyone fusus ( o . f . müller , 1776 )
species fusus jeffreysianus fischer p . , 1868 accepted as colus jeffreysianus ( p . fischer , 1868 )
red - tide . 2012 . ceratium fusus ( ehrenberg ) dujardin 1841 . urltoken accessed 17 jan 2012 .
species fusus attenuatus jeffreys , 1877 accepted as colus jeffreysianus ( p . fischer , 1868 ) ( synonym )
species fusus azoricus dautzenberg , 1889 accepted as fusinus bocagei ( p . fischer , 1882 ) ( synonym )
species fusus boothi j . smith , 1839 accepted as raphitoma concinna ( scacchi , 1836 ) ( synonym )
status in world register of marine species accepted name : thyone fusus ( o . f . müller , 1776 )
encylopedia of life ( eol ) 2012 . ceratium fusus ( ehrenberg ) dujardin 1841 . urltoken accessed 17 jan 2012 .
» species fusus ( pisania ) crosseanus souverbie , 1865 accepted as pisania billeheusti var . artensis souverbie & montrouzier , 1864
species fusus grimaldii dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1896 accepted as amiantofusus amiantus ( dall , 1889 ) ( synonym )
species fusus abyssorum p . fischer , 1884 accepted as mohnia abyssorum ( p . fischer , 1884 ) ( original combination )
species fusus bocagei p . fischer , 1882 accepted as fusinus bocagei ( p . fischer , 1882 ) ( original combination )
species fusus obesus sowerby g . b . iii , 1880 accepted as colus islandicus ( mohr , 1786 ) ( synonym )
species fusus propinquus alder , 1848 accepted as colus jeffreysianus ( p . fischer , 1868 ) ( non münster , 1844 )
ceratium fusus grows better when water temperature is above 16 °c and salinity is below 34 ( baek et al . 2007 ) .
species fusus consimilis j . t . marshall , 1902 accepted as colus jeffreysianus ( p . fischer , 1868 ) ( synonym )
species fusus articulatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1880 accepted as fusinus articulatus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1880 )
species fusus barclayi g . b . sowerby iii , 1894 accepted as fusinus barclayi ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1894 )
species fusus bilineatus m . hörnes , 1853 † accepted as pseudolatirus bilineatus ( m . hörnes , 1853 ) † ( original combination )
scott , f . and brandt , s . 2011 . ceratium fusus ( ehrenberg ) dujardin 1841 . urltoken accessed 17 jan 2012 .
» species fusus ( sipho ) pupula fischer p . , 1883 accepted as colus jeffreysianus ( p . fischer , 1868 ) ( synonym )
species fusus cereus e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as orania pholidota ( r . b . watson , 1883 ) ( synonym )
nomenclature historically , the name fusus was used rather indiscriminately for any kind of spindle - shaped shell , for species now placed . . .
ceratium fusus is mainly a coastal species , but it can be found in estuarine and oceanic environments ( montagnes 2006 , horner 2002 ) .
» species fusus ( neptunea ) regulus r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as pareuthria regulus ( r . b . watson , 1882 )
» species fusus ( sipho ) scalaris r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as pareuthria atrata ( e . a . smith , 1881 )
species fusus abnormis e . a . smith , 1878 accepted as coralliophila abnormis ( e . a . smith , 1878 ) ( original combination )
species fusus calathiscus r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as bathydomus calathiscus ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( original combination )
species fusus captivus e . a . smith , 1889 accepted as granulifusus captivus ( e . a . smith , 1889 ) ( original combination )
species fusus edwardiensis r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as probuccinum edwardiense ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( original combination )
guiry , m . d . and guiry , g . m . 2012 . ceratium fusus ( ehrenberg ) dujardin 1841 . urltoken accessed 17 jan 2012 .
scientific synonyms and common names holothuria fusus o . f . müller , 1776 holothuria papillosa abildgaard , 1789 thyone flexus hodge , 1867 thyone subvillosa hérouard , 1890
» species fusus ( neptunea ) calathiscus r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as bathydomus calathiscus ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( basionym )
» species fusus ( neptunea ) dalli r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as granulifusus dalli ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( basionym )
» species fusus ( neptunea ) futilis r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as meteuthria futilis ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( basionym )
» species fusus ( sipho ) regulus r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as pareuthria regulus ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( basionym )
for futuhat readings and the audio recordings from the seminar , see link on the left - hand navigation . column . fusus recordings are in
audio recordings
species fusus cancellatus mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 accepted as propebela cancellata ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 ) ( original combination )
species fusus albus ( philippi , 1852 ) accepted as fusinus spectrum var . albus ( philippi , 1852 ) accepted as fusinus spectrum ( a . adams & reeve , 1848 )
fusus - orgoned by kiasmos ( studio sessions ) for this third studio session we decided to recreate a track of kiasmos , one of the artists that inspired us to combine the worlds of classical and electronic music . recorded on the 8th of may 2017 all music performed and mixed by fusus . web urltoken music soundcloud urltoken spotify urltoken bandcamp urltoken socials urltoken urltoken
ceratium fusus is a solitary cell that contains numerous yellow - brown chloroplasts ( eol 2012 ) . it has both sexual and asexual cycles of reproduction and is mixotrophic ( scott and brandt 2011 ) .
