brevicoryne brassicae , commonly known as the cabbage aphid or cabbage aphis , is a destructive aphid ( plant louse ) native to europe that is now found in many other areas of the world .

the aphids feed on many varieties of produce , including cabbage , broccoli ( especially ) , brussels sprouts , cauliflower and many other members of the genus brassica , but do not feed on plants outside of the brassicaceae family .

the insects entirely avoid plants other than those of the brassicaceae family , even though thousands may be eating broccoli near strawberries , the strawberries will be left untouched .

cabbage aphids , from the genus brevicoryne of the family aphididae , are grayish-green , but a waxy covering gives them a grayish-white to powdery blue appearance .

brevicoryne brassicae

aphids : several species including myzus persicae , hyadaphisery erysimi , and brevicoryne brassicae .
control of cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) using kaolin and neem oil
accumulation of glucosinolates by the cabbage aphid brevicoryne brassicae as a defense against two coccinellid species .
development of insecticide resistance in field populations of brevicoryne brassicae ( hemiptera : aphididae ) in pakistan .
accumulation of glucosinolates by the cabbage aphid brevicoryne brassicae as a defense against two coccinellid species . - pubmed - ncbi
development of insecticide resistance in field populations of brevicoryne brassicae ( hemiptera : aphididae ) in pakistan . - pubmed - ncbi
figure 1 . cabbage aphids , brevicoryne brassicae linnaeus , on cabbage . photograph by lyle buss , university of florida , entomology and nematology department .
figure 2 . cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae linnaeus , winged alate and nymphs on cabbage . photograph by lyle buss , university of florida , entomology and nematology department .
figure 3 . a cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae linnaeus , colony or cluster on a cabbage leaf . photograph by lyle buss , university of florida , entomology and nematology department .
figure 4 . cabbage aphids , brevicoryne brassicae , linnaeus colony ( or cluster ) on a cabbage stem . photograph by lyle buss , university of florida , entomology and nematology department .
kessing jlm , mau rfl . 1991 . cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( linnaeus ) . crop knowledge master . department of entomology , honolulu , hawaii . ( 2 october 2013 )
ryabov , ev , 2007 . a novel virus isolated from the aphid brevicoryne brassicae with similarity to hymenoptera picorna - like viruses . journal of general virology 88 : 2590 - 2595 .
ahmad m , akhtar s . 2013 . development of insecticide resistance in field populations of brevicoryne brassicae ( hemiptera : aphididae ) in pakistan . journal of economic entomology 106 : 954 - 958 .
flint , m . l . 1985 . cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae . pp . 36 - 39 . in integrated pest management for cole crops and lettuce . university of california publication 3307 . 112 pages .
ahmad , m . and akhtar , s . 2013 . development of insecticide resistance in field populations of brevicoryne brassicae ( hemiptera : aphididae ) in pakistan . journal of economic entomology 106 : 954 - 958 .
gabrys , b . j . ( and 6 co - authors ) 1997 . sex pheromone of cabbage aphid brevicoryne brassicae : identification and field trapping of male aphids and parasitoids . journal of chemical ecology 23 : 1881 - 1890 .
mekuaninte b , yemataw a , alemseged t , nagappan r . 2011 . efficacy of melia azadarach and mentha piperata plant extracts against cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( homoptera : aphididae ) . world applied science journal 12 : 2150 - 2154 .
amin , a . h . and g . m . eldefray . 1981 . the biology of the cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) , in egypt . bull . soc . ent . egypte ( 63 ) 111 - 118 .
gabrys bj , gadomski hj , klukowski z , pickett ja , sobota gt , wadhams lj , woodcock cm . 1997 . sex pheromone of cabbage aphid brevicoryne brassicae : identification and field trapping of male aphids and parasitoids . journal of chemical ecology 23 : 1881 - 1890 .
baidoo pk , adam ji . 2012 . the effects of extracts of lantana camara ( l . ) and azadirachta indica ( a . juss ) on the population dynamics of plutella xylostella , brevicoryne brassicae and hellula undalis on cabbage . sustainable agriculture research 1 : 229 - 234 .
mekuaninte , b . , yemataw , a . , alemseged , t . and nagappan , r . 2011 . efficacy of melia azedarach and mentha piperata plant extracts against cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( homoptera : aphididae ) . world applied science journal 12 : 2150 - 2154 .
satar , u . , kersting , u . and ulusoy , m . r . 2005 . temperature dependent life history traits of brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) ( hom . , aphididae ) on white cabbage . turkish journal of agriculture and forestry 29 : 341 - 346 .
hill , d . s . 1983 . brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) . pp . 154 - 155 . in agricultural insect pests of the tropics and their control , 2nd edition . cambridge university press , cambridge , london , new york , new rochelle , melbourne , sydney . 746 pages .
jahan f , abbasipour h , askarianzade a , hasanshahi g , saeedizadeh a . 2013 . effect of eight cauliflower cultivars on biological parameters of the cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) ( hem : aphididae ) in laboratory conditions . archives of phytopathology and plant protection 46 : 636 - 642 .
how to cite this article : aline pissinati and mauricio ursi ventura , 2015 . control of cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae ( l . ) using kaolin and neem oil . journal of entomology , 12 : 48 - 54 . doi : 10 . 3923 / je . 2015 . 48 . 54 url : urltoken
kift , n . b . , ellis , p . r . , tatchell , g . m . and pink , d . a . c . 2000 . the influence of genetic background on resistance to the cabbage aphid ( brevicoryne brassicae ) in kale ( brassica oleracea var . acephala ) . annals of applied biology 136 : 189 - 195 .
zimmerman , e . c . 1948 . brevicoryne brassicae ( linnaeus ) . pp . 92 - 93 . in insects of hawaii , a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands , including enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . volume 5 : homoptera , aphididae . university of hawaii press , honolulu . 464 pages .
kibrom g , kebede k , weldehaweria g , dejen g . mekonen s . gebreegziabher e . nagappan r . 2012 . field evaluation of aqueous extract of melia azedarach linn . seeds against cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae linn . ( homoptera : aphididae ) , and its predator coccinella septempunctata linn . ( coleoptera : coccinellidae ) . archives of phytopathology and plant protection 45 : 1273 - 1279 .
insecticidal soaps are used in ipm against b . brassicae on various brassica crops in the greenhouse . control of other pests , e . g . lepidoptera , using bacillus thuringiensis ( bt . ) is advantageous for aphid control by natural enemies . a preparation of bt that is effective against b . brassicae has also been reported ( shevtsov et al . , 1996 ) . neem - based insecticides are effective against b . brassicae , and these are also favourable to the natural enemies of aphids , unlike many conventional insecticides ( manger et al . , 1997 ) .
nitrogenous compounds are often scarce in plant tissues , particularly in phloem sap . sucking insects such b . brassicae show a strong response to changes in nitrogen level in host plants ( van emden , 1966b ) . several studies ( e . g . , leal - aguilar et al . , 2008 ; zarghami et al . , 2010 ) have shown that higher nitrogen fertilization improves the suitability of oilseed rape for b . brassicae , whose performance is then increased .
d . rapae is an important and efficient parasitoid of b . brassicae ( hagen and van den bosch , 1968 ; hagvar and hofsvang , 1991 ; fathipour et al . , 2006 ) . however , it has limitations as a natural enemy . the rate of parasitism by d . rapae is generally low on various cruciferous crops ( pimental , 1961 ; hughes , 1963 ; van emden , 1966a ; lowe , 1968 ) . van emden ( 1966a ) and chua ( 1977 ) concluded that d . rapae was ineffective in controlling b . brassicae in england , due to a lack of synchronization as well as hyperparasitoid pressure . in general , parasitism of b . brassicae by d . rapae approached the highest level when host density started to decline ( nematollahi et al . , 2014b ) .
brassica nigra plants , characterized by high levels of sinigrin , and artificial aphid diets to which sinigrin was selectively added were used to rear the crucifer specialist , brevicoryne brassicae . aphids were provided as a food source to two species of polyphagous ladybird , adalia bipunctata and coccinella septempunctata . first instar a . bipunctata were unable to survive when fed with b . brassicae reared on b . nigra or diets containing 0 . 2 % sinigrin , but when fed with aphids reared on diets containing 0 % sinigrin , survival rates were high . by contrast , first instar c . septempunctata were able to survive when fed with aphids reared on b . nigra or artificial diets containing up to 1 % sinigrin . however , the presence of sinigrin in the aphid diet decreased larval growth and increased the time necessary for larvae to reach second instar for this species of ladybird . these results indicate that the presence of sinigrin in the diet of b . brassicae makes this aphid unsuitable as a food source for a . bipunctata but not for c . septempunctata , although for this ladybird species , there appear to be costs associated with feeding on aphids that contain this secondary metabolite .
direct feeding on young growth leads to visible wilting of plants . early attack may lead to stunted growth . symptoms of viruses transmitted by b . brassicae include mosaic , chlorotic and necrotic lesions on leaves , premature leaf senescence and various degrees of stunting , leaf rolling and leaf distortion .
