pseudophilotes sinaicus , the sinai baton blue , one of the world 's smallest butterflies , lives only on mountainside patches of wild thyme in an arid corner of the sinai peninsula in egypt called saint katherine protectorate .

pseudophilotes sinaicus

assessing the conservation status of the sinai baton blue butterfly ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) .
thyme and isolation for the sinai baton blue butterfly ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) . - pubmed - ncbi
monitoring of the endemic sinai baton blue butterfly pseudophilotes sinaicus in the st katherine pro . . .
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pseudophilotes sinaicus nakamura , 1975 ; j . ent . ( b ) 44 ( 3 ) : 283 - 295 ; tl : st . katherine protectorate , south sinai
a . thompson k and gilbert f ( 2012 ) pseudophilotes sinaicus . in : iucn ( 2012 ) iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 . urltoken .
pseudophilotes bavius casimiri , the most differentiated subspecies of the p . bavius species - group . pseudophilotes fatma , a distinct species ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae , scolitantiditi )
1 . thompson k , gilbert f . 2012 . pseudophilotes sinaicus . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 3 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 10 march 2015
pseudophilotes vicrama cashmirensis ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
james , m . , gilbert , f . and zalat , s . ( 2003 ) thyme and isolation for the sinai baton blue butterfly ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) . oecologia , 134 : 445 - 453 .
pseudophilotes ( inderskia ) panope ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
pseudophilotes ( inderskia ) marina ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
= subgenus inderskia ( pseudophilotes ) ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
pseudophilotes ( scolitantidina ) ; stradomsky , 2016 , caucasian ent . bull . 12 ( 1 ) : 151
pseudophilotes abencerragus felix manil , 2006 ; bull . lepid . parisiens fr . 15 ( 34 ) : 58
1 . james m , gilbert f and zalat s ( 2003 ) thyme and isolation for the sinai baton blue butterfly ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) . oecologia 134 : 445 - 453 . doi 10 . 1007 / s00442 - 002 - 1123 - 1
pseudophilotes vicrama pallida ; [ bru2 ] , 146 ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
pseudophilotes bavius bavius ; [ bru2 ] , 147 ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80
5 . gilbert f , rashad s , kamel m , ismail aed , james m , zalat s . 2010 . monitoring of the endemic sinai baton blue butterfly pseudophilotes sinaicus in the st katherine protectorate , south sinai . egyptian journal of biology , 12 : 18 - 26
pseudophilotes bavius onalpae koçak , 1975 ; atalanta 6 : 51 ; tl : ankara prov . , beynam , ca . 1200m
pseudophilotes vicrama schiffermuelleri [ sic , recte schiffermulleri ] ; korb & bolshakov , 2011 , eversmannia suppl . 2 : 80 ; [ fe ]
pseudophilotes bavius eitschbergeri koçak , 1975 ; atalanta 6 : 50 ; tl : se . turkey , urfa prov . , camlidere , ca . 700m
gilbert , f . , rashad , s . , kamel , m . , el - din ismail , a . , james , m . and zalat , s . ( 2010 ) monitoring of the endemic sinai baton blue butterfly pseudophilotes sinaicus in the st katherine protectorate , south sinai . egyptian journal of biology , 12 : 18 - 26 .
3 . gilbert f , rashad s , kamel m , el din ia , james m and zalat s ( 2010 ) monitoring of the endemic sinai baton blue butterfly pseudophilotes sinaicus in the st katherine protectorate , south sinai . egyptian journal of biology 12 : 18 - 26 . a pdf copy of this article is available and can be provided .
pseudophilotes bavius vanicola koçak , 1977 ; atalanta 8 ( 1 ) : 47 ; tl : van prov . , vic . of çatak , ca . 2000m
pseudophilotes abencerragus ; [ bmat ] : 37 , pl . 11 , f . 60 - 68 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ fe ] ; [ afrl ]
the distribution of the narrowly endemic butterfly pseudophilotes sinaicus ( lycaenidae ) was studied . potential habitat within its range was first located and then the quality of that habitat assessed . degree of shelter , diversity of plant species , and resource area of an individual food plant ( thymus decussatus ) all affected habitat quality and together were used to develop an index of habitat . . . [ show full abstract ]
the effects of climate change and habitat destruction and their interaction are likely to be the greatest challenge to animal and plant conservation in the twenty first century . we used the world ' s smallest butterfly , the sinai baton blue ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) , as an exemplar of how global warming and human population pressures may act together to cause species extinctions . we mapped the . . . [ show full abstract ]
a diminutive butterfly found only in a tiny part of sinai , egypt , the sinai baton blue ( pseudophilotes sinaicus ) may potentially be the world’s smallest butterfly species . the upperside of the male’s wing is a brilliant blue , while that of the female is dark brown . both the male and female sinai baton blue have a distinct black bar on the wing , and black fringing with a white border ( 3 ) .
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critically endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv , v ) c ( iv ) + 2ab ( i , ii , iii , iv , v ) c ( iv ) ver 3 . 1
) has a very restricted distribution . it is confined to high elevation areas of the mt sinai massif in egypt , with an extent of occurrence ( eoo ) no greater than 7 km² and an area of occupancy ( aoo ) less than 2 km² . its distribution is sufficiently small as to be considered a single , fragmented , location which could be threatened by a single drought event . droughts have already had devastating implications for this species and its host plants over the past decade . the distribution of this butterfly is limited by that of its host plant , which has a highly fragmented distribution and which is subject to ongoing human exploitation . there is a continuing decline in habitat quality for this species ; for example , between 2002 and 2010 the patch with the highest local population size of
lost 43 . 4 % of its resource area , along with the death of 53 % of the plant individuals and a reduction in average condition of the surviving plants ( k . thompson unpublished data ) . climate change is projected to further reduce the eoo and aoo of this species , which is limited to high - elevation habitats . there are also extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals : population survey data for a single patch between 2002 to 2010 show that the species undergoes dramatic population cycles with severe crashes every three years . such fluctuations could lead to stochastic local and global extinction ( gilbert
the sinai baton blue is endemic to egypt , occurring only at altitudes above 1 , 800 m within the ring dyke of st katherine protectorate , with its stronghold on gebel safsafa , the massif of mt sinai . the entire known extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is about 7 km² ; its area of occupancy ( aoo ) is less than 2 km² .
the butterfly has been found to live on 25 of the 39 discrete patches of the host plant , existing in a classic metapopulation . because of the small area and the prevailing threats , this makes up a single location . in 2001 , the total global population size was estimated at approximately 2 , 300 adults .
from surveys conducted over consecutive years in a single patch , the species has been inferred to undergo severe fluctuations . this is based on observed tenfold population increases between 2009–2010 , and ninefold decreases observed in the 2002–2003 season . it is likely that fluctuations such as these are characteristic of the population as a whole , since they reflect environmental stochasticity acting at a range - wide scale rather than deterministic local habitat changes or demographic stochasticity within a patch .