species fusus squamulosus philippi , 1836 accepted as coralliophila squamosa ( bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838 ) accepted as hirtomurex squamosus ( bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838 ) ( synonym )
tiarina fusus ( t . fusus ) are ciliates . they can be described as spindle - shaped organisms with rectangular surface platelets . they have an average width of 20 - 40 micrometers and an average length of 85 - 135 micrometers . t . fusus can be found in the neritic zone where salinity is between 30 - 35 and temperature is between 8 and 22 degrees celsius . they are heterotrophic protists . in one study it was shown they feed on numerous dinoflagellates that have been found to produce red - tides and / or toxic algae . t . fusus has been found to have a rapidly increasing growth rate when consuming s . trochoidea , h . akashiwo , ( a raphidophyte that can cause large - scale mortalities of fish when forming red tides ) and a maximum specific growth rate when feeding on l . polyedrum . tiarina fusus has also been found to consume the heterotrophic and mixotrophic dinoflagellates fragilidium , protoperidinium , and p . crassipies . the growth rates of feeding on these species do not compare to the growth rates when feeding on s . trochoidea , h . akashiwo , and l . polyedrum but it was found that when t . fusus was grown on the same prey species the growth rates were near that of the rapid and maximum growth rates .
from my recent research and inquiries on t . fusus i have found that there are few studies that have been done on this particular species . i found it most interesting the samples in which i was able to identify this species were from budd inlet , wa , usa but i could not find any resources that show t . fusus has had a presence in the puget sound . my theory is that as t . fusus has been largely observed near japan and south korea the organisms made the long journey across the pacific ocean . just as docks and moorings from japan ended up on the beaches of washington and oregon after the tsunami in 2011 . i then further wonder if the two events are related .
baek , s . h . , shimode , s . and kikuchi , t . 2007 . reproductive ecology of the dominant dinoflagellate , ceratium fusus , in coastal area of sagami bay , japan . journal of oceanography . 63 : 35 - 45 .
this species is not known to produces toxins , but has been linked to deaths of invertebrate larvae ( montagnes 2006 ) . ceratium fusus forms extensive blooms forming red tides in eastern asia regions ( china , philippines and thailand ; baek et al . 2007 ) .
iczn 1993 . opinion 1765 . fusus helbling , 1779 ( mollusca , gastropoda ) : suppressed , and fusinus rafinesque , 1815 and colubraria schumacher , 1817 : conserved . bulletin of zoological nomenclature , 51 ( 2 ) : 159 - 161 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
finet y . & snyder m . a . ( 2012 ) . illustrations and taxonomic placement of the recent fusus and fasciolaria in the lamarck collection of the muséum d’histoire naturelle , geneva ( caenogastropoda , buccinoidea , gastropoda ) . zootaxa . 3507 : 1 - 37 . [ details ]
( of holothuria fusus müller , 1776 ) müller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
about two decades ago there was a paradigm that microbial food chains were built upon the principle of a somewhat fixed size relationship between prey and predator of 1 : 10 . a study conducted 23 years ago showed that two common predators of the ciliate t . fusus were the heterotrophic dinoflagellates dinophysis rotundata and heterotrophic d . hastate . however , the autotrophic dinophysis rotundata and autotrophic d . hastate can become prey to t . fusus . this study proved that prey and predator relationships of microbial organisms are not on a fixed size relationship as similarly sized species can act as both predator and prey to one another .
section of the rabbit ' s proximal colon orad to the fusus coli resulted in a marked reduction in both slow - wave frequency and differentiation of the two kinds of faeces produced . this indicates the existence of a pacemaker area and a mechanical role for the reversed oral - aboral gradient of the proximal colon .
i believe that we humans could learn a lesson from t . fusus and other microorganisms . the lesson being that t . fusus have not been observed consuming one another . as i stated in my third essay of the quarter , humans have been extinguishing each other since the dawn of our species for many reasons . some of those reasons being technological progression , religion , and demands for increased territory . with so many discovered and undiscovered organisms , and ¨fish in the sea¨ we should make an attempt to neutralize the constant human - human conflicts distracting us from maximizing our production and potential . to summarize , unite knowledge and work better together .
( of holothuria fusus müller , 1776 ) madsen , f . j . ; hansen , b . ( 1994 ) . echinodermata holothurioidea . marine invertebrates of scandinavia , 9 . scandinavian university press : oslo , norway . isbn 82 - 00 - 03936 - 6 . 143 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
finet y . & snyder m . a . ( 2012 ) . illustrations and taxonomic placement of the recent fusus and fasciolaria in the lamarck collection of the muséum d’histoire naturelle , geneva ( caenogastropoda , buccinoidea , gastropoda ) . zootaxa . 3507 : 1 - 37 . page ( s ) : figs 10b - c [ details ]
( of holothuria fusus müller , 1776 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
snyder m . a . ( 2003 ) . catalogue of the marine gastropod family fasciolariidae . academy of natural sciences . of philadelphia , special publication . 21iii + 1–431 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
this page was last edited on 10 october 2017 , at 21 : 56 .
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müller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
distribution at depths of 10 to more than 20 m , in soft sediments with shell gravel , all round the britsh isles , except perhaps the . . .