biological control early biological control attempts made in australia were all unsuccessful ( wilson , 1960 ) . habitat manipulation to enhance biological control of brassica pests by hoverflies ( syrphid larvae ) has been carried out in new zealand ( white et al . , 1995 ) . the predacious midge aphidoletes aphidimyza has shown potential as a biological control agent of b . brassicae in greenhouses . pfrommer and mendgen ( 1992 ) described control attempts with the fungal pathogen verticillium lecanii against b . brassicae , in which they mixed a water suspension of spores with polysaccharides and detergents to produce an effective spray .
laboratory studies have shown that some oilseed rape cultivars are more resistant to b . brassicae than others ( e . g . , moharramipour et al . , 2007 ; mirmohammadi et al . , 2009 ) . four wild species , brassica fruticulosa , b . spinescens , b . insularis and b . villosa , have been shown to possess resistance to b . brassicae through antibiosis whereas others have shown variable resistance in glasshouse and field trials ( singh et al . , 1994 ) . many field experiments have been conducted to evaluate resistance of different oilseed rape genotypes to b . brassicae ( e . g . , monfared et al . , 2003 ; mousavi - anzabi et al . , 2009 , 2013 ) . for example , field evaluation of 20 oilseed rape cultivars showed that ' okapi ' and ' opera ' genotypes had the highest plant resistance index ( mousavi - anzabi et al . , 2013 ) . in a series of field experiments , four wild brassica species , two 8 chromosome species with similarities to the b genome of brassica nigra ( brassica fruticulosa and brassica spinescens ) and two 9 chromosome species containing the c genome ( brassica incana and brassica villosa ) were identified as possessing consistently high levels of antibiosis - mediated resistance to b . brassicae ( ellis et al . , 2000 ) .
b . brassicae was very numerous on yellow mustard ( sinapis alba ) in a study in poland , in which early infestations ( at the bud development stage ) prevented stalk development and caused premature plant death ; while later infestations ( at the peak or end of blooming ) caused high yield reductions ( hurej and preiss , 1997 ) .
among several aphids infesting brassica crops , b . brassicae was generally the most prevalent during the growing season ( e . g . trumble , 1982 ; raworth , 1984 ; nematollahi et al . , 2014a ) . it occurred primarily on the highest and youngest leaves and stems , with the highest aphid density recorded at the head formation stage on broccoli and the stem elongation stage on oilseed rape ( trumble , 1982 ; nematollahi et al . , 2014a ) . b . brassicae significantly preferred the upper parts ( upper 10 - 15 cm of the stem ) of oilseed rape plants to the lower parts ( the rest of the stem ) ( nematollahi et al . , 2014a ) .
d . rapae parasitizes many aphid species on cruciferous crops and may be more effective for biological control of myzus persicae than b . brassicae ( stark and acheampong , 2007 ) . the efficiency of d . rapae may therefore be reduced on some cruciferous crops such as oilseed rape , which are attacked by both aphids ( nematollahi et al . , 2015 ) .
antibiosis resistance and antixenosis ( non - preference ) resistance to b . brassicae have both been demonstrated in a range of brassicas ( ellis and farrell , 1995 ; ellis et al . , 1996 ; ellis et al . , 2000 ) . partial levels of antixenosis resistance were discovered in red accessions , the cabbage accessions ruby ball and yates giant red , the brussels sprout accession rubine , and italian red kale . glossy accessions of cabbage and cauliflower possessed antixenosis and antibiosis resistance that lasted throughout the season of crop growth in the field . other accessions were shown to withstand aphid attack and therefore possessed tolerance . in a study of a collection of around 400 brassica oleracea accessions , the most promising gene pool was kale , where a higher than expected number of resistant accessions was found ( ellis et al . , 1998 ) . in cabbage , antixenosis is an important resistance mechanism against b . brassicae in the red - leaved cultivar ruby ball whereas the green - leaved minicole exhibits antibiosis to b . brassicae ( singh and ellis , 1993 ; ellis et al . , 1996 ) .
several wasps have been reported as hyperparasitoids of d . rapae ( hughes , 1963 ; van emden , 1966a ; oatman and platner , 1973 ; chua , 1977 ) . hyperparasitoids are considered as a possible factor contributing to the failure of d . rapae to control b . brassicae ( van emden , 1966a ; chua , 1977 ) . the population dynamics of b . brassicae , its parasitoid ( d . rapae ) and hyperparasitoids ( pachyneuron spp . ) , were quantified under field conditions ( nematollahi et al . , 2014b ) . this study showed that d . rapae had good spatial coincidence with its aphid host but low impact on the host population because of a lack of parasitoid - host synchronization and low parasitoid : aphid ratio .
parasitism rate can be influenced by plant quality , probably due to the nutritional status of the aphids or to toxic compounds ingested through the plant . cabbage , cauliflower and broccoli were found to be suitable plants for d . rapae , considering the development time of pre - adults , and the parasitization rate on b . brassicae ( bayhan et al . , 2007 ) .
crops which can suffer severe attack by b . brassicae include cabbage , cauliflower , broccoli , radish , swede and mustard . kale , oilseed rape and brussels sprouts are usually only lightly infested , while turnips appear immune . large colonies feed on the undersides of young leaves , draining plant nutritional resources , and on the flower heads of seed crops , reducing the setting of seed ( blackman and eastop , 2000 ) .
the results of neem oil on cabbage aphid confirm previous reports of the effects of neem on b . brassicae ( okoth et al . , 2002 ) ; repellency and antialimentar effect were described and caused reduction of pest population in cabbage ( kirpal et al . , 1986 ) ; reduction of fertility and the fecundity ( koul , 1999 ) and high mortality ( verkerk et al . , 1998 ) were also reported . also for myzus persicae ( sulzer ) ( hemiptera : aphididae ) , the efficiency of neem was demonstrated ( okoth et al . , 2002 ; venzon et al . , 2007 ) .
the type of fertilizer used affects the survival of natural enemies . banfield - zanin et al . ( 2012 ) compared mortality of the predatory coccinellid , adalia bipunctata , on plants in organic and synthetic fertilizers , and found that mortality increased by 10 % when the predator - eating aphids on plants in synthetic fertilizer . the study on broccoli showed that intercropping and composting decreased pest abundance . intercropping also enhanced parasitism of b . brassicae depending on the intercropped plant and the growing season ( summer vs . autumn ) . the seasonal effectiveness of d . rapae was increased by composting despite lower aphid abundance in compost - fertilized broccoli ( ponti et al . , 2007 ) .
this aphid feeds on all cultivated and wild cruciferous plants . major economic hosts include : broccoli , brussels sprouts , cauliflower , and head cabbage . it attacks carrot , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , daikon , radish , kale , rape and most other members of the genus brassica , however , damage is usually less severe than on cabbage .
a native of europe , the cabbage aphid is now found in many areas of the world . in the tropics they are usually confined to higher altitudes . the cabbage aphid was first recorded on oahu in 1907 , and it is now present on all islands .
colonies of this aphid are found on both lower and upper leaf surfaces and in leaf folds of developing heads , on leaf stalks , and on leaf axles . they are occasionally found on at the soil level .
aphids feed by sucking sap from their hosts . infested seedlings may become stunted and distorted . continued feeding on mature plants causes wilting , yellowing and general stunting of the plants .
the cabbage aphid is a vector of 23 virus diseases of cruciferae and many diseases of citrus . turnip mosaic virus is vectored by over 40 aphid species but especially by the cabbage aphid and myzus persicae ( green peach aphid ) . both apterae ( wingless ) and alate ( winged ) aphids are able to transmit the virus but more transmissions are obtained with apterae forms ( toba , 1962 ) . transmission is usually in a nonpersistent manner where the virus is taken up into the aphid ' s mouth while feeding on an infected plant and transferred to a healthy plant during the next feeding or probing of mouth parts . in nonpersistent transmission the virus reproduces in the plant and aphids simply aid in transporting the virus .
aphids reproduce in two ways . in warm climates like hawaii , aphid colonies consist completely of females . reproduction does not involve mating or egg laying . females give birth to live female nymphs . in temperate climates , aphids reproduce as above during the warmer periods of the year . in the fall , the reproduction changes . males are produced in response to a decrease in photoperiod or temperature ( blackman and eastop , 1984 ) . mating occurs and females lay eggs . aphids overwinter in the egg stage
generations are overlapping and continuous throughout the year in hawaii . the total life cycle represents the period from the birth of the nymph until its death as an adult female . life cycle duration ranges from 16 - 50 days and is greatly influenced by temperature . the life cycle is shortened at higher temperatures .
eggs are not produced in hawaii . in temperate regions this aphid over winters as eggs ,
females give birth to live young that remain on her back until they are large enough to survive on their own . nymphs are similar in appearance to adults except for their smaller size .
wingless females are 1 / 10 inch long and somewhat oval in shape . the posterior end of the body tapers greatly . the pale green body is usually covered by white waxy powder . underneath the wax there are eight dark brown or black spots located on the upper abdominal surface . they increase in size toward the posterior end .
winged females , somewhat smaller than the wingless forms , are not covered with waxy powder . the head and thorax are dark brown to black . the yellowish green abdomen is with two dark spots on the dorsal anterior abdominal segments . these spots merge into a dark band across the top of the last abdominal segments . antennae are dark brown . wings are short and stout with prominent veins .
it is very important that fields are plowed immediately after harvest . this will reduce spread to other plots . another useful practice is to rotate plantings with non - host crops .
naturally occurring parasites and predators are important factors in regulating population densities . parasitic wasps lay eggs within the aphids . the first sign of parasite activity is the presence of mummified aphids . syrphid fly maggots and lady beetles are efficient predators of aphids . syrphid maggots are the more common of the two types of predators . lacewing larvae are often found among aphid colonies . these larvae are called aphid lions . they are less efficient predators than syrphid maggots and lady beetles .
there are many insecticides that are effective against this aphid . because of the waxy nature of the pest and crop , care must be taken that sprays provide good wetting of the crop . proper rates of surfactants in combination with well adjusted spray equipment are important to achieve control with minimum effort .
elmer , h . s . and o . l . brawner . 1975 . control of brown soft scale in central valley . citrograph . 60 ( 11 ) : 402 - 403 .
lockwood , s . 1956 . loose - leaf manual of insect control . california department of agriculture , bureau of entomology .
toba , h . h . 1962 . studies on the host range of watermelon mosaic virus in hawaii . plant dis . 46 : 409 - 410 .
metcalf , c . l . , and w . p . flint . 1963 . cabbage and turnip aphids . in destructive and useful insects , their habits and control , fourth edition ( revised by r . l . metcalf ) . pp . 667 - 668 . mcgraw - hill book company , new york . 1087 pages .