the larvae feed exclusively on the flowers of sinai thyme ( thymus decussatus ) benth . , 1834 ( labiatae ) , which is a near - endemic to the ring dyke and the nearby asir mountains of saudi arabia . the caterpillar has a facultative relationship with the ant lepisiota which it appeases with sugar solution , and which in return protects the caterpillar from predatory ants such as crematogaster . adults are observed in a single generation during april–july but are poor dispersers due to their small size ( james 2006a , b ) .
anthropogenic climate change is a current threat to this species : with the host plant already restricted to mountain tops , any increase in temperature is likely to lead to a reduction in available habitat for this butterfly ( hoyle and james 2005 ) . climate change around the mediterranean basin is likely to result in a 2ºc temperature rise along with an additional month of drought each year , resulting in a reduction in available resources for the butterfly and larvae . the butterfly exists in a metapopulation and is threatened by increasing fragmentation / habitat isolation , whilst small population size also increases its extinction risk . other threats include yearly environmental variation in this butterfly ' s host plant (
) , with a 40 % reduction in the number of inflorescences noted between years . this would have a direct impact on the survival of the species ( hoyle and james 2005 ) . its host plant has been threatened by over - collection for medicinal purposes , and is currently listed as endangered in the 1997 iucn plants red list ( walter and gillett 1998 ) . hoyle and james ( 2005 ) also include overgrazing as a threat , but this is now not thought to be a significant threat ; on the contrary , grazing might actually be required to maintain plant vigour .
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the sinai baton blue butterfly hints at how animals will respond to climate change .
although they limited their study to the butterfly , hoyle says their work could easily apply to other species .
there is no reason why this kind of thing wouldn ' t apply to other endangered endemic species
like polar bears , he says .
they don ' t have anywhere farther north to go .
the sinai baton blue occurs only in one tiny area in southern sinai , egypt .
both the adult sinai baton blue and its caterpillar feed almost exclusively on sinai thyme .
the underside of the wing of the sinai baton blue is identical in both the male and female , with black spots on both wings and orange spots on the hind wing ( 3 ) .
the sinai baton blue caterpillar is usually bright green with a double row of yellow - green markings and a small black head , and its body is covered in short white hairs . the pupa is a uniform light brown , and measures around six millimetres in length ( 2 ) .
the main flight period of the sinai baton blue , when the adults are active , is from may to mid - june . due to its small size , the adult butterfly is relatively sedentary , rarely flying more than 50 metres ( 4 ) . the adults of this species feed almost exclusively on the nectar of sinai thyme ( t . decussatus ) , but will also occasionally feed on nectar from other plants ( 2 ) .
the female sinai baton blue lays around 26 eggs on average , depositing each one individually on a sinai thyme inflorescence . the tiny white eggs measure approximately 0 . 5 millimetres in diameter and hatch after a few days . the larval development stage is presumed to take approximately 21 days , during which time the larva goes through a series of moults . the larvae of the sinai baton blue are relatively immobile , remaining on the plant on which the eggs were laid and feeding on its buds and flowers , before pupating in the soil below . the pupae remain in the soil over winter , hatching into adults in the following year ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
the caterpillars of the sinai baton blue sometimes associate with ants , which protect and tend to them . in return , the caterpillars secrete sugary droplets that the ants consume ( 2 ) .
the sinai baton blue is endemic to the st katherine protectorate , southern sinai , egypt , where it occurs only at elevations above 1 , 800 metres . the entire world distribution of this species occupies a mere seven square kilometres ( 1 ) .
the distribution of the sinai baton blue is dependent on its host plant , as the larvae feed exclusively on the buds and flowers of sinai thyme ( thymus decussatus ) . this plant has a patchy distribution , growing best in well - defined soils , restricting the sinai baton blue to 25 thyme patches ( 4 ) .
within these areas , the sinai baton blue prefers sheltered patches with relatively large thyme plants ( 4 ) .
the sinai baton blue is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the sinai baton blue and its host plant have been marooned on the sinai mountaintops by climate change over the last 5 , 000 years , as they inhabit a very harsh , arid , mountainous environment which in many years has little or no rainfall ( 6 ) . further changes to the climate caused by human activities may result in even greater reductions in the available habitat for this species ( 1 ) .
other threats to the sinai baton blue include human disturbance and collection of the host plant for medicinal purposes , which are likely to reduce available resources and push both the butterfly and its host plant towards extinction ( 6 ) .
the rangers in the st katherine protectorate have also tried to increase public awareness for this tiny butterfly , which is considered to be a flagship species for the area ( 8 ) .
information supplied and authenticated ( 03 / 07 / 2012 ) by katy thompson , phd student , university of nottingham . urltoken
endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . inflorescence the reproductive shoot of a plant , which bears a group or cluster of flowers . larva immature stage in an animal’s lifecycle , after it hatches from an egg and before it changes into the adult form . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but are usually unable to reproduce . larval of or relating to the immature stage in an animal’s lifecycle , after it hatches from an egg and before it changes into the adult form . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but are usually unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . pupa in some insects , a stage in the life cycle during which the larval form is reorganised into the adult form . the pupa is usually inactive , and may be encased in a chrysalis , cocoon or other protective coating . pupation the process of becoming a pupa , the stage in the life cycle of some insects during which the larval form is reorganised into the adult form . the pupa is usually inactive , and may be encased in a chrysalis , cocoon or other protective coating .
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seu , ceu - sw . siberia , c . siberia . see [ maps ]
claraesimilis ( verity , 1943 ) ( philotes ) ; le farfalle diurn . d ' italia 2 : 119
: 103 , pl . 32 , f . 21 - 22 ( not in n . africa ? ) ; [
pamirs - alai , ghissar - darvaz , tian - shan , nw . india
scolitantides cashmirensis moore , 1874 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 1 ) : 272 ; tl : soonamurg , ne . cashmere
se . europe , asia minor , caucasus , transcaucasia , w . siberia , altai
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larva on thymus vulgaris [ bhr ] , medicago cf . turbinata , m . hispidus , thymus cf . hirtus , salvia taraxacifolia , thymus fontanesii , cleonia lusitanica [ bmat ]
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abencerragus cavazzae ( romei , 1927 ) ( scolitantides ) ; boll . lab . zool . portici 20 : 277
morocco , algeria , hungary , greece , asia minor , s . russia , n . kazakhstan . see [ maps ]
lycaena bavius eversmann , 1832 ; nouv . mém . soc . imp . nat . moscou 2 : 349 , pl . 19 , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : orenburg province
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larva on thymus decussatus nakamura , 1975 , j . ent . ( b ) 44 ( 3 ) :
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scolitantides baton f . praecocior verity , 1919 ; ent . rec . j . var . 31 : 29
turania hylas madriti verity , 1928 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1928 : 143 ; tl : spain
turania hylas praepanoptes verity , 1928 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1928 : 143 ; tl : spain
checklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
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if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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. . . as p . bavius hungarica has a slow flight , it proved to be very sedentary ( 27 m d - 1 ) ( mobility class according to pollard & yates 1993 ) and has a short life span ( 3 . 4 days ) , the presence of suitable nearby habitat patches might be crucial for its dispersal . other studies have also identified limited dispersal ability in small lycaenid butterflies ( lewis et al . 1997 , james et al . 2003 ) . the low mobility , however , is not necessary an indicator for a higher extinction probability , as sedentary species usually require smaller habitat patches ( thomas 2000 ) . . . .