( of thyone flexus hodge , 1865 ) hodge g . 1865 . report on the ecinodermata in the reports of the deep - sea dredging on the coast of northumberland and durham 1862 - 1864 , g . s . brady ( ed . ) . natural history transactions of northumberland and durham 1 : 42 - 45 [ details ]
( of holothuria papillosa abildgaard in müller , 1789 ) müller o . f . ( 1789 ) . zoologia danica seu animalium daniae et norvegiae rariorum ac minus notorum descriptiones et historia . volumen tertium : pp . [ 1 - 2 ] , 1 - 71 , pls . 81 - 120 . havniae [ copenhague ] , n . möller . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of holothuria penicillus müller , 1776 ) müller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of thyone subvillosa hérouard , 1889 ) hérouard , e . , 1889 . recherches sur les holothuries des côtes de france . archives zoologie expérimentale génerale . 2 : 535–704 . [ details ]
( of holothuria scotica dalyell , 1851 ) dalyell , john graham . ( 1853 ) . the powers of the creator displayed in the creation : or , observations on life amidst the various forms of the humbler tribes of animated nature with practical comments and illustrations . volume 2 [ vermes , etc ] pp . 359 . john van voorst . london . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of holothuria gaertneri de blainville , 1821 ) de blainville , hm . , 1821 , holothuries . dictionaire des sciences naturelles . 21 : 310–319 . [ details ]
( of semperia barroisi lampert , 1885 ) lampert , k . ( 1885 ) . die seewalzen ( holothurioidea ) . in : c . semper , ( ed . ) . reisen im archipel der philippinen . wiesbaden ( 2 ) 4 ( 3 ) : 1 - 312 , 1 pl . [ details ]
hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
southward , e . c . ; campbell , a . c . ( 2006 ) . [ echinoderms : keys and notes for the identification of british species ] . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , 56 . field studies council : shrewsbury , uk . isbn 1 - 85153 - 269 - 2 . 272 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
madsen , f . j . ; hansen , b . ( 1994 ) . echinodermata holothurioidea . marine invertebrates of scandinavia , 9 . scandinavian university press : oslo , norway . isbn 82 - 00 - 03936 - 6 . 143 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
dyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]
( of thyone subvillosa hérouard , 1889 ) madsen , f . j . ; hansen , b . ( 1994 ) . echinodermata holothurioidea . marine invertebrates of scandinavia , 9 . scandinavian university press : oslo , norway . isbn 82 - 00 - 03936 - 6 . 143 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of thyone subvillosa hérouard , 1889 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of thyone flexus hodge , 1865 ) madsen , f . j . ; hansen , b . ( 1994 ) . echinodermata holothurioidea . marine invertebrates of scandinavia , 9 . scandinavian university press : oslo , norway . isbn 82 - 00 - 03936 - 6 . 143 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of thyone flexus hodge , 1865 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of holothuria penicillus müller , 1776 ) hansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of holothuria penicillus müller , 1776 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of holothuria papillosa abildgaard in müller , 1789 ) hansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of holothuria papillosa abildgaard in müller , 1789 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
census of marine life ( 2012 ) . syndeep : towards a first global synthesis of biodiversity , biogeography and ecosystem function in the deep sea . unpublished data ( datasetid : 39 ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
html public
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urltoken
( dinoflagellates )
in dinokont dinoflagellates , a furrow encircling the cell one or many times
( horner 2002 ) . it is also known as the girdle or transverse groove and may be located at , above , or below the midpoint of the cell with the left and right ends meeting or displaced form one another ( horner 2002 ) . in diatoms , this term describes the collective elements of a diatom girdle :
the cingulum is made up of delicate silica bands that join the two valves of a frustule . most diatoms possess a cingulum , although some may not
( spaulding et al . 2010 ) .
( plural : thecae ) cell wall . in dinoflagellates , it is composed of cellulose plates within vesicles ( horner 2002 ) .
( plural : flagella ) a tail - like projection that sticks out from the cell body and enables movement .
an organelle in the cell that contains the cell pigments ( horner 2002 ) . this is where photosynthesis occurs . a chloroplast is a specialized chromatophore .
an organism that is both autotrophic ( photosynthesizes or chemosynthesizes ) and heterotrophic . that is , it can gain energy both from light ( or chemical ) energy and also by consuming other organisms . this allows such organisms to take advantage of different environmental conditions .
a rapid increase or accumulation of algal populations in an aquatic system . this will likely involve one or a few dominant phytoplankton species . this follows seasonal patterns ( i . e . , spring , summer or fall bloom ) with dominant species being those that are best adapted to the environmental conditions of that time period . discolouration of the water may be observed because of the algae ' s pigmentation . blooms are often green but may be yellow - brown or red depending on the species present .
the dissolved ion content of a body of water . can be measured in the following units : parts per thousand ( ppt or ‰ ) , practical salinity units ( psu ) , and absolute salinity ( g / kg ) . ppt is measured by weight , denoting the number of parts salt per thousand total parts or a value of 10 - 3 . psu measures the conductivity of saltwater and compares it in a ratio to a standard kcl solution ( because this is a ratio , salinity measured in this way can also be written without units ) . the newest unit of salinity is absolute salinity , which uses the mass fraction of salt in seawater ( g salt per kg seawater ) rather than its conductivity ( teos - 20 2010 ) .
in thecate dinoflagellates , the anterior part of a dinokont cell above the cingulum . the equivalent of epicone for naked dinoflagellates .
