astroides is a genus of stony cup corals in the family dendrophylliidae .

it is monotypic and the only species is astroides calycularis , which is endemic to the western mediterranean sea .

the species was first described in 1766 by the german naturalist peter simon pallas .

astroides

this facies is characterised by the madreporian astroides calycularis and is typical of the western mediterranean pre - coralligenous zone .
genetic assessment of population structure and connectivity in the threatened mediterranean coral astroides calycularis ( scleractinia , dendrophylliidae ) at different spatial scales .
astroides calycularis belongs to the family dendrophylliidae , from the suborder dendrophylliina , order scleractinia , class anthozoa , phylum cnidaria and kingdom animalia .
genetic assessment of population structure and connectivity in the threatened mediterranean coral astroides calycularis ( scleractinia , dendrophylli . . . - pubmed - ncbi
serrano , eduard coma , rafel inostroza , karina and serrano , oscar 2017 . polyp bail - out by the coral astroides calycularis ( scleractinia , dendrophylliidae ) . marine biodiversity ,
effect of ocean acidifcation on the coral astroides calycularis a project in collaboration with the laboratory of functional and evolutionary ecology of the zoological station anton dohrn in napoli ( dott . maria cristina gambi ) , studing the skeletal and growth characteristics of astroides calycularis at the volcanic co2 vents in ischia . collaborations with the department of physics and astronomy are forseen for sclerochronological analyses .
cachet , nadja loffredo , loïc vicente , oscar ocaña and thomas , olivier p . 2013 . chemical diversity in the scleractinian coral astroides calycularis . phytochemistry letters , vol . 6 , issue . 2 , p . 205 .
casado - amezua , pilar gasparini , gabriella and goffredo , stefano 2013 . phenological and morphological variations in the mediterranean orange coral astroides calycularis between two distant localities . zoology , vol . 116 , issue . 3 , p . 159 .
cite this article as : terrón - sigler a , peñalver - duque p , león - muez d , torre fe ( 2014 ) spatio - temporal macrofaunal assemblages associated with the endangered orange coral astroides calycularis ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) . aquat biol 21 : 143 - 154 . urltoken
( of astroides luteus quoy & gaimard , 1827 ) cairns , s . d . , 2001 . a generic revision and phylogenetic analysis of the dendrophylliidae ( cnidaria : scleractinia ) . smith . cont . zool . 615 : 75 pp . , 14 pls . , 3 figs . [ details ]
astroides calycularis , an encrusting coral with the characteristic orange colour , is an azooxanthellate scleractinian coral commonly found in shallow rocky habitats . it forms rounded encrusting colonies on rocks , cavities and cave entrances , starting from a depth of 1 metre up to 50 metres . the polyps have a smooth cup and numerous retractile tentacles .
the distribution and abundance of the orange stony coral astroides calycularis in italian waters was defined using data from different sources : literature , questionnaires compiled by marine biologists , researchers , divers and amateur naturalists and personal observations . these data are the basis for further studies on the impact of human activities on this species and for its conservation
( of astroides luteus quoy & gaimard , 1827 ) zibrowius , h . ( 1980 ) . les scléractiniaires de la méditerranée et de l ' atlantique nord - oriental . mémoires de l ' institut océanographique , monaco , 11 . musée océanographique de monaco : monaco . 3 volumes , including bibliography and taxonomic index pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
terrón - sigler a . , león - muez d . , peñalver - duque p . , gálvez - césar r . , espinosa torre f . ( 2016 ) - geographic distribution of astroides calycularis ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) as a baseline to assess future human impacts on the southern iberian peninsula . j . mar . biol . assoc . uk , 96 : 1181 - 1189 .
( of astroides luteus quoy & gaimard , 1827 ) cairns , s . d . ( 2009 ) . on line appendix : phylogenetic list of the 711 valid recent azooxanthellate scleractinian species with their junior synonyms and depth ranges , 28 pp . in : cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge university press , cambridge . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the species astroides calycularis , already widespread in the pleistocene , has suffered a gradual progressive decline and is considered a species at risk of extinction . recent studies have highlighted certain zones where the rate of extinction of colonies is up to 50 % every year . therefore , this species is protected by the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna ( cites ) but does not feature in the iucn red list .
merino - serrais , p . casado - amezúa , p . ocaña , ó . templado , j . and machordom , a . 2012 . leve diferenciación genética entre los límites occidental y oriental de distribución de < i > astroides calycularis < / i > ( pallas , 1776 ) ( anthozoa , scleractinia , dendrophylliidae ) , inferida a partir de secuencias de coi e its . graellsia , vol . 68 , issue . 1 , p . 207 .