. . . future studies should also take into account an estimation of the resource qualities ( the correlation between plant diversity and the number of butterfly individuals in the population ) to estimate the habitat quality required to support a viable p . bavius hungarica population . this kind of relationship has been proven before to be very useful by a study on a species of the same genus ( james et al . 2003 ) . also complex population viability studies with genetic analyses complementing ecological data should be done to investigate the long term capacity of the population to survive . . . .
. . . the fieldwork was carried out upon the mount sinai massif above the town of st katherine , where there are ten patches of thyme varying in size from 37 to the 659 thyme plants of farsh shoeib ( see appendix a : table 1 ) , previously ( james et al . 2003 ) found to hold one of the largest butterfly populations ( see fig . 1 ) . farsh shoeib is the only patch where thyme phenology has been recorded in the past ( in 2002 ) . . . .
. . . the world ' s smallest butterfly is only found in the st . katherine protectorate of southern sinai , egypt ( figure 1 ) . it is one of two species endemic to the site and is considered a flagship species and conservation priority for the area ( james et al . 2003 ) . the international conservation status of a species , following iucn categories , can be based on the global distribution of the species . . . .
. . . the fieldwork was carried out upon the mt sinai massif above the town of st katherine , where there are 10 patches of thyme : farsh shoeib , farsh loza , farsh el hammar ( lower and upper ) , farsh elia , elia garden , elia circle , farsh safsafa , gulley zahtuna and gulley sharr ( fig . 1 ) . the first five patches were discovered in 2001 ( james et al . 2003 ) , but the rest were only found in 2011 . we decided whether plants formed a discrete patch if there were more than 30 plants closely situated , separated from another patch by either 100 m or a natural barrier ( which was often the situation on the mt sinai massif ) . . . .
. . . only longer term data will tell . these changes in flowering output have important implications for populations of its associated herbivores , especially the critically endangered sinai baton blue butterfly ( james 2006a–d ; james et al . 2003 ) . despite the recent rains , there has been high mortality of plants without any signs of recruitment . . . .
. . . fiedler 1995 ; fiedler et al . 1996 ) . previous work ( james 2006a–f ) suggested this species occurred in a metapopulation ( james et al . 2003 ; james 2006a ) and studied its movements within ( james 2006e ) and between patches ( james 2006d ) in some detail . an occupancy metapopulation model estimated its likely risk of extinction to be low under various scenarios including climate change ( hoyle and james 2005 ) . . . .
. . . plants had one of the largest populations of sinai baton blues in 2001 ( james et al . 2003 ) . farsh shoeib is near the summit of gebel safsafa on the mt . . . .
. . . nevadesis was established using a hand - held global positioning system ( garmin cs 9 60 ; accurate to ±10 m ) . the presence of a . zullichi was checked following the guidelines of james et al . ( 2003 ) : if two or more butterflies were seen in a patch one or more times , then a breeding colony was defined to be present . in each locality we invested a maximum of 2 h in order to confirm the butterfly presence . . . .
. . . research carried out by the protectorate rangers ( rashad et al . , 2003 ) showed that grazing intensity is higher in open places than on the rough terrain selected by the butterfly . furthermore , only 10 % of grazing occurs at altitudes above 2000 m , while the butterfly only occupies patches above 1900 m ( james et al . , 2003 ; rashad et al . , 2003 ) . observations on the feeding behaviour of goats and sheep for over 250 h detected no feeding upon thyme ( rashad et al . , 2003 ) . . . .
influence of habitat quality and patch size on occupancy and persistence in two populations of the a . . .
recent studies on butterflies emphasize habitat characteristics together with metapopulation parameters ( patch area and isolation ) giving a more thorough understanding of processes influencing population persistence and patch occupancy , than either of them alone . we studied a coastal and an archipelago population of the apollo butterfly ( parnassius apollo ) in sw finland . larvae were surveyed . . . [ show full abstract ]
high - mountain endemics with very restricted ranges are likely to have a high risk of extinction under the various scenarios of global warming . endemic to the high mountains of the st katherine protectorate in south sinai ( egypt ) , the sinai hairstreak satyrium jebelia is just such a species . for the first time , its population size was estimated and its distribution and that of its larval food . . . [ show full abstract ]
when is a habitat not a habitat ? dramatic resource use change under differing weather conditions for . . .
a key to conserving organisms is identification of the habitat bounds and essential resources within them . in population studies ( metapopulations ) of phytophagous arthropods it is tacitly assumed that habitat bounds portray short - term stability and that habitat is largely synonymous with hostplant areas or with a single vegetation unit comprising hostplants ; structural components are usually . . . [ show full abstract ]
the first obstacle i faced was the most obvious one , actually learning to program . other than r , i had never done any type of programming previously so i immediately set about finding online classes on the programming language visual basic . it was hard at first to get into the right mind frame of programming , it’s all about thinking logically and how a computer would do things . this didn’t come very naturally to me but within no time i was creating small applications and it was surprising to me the level of satisfaction you get when your code actually works ( what isn’t surprising is how frustrating it is when it doesn’t ) .
however , these small applications i was creating were nothing like the sort of program i was planning on creating ; an individual based model . without going into too much boring detail , an individual based model takes the approach , as suggested by its name , of modelling each individual in the system and from that calculating higher level changes in population . this created issues because visual basic is usually used for website design or the creation of applications , not creating environmental models . i had to take what i learnt in the online classes and apply it in completely different ways in order to achieve what i wanted .
i guess the next question you will ask is why am i doing this ? why am i learning ( and struggling with ) a completely new skill in order to create this model ? why is this model so important ? it all comes down to the sinai baton blue . conservation of our world’s species is an issue close to my heart , and the sinai baton blue is in serious need of saving .
the sinai baton blue is recorded as critically endangered by the iucn red list [ 1 ] which determines the vulnerability of all species . at the last recorded count , there were approximately 2300 sinai baton blues remaining [ 1 ] in the sinai region of egypt to which the butterflies are endemic . this number is only set to decrease in the future due to factors such as climate change [ 2 ] and human interference causing the rapid destruction of the butterflies host plant [ 2 ] , the sinai thyme , upon which it relies completely .
the sinai thyme occurs in discrete patches all over the mountains of sinai [ 3 ] , most , but not all are occupied by a population of sinai baton blues and the butterflies are free to migrate from patch to patch to find food or a mate . this meta - population structure is what makes them a good species to model as you can model all the separate populations and the movement between them . it also makes the butterfly even more vulnerable to extinction however because as the patches of thyme shrink , the distances between them grow , making more and more inaccessible and thus inhabitable [ 4 ] .
figure 1 . a slightly edited version of the distribution of the patches of sinai thyme in st katherine’s protectorate taken from hoyle and james study in 2005 . if the thyme is inhabited by a sinai baton blue colony in both 2001 and 2003 , the patch is shaded black ; grey patches were occupied in 2001 but not 2003 ; and open patches were unpopulated in 2001 . numbered boxes are settlements in the area .
the butterflies are not only heavily monitored [ 5 ] , but there are also many conservation management strategies currently focused on saving this species . it is hard to see if these are having any real impact however due to the small period of time they have been in place . this is why a model such as the one i am creating is needed . if we can see if what we are doing is working in the model then there is a good chance that it will be effective in reality .
an individual based model will also hopefully help in providing possible new conservation strategies . for example once the baseline model has been created , the parameters of the model can be manipulated in order to reflect different conservation strategies to see what best extends the life - span of the species and reduces extinction risk .
i obviously still have a lot further to go with my model and plan on keeping the blog updated with my progress including a post about my final findings . if you have any questions about my project or about the butterfly then feel free to ask or if you are interested in reading more about the sinai baton blue butterfly for yourself then here are a few links to information about it and a few papers that have been written on it .