( axis , spine ) the region of the apex or point . refers to the most anterior point or region of the cell ( hpp 2003 ) .
the apical or antapical extensions found in some armoured dinoflagellates ; they contain cytoplasm , are covered in thecal plates and can be hollow or partially solid ( horner 2002 ) .
in thecate dinoflagellates , the posterior part of a dinokont cell above the cingulum . the equivalent of a hypocone for naked dinoflagellates .
referring to the most posterior point of a cell . the opposite of apical .
horn and a reduced right antapical horn ( montagnes 2006 ) . the right antapical horn is so reduced that it looks like a bump , often giving the cell a gentle curve .
in cold temperate to tropical waters ( horner 2002 ) . it is widely observed in sheltered waters in south china sea and the coast of hong kong ( red - tide 2012 ) .
a general term to describe chemical compounds containing silicon , oxygen and hydrogen with a general formula of [ sio x ( oh ) 4 - 2 x ] n . diatoms polymerize silicic acid into biogenic silica to form their frustules ( azam and chisholm 1976 ) .
( pycno - dense ; - cline gradient ) the depth in the water column at which the density changes rapidly . this density gradient can be caused by temperature ( thermocline ) , salinity ( halocline ) or both . because of the difference in density , bodies of water will often stay as distinct layers and not mix .
the development of distinct non - mixing layers in the water column resulting from a steep gradient in density , which is caused by differences in temperature and / or salinity .
referring to a water system from the surface to the bottom sediments . this can be used to understand processes of stratification , mixing and their relationship to nutrient transport . temperature , salinity , ph , and nutrient levels often vary along the length of the water column .
horner , r . a . 2002 . a taxonomic guide to some common phytoplankton . biopress limited , dorset press , dorchester , uk . 200 .
montagnes , d . 2006 . guide to harmful phytoplankton . university of liverpool , uk . urltoken accessed 17 jan 2012 .
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welcome to the website for the harvard and greater boston fuṣūṣ al - ḥikam reading and translation seminar . on the right , you will find relevant links in order to follow the course .
as i read , i thought with some dismay , and some amusement , that the adherents of the koran and the bible might be divided into two groups : those who appoint themselves as agents of divine anger , and those who understand themselves as called to be agents of divine mercy . as never before , i thought of the unimaginable distance between god ' s anger and god ' s love - and of the speed with which christians sometimes move from god ' s presumed anger at other people to his presumptive love for themselves .
to think of oneself as an agent of god ' s anger is exceedingly attractive ; perhaps this is the temptation that the lord ' s prayer appeals to god not to lead us into . there are certain intense pleasures in anger , especially if one ' s own anger can be presumed to coincide with god ' s , and also in the use of an angry self - righteousness as a standard by which to condemn other people . this is a pleasure necessarily founded on the shallowest sort of self - knowledge . there is much comedy in this ( as shakespeare , for one , knew well ) , and also great tragedy . it is evidently possible to indulge one ' s anger , justifying it as god ' s , and relying on god ' s mercy hereafter - but that seems to bet against great odds , and with hell to pay here and now for a lot of people . for those who appoint themselves agents of god ' s anger , there can be only diversion and strife until the end of time .
to take up , by contrast , the agency of god ' s mercy seems to involve one in a labor of self - knowledge and then knowledge of others that is endlessly humbling . this perhaps is a comedy of another kind : we ourselves are in need of those things we are called upon to give to others : compassion , forgiveness , mercy . and unless we give them , we cannot receive them . god ' s mercy is of interest to us only in the light of our recognition of our need for it . those who accept the agency of god ' s mercy , understanding their own need for it as the index of the need for others , must forbear their anger and talk together (
hold discourse
in the language of dr . shah - kazemi ' s translation ) until the end of time , for god ' s mercy is a mystery never to be fully known or enacted by humans .
department of oceanography , college of ocean and red tide research center , kunsan national university . kunsan , south korea .
dinophysis – a planktonic dinoflagellate genus which can act both as a prey and a predator of a ciliate .
marine biological laboratory , university of copenhagen , strandpromenaden 5 , dk - 3000 helsinger , denmark .
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kilburn , r . n . 1972 . taxonomic notes on south african marine mollusca ( 2 ) , with the description of new species and subspecies of conus , nassarius , vexillum and demoulia . annals of the natal museum 21 ( 2 ) : 391 - 437 , 15 figs . [ details ]
fraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . [ details ]
turton w . ( 1834 ) . description of some nondescript and rare british species of shells . magazine of natural history 7 : 350 - 353 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 351 [ details ]
gofas , s . ; luque , á . a . ; templado , j . ; salas , c . ( 2017 ) . a national checklist of marine mollusca in spanish waters . scientia marina . 81 ( 2 ) : 241 - 254 , and supplementary online material . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
fischer , p . ( 1884 [
1883
] ) . diagnoses d ' espèces nouvelles de mollusques recueillis dans le cours de l ' expédition scientifique du
talisman . journal de conchyliologie . 31 : 391 - 394 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 391 - 392 [ details ]
dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution à l ' étude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies françaises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . société d ' editions géographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
body ovoid , tappering at both ends but the posterior end not ressembling a long ' tail ' ; up to 200 mm in length ; coloured whitish , pinkish or brown .
are scattered over the whole body , but may be arranged in more or less distinct longitudinal series .
formed by 2 rods which unite at their upper end , and which sometimes bear thorns . the tables are also found in the
sheltered sites . this species is usually found on shell bottoms where it covers itself with shell fragments or / and mud ; from 10 - 615 m .
in the north sea this species is known from the shetland islands down to northumberland on the british east coast . elsewhere it is distributed from norway to madeira and the mediterranean .
species are very similar in shape and some species names could turned out to be synonyms .
mortensen , t . h . , 1927 . handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles . humphrey milford , oxford university press : 471 pp .
moyse , j . & p . a . tyler , 1990 . echinodermata . in : p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ( eds ) : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe , volume 2 , molluscs to chordates . clarendon press , oxford : 839 - 871 .
picton , b . e . , 1993 . a field guide to the shallow - water echinoderms of the british isles . immel publishing : 96 pp .