( of astroides luteus quoy & gaimard , 1827 ) quoy , j . r . c . & gaimard , j . p . ( 1827 ) . observations zoologiques faites à bord de l ' astrolabe , en mai 1826 , dans le détroit de gibraltar . annales des sciences naturelles . 10 : 5 - 21 , 172 - 193 , 225 - 239 ; pl . 1 - 2 , 4 - 9 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
hoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .
cairns , s . d . , hoeksema , b . w . , and j . van der land , 2001 . scleractinia , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 109 - 110 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
cairns , s . d . , baron - szabo , r . , a . f . budd , b . lathuiliere , e . roniewicz , j . stolarski , and k . g . johnson , 2010 . corallosphere , available online at urltoken [ details ]
cairns , s . d . , 2001 . a generic revision and phylogenetic analysis of the dendrophylliidae ( cnidaria : scleractinia ) . smith . cont . zool . 615 : 75 pp . , 14 pls . , 3 figs . [ details ]
pallas , p . s . ( 1766 ) . elenchus zoophytorum sistens generum adumbrationes generaliores et specierum cognitarum succintas descriptiones , cum selectis auctorum synonymis . fransiscum varrentrapp , hagae . pp . 451 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of madrepora calycularis pallas , 1766 ) pallas , p . s . ( 1766 ) . elenchus zoophytorum sistens generum adumbrationes generaliores et specierum cognitarum succintas descriptiones , cum selectis auctorum synonymis . fransiscum varrentrapp , hagae . pp . 451 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ocaña , o ; den hartog , j . c . ; brito , a . ; morro , l . ; herrara , r . ; martin , j . ; ramos - espla , a . a . ; ballesteros , e . ; bacallado , j . j . ( 2015 ) . a survey on anthozoa and its habitats along the northwest african coast and some islands : new records , descriptions of new taxa and biogeographical , ecological and taxonomical comments . part 1 . revista de la academia canaria de ciencias . 27 : 9 - 66 . page ( s ) : 48 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
cairns , s . d . ( 2009 ) . on line appendix : phylogenetic list of the 711 valid recent azooxanthellate scleractinian species with their junior synonyms and depth ranges , 28 pp . in : cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge university press , cambridge . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
zibrowius , h . ( 1980 ) . les scléractiniaires de la méditerranée et de l ' atlantique nord - oriental . mémoires de l ' institut océanographique , monaco , 11 . musée océanographique de monaco : monaco . 3 volumes , including bibliography and taxonomic index pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 198 [ details ]
quoy , j . r . c . & gaimard , j . p . ( 1827 ) . observations zoologiques faites à bord de l ' astrolabe , en mai 1826 , dans le détroit de gibraltar . annales des sciences naturelles . 10 : 5 - 21 , 172 - 193 , 225 - 239 ; pl . 1 - 2 , 4 - 9 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
zibrowius , h . ( 1980 ) . les scléractiniaires de la méditerranée et de l ' atlantique nord - oriental . mémoires de l ' institut océanographique , monaco , 11 . musée océanographique de monaco : monaco . 3 volumes , including bibliography and taxonomic index pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
like all anthozoa , the species is carnivorous and feeds on plankton . it is distributed mainly in the south - western mediterranean , central and south america but also in the atlantic in the vicinity of the strait of gibraltar .
elysia timida , the green elysia , is a species of sacoglossan sea slug , a marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusk endemic to the . . .
bothus podas , the wide - eyed flounder , is a type of flatfish and is native to the mediterranean sea and the eastern . . .
astropecten aranciacus , the red comb starfish , is a type of sea star and is native to the mediterranean sea and . . .
die gruppe um stephania und brian ist echt super . wir hatten eine woche mit höhen und tiefen aber waren hier echt super gut aufgehoben und betreut . ich komme gerne wieder . super gutes team und echt schöne tauchplätze .
professional , attention to every detail , friendly , helpful where needed . thank you for the 2 amazing dives guys at the blue hole and the reqqa point . special thanks to dennis , dennis - dennis , georgia & stephania !
i was there a couple of years ago . diving with brian was just like diving with a good friend .