2 . hoyle m , james m . 2005 . global warming , human population pressure , and viability of the world’s smallest butterfly . conservation biology , 19 : 1113 - 1124
3 . james m . 2006 . the natural history of the sinai baton blue : the smallest butterfly in the world . egyptian journal of biology , 8 : 67 - 83
4 . grabherr g , gottfried m , pauli h . 1994 . climate effects on mountain plants . nature , 369 : 448
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salicornia , suaeda , chenopodium , salsola , atriplex , halogeton , batis , allenrolfea , sesuvium , trianthema , amaranthus , portulaca , cycloloma , bassia , beta , grayia , kochia , suckleya , sarcobatus , krascheninnikovia ( = ceratoides ) , and probably many more in families chenopodiaceae , sesuviaceae , amaranthaceae , and portulaceae . quite likely related families such as montiaceae , aizoaceae , mesembryanthemaceae , cactaceae , etc . could be utilized as well . [ note : aizoaceae , mesembryanthemaceae , and sesuviaceae are often combined ; montiaceae is recently separated from portulacaceae ; amaranthaceae and chenopodiaceae are often combined . ]
multiple broods throughout the year , pausing during drought and cold . overwintering as pupae and ? adults .
boisduval , j . a . 1852 . lepidoptères de la californie . annales de la société entomologique de france . ( 2 ) 10 : 294
scudder , s . h . 1976 . synonymic list of the butterflies of north america , north of mexico . bulletin of the buffalo society of natural sciences . 3 : 124
a catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada jonathan p . pelham . 2008 . the lepidoptera research foundation , inc .
contributed by tom murray on 22 july , 2005 - 4 : 44pm additional contributions by steve nanz , chuck entz , maury heiman , john s . ascher , nick block , david ferguson , harsi s . parker last updated 3 july , 2017 - 1 : 31pm
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the blue petrel ( halobaena caerulea ) is a small seabird in the shearwater and petrel family procellariidae .

this small petrel is the only member of the genus halobaena , but is closely allied to the prions .

blue petrel

the worldwide blue petrel population stands at roughly 3 , 000 , 000 individuals .
blue petrel . in flight . at sea , south atlantic , march 2006 . image © david boyle by david boyle
blue petrel flocks are often intermixed with other species like thin - billed prions , antarctic prions , and salvin’s prions .
the blue petrel is a small petrel with a wing span of about 65 cm . it is the only small petrel with a square white tail - tip . its dark crown extends to below the eye , down the nape and forms a large dark patch on the side of the neck . the forehead , throat and ear - notch are a contrasting white . the blue petrel is blue - grey above and white below ( including underwings ) . a conspicuous dark m - shaped band crosses the blue - grey upperwings . the tail is blue - grey with a narrow sub - terminal dark band and conspicuous square white tip . the legs and feet are blue with pink webs
blue petrel eggs and young are targeted by skuas . they can also be preyed upon by rats and cats depending on their breeding location .
the blue petrel flies mainly close to the sea surface and soars more than other prions . its flight is less erratic and more buoyant .
all other motmots from the blue - crowned motmots have dark in the central crown , but this blue - capped motmot from veracruz shows that species’ unique entirely blue cap . photo margarita lópez / macaulay library .
miskelly , c . m . 2013 . blue petrel . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
protection / threats / status : the blue petrel has stable populations in spite of predation by cats and rats on some islands , and skuas in kerguelen archipelago . the global population was estimated at least at 3 , 000 , 000 individuals in 2004 . the blue petrel is currently evaluated as least concern .
halobaena caerulea ( blue petrel ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014vl ) [ state action plan ] .
the blue petrel , halobaena caerulea , is a small seabird that is found in the southern oceans ranging as far north as south africa , australia and portions of south america .
29 cm ; 200 g ; head blue - black , upper body and side of neck pale blue , dark m - shaped mark from wing - tip to wing - tip , tail white tipped , bill bluish black , legs and feet blue with fleshy webs .
many people erroneously believe that this is a misspelling of petrel blue , and that the term refers to the sea bird . however , the oed gives only this spelling . the term may originally have pertained to petrol - derived compounds such as paraffin , which is often coloured blue .
great - winged petrel pterodroma macroptera : great - winged petrel was split into two species . each of the two monotypic groups of great - winged petrel is elevated to species rank , based on differences in mitochondrial dna , vocalizations , plumage , morphometrics , and in other aspects of their biology .
leach’s storm - petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa : leach’s storm - petrel is split into three species . the monotypic group leach’s storm - petrel ( townsend’s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa socorroensis is elevated to species rank as townsend’s storm - petrel oceanodroma socorrensis and leach’s storm - petrel ( ainley’s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa cheimomnestes is elevated to species rank as ainley’s storm - petrel oceanodroma cheimomnestes . townsend’s and ainley’s storm - petrel both breed on guadalupe island ( although with little seasonal overlap in the timing of breeding ) and their vocalizations and morphology differ . townsend’s storm - petrel is a summer breeder on islets off guadalupe i . ( western mexico ) and ranges in eastern pacific north to southern california and south to ca . 10º n . ainley’s storm - petrel is a winter breeder on islets off guadalupe i . ( western mexico ) ; its nonbreeding range is poorly known , but the species apparently disperses south in eastern pacific , to at least as far as the galapagos island . following the split , leach’s storm - petrel now contains only two subspecies , each of which is recognized as a monotypic group : leach’s storm - petrel ( leach’s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa and leach’s storm - petrel ( chapman’s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa chapmani .
introduction : the blue petrel is the sole member of genus halobaena . its plumage pattern is very similar to that of prions of genus pachyptila , but it differs from prions in some ecological aspects and morphological features . the blue petrel is found in antarctic and subantarctic waters . its global population appears to be stable . the main threat is the predation by rats and cats on some breeding islands .
characteristic for the skulls is the fusion of the lachrymal bones to the frontals , a feature that is shared with the fulmars , the blue petrel ( halobaena caerulea . ) and the pterodroma petrels .
snow petrels are an all - white , small fulmarine petrel with conspicuous dark eyes , small black bill and bluish - grey feet . there are two subspecies of snow petrel that differ only in size .
the blue petrel breed in have large colonies . their nest is a burrow , and they lay one egg . both parents incubate the egg for approximately 50 day and the chick fledges after 55 days .
blue petrels are pelagic ( they live at sea ) and only come ashore during their breeding season .