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the cabbage aphid is native to europe , but now has a worldwide distribution ( kessing and mau 1991 ) . severe damage to various plants in the family brassicaceae has been reported in many areas including canada , the netherlands , south africa , india and china . the cabbage aphid is widely distributed throughout the u . s . and has been found to be more of a pest in the southern states ( carter and sorensen 2013 ) .
the cabbage aphid is difficult to distinguish from the turnip aphid ( lipaphis erysimi ( kaltenbach ) ) . the cabbage aphid is 2 . 0 to 2 . 5 mm long and covered with a grayish waxy covering , but the turnip aphid is 1 . 6 to 2 . 2 mm long and has no such covering ( carter and sorensen 2013 ) .
the cabbage aphid and green peach aphid ( myzus persicae ( sulzer ) ) can be confused when they are both found feeding on cabbage plants . however , they have distinguishing morphological characteristics . for instance , the cabbage aphid is waxy with short cornicles . on the other hand , the green peach aphid lacks a waxy covering , and has long cornicles ( opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) . moreover , green peach aphids mainly attack cabbage before heading ( after transplanting , the cabbage seedling starts producing leaves , and eventually the cabbage plant begins to produce a small , tight head at the center of the group of leaves ) begins , but cabbage aphids may attack the crop at any stage ( elwakil and mossler 2013 ) .
the cabbage aphid has a host range restricted to plants in the family brassicaceae ( = cruciferae ) , which include both cultivated and wild cruciferous crops ( gabrys et al . 1997 ) .
major economically important host crops where significant losses have been found include cauliflower ( brassica oleracea l . var . botrytis l . ) , brussels sprouts ( brassica oleracea l . var . gemmifera dc ) , broccoli ( brassica oleracea l . var . italica plenck ) cabbage ( brassica oleracea l . ) , oilseed rape ( brassica napus l . ) and other members of the genus brassica ( e . g . , indian mustard ( brassica juncea l . ) , white mustard ( sinapis ( = brassica ) alba l . ) , black mustard ( brassica nigra l . ) , toria ( brassica rapa l . ) . it also attacks chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage ( brassica rapa , subspecies pekinensis and chinensis ) , radish ( raphanus sativus l . ) and kale ( brassica alboglabra l . h . bailey ) ( kessing and mau 1991 ) . cabbage aphid is an especially big problem in broccoli and cabbage production ( opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) .
aphids can reproduce two ways . in warm climates ( e . g . , in florida and hawaii ) , females give birth to female nymphs without mating . in this case , an aphid colony consists of females only . this occurs during warmer periods in temperate climates as well . in temperate climates , however , the mode of reproduction changes during the autumn as temperatures begin to drop . in response to low temperature or decrease in photoperiod , males are also produced ( blackman and eastop 1984 ) . mating takes place and females lay eggs . the egg stage is the overwintering stage of aphids . generations are overlapping , with up to 15 generations during the crop season ( hines and hutchison 2013 ) . the total life cycle duration ranges between 16 to 50 days depending on temperature . the life cycle is shorter at higher temperatures ( kessing and mau 1991 ) .
eggs : in temperate climates , eggs overwinter in plant debris near the soil surface ( hines and hutchison 2013 ) . eggs are not laid in warm climates ; females produce female nymphs directly ( kessing and mau 1991 ) .
nymphs : in instances where eggs are not produced , the female gives birth to nymphs . nymphs differ from adults ( including wingless adults , known as apterae ) in having less developed caudae and siphunculi . the nymphal period varies from seven to ten days . winged forms develop and start migrating to new host plants only when plant quality deteriorates or when a plant becomes overcrowded .
adults : aphids are soft - bodied and oval or pear shaped with a posterior pair of tubes called cornicles , which project backward . aphids have piercing - sucking mouthparts . adult cabbage aphids can take on two forms : winged and wingless ( herrick and huntgate 1911 ) . wingless adults are 1 / 10 inches long , oval - shaped and appear grayish - green or grayish - white due to their waxy covering ( hines and hutchison 2013 , natwick 2009 , opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) . on the upper abdominal surface , eight dark brown or black spots are located beneath the waxy coating . these spots increase in size toward the posterior end . winged females are smaller and lack the waxy covering of wingless females ( natwick 2009 ) . the wings are short with prominent veins . the head and thorax are dark brown to black with dark brown antennae . the winged aphids have a yellow abdomen with two dark spots on the dorsal anterior abdominal segments . these two spots merge into a dark band across the last abdominal segment ( kessing and mau 1991 ) .
aphids feed by sucking sap from their host plants . they produce a sugary waste product called honeydew , which is fed on by ants . in turn , the ants provide the aphids with protection from natural enemies . continued feeding by aphids causes yellowing , wilting and stunting of plants ( opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) . severely infested plants become covered with a mass of small sticky aphids ( due to honeydew secretions ) , which can eventually lead to leaf death and decay ( griffin and williamson 2012 ) . cabbage aphids feed on the underside of the leaves and on the center of the cabbage head ( hines and hutchison 2013 ) . they prefer feeding on young leaves and flowers and often go deep into the heads of brussels sprouts and cabbage ( natwick 2009 ) . colonies of aphids are found on upper and lower leaf surfaces , in leaf folds , along the leafstalk , and near leaf axils .
the cabbage aphid is of agricultural concern because it is a vector of at least 20 viral pathogens that can cause diseases in crucifers and citrus . both wingless ( apterae ) and winged ( alate ) forms are able to transmit viruses , but the wingless aphids demonstrate a higher rate of transmission ( toba 1962 ) . the cabbage aphid’s mode of pathogen transmission is non - persistent : the aphid picks up the virus by feeding on infected plants and transfers the pathogen to healthy plants by probing with its mouthparts or feeding ( kessing and mau 1991 ) . aphids cause major losses to broccoli by reducing yield , with real damage being contamination of harvested heads of broccoli ( natwick 2009 , opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) . in oregon , contamination of some broccoli heads may lead to the rejection the entire harvest by quality assurance programs managed by broccoli processors ( opfer and mcgrath 2013 ) .
aphids are serious pests under cool and dry conditions . cultural and biological control strategies can help reduce aphid infestation and use of pesticides while still maintaining yield and quality of produce . for large scale ( commercial ) production , insecticide application should be considered when 2 % of plants are infested with aphids . it is important to add a spreader - sticker ( liquid detergent to break the surface tension of droplets ) to the insecticides to increase surface contact with the waxy covering of the aphids ' bodies ( griffin and williamson 2012 ) . if one can delay pesticide application before head formation in cole crops , it can save expenses and help to conserve natural enemy populations ( natwick 2009 ) . for small - scale vegetable growers ( home growers ) , aphids can be repelled by planting crops with reflective mulch - covered beds and monitored by filling yellow pans with water , if aphids are found in great numbers in the water traps additional control measures may be necessary ( griffin and williamson 2012 ) .
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carter cc , sorensen ka . 2013 . insect and related pests of vegetables . cabbage and turnip aphid . center for integrated pest management . north carolina state university , raleigh , nc . ( 2 october 2013 )
elwakil wm , mossler , m . 2013 . florida crop / pest management profile : cabbage . agronomy department , florida cooperative extension service , ifas , university of florida , gainesville , fl . ( 2 october 2013 )
griffin rp , williamson j . 2012 . cabbage , broccoli & other cole crop insect pests . hgic 2203 , home & garden information center . clemson cooperative extension . clemson university , clemson , sc . ( 2 october 2013 )
herrick gw , hungate jw . 1911 . the cabbage aphid . new york ( cornell ) agricultural experiment station bulletin . 300 : 715 - 746 .
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natwick et . 2009 . cole crops : cabbage aphid . uc pest management guidelines . university of california agriculture & natural resources . ( 2 october 2013 )
opfer p , mcgrath d . 2013 . oregon vegetables , cabbage aphid and green peach aphid . department of horticulture . oregon state university , corvallis , or . ( 2 october 2013 )
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razaq m , maqsood s , aslam m , shad sa , afzal m . 2012 . effect of plant spacing on aphid population , yield components and oil contents of late sown canola , brassica napus l . ( brassicaceae ) . pakistan journal of zoology 44 : 991 - 995 .