the makira woodhen ( gallinula silvestris ) , also known as the makira moorhen , is a species of bird in the family rallidae .

it is endemic to solomon islands .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

makira woodhen

makira woodhen ( gallinula silvestris ) is a species of bird in the rallidae family .
makira ( san cristobal ) , in se solomon is ; no recent records .
an interview with a local hunter provided plausible evidence of , and detailed description of , a bird that sounds like a makira moorhen being sighted , and killed , in east makira less than 3 years previous . a second , rather more sketchy and less detailed story of a makira moorhen being sighted in 2011 was also relayed to the team . these add to 3 other reports from hunters of birds in similarly wild , remote areas of the east makira forest this century .
2007 ) . in 2015 a team coordinated by the solomon islands community conservation partnership gathered possible records from local hunters . a local bird book ( manu i makira ) that includes an illustration of the species , was distributed to all schools in makira - ulawa province ( t . davies
last recorded in 1953 but reported by hunters in more recent times , the elusive makira moorhen is thought unlikely to have gone extinct , although any remnant population is likely to be tiny .
critically endangered . restricted - range species : endemic to the island of makira ( san cristobal ) and present in solomon group eba . known only from the holotype , collected in . . .
encourage tighter controls of commercial logging . improve local awareness of endemic bird fauna . support the continuation and extension of community - based sustainable use programmes in the mountains . establish community - based protected areas on makira .
taylor , b . , de juana , e . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . makira moorhen ( pareudiastes silvestris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the specimen was taken at 600 m and the 1953 sighting was at c . 450 m in the central ranges of makira . hunters reported that it was flightless but climbed into bushes to escape dogs . these records are from rainforest on steep , rocky hills with many small rivers but no standing water ( cain and galbraith 1956 , taylor and van perlo 1998 ) . subsequent local reports have been from similar habitat , but there are also some reports from lowland forest ( dutson 2016 , mittermeier
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
pareudiastes silvestris ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was previously placed in the genus gallinula .
27 cm . medium - sized , almost tail - less , flightless rail . black plumage with bluish gloss on head and neck and brown wash to mantle and wings . red legs and bill . blue - grey frontal shield .
has white undertail - coverts and frontal shield concolorous with bill . rufous - tailed water - hen
unknown . in 2004 , calls thought possibly to belong to this species were reported . they were of a cat - like meowing sound
this species has not been directly recorded by western scientists since 1953 despite recent surveys lasting several weeks . however local hunters and villagers report the species as extant but very rare . the already small population is likely to have declined further as a result of depredation by introduced mammalian predators . any remaining population is likely to be tiny , and for these reasons it is treated as critically endangered .
. the 1929 collectors failed to secure more specimens and concluded that the species was already rare ( taylor and van perlo 1998 ) . in 1953 , it was reported to be well - known to guides from ghoghe village and to be not uncommon ( cain and galbraith 1956 ) . some hunters and residents of hill villages and coastal villages on the southern weather coast report encountering this species very rarely , usually when caught or treed by dogs ( j . m . diamond
any surviving population assumed to be tiny ( numbering fewer than 50 individuals and mature individuals ) , with no confirmed recent reports , despite several weeks of surveys .
, but no evidence of it was found there in a very brief survey in 1998 and this is not consistent with local reports that it is a forest species ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 )
discussions with local people in the wainoni districts ( conducted by t . davies in 2012 ) revealed that while most people knew of the bird , none had seen it for themselves . discussions with local people and interviews with local hunters between 400 m and 1 , 000 m elevation around hauta in the central mountain ranges , in 2006 , failed to find evidence of this species ( c . filardi
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26·5 cm ( 1 male ) ; 450 g . male entirely plain : head , neck and breast dark bluish slate , almost blackish on chin and face ; scapulars , wing - coverts and secondaries brown - . . .
dense undergrowth of primeval mountain forest on steep slopes ; type specimen obtained at altitude . . .
no information : diet of possibly extinct p . pacificus , of similar habitat , was apparently almost entirely animal matter .
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usually included within gallinula , but differs in structure of bill , skull and tarsus , and in plumage pattern .
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camps were established at three separate locations during the fieldwork – the third of which was located in good quality native forest - where vilikesa masibalavu was able to join the team . unfortunately , the weather deteriorated during the time at the third camp , making observations difficult . however , automatic cameras were set – and we are looking forward to checking any resulting images .
reuben has retrieved the cameras and relocated them at another prime remote forest area . accessing these forests and locating the cameras is , itself , a considerable task . hopefully we will be able to repeat this exercise on another 3 or 4 occasions – check the images , not just for the moorhen but also for any local undescribed native solomys rats that are thought to be present , and also to develop an index of the number of introduced ground predators , such as rats , cats and pigs , that might be present in the forest . we will use the findings from the camera traps to identify a further site for a second field trip in the new year .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
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aceria chondrillae ( chondrilla gall mite , skeletonweed gall mite ) is a gall forming deuterogynous , eriophyid ( mite ) often used as a biological control of the noxious weed , chondrilla juncea ( rush skeletonweed ) , a highly competitive herbaceous perennial composite found in europe , asia , australia and north america .