similar species : blue petrels are generally similar to the more slender - billed of the prions ( e . g . thin - billed prions , fairy prion ) and smaller gadfly petrels ( e . g . cook ' petrel , gould ' s petrel ) , but the white - tipped tail is completely diagnostic .
coyle , p . ( 1993 ) . a southern fulmar ( fulmarus glacialoides ) and a blue petrel ( halobaena caerulea ) found dead on rottnest island . western australian naturalist . 19 : 267 - - 268 .
habitat : the blue petrel is pelagic . it occurs in the cold antarctic and subantarctic waters . on the breeding islands , the colonies are established on tussock - covered coastal slopes . it nests in self - excavated burrow .
i saw a most peculiar man , all giggling with glee . sniffing at a petrel as it swam upon the sea . “i love the smell of petrel , ” is all the fellow said . i wish that there were more like him ; that darling petrel head . — michael leunig printed in the sydney morning herald ( 27 oct 1995 )
priority actions are the specific , practical things that must be done to recover a threatened species , population or ecological community . the office of environment and heritage has identified 0 priority actions to help recover the blue petrel in new south wales .
breeding and non - breeding distribution of the ashy storm - petrel . for details of breeding distribution , see fig . 2 .
voice : blue petrels are silent at sea , and give cooing and cackling calls similar to prions at breeding colonies at night .
the blue petrel ' s plumage is white underneath and grey on its upper parts , with an
m
banding across its top , which is similar to the prions . it also has a white - tipped tail . its bill is smaller than prions .
a small petrel with a blackish cap that extends into a partial collar , white forehead and throat that extends towards the ear . the cap blends into grey - blue upperparts and upperwings , a dark open ‘m’ extends across the upperwing from wingtip to wingtip , broken across the lower back , the square tail has a white tip , the underparts are white , the bill blackish , and the legs blue .
record conversions were difficult here , with only those records already assigned to subspecies being changed . some records of leach’s storm - petrel may be more appropriate as a slash option ( e . g . , leach’s / townsend’s / ainley’s storm - petrel ) so please make that change if appropriate .
the blue petrel breeding season begins around the middle of september . they are monogamous . the nests are burrows dug into tussocks . one egg is laid sometime in october . the parents take turns incubating the eggs for around 50 days . the hatchling will fledge after another 55 or so days .
while records from new zealand and the south pacific east of new zealand were assigned to gray - faced petrel , and records form much of the indian ocean assigned to great - winged petrel , users will want to carefully check your records to make sure they represent the correct species or remain as the slash great - winged / gray - faced petrel in cases of uncertainty . most records ( including all those from australia ) were left exactly as reported , so if you had reported “great - winged petrel” you may want to check your records to see if you can apply it to one of the new species .
snow petrel are almost entirely restricted to cold antarctic waters and are associated with pack ice , icebergs and ice floes . flocks are characteristically seen sitting on icebergs .
the blue petrel adult may be largely sedentary . they disperse first to adjacent waters . they leave the breeding colonies between late january and early march . non - breeding birds and young of the year may reach se australian waters between september and november . it returns to the colonies in late august / early september .
blue petrels mainly eat crustaceans , also small fish and squid obtained by dipping while in flight , or while swimming . they will also dive . blue petrels often associate with prions , and occasionally attend feeding whales . they usually show little interest in ships , but will fly alongside in the lee of larger vessels .
26–32 cm ; 152–251 g ; wingspan 58–71 cm . small petrel with contrasting head pattern , grey upperparts with white tail tip and bold blackish pattern on . . .
the blue petrel breeds in colonies in self - excavated burrow on grassy slopes . they are monogamous . they are nocturnal at colonies , in order to avoid predation from skuas . the colonies are dense with two nests / square metre . both parents share all the nesting duties . most courtship and sexual activities take place inside the burrow .
the entire world breeding population of the ashy storm - petrel is estimated to be on the order of 10 , 000 birds . populations of predatory gulls have grown immensely in recent decades , and rodents , which also are predators against which storm - petrels have no defense , have invaded the larger islands where this storm - petrel nests , or formerly did so .
there are apparently 97 species of smaller petrels and of these 49 have been recorded in new zealand seas . the strategic position of our islands strung across the prevailing westerly winds accounts for the many varieties of petrels found in this sector of the pacific ocean . the multitude of small islands scattered around new zealand provide suitable nesting habitat for some 32 species of petrel which breed from the kermadecs in the north to campbell island some 2400 miles to the south . other species such as the blue petrel visit new zealand waters on a regular basis .
the blue petrel is found throughout southern oceans . breeding sites include the crozet islands and kerguelen island ( french southern territories ) , marion island and prince edward island ( south africa ) , macquarie island ( australia ) and south georgia ( georgias del sur ) . adults are perhaps mainly sedentary , though young birds are more dispersive ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .
range : southern ocean : widespread . the blue petrel is found throughout southern oceans . breeding sites include the crozet islands and kerguelen island ( french southern territories ) , marion island and prince edward island ( south africa ) , macquarie island ( new zealand ) and south georgia ( georgias del sur ) . adults are perhaps mainly sedentary , though young birds are more dispersive .
range : the blue petrel is circumpolar in southern ocean . it breeds on south georgia , prince edward , marion , crozet ( east ) , kerguelen and macquarie islands and in cape horn . outside the breeding season , it may reach s australia , new zealand , s south america and south africa , although some birds may remain year - round close to their breeding colonies .
also like some other birds blue petrels have a gland that is used to secrete a saline solution in order to compensate for all the salt ingested due to their feeding in ocean waters .
california scrub - jay , larger and bigger - billed than woodhouse’s scrub - jay and with a more prominent blue spur on the breast sides . photo by brian sullivan / macaulay library .
snow petrel breed on south georgia , the south sandwich islands , south orkney islands , bouvet , the balleny islands , and scott island and at numerous localities on the antarctic peninsula and antarctic continent .
appearance : white undersides and face , blue - grey topsides . black mask around eyes . black bill . white tip on tail . darker m spreading across front of wings from wingtip to wingtip .
the adult has grey - blue upperparts with conspicuous blackish m across the upperwing , well visible in flight . the three outermost primaries are blacker . the rearmost scapulars and the tertials are dark grey with white tips . the tail is grey - blue with dark indistinct subterminal band and broad white tip , slightly narrower on the outermost rectrices . the underparts , including wings and tail , are white .
sulu pitta erythropitta yairocho and talaud pitta erythropitta inspeculata , both poorly known , are lumped with blue - breasted pitta erythropitta erythrogaster . sulu pitta is not considered to be distinctive enough for an identifiable subspecies group , and thus is considered a subspecies ( pitta erythrogaster yairocho . ) in the clements checklist , talaud pitta is retained as a subspecies group : blue - breasted pitta ( talaud ) erythropitta erythrogaster inspeculata .
the blue petrel ( halobaena caerulea ) breeds on subantarctic islands , from southern chile to macquarie island , and now has been discovered breeding on gough island , more than 700 km north of the previously known breeding range # r . although the colony is in a part of the island that is visited fairly frequently , it is thought that the birds may have been overlooked rather than this being a recent range extension .