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webb se . 2010 . insect management for crucifers ( cole crops ) ( broccoli , cabbage , cauliflower , collards , kale , mustard , radishes , turnips ) eny - 464 . entomology and nematology department , florida cooperative extension service , ifas , university of florida , gainesville , fl . ( 2 october 2013 )
acknowledgements : special thanks to morgan conn , dr . susan webb , dr . john capinera and dr . howard frank for their review of this document .
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an adjuvant is often needed to help spray solutions adhere to the waxy leaves of cruciferous crops . some adjuvants , such as sylgard , are not a good fit for ipm , although they increase the efficacy of the pesticide ( acheampong and stark , 2004 ) .
predation by syrphid flies , e . g . e . balteatus , is frequently low due to presence of several parasitoids , such as diplazon laetatorius , which reduce the impact of these natural enemies ( lowe , 1968 ; oatman and platner , 1973 ) .
host - plant resistance most of the world’s economically important brassicas are sourced in either the a genome ( e . g . b . rapa ) or the c genome ( e . g . b . oleracea ) , with b . napus , formed by hybridisation of the a and c genomes , being one of the most important oilseed crops in europe and the americas ( ellis et al . , 2000 ) .
on cabbage in germany , numbers of aphids on the plants peaked in june - july and again in september - october . the yield was most affected by attack in the second population peak . control thresholds for fresh consumption were 20 % plants attacked with more than 10 apterae / plant , or 10 % attacked plants when one or more plants had more than 100 aphids ( hildenhagen and hommes , 1997 ) .
murage , n . ; otipa , m . ; kilalo , d . ; ombuya , a . ; ochilo , w . ; badii , b . k . ; serwah - nuamah , h . ; braimah , h . ; cudjoe , a . ; awuku , m . ; cabi , 2016 , english language
geographical distribution : wherever wild or cultivated brassicaceae ( cruciferae ) grow . cie map # 37 , 1992 ( revised ) .
morphology : body of apterous female light green with darker spots on head and abdomen and covered with a whitish secretion . the alate female is mostly black , with greenish abdomen ; length 1about 2 mm . siphunculi dark - brown or green , short , cauda as long as siphunculi , triangular in shape , dark green .
life cycle : this aphid reproduces by parthenogenesis throughout the year . its threshold of development is around 4 . 5°c , enabling the pest to reproduce during winter , the main season of brassicaceae crops in the middle east . the aphid produces a male - attracting sex pheromone . the aphid obtains glucosinolates from its cole diet and this chemical serves as an effective defense system against coccinellid predators .
economic importance : the cabbage aphid feeds on both sides of leaves , in leaf folds and near leaf axils . this causes leaf curling and yellowing , plant stunting and reductions of the yield of cole crops . although the pest’s honeydew output is meager , its presence on cauliflower and broccoli heads , or hidden within cabbage leaves , may lead to the rejection the entire harvest . ornamentals , such as matthiola , can also be damaged . in addition , the pest transmits several plant viruses .
monitoring : the pest can be monitored with yellow pans containing water , or by traps baited with the aphid’s sex pheromone .
cultural control : intercropping with other crops ( e . g . grains ) may reduce cabbage aphid numbers , as will plowing the field after harvest , and removing alternate cruciferous host plants , including weeds , from the surrounding areas .
plant resistance : different varieties of crucifeous crops show varying levels of resistance to the aphid . the mechanisms include mechanical factors that hinder the penetration of the pest’s mouthparts into the plants and chemical components that vary in the different plant species .
chemical control : the pest has developed much resistance to synthetic insecticides . extracts from various plants ( like melia azedarach l . , mentha piperata l . and others ) provided some control . insecticidal soaps were also used and seeds coated with imidacloprid gave good control . due to the waxy nature of the pest and of the crops , a surfactant should be added to any spray .
biological control : a major natural enemy of this aphid is the host - specific braconid endoparasitoid diaeretiella rapae ( m’intosh ) , which is attracted to the pest by its sex pheromone . other controlling insects include coccinellidae , syrphid fly larvae , and lacewing larvae . several entomopathogenic fungi sometimes kill the pest .
ester , a . , de putter , h . and van bilsen , j . g . p . m . 2003 . filmcoating the seed of cabbage ( brassica oleracea l . convar . capitata l . ) and cauliflower ( brassica oleracea l . var . botrytis l . ) with imidacloprid and spinosad to control insect pests . crop protection 22 : 761 - 768 .
gabrys . b . and pawluk , m . 1999 . acceptability of different species of brassicaceae as hosts for the cabbage aphid . entomologia experimentalis et applicata 91 : 105 - 109 .
kazana , e . ( and 7 co - authors ) . 2007 . the cabbage aphid : a walking mustard oil bomb . proceedings of biological sciences 274 : 2271–2277 .
swirski , e . and amitai , s . 1999 . annotated list of aphids ( aphidoidea ) in israel . israel journal of entomology 33 : 1 - 120 .
is an aphid species that feeds primarily on crucifers in all temperate and tropical regions of the world .
distribution . this aphid is globally distributed , located in all but the coldest terrestrial habitats .
economic importance . it is particularly important on cabbage , cauliflower , brussels sprouts , radish , swede , and mustard , but also attacks other crucifers like kale and rape , to a lesser extent . it has been implicated in the transmission of 17 plant viruses .
see also . taxonomy at aphid species file . aphids on the world ' s plants . literature references .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2000 . aphids on the world’s crops , second edition . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . x + 466 pages , 58 figures , 51 plates .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2006 . aphids on the world’s herbaceous plants and shrubs . volume 2 the aphids . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . viii + pages 1025 - 1439 .
chan , c . k . , a . r . forbes , and d . a . raworth . 1991 . aphid - transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world . agriculture canada technical bulletin 1991 - 3e . 1 - 216 pp .
holman , j . 2009 . host plant catalog of aphids , palaearctic region . springer science and business media b . v . 1216 pp .
voegtlin , d . , w . villalobos , m . v . sanchez , g . saborio , and c . rivera . a guide to the winged aphids of costa rica . 2003 . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 51 ( suppl . 2 ) : xi + 228 pp .
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division of biology , faculty of natural sciences , imperial college london , wye campus , ashford , kent , tn25 5ah , uk .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the control of insect pests in vegetables is currently done almost exclusively using chemical insecticides . in general the greens and vegetables have several continuous harvests and pest control is done in the same period in which plants are reaped . pesticide residues occur frequently and are public health concern . avoiding pesticides by the development of alternative strategies to manage phytosanitary problems is an important need mostly for horticultural activity ( marques - francovig et al . , 2014 ) . in addition , organic production is a growing tendency worldwide ( willer et al . , 2008 ) and pest management is a problem that still limits its expansion ( zehnder et al . , 2007 ) .
the citrus oil , formed by several volatile compounds , as terpenes , alcohols , esters , fatty aldehydes and triglycerides ( fernandes et al . , 2002 ) , causes inhibition or decrease of the growth , decrease in the reproductive capacity , suppression of the appetite and causing death through starvation or direct toxicity in the insects ( viegas junior , 2003 ) .
use of kaolin clay in the management of insects and diseases ( kaolin - based particle film ) was successfully evaluated in apple ( thomas , 2002 ; sackett et al . , 2005 ) and pear ( puterka et al . , 2000 ) orchards . the formulations also protect the fruits against injuries caused by the sun due to the formation of a reflective particle film in the surface ( glenn et al . , 1999 ) . another rock powder , rocksil , has been used for organic farmers to obtain the same effects of kaolin . studies with kaolin protecting film have been concentrated in temperate climates and the development of formulations using local inert materials is a requirement in tropical regions .
alternative strategies may be a way of reducing or even eliminating pesticides in fruits , vegetables and greens since detailed investigations define exactly which pests can be controlled by specific alternatives and their doses . considering the needs of information in the efficiency of control measures to cabbage aphid , the effect of some products in the management of cabbage aphid as an alternative to replacement pesticides in kale was studied . evaluation of insecticidal effects of the neem oil , rock dusts rocksil and protesyl ( kaolin ) , citrus oil , pyroligneous extract ( alone or mixed with pepper + citronella ) and the neem oil + pyroligneous against cabbage aphid was the aim of present study .
two experiments were conducted in a greenhouse in londrina , pr ( 23°23 latitude south and 51°11 longitude west ) . kale was sown on horticultural substrate plantmax ® ( eucatex , são paulo , sp ) in styrofoam trays , on october 27th 2006 . when the seedlings had three to four leaves they were transferred to vessels ( two seedlings per vessel ) ( 2 kg ) containing ravine soil and 60 g of 4 - 14 - 8 formulated fertilizer . afterwards , the less vigorous seedling was eliminated . kale leaves containing cabbage aphids were collected in a commercial orchard and placed on the leaves of the seedlings for infestation , from 46 - 52 days after sowing ( das ) . before the first spraying , one leaf of each plant was randomly chosen and marked on each plant and the number of wingless cabbage aphid was quantified . four replications were used . spraying was carried out with a hand sprayer pressure 2 . 5 l ( practical model 2000 , brudden ) .
the treatments , their origins and concentrations are described in table 1 . agril ® was used as spreader - sticker mixed with all treatments and one additional just with agril ® in the spray solution . pyroligneous was used alone or mixed with citronella ( cymbopogon nardus ( l . ) rendel ) leaves and pepper ( capsicum frutescens ( l . ) ) cv . , malagueta fruits . this home formulation was prepared as made by growers ( boiled for 2 h ) regionally . concentrations used were based on information provided by manufacturers or reports of farmers .
for the first experiment , the seedlings were transferred to vessels 14 das . spraying started 75 das and was repeated weekly more three times . the evaluations were done two and five days after sprayings , taking note the number of insects in the market leaves .