aceria chondrillae

cambridge journal . biology and host specificity of the chondrilla gall mite aceria chondrillae ( g . can . ) ( acarina , eriophyidae )
chapter 4 . 1 biological control of weeds 4 . 1 . 1 aceria , epitrimerus and aculus species and biological control of weeds
biology of the root coccid , neomargarodes chondrillae [ hem . : margarodidae ] , living on chondrilla juncea and related plants
chapter 4 . 1 biological control of weeds 4 . 1 . 1 aceria , epitrimerus and aculus species and biological control of weeds - sciencedirect
biology of the root coccid , neomargarodes chondrillae [ hem . : margarodidae ] , living on chondrilla juncea and related plants | springerlink
ect were 3 . 4 times more likely to produce rosettes than those growing on northern aspects . our data suggest that a . chondrillae population densities are limited by its high winter mortality . the gall mites may require fall rosettes to successfully survive the winter , which are commonly absent on north - facing aspects , impairing the efficacy of a . chondrillae to control rush skeletonweed in the intermountain western united states .
mclellan pw , 1991 . the effects of mowing on the efficacy of the , gall mite , eriophyes chondrillae , on rush skeletonweed , chondrilla juncea . master of science thesis . washington , usa : washington state university .
surveys for natural enemies were conducted by lecheva and stantcheva ( 2003 ) in bulgaria between 2000 and 2002 also revealed mordellistens sp . , schinia cognata [ adonisea cognata ] , coptocephala scopolina , cytiphora schmidtii , bradyrrhoa gilveollela , mylabris sp . and a . chondrillae and fungi belonging to the genera alternaria , leveilulla and fusarium .
littlefield jl ( 2004 ) spatial distribution and seasonal life history of aceria malherbae ( acari : eriophyidae ) on convolvulus arvensis in montana , usa . in : cullen jm , briese dt , kriticos dj , lonsdale wm , morin l , scott jk ( eds ) proceedings of the xi international symposium on biological control of weeds , 4–8 may , 2003 , csiro entomology , canberra , australia , p 607
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like other reefs throughout the world , our great barrier reef is under pressure . learn more about what we ' re doing to protect it .
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we all share responsibility for protecting washington state from noxious weeds . this site can help you learn how to do your part .
not sure what weed you have ? use our identification tool to search our database of noxious weeds .
noxious weeds are invasive , non - native plants that threaten agricultural crops , local ecosystems , or fish & wildlife habitats .
about half of all invasive , noxious weeds are escapees from gardens ; the rest are plants accidentally introduced to washington through human travel and trade .
noxious weeds crowd out desirable forage for cattle , sheep , goats , horses , or other livestock . some noxious weeds , such as yellow starthistle , also have spines that can injure livestock . several are also toxic to livestock if eaten , many even retaining their toxicity when dried and baled in hay .
noxious weeds can reduce fishing opportunities for anglers as they can make habitats less hospitable for fish and can reduce the oxygen level in the water , which can suffocate fish .
some noxious weeds are toxic to humans ! contact with giant hogweed ' s sap , which is on top of the quarantine list this year , can leave painful , third - degree burns .
if you think you have ingested toxic plants , call 911 , please go to the emergency room , or contact the washington poison center at 1 - 800 - 222 - 1222 .
noxious weeds take over native plant communities and change the habitat upon which wildlife depend for food and shelter . the lack of forage forces them to search elsewhere for food and affects hunting and wildlife viewing opportunities .
noxious weeds negatively impact trail riding opportunities . himalayan blackberry both blocks trails and can cause injury due to its sharp thorns . puncturevine ' s sharp - spined seeds can rip right through tires , stick to shoes , pierce the paws of dogs , and really hurt when touched , making it a serious nuisance for bicyclists , hikers , dogs , and other park visitors .
many aquatic and wetland noxious weeds degrade aquatic habitat . for example , parrotfeather forms dense mats that choke streams and ponds , reduce water flow and oxygen levels in the water , and displace native aquatic plant communities , which had provided valuable habitat for fish , amphibians , invertebrates , and other wildlife .
many noxious weeds such as knapweeds , leafy spurge , and scotch thistle can convert rangeland and grassland , which contain a rich array of native grasses and wildflowers , into monocultures that are less palatable for grazing animals .
shade - tolerant species such as garlic mustard can rapidly outcompete native plants and reduce the forest understory biodiversity . woody vines like white bryony scramble up trees and make them weak and vulnerable . fast - growing shrubs like english hawthorn can form dense stands that displace native woodland shrubs and regenerating trees .
many noxious weeds and other invasive plants such as cheatgrass produce more dry biomass than the native plants they displace , creating a serious fire hazard . noxious weeds like scotch broom and dalmatian toadflax are often among the first species to emerge following these devastating wildfires .
many noxious weeds can significantly reduce property values . once noxious weeds monopolize rangeland and farmland , it can be very expensive to control the plants and restore the land back to a functional condition .
fast - growing invasive plants can transform riverbanks by restricting access to water , increasing soil erosion , displacing native vegetation , reducing available sunlight , and altering the nutrient cycle . the degradation of habitat caused by noxious weeds pose a serious threat to our native plants as well as salmon and other wildlife .
noxious weeds are also costly in suburban and urban areas . invasive knotweeds can damage infrastructure by growing through pavement , pipes , and septic systems . scrambling vines such as english ivy and white bryony can down trees and powerlines and cause structural damage to fences . they also harbor rats and other vermin .
noxious weeds cost farmers , ranchers , and orchardists millions of dollars in control efforts and lost crop production , which can contribute to higher prices of food for all of us .