the blue petrel of the genus halobaena resembles the larger prions in size and plumage . it shares also some anatomical features and characteristics of the structure of the bill such as the striae that resemble the lamellae of the prions . these are obviously from the same origin . on the other hand the bill also resembles those of the genus pterodroma to which it might be related also . the lachrymal bones are fused to the frontals .
among the four , all - dark storm - petrel species nesting on islands along the west coast of north america , the ashy storm - petrel is the most northern . confined to california islands and nearby waters , this species is a smoke - gray color that befits its foggy environment . like other storm - petrels , the ashy storm - petrel arrives and departs its breeding colonies only at night ; unlike most others , it undertakes no migrations or expansive postbreeding dispersions . rather , ashy storm - petrels frequent their nesting islands for most of the year and feed nearby in offshore waters of the california current , one of the richest regions of the world ocean .
carboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . blue petrel ( halobaena caerulea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
“petrel” refers to saint peter and the biblical story of his walking on water . in order to take off petrels require a long “runway” across the ocean’s surface . as they get up to speed they appear to run on the water .
behaviour in the wild : the blue petrel feeds on crustaceans , especially krill of genus euphausia , small fish and squid caught by dipping while flying or swimming . it uses several fishing techniques such as surface - dipping , surface - seizing and surface - diving . it may occasionally perform pursuit - diving . it often associates with prions , and forages sometimes around the large cetaceans which lead the preys close to the surface . it may fly alongside the large vessels .
the blue petrel is marine species of the subantarctic and antarctic seas . in summer , it occurs mainly over waters of - 2 to 2 degrees c in surface temperature , but it also ranges south to the edge of the pack - ice and north to approximately 30 degrees south , or further north over cool currents . it prefers open water . in the antarctic , it generally avoids the pack - ice , and only occasionally approaches the edge of the ice .
blue petrels are not globally threatened , but introduced cats and rats have devastated some colonies . cats and ship rats ( both since eradicated ) confined blue petrels to coastal stacks on macquarie island , and ship rats exterminated the population on possession island , crozet islands . feral cats ( since eradicated ) greatly reduced the population on marion island , and continue to impact the population on kerguelen island . the subantarctic skua and the closely related chilean skua are the main natural predators .
apparently the two species do come in contact , and seem to hybridize , in central veracruz . we learned this after this split was finalized in ebird , so expect these additions for the 2017 taxonomy update : blue - capped x lesson’s motmot ( hybrid ) and blue - capped / lesson’s motmot . in the meantime , known or suspected hybrids , or uncertain birds in the overlap zone should be entered as motmot sp . with comments , audio recordings , and photos .
calls ans songs : sounds by xeno - canto the blue petrel is usually silent at sea but it is more vocal at colonies . the adults produce pigeon - like cooing “kuk - kuk - kuk coo - coo” fairly similar to prions of genus pachyptila . these calls are given mainly from the ground at night , but also in flight . they also give cackling calls . the calls vary between the different islands within the same group or archipelago . the heaviest males usually give faster calls .
petrels breed once a year in large colonies on remote offshore or oceanic islands . most of the main mountain ranges in new zealand used to support extensive petrel colonies before the advent of man a thousand years ago and the mammalian predators they brought with them .
snow petrel nest colonially in small to large colonies on cliffs , usually near the sea , but also inland . some birds remain at the colony all year , but the main influx of birds to the colonies is from mid - september until early - november .
these factors do not bode well for positive growth or stability in populations of the ashy storm - petrel . nesting colonies , however , are distributed among at least 17 localities , almost all of which are protected at least from the direct encroachment of human civilization .
locations of blue petrels , antarctic prions , south georgia diving petrels and common diving petrels from south georgia ( white star ) tracked using geolocators during the non - breeding season in 2011 ( the map is made by arcgis 9 . 3 . 1 software ,
blue - crested flycatcher myiagra azureocapilla is split into two species , a monotypic azure - crested flycatcher myiagra azureocapilla endemic to taveuni in the southeastern portion of fiji and a polytypic chestnut - throated flycatcher myiagra castaneigularis , including subspecies castaneigularis and whitneyi , that occurs elsewhere in fiji .
at sea , snow petrel eat mainly fish , some cephalopods ( squid ) , other molluscs , and euphausiids . they also feed on seal placenta and the carcasses of dead seals , whales and penguins , and occasionally eat refuse on land . snow petrels do not normally follow vessels .
blue petrels are divers , diving as deep as 6 metres . they also feed by dipping while swimming . they can sometimes be found tracking whale movements as the whales will drive prey fish towards the surface of the water , making it easier for the birds to catch them .
blue petrels are one example of bird that produces a foul - smelling stomach oil that is stored in a special section of the stomach called the proventriculus . this oil is used to feed themselves while on long flights , feed their young , or it can be sprayed at predators .
the blue petrel eats mainly pelagic crustaceans , fish and cephalopods ( octopus and squid ) . it sometimes eat insects , but rarely eats vegetable matter . the relative importance of dietary items varies with locality . the types of crustaceans eaten are mainly euphausiids , but it also eats amphipods , and some decapods and other crustaceans . the breeding diet consisted of 58 % fish , 41 % crustaceans and 1 % squid by weight during a study at south georgia island , and 3 % fish , 92 % crustaceans , 2 % cephalopods , and 3 % insects by frequency at marion island .
the blue petrels is a colonial , monogamous burrow - nester . both sexes incubate the single white egg for 45 - 49 days , and feed the chick by regurgitation . the chick fledges after 43 - 60 days . laying occurs in october , hatching in december , and fledging in february .
record conversion was mostly straightforward , but , as always , please check your records . interestingly , green malkoha shows some seasonal and sporadic movements that bring strays to the kenyan highlands : records from around nairobi are of that species . we have not yet heard of similar movements in blue malkoha .
a very heavy sea this morning . it is drizzling with rain but there is no wind . a storm out at sea has brought a wreck of petrels scattered up and down the beach , left there as the tide has receded . in the space of the two or so miles i walk every morning , there must be thirty or forty birds . i guess they are petrels but i have to say sea birds are not my strong point and i have no idea which species . most of them are blue grey above and white underneath and in size not much bigger than a blackbird or thrush but with startling cobalt blue legs .
yellowbill ceuthmochares aereus is split into two species . blue malkoha ceuthmochares aereus is a bird of west africa occurring east to forests of w . kenya and nw . tanzania , while green malkoha ceuthmochares australis occurs near the east coast of africa from from south africa north to coastal kenya , as well as in central ethiopia .
the ornithologist w . r . b . oliver describes the blue petrel on the kerguelen islands , “the hillsides apparently quite deserted during the day , became at night perfectly alive with these birds . the burrows are excavated beneath the mounds of an umbelliferous plant , azorella selago , which abounds on the hillsides . the holes turn sharply to the right or left , parallel with the hillside , thence downward often doubling once or twice on itself and communicating with other entrances . at the bottom is an enlarged cavity lined with root fibres , twigs , ferns or leaves , and quite dry . here the single egg is to be found always covered with dry powered earth or leaves . ”
like other members of the order , each pair of reproductively active ashy storm - petrels produce only a single egg in any reproductive season . unlike other storm - petrels that migrate and lay eggs in synchrony with other colony members , the ashy storm - petrel spreads out its egg - laying over several months . periods of incubation and chick growth are each very long by avian standards . the chicks of some pairs can be half grown at the time when other pairs lay their egg . consistent with the extended occupation of the colony and the prolonged nesting duties , molt in the ashy storm - petrel overlaps broadly with breeding , differing from the segregated molt schedules of migratory tube - nosed seabirds .