1 except for control ( both experiments ) , the adhesive spreader agril ® was used ( 0 . 5 ml l - 1 of solution ) in all experiments
for the second assay , the seedlings were transplanted 95 das . three weekly sprays were achieved starting 111 das . pyroligneous mixed with neem oil was used to evaluate possible improvement of neem efficiency . the evaluations were performed 2 and 5 days after sprayings , taking note the number of insects in the market leaves .
statistical analysis : the randomized design was used . data were subjected to anova and means were compared by tukey test at 5 % of significance . the control efficiency was calculated by abbott ( 1925 ) .
in the first experiment , from first to fourth assessment , cabbage aphid population was similar in the treatments ( table 2 ) . the lack of efficiency of treatments probably was related to high aphid population . during the evaluation period , an increasing population of the pest was observed in control , what demonstrates appropriate conditions for its developing and reproduction . in late assessments ( 01 / 26 , 01 / 29 and 02 / 1 ) - after the third spraying , plants treated with neem oil 1 % and protesyl 5 % had lower aphid populations than control . for these two treatments , in this assessment , a relatively high efficiency was obtained ( 99 and 90 % , respectively ) . intermediate populations were found for the other treatments ( citrus oil , pyroligneous , pyroligneous + citronella + pepper and agril ) . citrus oil caused toxicity to plants .
in the second assay , in general , neem treated plants showed lesser infestation than control in all evaluations ( table 3 ) . in the first assessment , higher aphid infestation was found in plants treated with neem oil ( 0 . 5 % ) than in neem oil ( 0 . 5 % ) + pyroligneous ( 1 % ) ( 33 . 0 vs . , 94 . 0 % efficiency , respectively ) . an apparent improvement of neem oil efficiency when mixed with pyroligneous was observed for other assessments and concentration ( also 1 . 0 % ) but significant difference was not detected .
inconsistent results were found when pyroligneous and the home formulation of pyroligneous with citronella and pepper were used alone . in some assessments populations were lower than control but in some other were higher ( table 2 ) .
toxicity of citric oils as found in this study has been reported to plenty crops ( ibrahim et al . , 2001 ) . limonene toxicity was described to green dracaena ( dracaena deremensis engl . warneckii ) , lauae fern ( phymatosorus scolopendria ( burm . f . ) pic . serm . ) , creeping club moss ( lycopodium cernuum l . ) , monstera ( monstera deliciosa liebm . ) and red ginger ( alpina purpurate ( vieill . ) k . schum . ) ( hollingsworth , 2005 ) .
the same way as neem treated plants , the reduction of aphid population due to rock dust ( protesyl 5 % ) occurred only after the third spraying . aphid records on rocksil 2 % were intermediate between best treatments and control . protesyl consists of kaolin ( 95 % ) and a fixer . the rocksil is a mixture of micronized mineral from volcanic origin , composed mainly of al 2 0 3 , sio 2 and s . similar reduction of cabbage aphid occurred in rocksil and protesyl treatments and similar mechanisms may be related . greater control efficiency in the protesyl treatment than rocksil may be related to the higher concentration ( 5x2 % , respectively ) .
the positive effect of combining neem with pyroligneous extracts was also related to control of cerotoma arcuata olivier ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) ( guirado et al . , 2007 ) . pyroligneous is a very cheap byproduct of coal fabrication and neem products are relatively high . hence improvement of the neem efficiency and reducing its dosages by addition of pyroligneous to the spray solution reduces control cost .
concerning to the mixture of pepper and citronella to pyroligneous , as has been done by some farmers , does not seem to significantly alter the extract efficiency . it is possible that the way of cooking , boiling the leaves in the pyroligneous , may have contributed to the loss of essential oil presented in plant species that act on the pests . other forms of preparation may be investigated in the future .
due to improvement of the neem efficiency by mixture with pyroligneous extract ( table 3 ) , future investigation also may be done to evaluate gradients of varying doses of neem and pyroligneous . besides this mixture , the rotation or even mixture of rock dusts protesyl and rocksil with neem could be tested . the action mechanisms against the pest are different what becomes insect resistance less probable particularly for the aphids , for which there is need successive applications . this strategy has also been successful by mixing diatomaceous earth to neem ( neemazal - t / s ) providing significant increase in the control efficiency of m . persicae in artichoke ( cynara cardunculus var . scolymus ( l . ) fiori ) ( el - wakeil and saleh , 2007 ) and also mixing paecilomyces lilacinus ( thom . ) samson to neem what triggered higher mortality of aphis gossypii glover under laboratory and semifield conditions ( wakil et al . , 2012 ) .
in summary , neem oil ( 0 . 5 and 1 . 0 % ) and kaolin were efficient , rocksil ( 2 % ) was intermediate to reduce the cabbage aphid population . the addition of pyroligneous to neem used in low concentration ( 0 . 5 % ) improved its efficiency .
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the ashy-crowned sparrow-lark ( eremopterix griseus ) is a small sparrow-sized member of the lark family .

it is found in the plains in open land with bare ground , grass and scrub across south asia .

the males are well marked with a contrasting black-and-white face pattern , while females are sandy brown , looking similar to a female sparrow .

males are easily detected during the breeding season by the long descending whistle that accompanies their undulating and dive-bombing flight displays .

ashy - crowned sparrow - lark

ashy crowned sparrow lark is a small sparrow . size between 11 cm . to 14 cm . the bill of ashy crowned sparrow lark is small , strong and greyish light black . legs are short and greyish brown .
ashy - crowned sparrow - lark - male calling while moving on the ground / low decibel sounds .
ashy - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix griseus ) is a species of bird in the alaudidae family .
a shy crowned sparrow lark ( eremopterix griseus ) complete detail . description of a shy crowned sparrow lark ( eremopterix griseus ) . classification of a shy crowned sparrow lark ( eremopterix griseus ) . habit and habitat of ashy crowned sparrow lark . they prefer open dry habitats . they found in stubble , scrub , plains in open land with bare ground , grass , waste - land , riverside sand and tidal flats on the coast .
ashy crowned sparrow lark prefer open dry habitats . they found in stubble , scrub , plains in open land with bare ground , grass , waste - land , riverside sand and tidal flats on the coast .
common name - ashy - crowned sparrow lark name of species - eremopterix grisea family - alaudidae status - locally common resident photo taken on - 12 , feb2008 at - bhanpur village , jaipur , rajasthan description camouflaged regards , devendra bhardwaj .
alström , p . ( 2018 ) . ashy - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix griseus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
alström , p . ( 2018 ) . ashy - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix griseus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 may 2018 ) .
drive to ranthambhore national park ( 5 hours ) in the morning stoppingen route at bund baretha for birding . in the afternoon you enter the ranthambore tiger reserve and continue bird watching there . the birds that one can expect to see include grey francolin , sirkeer malkoha , painted sandgrouse , indian courser , yellow - wattled lapwing , southern grey shrike , isabelline wheatear , desert wheatear , variable wheatear , ashy - crowned sparrow lark , greater short - toed lark , blue rock thrush , and common buzzard . overnight in the resort .
the bill of ashy crowned sparrow lark is small , strong and greyish light black . legs are short and greyish brown . cheeks and sides of breast are brownish white . male has dark chocolate - brown sides of face and most of under - parts . the tail is dark brown with whitish brown outer feathers . head is paler , but look - like dark brown to black . female is slightly paler than the male and their brown plumage are better camouflaged than the male……… . .
barred buttonquails are common here like theasian elephants . as we observe and photograph them , golden jackals and mongooses can be found around . two rarities are here : great thick - knee , and indian stone curlew . it is the region to locate indian scops owl , and indian little nightjar . we like to scan the scrub for jerdon’s bushlark , oriental skylark and ashy - crowned sparrow lark etc . our lodge is a habitat in itself and we discover wonderful birds walking around it .
day 3–5 : ranthambore tiger reserve there are two safaris each day into the ranthambore tiger reserve in your quest for the tiger . other mammals in the park include the sambar and chital deer , leopard , jungle cat , sloth bear , wild boar , crocodiles , mongoose and jackals . birdwatching is also rewarding and some of the birds that one can expect to see include grey francolin , sirkeer malkoha , painted sandgrouse , indian courser , yellow - wattled lapwing , southern grey shrike , isabelline wheatear , desert wheatear , variable wheatear , ashy - crowned sparrow lark , greater short - toed lark , blue rock thrush , and common buzzard . overnight at lodge .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . black - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix nigriceps ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the sykes’s lark is differentiated from the malabar lark by its smaller size , stiff upright crest and rufous underparts with less prominent streaking . another bird that is endemic to india , its distribution is restricted to central and western india .