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category . endangered species . three small sub–populations are known . the extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km 2 , the area of occupancy is less than 500 km 2 . it was not included in the first edition of the red data book of armenia . it is not included in the annexes of cites and that of the bern convention .
description . annual plants . stems 5–15 cm , thin , branched from the base . inflorescence 3–8–flowered , umbel–shaped , peduncle about 1 cm long . corolla yellow , 4–5 mm long . legumes horizontally stellate divaricate , straight or slightly curvate , 10–20 x 1 mm .
distribution . in armenia it grows in yerevan ( surroundings of kaghtsrashen village ) , darelegis ( surroundings of yeghegnadzor ) and meghri ( surroundings of nyuvadi village ) floristic regions . eoo is 1139 km 2 , aoo is 12 km 2 , the number of locations is 3 . besides armenia the species grows in nakhichevan , east transcaucasia , east mediterranea , south–west asia , anatolia and north iran .
ecological , biological and phytocoenological peculiarities . grows in lower mountain belt , at the altitudes of 600–1300 meters above sea level , on dry stony places , in phryganoids . flowering in may , fruiting in june .
limiting factors . restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy , loss / degradation of habitats caused by land development .
conservation actions . no conservation actions . necessary : establishment of specially protected nature area on yerakh mountain range , monitoring of the population state .
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poorly lit rocky substrates , from a few metres beneath the surface to depths exceeding 50 m .
orange coloured polyps united in colonies ; secretes a solid calcareous exoskeleton with columns rising from a hard basal plate along the main axis of the body .
this is a hard stony colonial coral that forms large cushion shapes similar to bushes . the solid calcareous exoskeleton varies depending on depth and is flatter in shallower waters and rounder when deeper . the polyps are quite large on a relatively small base . the numerous tentacles are pointed and slightly warty and the bright orange colour is unmistakable .
this species has a subtropical affinity and prefers water that isn ' t too cold . reproduction is sexual and larva are produced between april and august . after a period of life amongst plankton , the larva move to the seabed and begin to form a colony that grows by means of gemmation . as with all anthozoas , this species is also carnivorous and feeds on plankton .
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raccolta di 18 tavole parietali del dipartimento di biologia conservate presso la biblioteca biologico - medica
a . vallisneri
. collection of 18 wallcharts of the department of biology stored at the biological - medical library
a . vallisneri
. tavola [ 1 ] tavola parietale .
università degli studi di padova | biblioteca biologico - medica
a . vallisneri
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category . endangered species . three small sub–populations are known . the extent of occurrence is less than 5000 km2 , the area of occupancy is less than 500 km2 . it was not included in the first edition of the red data book of armenia . it is not included in the annexes of cites and that of the bern convention .
description . annual plants . stems 5–15 cm , thin , branched from the base . inflorescence 3–8–flowered , umbel–shaped , peduncle about 1 cm long . corolla yellow , 4–5 mm long . legumes horizontally stellate divaricate , straight or slightly curvate , 10–20 x 1 mm .
distribution . in armenia it grows in yerevan ( surroundings of kaghtsrashen village ) , darelegis ( surroundings of yeghegnadzor ) and meghri ( surroundings of nyuvadi village ) floristic regions . eoo is 1139 km2 , aoo is 12 km2 , the number of locations is 3 . besides armenia the species grows in nakhichevan , east transcaucasia , east mediterranea , south–west asia , anatolia and north iran .
what the deputy prime minister and the citizens fighting against amulsar mine have discuss . . .
the sunchild 7th international environmental festival encompasses 83 films , 9 workshops , a . . .
lake sevan , armenia . most incredible — and affordable — undiscovered holiday destinations . . .