( a ) spatial ( tracking locations ) , ( b ) habitat niche ( pca analysis ) and ( c ) isotopic niche overlap between blue petrels , antarctic prions , south georgia diving petrels and common diving petrels from south georgia . spatial and habitat niche were calculated from individuals tracked using geolocators during the non - breeding season in 2011 .
on the head , a blackish cap extends to and around the eye and onto the neck sides , forming a dark partial or sometimes complete collar . it contrasts strongly with the white forehead and throat . the bill is blackish - grey to bluish - black . the eyes are blackish - brown . legs and webbed feet are blue - grey with pink webs .
the nest is a simple pebble - lined scrape usually in a deep rock crevice with overhanging protection . one white egg is laid in late november to mid - december . the egg is incubated for 41–49 days and the chick is brooded for eight days . the chick then remains in the nest for an additional seven weeks . snow petrel chicks leave the nest in late - february to mid - may .
results comparing the overlap based on metric d , which ranges from 0 ( no overlap ) to 1 ( complete overlap ) , in geographic space , environmental niche ( pca analysis ) and isotopic space among blue petrels ( bp ) , antarctic prions ( ap ) , south georgia diving petrels ( sgdp ) and common diving petrels ( cdp ) from south georgia during the non - breeding period .
a small prion - like patterned petrel weighing around 200 grams and with a wingspan of 62 to 71 cm . it is readily identified by the white - tipped tail which is unique among petrels and prions . other distinctive characteristics include the pale bluish - grey upperparts with a narrow open ' m ' marking across the upperwings , the black bill and the prominent blackish cap offset by a large white forehead patch .
most likely the word
petrol
, which describes a colour of bluish green , is derived etymologically from the word
petroleum
( crude oil ) . petroleum varies greatly in colour , some are colourless , many of them are of nice bluish green colour . not the petrel or the adding of colours to fuel ( british english : petrol ) etc . are the reasons , why the colour petrol is called petrol .
the blue petrels are circumpolar , breeding on many sub antarctic islands but not in the new zealand region . they are sedentary during the summer breeding periods but then range widely through the southern oceans between the pack ice and about 40 degrees south . diet is mainly crustaceans , small fish and squid , taken from the sea surface by dipping in flight or while the bird is swimming . they occasionally follow ships or feeding whales .
the next day with friends from the local branch of the ornithological society , we picked up more at ohiwa spit . my friends readily identified the birds . there was the odd kerguelen and a few tiny grey - backed storm petrels but the majority were blue petrels , halobaena caerula , the white tipped tail being the confirming mark of identification . members of the ornithological society pick up dead seabirds as a matter of course and record them . in this way a check is kept on the sea birds .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
turbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .
brooke ( 2004 ) estimated the global population to number at least 3 , 000 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
breeding begins in september , occuring in colonies where it nests in long burrows excavated in soft soil under grass tussocks ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) . foraging during the chick - rearing period at the kerguelen islands involves regular alternation between short trips in the vicinity of the island and long trips to antarctic waters . short trips enable an increase of chick - feeding frequency at the expense of energy reserves built up during long trips . diet comprises of crustaceans ( especially krill ) , fish , squids and some insects ( del hoyo et al . 1992 , cherel et al . 2002 ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
heather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 1996 . the field guide to the birds of new zealand . viking , auckland .
marchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds . ) , 1990 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 1 , ratites to ducks . oxford university press , melbourne .
miskelly , c . m . ; bester , a . j . ; bell , m . 2006 . additions to the chatham islands’ bird list , with further records of vagrant and colonising bird species . notornis 53 : 215 - 230 .
onley , d . ; scofield , p . 2007 . albatrosses , petrels and shearwaters of the world . princeton university press , princeton and oxford .
powlesland , r . g . 1983 . seabirds found dead on new zealand beaches in 1981 . notornis 30 : 125 - 135 .
shirihai , h . 2007 . a complete guide to antarctic wildlife : the birds and marine mammals of the antarctic continent and the southern ocean . 2nd edn . a & c black , london .
taylor , g . a . 1999 . seabirds found dead on new zealand beaches in 1996 . notornis 46 : 434 - 445 .
we would like more photos of this bird . if you have some you would like to share
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : halobaena caerulea . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
recovery plan required , this species had a recovery plan in force at the time the legislation provided for the minister to decide whether or not to have a recovery plan ( 19 / 2 / 2007 ) . the recovery plan ( deh 2005 ) that was made for this species on 12 / 04 / 2005 ceased to be in effect from 1 / 10 / 2015 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009 ) .
. department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :
survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened birds . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 2
( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .
the action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .
listed as least concern ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
threats to this species include human disturbance and introduction of predators to macquarie island .
for the most current information relating to the species and to assist with regulatory considerations , refer to its conservation advice . the subspecies also has a sunsetted recovery plan ( deh 2005 ) .
brothers , n . p . ( 1984 ) . breeding , distribution and status of burrow - nesting petrels at macquarie island . australian wildlife research . 11 : 113 - 131 .
croxall , j . p . , p . a . prince , i . hunter , s . j . mcinnes & p . g . copestake ( 1984 ) . the seabirds of the antarctic peninsula , islands of the scotia sea , and antarctic continent between 80°w and 20°w : their status and conservation . in : croxall , j . p . , p . g . h . evans & r . w . schreiber , eds . status and conservation of the world ' s seabirds . icbp technical publication 2 . page ( s ) 637 - - 666 . icbp , cambridge , uk .
del hoyo , j . , a . elliot & j . sargatal ( 1992 ) . ostrich to ducks . in : handbook of the birds of the world . 1 . spain : lynx edicions .
department of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2005f ) . non - current national recovery plan for ten species of seabirds 2005 - 2010 . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 12 - apr - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2015 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008a ) . the south - west marine bioregional plan : bioregional profile : a description of the ecosystems , conservation values and uses of the south - west marine region . canberra : dewha . available from : urltoken .
garnett , s . t . & g . m . crowley ( 2000 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2000 . canberra , act : environment australia and birds australia . available from : urltoken .
jouventin , p . , stahl , j - c . , weimerskirch , h . and mougin , j . l . ( 1984 ) . the seabirds of the french subantarctic islands and adelie land and their status and conservation . in : icbp technical publication 2 . page ( s ) 609 - 625 .
magrath , m . j . l . , m . a . weston , p . olsen & m . antos ( 2004 ) . draft survey standards for birds : species accounts . melbourne , victoria : report for the department of the environment and heritage by birds australia .
marchant , s . & p . j . higgins , eds . ( 1990 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . volume one - ratites to ducks . melbourne , victoria : oxford university press .
milon , p . ( 1962 ) . aspects de l ' ile de la posession , 3 , oiseaux et mammifères . terres australe et antarctique francaise . 19 - 20 : 30 - - 32 .