day 8 : before breakfast we’ll visit a birding site looking for coppersmith barbet , yellow - crowned woodpecker , jerdon’s leafebird , small minivet , ashy - crowned sparrowlark , oriental skylark , and yellow wagtails . we’ll then travel east to the village of tissa , famous for its large tank ( or lake ) and ancient domed dagoba ( buddhist shrine ) . on the way we’ll stop at a reservoir to look for a variety of waterbirds including black and yellow bitterns .
exhibits similar behaviour but also sings during its ascent , whereas the crested lark sings either at altitude or on the ground .
ovampo rufous long - billed lark ( c . a . erikssoni ) - ( hartert , 1907 ) : found in northern namibia
benguella rufous long - billed lark ( c . a . obscurata ) - hartert , 1907 : found in south - western and central angola
the crested lark ( galerida cristata ) is a species of lark distinguished from the other 81 species of lark by the crest of feathers that rise up in territorial or courtship displays and when singing . common to mainland europe , the birds can also be found in northern africa and in parts of western asia and china . it is a non - migratory bird , but can occasionally be found as a vagrant in great britain .
malabar lark is one of three species of larks with prominent crests in karnataka ( the others being sykes’s lark and oriental skylark ) . they are distinguished from the other larks by feathers on the head that rise up while displaying ( for territory or courtship ) or when they are singing .
rufous long - billed lark ( c . a . albofasciata ) - ( lafresnaye , 1836 ) : found in south - eastern botswana to central south africa
damara rufous long - billed lark ( c . a . arenaria ) - ( reichenow , 1904 ) : found in southern namibia and south - western south africa
11–12 cm . small , sexually dimorphic lark with appearance superficially like that of a finch ( fringillidae ) . adult male has pale greyish - brown forehead and crown ( . . .
10–11 cm ; 12–16 g . small , sexually dimorphic lark resembling a finch ( fringillidae ) ; diagnostic white forehead , rarely absent ( one bird from sudan ) . adult male . . .
its plumage is downy but sparse and appears whitish . the distinct crest from which the crested lark gets its name is conspicuous at all times but is more pronounced during territorial or courtship displays and when singing .
hayman , peter ; burton , philip ( 1979 ) .
crested lark
. the birdlife of britain ( 2nd ed . ) . london : mitchell beazley publishers limited . p . 80 . isbn 0855330872 .
alauda is a genus of larks found across much of europe , asia and in the mountains of north africa , and one of the species ( the raso lark ) endemic to the islet of raso in the cape verde islands . [ 1 ] further , at least two additional species are known from the fossil record . the current genus name is from latin alauda ,
lark
. pliny the elder thought the word was originally of celtic origin . [ 2 ]
larks are a diverse family of around 98 species spread over 21 genera . they are predominantly an old world and australian family of birds , with just one species ( horned lark ) extending into the americas . 9 species ( across 6 genera ) represent this family in karnataka :
closely related to the original songster – the eurasian skylark – the oriental skylark is the most widespread lark across india with 6 different subspecies recognized in the region . the race australis found in karnataka is more rufous is colouration with heavily streaked upperparts . it is often seen in grasslands , cultivation and coastal mudflats .
this species is endemic to india and , as its name suggests , is predominantly found in open areas and cultivation around the western ghats . originally placed along with the skylarks , the bird is a smaller and browner version of the crested lark that breeds in north india . it has white underparts , with streaking on the breast .
guillaumet , alban ; pons , jean - marc ; godelle , bernard ; crochet , pierre - andre ( 2006 ) .
history of the crested lark in the mediterranean region as revealed by mtdna sequences and morphology
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 645–56 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 01 . 002 .
figures for europe are less varied , with estimates putting the number of breeding pairs at between 3 , 600 , 000 and 7 , 600 , 000 , or between 7 , 200 , 000 and 15 , 200 , 000 individuals . in europe , trends since 1982 have shown an overall decline in the population of the species , resulting in the assumption that the crested lark is in decline globally .
sinharaja fr red - faced malkoha ( only likely here ) , green - billed coucal , serendib scops owl ( most likely here ) , sri lanka spurfowl ( most likely here ) , sri lanka junglefowl , sri lanka frogmouth , malabar trogon , sri lanka blue magpie , ashy - headed laughingthrush ( most likely here ) , spot - winged and sri lanka thrushes , white - faced starling ( most likely here ) , sri lanka and southern ( hill ) mynas , and black - throated munia . also a chance of sri lanka ( grizzled ) giant squirrel .
days 11 - 12 : these two days are set aside for exploring sinharaja’s rain forest in the heart of the wet zone . the park’s extensive bird list includes most of the country’s endemics and we have a good chance of seeing the majority of them , although some are easier to find than others . the ground - dwelling sri lanka spurfowl requires stealth and sharp eyes , whereas roving flocks of ashy - headed laughingthrushes and orange - billed babblers are much more obliging . ceylon hill - mynas call loudly and clearly from exposed positions while ceylon hanging - parrots shriek past .
eagles are in good numbers : short - toed , steppe , imperial , tawny and possibly booted as well . long - legged buzzard , white - eyed buzzard , kestrel , sparrow hawk , shikra , and harriers are common sight . vultures present their best sightings here , which declined in the country in recent years : white - backed , long - billed , egyptian , red - headed , cinereous , griffon . all the vulture species are possible to be framed in a single photo - click . black kite , and black - shouldered kite can not be missed . spotted owlet , barn owl , short - eared owl and dusky eagle owl are the nocturnal raptors here . chesnut - belied sandgrouse and black - bellied sandgrouse are great delight , generally observed feeding on ground or flying in hundreds .
before going to this location , we did stop just before the site of the former resort and walked to the lake . apparently at some times of the year it is possible to walk along the lake shore , but when we were there the water was very high and came onto the resort’s property which was bounded by a fence . a guard at the resort did allow us through the resort property , but then we had the same problem at the deer park fence . the area cited by kk as the prime location for syke’s lark was underwater , so they may have moved to a different place around the lake or away completely .
09 – 10 – 11 days . kitulgala / sinhraja it will be the longest stay at sinhraja , the sanctum sanctorum of forest and wilderness in sri lanka . it is the rain forest zone here . we explore birds like : lanka rufuous babblers , red - faced malkoha , sri lanka crested drongo , sri lanka orange and small minivets etc . there will be impressive butterflies as well . other possible birds are : chestnut - backed owlet , green - billed coucal , legge’s flowerpacker , sri lanka blue magpies , ashy - headed laughingthrushes , spot - winged ground - thrush , sri lanka scaly thrush , serendip scop owl , white - faced starling , sri lanka hill myna etc . we will need some effort to search sri lanka frogmouth and at day as we will be regaled by sri lanka giant squirrels . overnight .
species shared only with southern india legge ' s ( crested ) hawk eagle , blue - faced malkoha , sl frogmouth , jerdon’s nightjar , indian swiftlet , malabar trogon , malabar pied hornbill , orange ( scarlet ) minivet , jerdon’s ( rufous - winged ) bush lark , hill ( pacific ) swallow , square - tailed ( black ) , white - browed and yellow - browed bulbuls , indian blackbird , indian ( white - browed ) scimitar babbler , dark - fronted and yellow - billed babblers , southern ( common ) hill myna , jerdon’s ( blue - winged ) leafbird , long - billed ( loten’s ) sunbird and black - throated munia .
endemics sl spurfowl , sl junglefowl , sl wood pigeon , sl green pigeon , sl hanging parrot , sl ( layard ' s ) parakeet , green - billed coucal , red - faced malkoha , serendib scops owl , chestnut - backed owlet , sl grey hornbill , crimson - fronted ( sl ) and yellow - fronted barbets , crimson - backed flameback , sl woodshrike , sl drongo , sl blue magpie , black - capped ( black - crested ) and yellow - eared bulbuls , sl ( red - rumped ) swallow , sl whistling thrush , sl ( scaly ) and spot - winged thrushes , dull - blue flycatcher , sl bush warbler , sl ( indian ) scimitar babbler , brown - capped and orange - billed babblers , ashy - headed laughingthrush , sl white - eye , sl hill myna , white - faced starling and legge ' s flowerpecker .
another day of birding at pangot village , baggar and gughu khan . these walks can be very rewarding . ernight stay at the lodge . bird species listed in the area include crested serpent - eagle , mountain hawk - eagle , woodpeckers such as brown - fronted , stripe - breasted , rufous - bellied , and thrushes including dark - throated , mistle . striated prinia can be seen in the terraced fields . warblers found in the region include tickell’s leaf - warbler , greenish , golden - spectacled , grey - hooded . also noteable are a variety of flycatchers such as asian brown , rusty - tailed , ultramarine , verditer , tickell’s blue , rufous - bellied niltava etc . , orange - flanked bush robin , blue - capped redstart . laughingthrushes such as white - throated , striated & streaked , chestnut - crowned etc . accentors , upland pipits , blue - winged minla , whiskered yuhina are other species seen on walks . overnight stay in lodge
day 3 : around the base of the imposing rock are an extensive series of ancient ruins , most of which have been swallowed by the encroaching jungle . it is this jungle that will provide many more birds for us today as we wander the extensive network of tracks and roadways in search of oriental , forest eagle and brown fish owls , jerdon’s nightjar , blue - faced malkoha , drongo and banded bay cuckoos , oriental dwarf kingfisher , indian pitta , ceylon woodshrike , large and black - headed cuckooshrikes , blue - winged leafbird , orange - headed thrush , white - rumped shama , indian black and indian blue robins , jungle , ashy and grey - breasted prinia , green and large - billed leaf warblers and brown - capped babbler . for those that wish , there will also be the chance to climb the long staircase to the top of sigiriya rock to admire the paintings and the carved fortress . night in sigiriya .