a group of environmentalists initiated cleaning up the shores of the lake sevan on may 14 . they plan to engage the population living near the lake , as well as other concerned people , local authorities , non - governmental bodies , international organizations operating in armenia and other
using the mixed situation in karabakh - azerbaijani border , some people started the kaghtsrashen gravity irrigation system project . heavy equipment had entered azat gorge and moving forward was destroying the sights and blossoming trees . residents had blocked the yerevan - gar
on june 4 - 5 with the initiative of
jermuk development center
and
young biologists association
ngos the first ecotourism festival will take place in armenia . urltoken has talked about this to
jermuk development center
ngo ' s chairman vazgen galstyan .
we are planning to organize the festival
urltoken environmental informative website was founded in 2012 . the main goal of the website is to raise environmental problems and to increase public awareness , to support the organizations and representatives of environmental initiatives concerned about environmental problems . being an alternative within mass media specialized in providing information in armenian , urltoken provides reliable information representing the viewpoints of all sides concerned , covers activity and important events in this field . the principle of the website is to provide impartial and neutral information by maintaining the rights of all sides .
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bianchi c . n . ( 2007 ) - biodiversity issues for the forthcoming tropical mediterranean sea . hydrobiologia , 580 : 7 - 21 .
marine biodiversity in the european seas is under threat due to the intensity of cumulative human impacts . despite the high - level goals to halt the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 20…
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dismissed industrial activities are responsible for persistent environmental degradation , mainly due to long - term accumulation of xenobitic contaminants in the environment . such a chronic form of p…
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turning casualty into opportunity : fragmenting dislodged colonies is effective for restoring reefs o . . .
application of an ultrasonic telemetry system to the monitoring of movements of the spiny lobster , p . . .
the movements of ten spiny lobsters , palinurus elephas ( palinuridae ) released in the capo gallo - isola delle femmine mpa ( italy ) were monitored with ultrasonic telemetry . four specimens left the area within the first two days . a nomadic movement pattern was detected for six lobsters which did not leave the rocky cliff . introduzione - l ' aragosta , palinurus elephas ( fabricus , 1787 ) , è una specie . . . [ show full abstract ]
substrate preference and settlement behaviour of the megalopa of the invasive crab percnon gibbesi ( . . .
the transition from a planktonic to a benthic life is a critical phase in which sub - adults are particularly exposed to the risk of predation and dispersion into unsuitable habitats , and plays a crucial role in the distribution , structure and dynamics of marine populations . settlement involves the selection of an adequate substrate that provides shelter and food during early life stages . . . . [ show full abstract ]
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this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .
musco , luigi prada , fiorella d’anna , giovanni galasso , nicola maria pipitone , carlo vega fernández , tomás and badalamenti , fabio 2017 . turning casualty into opportunity : fragmenting dislodged colonies is effective for restoring reefs of a mediterranean endemic coral . ecological engineering , vol . 98 , issue . , p . 206 .
canning - clode , joão carlton , james t . and macisaac , hugh 2017 . refining and expanding global climate change scenarios in the sea : poleward creep complexities , range termini , and setbacks and surges . diversity and distributions , vol . 23 , issue . 5 , p . 463 .
movilla , juancho calvo , eva coma , rafel serrano , eduard lópez - sanz , àngel and pelejero , carles 2016 . annual response of two mediterranean azooxanthellate temperate corals to low - ph and high - temperature conditions . marine biology , vol . 163 , issue . 6 ,
pohl , thomas al - muqdadi , sameh w . ali , malik h . fawzi , nadia al - mudaffar ehrlich , hermann and merkel , broder 2015 . discovery of a living coral reef in the coastal waters of iraq . scientific reports , vol . 4 , issue . 1 ,
colloca , francesco mastrantonio , gianluca lasinio , giovanna jona ligas , alessandro and sartor , paolo 2014 . parapenaeus longirostris ( lucas , 1846 ) an early warning indicator species of global warming in the central mediterranean sea . journal of marine systems , vol . 138 , issue . , p . 29 .
fenner , douglas riolo , francesca and vittorio , michele 2013 . new records of scleractinian corals from shallow waters of the ionian coast of italy . marine biodiversity records , vol . 6 , issue . ,
goffredo , stefano caroselli , erik gasparini , gabriella marconi , giulia putignano , maria teresa pazzini , claudia and zaccanti , francesco 2011 . colony and polyp biometry and size structure in the orange coralastroides calycularis ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) . marine biology research , vol . 7 , issue . 3 , p . 272 .