murphy , r . c . ( 1936 ) . oceanic birds of south america . american museum of natural history , new york .
oliver , w . r . b . ( 1955 ) . new zealand birds . wellington , new zealand : reed .
pizzey , g . & f . knight ( 1999 ) . the graham pizzey and frank knight field guide to the birds of australia . pymble , sydney : angus and robertson .
prince , p . a . & j . p . croxall ( 1983 ) . birds of south georgia : new records and re - evaluation of status . british antarctic survey bulletin . 59 : 15 - - 27 .
prince , p . a . & m . r . payne ( 1979 ) . status of birds on south georgia . british antarctic survey bulletin . 48 : 103 - - 18 .
reid , t . a . , m . a . hindell , d . w . eades & m . newman ( 2002 ) . seabird atlas of south - east australian waters . royal australasian ornithologists union monograph 4 . melbourne , victoria : birds australia ( r . a . o . u . ) .
van franeker , j . a . ( 2001 ) . mirrors in ice : fulmarine petrels and antarctic ecosystems . ph . d . thesis . university of groningen , amsterdam .
weimerskirch , h . , r . zotier & p . jouventin ( 1989 ) . the avifauna of the kerguelen islands . emu . 89 : 15 - - 29 .
williams , a . j . ( 1984 ) . the status and conservation of the seabirds on some islands in the african sector of the southern ocean . in : croxall , j . p . , p . g . h . evans & r . w . schreiber , eds . status and conservation of the world ' s seabirds . icbp technical publication 2 . page ( s ) 627 - - 635 . icbp , cambridge , uk .
commonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .
commonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .
department of the environment and heritage ( 2006na ) . halobaena caerulea in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . canberra : deh . available from : urltoken .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008adh ) . threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by rabbits . canberra , act : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2008 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008zzp ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2008 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 23 - jul - 2015 .
garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson ( 2011 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2010 . csiro publishing . available from : urltoken .
epbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . halobaena caerulea in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 07 : 08 : 30 + 1000 .
antarctic and subantarctic seas , breeding from diego ramírez is , cape horn and south georgia e through islands of s indian ocean to macquarie i .
probably mainly silent at sea , but very vocal at night when at colonies ( except during nights with . . .
marine and pelagic , occurring in cold waters of subantarctic and antarctic zones . breeds on oceanic . . .
) and amphipods ; elsewhere fish ( myctophidae , nototheniidae ) ; . . .
starts late aug to sept on return to colony , with poorly documented pre - laying exodus ( from early oct on kerguelen is ) , followed by egg - . . .
adults perhaps mainly sedentary , although birds breeding on kerguelen is may forage up to 1000 km . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . abundant , with total population of perhaps three million birds ; c . 2 , 000 , 000 breeding birds at diego ramírez is ( chile ) , 70 , . . .
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earlier proposal that this genus is closer to pachyptila than to any other genus # r is supported by recent genetic data # r .
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martin hale , markus lilje , christophe gouraud , phillip edwards , mark broomhall , tony palliser , mark andrews , mark stanley , rémi bigonneau , dusan m . brinkhuizen , les george .
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the distribution of seabirds is related to the physical and chemical properties of seawater and to the ocean currents . the tropical , subtropical , sub antarctic and antarctic water masses are characterised by specific planktonic organisms and the birds that feed on them . by travelling clockwise around the pacific many petrels can make efficient use of the local food supply as it comes to fruition . however , when these local food supplies fail for one reason or another , then they may end up wrecked on beaches .
on still nights the southern oceans can twinkle with the tiny lights of phosphorescent zooplankton rafted in millions upon the water . since many of these animals disappear during the day , most petrels feed at night . during the summer when the sun never sets , enormous blooms of the crustacean , euphausia superba , attract vast concourses of sea birds to the cold polar seas . some of the smaller petrels can devour a quarter of their body weight in the space of a few minutes so that they become so grossly distended they cannot fly .
to pick up food from the surface of the water , they face into the wind and hold their trembling wings outstretched to keep themselves aloft while trailing their legs in the water to prevent them from being blown backwards . in this position they hover , sometimes making pattering runs as they peck at the food in front of them . it is this “walking on the water” which gives them their name of “little peters” after st peter ; hence petrels .
petrels have been companions to countless seafarers and for many island dwelling communities such as the maori an important food supply . however , in most parts of the world mutton birding , the collection of the fat chicks , is more of a tradition than a necessity today .
the petrels are vulnerable in two respects . they need security of nesting places free from predators such as rats . still more important is the continuing productivity of the oceanic food chain . increasing contamination and pollution of this resource and overexploitation , if not checked , will spell their doom .
closest breeding colony macquarie island off tasmania . regular winter - spring visitors to new zealand waters .
gould , john , birds of australia , 1840 - 48 . godman , frederick du cane , monograph of the petrels , 1907 - 1910 .
heather , b . , & robertson , h . , field guide to the birds of new zealand , 2000 . oliver , w . r . b . , new zealand birds , 1955 .
this antarctic peninsula and south shetland islands cruise delivers you into a landscape of dark rugged rock , pure white snow , and a fantastic variety of wildlife . come say hello to whales , seals , and thousands of penguins .
the antarctic peninsula basecamp ortelius cruise offers you a myriad of ways to explore and enjoy the antarctic region . this expedition allows you to hike , snowshoe , kayak , go mountaineering , and even camp out under the southern polar skies .
a true expedition , our weddell sea cruise sets out to explore the range of the emperor penguins near snow hill island . we will visit the area via helicopter and see a variety of other birds and penguins including adélies and gentoos .
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a complete guide to antarctic wildlife by hadoram shirihai and illustrated by brett jarrett - edited by guy m . kirwan - alul . a press oy , finland - isbn 9519894705
male and female have similar plumage , but the female is smaller with shorter wings . the juvenile is browner on the upperparts , and it has greyer forehead .
reproduction of this species : the breeding season starts in august - september and lasts until february , with peak of laying in october , after a pre - laying exodus by the breeding adults . they breed in dense colonies in self - excavated burrows . the breeding colonies are established on coastal slopes covered with tussock grass . the burrow is sometimes lined with twigs and leaves .
the female lays a single white egg . both adults share the incubation during 45 - 49 days . at hatching , the chick is covered with bluish - grey down . it is brooded for three days . both parents feed it by regurgitation . it fledges between 43 and 60 days after hatching , usually in february .
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note : if you use ebird mobile on iphone or android hopefully you have the newest versions of each ; if not , update those in the app store and google play store , respectively . also , please make sure to submit a list from a new location near you ( i . e . , not one of your stored “recent locations” ) . this will ensure that the checklist filter is updated to the newest version . if you do not do this , you may accidentally submit california / woodhouse’s scrub - jay from a coastal california area , instead of the post - split option , california scrub - jay .
the clements checklist provides two update pages ( overview and 2016 updates & corrections ) and also provides all three files ( ebird / clements , clements , and ebird ) for download .
the clements checklist 2016 updates & corrections provides details ( including references ) for all species splits and lumps , new species descriptions , revisions to subspecies groups ( issfs ) or subspecies , and other changes relevant to the clements checklist . we refer anyone wishing to learn more about these splits to that page .