the black - bellied finch - lark is very plentiful . it breeds about here from march till august . the first nest which i found was on 22nd april 1870 . as i was riding along the lake edge , i saw a female with a feather in its bill , so i followed it up to its nest . the nest was nearly finished , but contained no eggs . on the 26th there were two eggs , and i think this is the normal number , but i have a record of there being found in one nest . the nest was built well out into the lake bed , on the top of a low retaining wall of a salt pan . it was a deepish cup shape , in diameter about three inches , with the egg cavity rather less than two inches across and half an inch deep . it was chiefly composed of coarse pieces of grass worked carelessly together , and here and there were pieces of cloth and twine of the same material as the salt bags are made of . round the nest was a belt about five inches broad composed of small pieces of an incrustation of saline earth about a tenth of an inch in thickness . the pieces varied much in size , but the largest were about an inch long by half an inch thick .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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apparently most closely related to e . nigriceps and e . signatus # r . birds of n india sometimes recognized as race siccatus , on basis of being paler ; and those of sri lanka as ceylonensis , with colder , greyer upperparts , and larger bill , than those in s india # r . treated as monotypic .
pakistan ( r indus plains ) , and from s himalayan foothills e to e bangladesh and s to s tip of india , also sri lanka .
song , mainly in high flight , also from ground or low perch , strophes of quickly repeated short . . .
dry open habitats with scattered low vegetation , from sea - level to c . 1000 m . generally completely . . .
poorly studied : diet seeds , e . g . of grasses and forbs ( chenopodiaceae ) , and insects , e . g . small beetles ( coleoptera ) . forages on ground .
little studied . breeds more or less throughout year , but mainly feb–sept in peninsular india and may–jun in sri lanka ; probably . . .
not globally threatened . locally common . no population estimates . present in numerous protected areas , e . g . ranthambhore sanctuary ( india ) and kosi tappu wildlife reserve ( . . .
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recent molecular phylogeny of this family # r —the most comprehensive attempted to date—has recommended novel arrangements for several species and genera , including the resurrection of a number of abandoned genus - group names .
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josep del hoyo , mkennewell , éric roualet , pieter de groot boersma , alok tewari , eldert groenewoud , keith and lynn youngs , guusvanduin .
shantilal varu , jeel bharat patel , josep del hoyo , vasanthan . p . j , ragoo rao , éric roualet , paul van giersbergen , stanislav harvančík , neenad abhang , manish panchal , drpankajmaheria , sharad , martin flack , jacqueserard , lee hunter , divakar tirmare , jugal tiwari , lars petersson , fran trabalon , biplab kr . mukhopadhyay , guy poisson , alok tewari , jan . wendeby , marco valentini , vishal dave , sachin g . sarode , jaysukh parekh suman , stan mansfield , sagar _ adhurya , gunnar pettersson , andrew emmerson , jayant atrey , nikhil adhikary , muralikrishna , leela , tadeusz stawarczyk , vaibhav mishra , ssshams , mayur patel , ryan brookes , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , athula edirisinghe , dave irving , subramanya _ ck , mohamed samsoor ali , harisankar .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common in pakistan and common in india ( grimmett et al . 1998 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eremopterix griseus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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outskirts of kota , rajasthan , india ( 25 3 40 . 554 n , 75 48 19 . 740 e )
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all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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nesting and breeding season is between february to september . they feed on various types of seeds and insects . nest is a compact depression under a tuft of grass in the ground lined with grass and hair with some pebbles arranged on the edge .
they has a perfectly camouflaged plumage . male is sandy brown overall with a black belly , chin , lower lores and eye stripe , they are well marked with a contrasting black - and - white face pattern .
cheeks and sides of breast are brownish white . male has dark chocolate - brown sides of face and most of under - parts .
the tail is dark brown with whitish brown outer feathers . head is paler , but look - like dark brown to black . female is slightly paler than the male and their brown plumage are better camouflaged than the male .
conservational status – schedule – iv , according to wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and classified as least concern ( lc ) by the iucn .
found in india , south of himalayan foothills to sri lanka extending to the indus river system in the west and to assam in the east and moves during the rains ; uncommon in heavy rainfall areas . they prefer sparsely scrubbed or semi barren waste land , fields , open cultivated land .
they found in pairs or small groups and form larger flocks in winter and roost at night on the ground , making small depressions in the soil .
they feed on various types of seeds and insects . nesting and breeding season is between february to september in southern india and may to june in sri lanka .
nest is a compact depression under a tuft of grass in the ground lined with grass and hair with some pebbles arranged on the edge . eggs 2 - 3 , both males and female incubate the eggs . the incubation period is between 13 to 15 days .
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answer key ugc net november 2017 . download answer key of ugc net november 2017
lovebird ( fisher ) me male and female ki pehchan in urdu / hindi .
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this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 17 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .
the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 9 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .
below is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
in europe , the breeding population is estimated to number 3 , 600 , 000 - 7 , 600 , 000 breeding pairs , equating to 10 , 800 , 000 - 22 , 800 , 000 individuals ( birdlife international 2004 ) . europe forms 25 - 49 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 22 , 000 , 000 - 91 , 200 , 000 individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . national population sizes have been estimated at c . 100 - 10 , 000 breeding pairs in china and < c . 10 , 000 breeding pairs in korea ( brazil 2009 ) .
- birds in the dryer parts of morocco and tunisia had longer bills while those in more coastal northern parts had shorter bills typical of the european subspecies . the authors sampled the mitochondrial dna and found they were distinct genetically .
, has been found to have diverged 1 . 9 million years ago and is regarded now by the
with a height of 17 cm and a wingspan of 29 to 38 cm , weighing between 37 and 55 g .
it is a small , brown bird which has a short tail with light brown outer feathers . male and females have no real differences , but young crested larks have more spots on their back than their older counterparts .
, with the main distinctions between the two being the thekla ' s heavier black - brown streaks and its grey underwing , present in european specimens .
today , it could be found in sweden until the 1990s , with sources reporting six individual birds in 1992 before becoming extinct in sweden in 1993 .
the birds have also gone extinct in several other european countries , including norway ( 1972 ) , luxembourg ( 1973 ) and switzerland ( 1980s ) .
this is a common bird of dry , open country and is often seen by roadsides or in cereal fields , although it is also found occupying small , sandy patches by railways , docks and airfields .
it sings in flight from high in the sky , at roughly 30 to 60 metres above the ground . the related
it nests in small depressions in the ground , often in wastelands and on the outskirts of towns . the nests are untidy structures composed primarily of dead grasses and roots .
as with most larks , the chicks leave the nest early , after about eight days and take flight after reaching 15–16 days old .
juvenile birds are fed by both parents , and generally leave the nest before they are able to fly to start foraging for food themselves .
: its plain earth - coloured plumage and hood , its humility (
for it goes willingly along the wayside and finds a grain of corn for itself
) , and its time spent in song .
estimates for the global population of mature individuals of the species range from 22 , 000 , 000 to 91 , 200 , 000 .
harrison , c . j . o . ( 1966 ) .
the validity of some genera of larks ( alaudidae )
. ibis 108 ( 4 ) : 573–83 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 1966 . tb07209 . x .
gill , f & d donsker ( eds . ) ( 30 june 2013 ) .
černý , walter ( 1975 ) . a field guide in colour to birds . translated by margot schierlová ; illustrated by karel drchal . london : octopus books limited . pp . 156–157 . isbn 070640405x .
snow , david ; perrins , christopher m ( editors ) ( 1998 ) . the birds of the western palearctic concise edition 2 . oxford : oxford university press . pp . 1037–1040 . isbn 0198501889 .
harbard , chris ( 1989 ) . songbirds : how to attract them and identify their song . london : kingfisher books . p . 52 . isbn 0862724597 .
burnie , david ( 2001 ) . animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife . london : dorling kindersley . p . 342 . isbn 9780789477644 .
hayman , peter ; hume , rob . the complete guide to the bird life of britain and europe . 2004 : bounty books . p . 185 . isbn 9781857327953 .
european news
. british birds ( british birds ltd ) 88 : 274 . june 1995 . issn 0007 - 0335 .
armstrong , edward a . ( 1973 ) . saint francis , nature mystic : the derivation and significance of the nature stories in the franciscan legend . berkeley and los angeles , california : university of california press . pp . 90–91 . isbn 0520019660 .
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the genus alauda has four extant and at least two extinct species . formerly , many other species have also been considered to belong to the genus .
boev , z . 2012 . neogene larks ( aves : alaudidae ( vigors , 1825 ) ) from bulgaria - acta zoologica bulgarica , 64 ( 3 ) , 2012 : 295 - 318 .
kessler , e . 2013 . neogene songbirds ( aves , passeriformes ) from hungary . - hantkeniana , budapest , 2013 , 8 : 37 - 149 .