goffredo , stefano gasparini , gabriella marconi , giulia putignano , maria teresa pazzini , claudia and zaccanti , francesco 2010 . gonochorism and planula brooding in the mediterranean endemic orange coralastroides calycularis ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) . morphological aspects of gametogenesis and ontogenesis . marine biology research , vol . 6 , issue . 5 , p . 421 .
lejeusne , christophe chevaldonné , pierre pergent - martini , christine boudouresque , charles f . and pérez , thierry 2010 . climate change effects on a miniature ocean : the highly diverse , highly impacted mediterranean sea . trends in ecology & evolution , vol . 25 , issue . 4 , p . 250 .
gambi , maria cristina barbieri , fabio and bianchi , carlo nike 2009 . new record of the alien seagrass halophila stipulacea ( hydrocharitaceae ) in the western mediterranean : a further clue to changing mediterranean sea biogeography . marine biodiversity records , vol . 2 , issue . ,
grbec , branka morović , mira beg paklar , gordana kušpilić , grozdan matijević , slavica matić , frano and gladan , živana ninčević 2009 . the relationship between the atmospheric variability and productivity in the adriatic sea area . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 89 , issue . 08 , p . 1549 .
kružić , petar radić , ivan and požar - domac , antonieta 2008 . first record of cladocora debilis ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) in the adriatic sea . marine biodiversity records , vol . 1 , issue . ,
bianchi , carlo nike 2007 . biodiversity issues for the forthcoming tropical mediterranean sea . hydrobiologia , vol . 580 , issue . 1 , p . 7 .
moschino , vanessa and marin , maria gabriella 2006 . seasonal changes in physiological responses and evaluation of “well - being” in the venus clam chamelea gallina from the northern adriatic sea . comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular & integrative physiology , vol . 145 , issue . 4 , p . 433 .
giangrande , adriana licciano , margherita and musco , luigi 2005 . polychaetes as environmental indicators revisited . marine pollution bulletin , vol . 50 , issue . 11 , p . 1153 .
institute of oceanography and fisheries , šet . i . meštrovića 63 , 21000 split , croatia
were found at the eastern part of the middle adriatic sea during the 1990–2001 period . for each specimen , depth distribution and habitat were recorded . previous and recent knowledge of this species in the adriatic sea and in the mediterranean sea was discussed in relation to climatic changes . occurrence of
in the adriatic sea was related to the increased temperatures of the surface marine layer . variable temperature conditions were connected to the climatic changes on the hemispheric scale through the north atlantic oscillation index . the prevailing sea current system together with the coastal configuration and bottom type favours the presence of the studied warm - water coral on the eastern adriatic coast .
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the distribution , abundance , and habitat preferences of the spinyhead blenny , acanthemblemaria spinosa ( perciformes , blennioidei , chaenopsidae ) , were studied on coral reefs along the leeward side of curaçao , southern caribbean . the blennies inhabited small holes inside coral , which predominantly consisted of calcareous tubes constructed by coral - associated serpulid worms of the species spirobranchus giganteus . about 50 % of the fish inhabited holes in dead coral , and the rest had their holes in live corals of eight species . the fishes showed a clustered distribution pattern and their abundance was higher at shallow depths ( 5 and 10 m ) than at 15 m . although males generally had a larger body size than females and needed larger holes for shelter and guarding eggs , no sexual dominance in hole selection was found . the position of the holes varied in elevation height above the reef floor , which showed a positive correlation with fish size .
) . in this way , they depend much on food supply through the ambient water flow ( clarke et al .
) . previous studies have shown that these copepods are denser at 1 m above the reef surface than at 0 . 2 m ( clarke
) . another factor influencing its distribution is the availability of shelter holes ( wilson et al .
( pallas , 1766 ) , which are very common in the caribbean and can be found in association with a large range of host corals ( hunte et al .