noxious weeds on roadsides are more than just an eyesore ! they also reduce visibility and utility right - of - way access . additionally , noxious weeds on roadways aid to facilitate the movement of noxious weeds to other parts of our state and even to other states .
the majority of forested land in washington is commercial timberland and some noxious weeds interfere with the reforestation process . for example , it was estimated in 2014 that scotch broom alone cost oregon $ 44 . 8 million in reduced timber production per year .
submerged and floating - leaved aquatic noxious weeds can form dense mats that limit swimming areas and can even pose a drowning hazard . they also block waterways for boaters and paddlers , clog boat propellers , and plant fragments infest new water bodies by clinging to boats , trailers , and equipment .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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canestrini , g . 1891 ,
richerche intorno ai fitoptidi
, atti della società veneto - trentina di scienze naturali , padova , vol . 12 , pp . 40 - 61 pls vi - vii
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9a496877 - 5169 - 432c - 890a - 0108682da382
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b35151b5 - 8fca - 4114 - bb80 - 93e01a625064
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : bc1f9ad0 - cf30 - 4210 - 98df - b54f67661ebd
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ea974a89 - 9294 - 4b8f - b935 - 9d14d06136d3
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f4f5d0cb - f0e3 - 4fd4 - 8c77 - a3cd480a402a
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fe379c92 - 3c0e - 4045 - beea - 340c8972ab04
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 57602e83 - 0e73 - 4599 - 8af1 - c306cbfc36df
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 336278
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transfer to release site immediately ; mites will exit plant material as it dessicates .
, was found to be highly damaging , its attacks on the rootstock of skeleton weed caused it to split , and reduced the viability of the plant . in n . w . iran the coccid plays an important role in the reduction of
populations in nature . the biology and ecology of the coccid were studied . under field conditions
, so that its use in biological control would pose risks to certain cultivated plants .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
this work conducted whilst located at csiro biological control unit , tehran , iran .
était un des agents causant les plus grands dommages à cette plante . ses attaques sur les rhizomes les font se fendiller et réduisent ainsi la viabilité de la plante . dans le nord ouest de l ' iran la cochenille joue un rôle important dans la réduction des peuplements naturels de
. une étude fut faite sur la biologie et l ' écologie de cette cochenille . cependant , dans des conditions naturelles
, il semble que son utilisation en lutte biologique puisse être préjudiciable à certaines plantes cultivées .
scale insect , its life - cycle and its role in the formation of calluses . —
— 1970 . a method to measure the percentage of attack of organisms in the field .
and biological control of multiflora rose . in : lindquist ee , sabelis mw , bruin j ( eds ) eriophyoid mites—their biology , natural enemies and control , vol 6 . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 741–749
amrine jw jr ( 2002 ) multiflora rose . in : van driesche r , lyon s , blossey b , hoddle m , reardon r ( eds ) biological control of invasive plants in the eastern united states . usda forest service publication fhtet - 2002 - 04 , pp 265–292
amrine jw jr , stasny ta ( 1994 ) catalog of the eriophyoidea ( acarina : prostigmata ) of the world . indira publishing house , michigan
amrine jw jr , hindal df , williams r , appel j , stasny t , kassar a ( 1990 ) rose rosette as a biocontrol of multiflora rose , 1987–1989 . in : proceedings of the 43rd annual meeting of the southern weed science society , pp 316–320
andres la ( 1983 ) considerations in the use of phytophagous mites for the biological control of weeds . in : hoy ma , cunningham gl , knutson l ( eds ) biological control of pests by mites . univ calif agri exp stn special publ 3304 : 53–60
pet . populations . in : kropczynska d , boczek j , tomczyk a ( eds ) the acari , physiological and ecological aspects of acari - host relationships . oficyna dabor , warszawa , pp 163–171
bergh jc ( 2001 ) ecology and aerobiology of dispersing citrus rust mites ( acari : eriophyidae ) in central florida . environ entomol 30 ( 2 ) : 318–326
boczek j ( 1995 ) eriophyid mites ( acari : eriophyoidea ) as agents of biological weed control . in : kropczynska d , boczek j , tomczyk a ( eds ) the acari , physiological and ecological aspects of acari - host relationships . oficyna dabor , warszawa , pp 601–606
boczek j , chyczewski j ( 1978 ) eriophyid mites ( acarina : eriophyoidea ) occurring on weed plants in poland . rcz nauk rolnb , ser e 7 ( 1 ) : 109–114
( acari : eriophyidae ) i mozliwosci wykorzystania tego szpeciela do zwalczania bylicy . materiay sesji instytutu ochrony roslin 35 ( 2 ) : 138–140
boczek jh , petanović r ( 1996 ) eriophyid mites as agents for the biological control of weeds . in : moran vc , hoffmann jh ( eds ) proceedings of the ix international symposium on biological control of weeds , 19–26 january 1996 , stellenbosch , south africa , university of cape town , pp 127–131
( acari : eriophyidae ) for control of field bindweed in texas . environ entomol 22 ( 1 ) : 234–237
briese dt ( 2006 ) host specificity testing of weed biological control agents : initial attempts to modernize the centrifugal phylogenetic method . in : hoddle ms , johnson mw ( eds ) proceedings of the fifth california conference on biological control , 25–27 july 2006 , the historic mission inn , riverside , california , pp 32–39
briese dt , cullen jm ( 2001 ) the use and usefulness of mites in biological control of weeds . in : halliday rb , walter de , proctor hc , norton ra , colloff mj ( eds ) acarology : proceedings of the 10th international congress . csiro publishing , melbourne , pp 453–463
nuzzaci ( acarina : eriophyiidae [ sic ] ) , a gall - forming eriophyid mite , for infestation of field bindweed . southwest entomol 28 : 273–280
in south - eastern australia . j appl ecol 18 ( 3 ) : 957–966
cabi ( 2008 ) weed biological control quarterly report 30 september 2008 . cabi europe–switzerland , delémont
( g . can . ) ( acarina , eriophyoidea ) : redescription and outlines of biology and damage . ] ricerche sulle cause di deperimento e moria dello
( g . can . ) ( acarina , eriophyoidea ) : ridescrizione , cenni di biologia e danni . redia 61 : 539–550
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c . juncea is a herbaceous biennial or perennial plant native to parts of western europe , north africa and central asia . it was accidentally introduced into a number of regions around the world as a contaminant . . .