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below is a list of songs by skylark , sorted by the most popular first . place mouse on
to see information about song . click on song title to play song , to read details about the song including lyrics ( if available ) and to
to play song . click on year to list all songs from that year . click on label to list songs from that record label . songs with chart position
- - -
either never made it into the us top 100 r & b ; or uk charts or we have no details of their highest chart positions if they did .
a bit windy but i cleaned it up a bit , was on here as xc73001 but i deleted that recording as the wind was pretty bad .
please focus on the whistle like call . the call is commonly found when a male individual flying in the sky and return to the ground vertically . . an interesting behavior .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
this nest was comparatively safe , but it is a puzzle to me how others which i have seen on the lake edge escape being squashed by the thousands of bullocks and camels which are continually passing and re - passing .
alaudidae . a name that is derived from the celtic word alauda ( according to the roman naturalist and philosopher pliny the elder ) . alauda translates to “great sound” in that language . an apt name for a family of wonderful songsters – larks .
they are not attention - seekers though , keeping their talents hidden behind a largely dull - brown visage . larks are open country birds , with a preference to the ground or short vegetation and rocks . the brownish colouration helps these birds camouflage themselves against predators . it often includes some streaking along with white , black and different shades of grey in the plumage . rounded wings , short tails and stout legs are distinct characteristics seen in most species . long hind claws provide them with stability to stand on the ground .
larks are often confused with another group of brown birds – pipits – that share their habitat . however , there are key morphological differences between the two groups . in larks , the tarsus ( the lowest leg bone , connected to the toes ) has only one set of scales on the rear surface , which is rounded . pipits and all other songbirds have two plates of scales on the rear surface , which meet at a protruding rear edge ( ridgway 1907 ) . and most larks have heavier bills with evenly - sloping culmens . most pipits have thinner bills with a small hump over their nostrils .
omnivorous in their diet , larks forage on the ground to feed on a variety of food including insects and plant matter ( like seeds , grasses , leaves , buds , fruits and flowers ) . the bill shapes of different species of larks vary based on their diet and feeding techniques . longer bills help the bird dig into the ground for insect larvae . stouter bills come in handy where the diet consists largely of seeds
the indian bushlark is widely distributed across the indian subcontinent . found in stony scrub and fallow cultivation , they are often seen perched on short bushes and rocks . the teardrop - shaped streaking on the breast , along with the extensive red in the wing , are typical indicators of the bird ( along with the jerdon’s bushlark )
the courting display of this bird is a treat to watch . taking off from its perch , this small bird flies high into the air before parachuting down with its wings held open in a v - shape , singing all the way down to its perch .
very similar to the indian bushlark in appearance and display , the jerdon’s bushlark is a stockier bird with a longer and thicker bill . the spotting on its breast resemble arrowheads . it prefers open areas with shrubs and trees , and is often found on the edges of forests . unlike the indian bushlark , it is often seen perched on trees and wires too .
though one of the most widespread species of larks , found through africa , the middle east and south asia , the singing bushlark is one of the rarer species of larks in karnataka ( possibly ignored or overlooked ) . it can be distinguished from the other 2 bush larks by smaller beak , less spotting on the breast , less rufous on wing panels and white outer tail feathers .
in the breeding season ( around monsoon ) , large congregations of this species are known from the grasslands and open areas in parts of north - west and north india .
sexual dimorphism sets this species apart from the rest of the larks on this list . the males are strikingly different , a blend of grey and black in colouration , with a black breast and belly . the females are more somber , with paler and more uniform brown plumage . they are also the smallest of the larks of karnataka , measuring around 12cm .
the undulating display of the male is very interesting . the bird takes off almost vertically , with chirruping calls , reaching a good elevation . it then dives almost straight down with a long whistle .
they can be differentiated from other larks in karnataka by the rusty - brown colouration , with a stout beak and a rufous tail . in addition to cultivation and open areas , rufous - tailed larks also tend to prefer stony outcrops .
unlike other larks in karnataka , this is a visitor – a winter migrant – to the indian subcontinent . they migrate in flocks of hundreds , if not thousands , to grasslands and open country . it is a spectacle to see an entire flock of birds fly around , as they search for food or flee a predator .
during the courtship display , the bird flies high into the air and sings a complex song with rapid wingbeats . singing from the sky is what probably gives this bird its name – skylark .
so the next time you are in the countryside , keep your eyes and ears open . you may discover the joys of watching those camouflaged songsters – the larks !
“a checklist of the birds of karnataka” by praveen j , s . subramanya and vijay mohan raj ; indian birds ( special edition ) vol . 12 no . 4 & 5
“a photographic guide to the birds of sri lanka & india : including pakistan , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh and the maldives” by bikram grewal , bill harvey , otto pfister ; periplus editions ( hong kong ) ltd . ; 2002
shreeram mv is a professional wildlife photographer and a passionate naturalist . his images have been featured in reputed magazines like national geographic traveller and sanctuary asia . he is a founder and director at darter photography where he mentors budding amateur photographers .
relationships previously considered obscure , but genetic data suggest closest to e . griseus # r . geographical variation largely clinal , size increasing from w to e . birds of socotra described as race forbeswatsoni , but appear indistinguishable from melanauchen , of which sincipitalis ( arabia ) is also a synonym # r . race albifrons may not be separable from nominate # r . four subspecies recognized .
( sundevall , 1850 ) – western sahara , mauritania and senegal e to sudan ( e to r nile ) .
( cabanis , 1851 ) – e sudan e to extreme s iraq , kuwait and c & s arabian peninsula , and s to somalia and socotra .
( blyth , 1867 ) – se iran e to pakistan and nw india .
male song , in aerial display or from low vantage such as bush or rock on ground , considerably . . .
arid and semi - arid plains with scattered grass and other low - lying vegetation ; prefers sandy soils . . .
primarily seeds of grasses and other plants ; also insects and other invertebrates , including grasshoppers ( acrididae ) , beetles ( coleoptera . . .
nesting mostly in association with rainfall , typically in summer in most of range , but also opportunistically , whenever conditions suitable . . .
most populations , even small island ones , subject to some local movements , following favourable . . .
not globally threatened . locally common throughout much of range . breeding density up to 1 pair / 3 ha in favourable conditions . desertification in w africa has led to . . .
, it was found to have diverged genetically from the latter species 1 . 9 million years ago and has been given species rank . subspecies
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saevus wildlife india llp . 283 , powai plaza , 2nd floor , opp . pizza hut , hiranandani gardens , powai , mumbai , india - 400076
kari pihlaviita marked the common name
intianvarpuskiuru
in an unknown language from
eremopterix grisea ( scopoli , 1786 )
as trusted .
< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >
compiled from secondary sources listed in references by harin patel for the assam biodiversity portal project .
describes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .
dr . chandra barooah & lani sarma ( 2016 ) assam science technology and environment council .
general description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .
all india from the himalayas to kanyakumari , east to about calcutta . pakistan , sri lanka
enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .
pakistan ( river indus plains ) , and from southern himalayan foothills , east to eastern bangladesh and to south tip of india , also sri lanka .
praveen j . , jayapal , r . , & pittie , a . , 2016 . checklist of the birds of india ( v1 . 0 ) . website : urltoken [ date of publication : 14 july , 2016 ] .
if the taxon is in the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location , such as an island , nation or other defined zone , or habitat type , and found only there ; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere .
describes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .
praveen j . , jayapal , r . , & pittie , a . , 2018 . checklist of the birds of india ( v2 . 0 ) . website : urltoken [ date of publication : 31 january , 2018 ] .
birdlife international . 2016 . eremopterix griseus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t22717228a94525125 . urltoken downloaded on 09 may 2018 .
praveen j . , jayapal , r . , & pittie , a . , 2016 . checklist of the birds of india ( v1 . 1 ) . website : urltoken [ date of publication : 03 october , 2016 ] .
avifaunal diversity in the scrub forest of sri lankamalleswara wildlife sanctuary , andhra pradesh , ind . . .
a total of 115 bird species belonging to 47 families were recorded in the scrub forests of the sri . . .
a checklist of birds of kerala state is presented in this paper . accepted english names , scienti . . .
satara district of maharashtra state is a part of northern western ghats and deccan plateau biogeog . . .
birds were surveyed in the yamuna nagar district , haryana , india and the threat categories of the s . . .
avian diversity and density estimation of birds of the indian institute of forest management campus , b . . .
a study to find out the bird diversity at the indian institute of forest management ( iifm ) , bhopal , . . .
the present communication highlights the significant record of avifauna of the surajpur wetland , gr . . .
a total of 164 bird species belonging to 53 families were recorded in the manjeera wildlife sanctua . . .
the avifauna of thummalapalle uranium mining area in kadapa and anantapur districts of andhra prade . . .
cepf western ghats special series : avian collision threat assessment at bhambarwadi wind farm plateau . . .
to address the shortage of power in india , wind energy is increasingly harnessed as an alternate an . . .
composition and conservation status of avian species at hastinapur wildlife sanctuary , uttar pradesh , . . .
this study on the status and distribution of birds at hastinapur wildlife sanctuary was conducted d . . .
surveys were carried out at 10 sites in the buffer and core zones of sariska tiger reserve during 2 . . .
species composition of birds in the meghamalai landscape with respect to threat status , foraging gu . . .
an avifaunal case study of a plateau from goa , india : an eye opener for conservation of plateau ecosys . . .