©eric coombs / oregon department of agriculture / bugwood . org - cc by 3 . 0 us
chondrilla juncea ( rush skeletonweed ) ; habit , showing stem base with spines . usa . july 2004 .
chondrilla juncea ( rush skeletonweed ) ; close - up of flowers and stem . usa .
chondrilla juncea ( rush skeletonweed ) ; close - up of seeds ( with ' beak ' removed ) . usa .
©d . walters & c . southwick / table grape weed disseminule id , usda aphis itp / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us
chondrilla is a genus of flowering plants , belonging to the daisy family or compositae ( formerly asteraceae ) . the genus has 106 scientific plant names of species rank , of which , 41 are accepted species names ( the plant list , 2013 ) . c . juncea was first described by linnaeus in 1753 and is the most well - documented species in the genus . c . juncea is known by several common names including the rush skeletonweed , gum succory , devil ' s grass and nakedweed .
revealed a total of 13 different genotypes from australia , argentina and north america and 682 genotypes from the native range .
the origin of c . juncea is thought to be near the caspian sea , from where it spread to the mediterranean and central europe . its native range is considered to be between 35° and 55° n latitude from western europe and north africa to central asia ( mcvean , 1966 ) . the plant is known throughout most temperate regions of the world as an introduced species and is usually considered a noxious weed . c . juncea is reported to be invasive in argentina , australia , canada , new zealand , south africa and the usa .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
) . it is currently present in california , delaware georgia , idaho , indiana , maryland , michigan , montana , new jersey , new york , oregon , pennsylvania , virginia , washington and west virginia . in 2012 , it was estimated that
in canada , the weed is only present in british columbia and ontario ( usda - fs , 2015 ) .
c . juncea was accidentally introduced into australia around 1910 . it was known near waga wagga in 1913 but was not formerly identified until 1917 . c . juncea spread rapidly throughout the wheat belt of southeastern australia . it is currently recorded in new south wales , northern territory , queensland , south australia , tasmania , victoria and western australia ( mclellan , 1991 ; parsons and cuthbertson , 1992 ) .
in south africa , c . juncea was introduced for ornamental purposes but in 2003 it was recorded in a maize field in mtati village in the eastern cape ( sanbi , 2015 ) .
a molecular study by gaskin et al . ( 2013 ) revealed that few introduction events into australia , north america and argentina took place . as a result there are fewer genotypes of this species present within its introduced range when compared to its native range ; 13 and 682 genotypes respectively .
c . juncea can produce a large number of seeds asexually which are dispersed over long distances by the wind . it can also spread more locally from vegetative growth from root fragments . this species is unlikely to be intentionally introduced into new areas as it has little economical / environmental importance . it may however , be accidentally introduced as a contaminant of hay or machinery for example .
favours disturbed land such as those weakened by drought , overgrazing , cultivation and wildfires . as such it is found on wasteland and in fallow and abandoned fields , along disturbed roadsides and eroded ground (
) . it also grows well along riverbanks and dry river beds and sand dunes .
prefers coarse - textured , well - drained soils such as sand dunes and granite outcrops but can be found on a wide range of soil types except heavy clay soils . in its native range it grows on calcareous or mildly acid soils (
in australia and argentina , c . juncea is a major problem of wheat fields and can reduce yields by 80 % .
the genus chondrilla has a basic chromosome number of five . c . juncea is triploid ( 2n = 15 ) ( mcvean , 1966 ) . a number of distinct biotypes have been recognised , these are of particular concern in respect to control of this weed using biological methods .
) . overwintering occurs as rosettes and new growth begins in the spring . germination of seeds occurs over a wide range of temperatures from autumn to spring ( 7 - 40°c ) (
in its native range , c . juncea is often described as a biennial or short - lived perennial ( 3 - 4 years ) . in australia , its invasive range , it is described as a perennial living up to 20 years ( usda - fs , 2015 ) .
c . juncea can grow on disturbed soils and is not tolerant of shade . it is able to tolerate a wide temperature range . in australia , panetta and mitchell ( 1991 ) document a temperature range of 4 - 30 . 7°c for c . juncea . however optimal conditions include cool winters with warm summers ( jacobs et al . , 2009 ) . it is present in areas with precipitation ranging from 23 - 150 cm and from sea level to 6 , 000 m . the growth of c . juncea is limited by the availability of calcium and phosphorus in the soil ( mcvean , 1966 ) . in australia it has been recorded on soils with ph ranges from 4 . 5 - 8 .