) . therefore , presumably , host coral identity , various shelter - hole properties , depth , and substrate types determine the large - scale distribution of spinyhead blennies , which , on the other hand , may also display small - scale distribution patterns because host coral colonies vary greatly in shape . stony corals can be microhabitat to a large variety of other animals , including fish , which use their host for shelter , substrate , or food ( stella et al .
in the present study , large - and small - scale distribution is determined as the distribution over coral heads and the distribution within coral heads , respectively . cheanopsid blennies in particular are suitable for the study of small - scale distribution as they occupy shelter holes in the reef , and thereby occupy a permanent point in space ( greenfield and greenfield
. since males constitute the nest - guarding gender , they have to dispose suitable shelter holes that attract females for egg deposition . for these reasons it is hypothesized that the sex of the nearest neighbour , shelter - hole size , and location of the shelter hole may result in differentiation in small - scale distribution among male and female spinyhead blennies .
the assessment of distribution and habitat preferences of spinyhead blennies in the present study provides information on both large - and small - scale characteristics determining their distribution , which will contribute to a better understanding of the role of cryptobenthic fish on coral reefs .
this study consists of two parts : 1 . a large - scale survey in which the distribution patterns and habitat preferences of acanthemblemaria spinosa are investigated on reefs at the leeward side of curaçao ; 2 . small - scale monitoring in which the distribution patterns of a . spinosa individuals are documented within four coral colonies , which were selected for their high occupancy of blennies .
curaçao is situated in the southern caribbean , off the north coast of venezuela . it is ca . 60 km long and it has a total land surface area of 444 km
. the climate on curaçao can be described as semi - arid , and seawater temperature around the island varies around 27 °c . the island is surrounded by fringing reefs and is known for its steep drop - offs , which are generally close to the shoreline ( bak
visual census was conducted along the southern leeward coast of the island at four different locations , which were more or less evenly distributed along the coastline : ( 1 ) playa kalki ( 12°22′29 . 6″n 69°09′28 . 1″w ) , ( 2 ) daaibooi ( 12°12′43 . 2″n 69°05′05 . 7″w ) , ( 3 ) aqualectra ( 12°06′33 . 3″n 68°57′15 . 3″w ) , and ( 4 ) director’s bay ( 12°03′57 . 5″n 68°51′36 . 0″w ) ( fig .
by swimming along a 20 m long measuring tape ( transect line ) at 5 , 10 , and 15 m depth .
map showing five research locations at the leeward side of curaçao . site 1 = playa kalki , site 2 = daaibooi , site 3 = water factory ( aqualectra ) , site 4 = director’s bay , site 5 = piscadera bay ( carmabi research station )
site 1 is situated at the western end of the south side of the island where the bottom is mostly sandy . the slope of the reef was very moderate , and rugosity of the reef was much higher compared to the other locations . transects at all three depths could be deployed on a gently declining slope .
site 2 is located further east and has a narrow beach flanked by steep coastal cliffs . the drop - off at this location starts approximately 30 m from the shore at approximately 10 m depth . therefore , transects at 5 m were set out close to the coastal cliff due to the infrequent occurrence of coral on the sandy bottom .
site 3 is situated west of willemstad behind a water / power plant called aqualectra . at this location , the reef is characterized by a rocky bottom and a moderately declining slope . transects at 5 m depth were deployed on the reef flat , whereas the transects at 10 and 15 m depth were deployed on the slope .
site 4 is located near the eastern end of the island and is characterized by a nearshore steep reef slope starting at approximately 6 m depth . at this location the transect lines at both 10 and 15 m were set out on a steep slope with high live coral cover .
for the second part of this study ( small - scale distribution patterns ) a fifth site was chosen at piscadera bay ( fig .
) , in front of the carmabi research station . this location was characterized by a shallow reef flat ( approximately 4 m deep ) , with a high cover of coral heads occupied by tube blennies .
data collecting was done in february–march 2015 , at 5–15 m depth by use of scuba . the duration of each dive lasted 60–80 min . transects were set out by laying a measuring tape on the sea floor . typically , census could be taken in one dive for three 20 × 1 m
= 125 ) varied between localities due to differences in blenny density ( fig .
) . blennies encountered during the large - scale study were identified to species level , their host corals were identified and their shelter - hole type was determined . shelter - hole type was called “worm tube” and otherwise “unknown” if its origin was unknown . for each blenny , a note was made whether it inhabited live or dead coral , and measurements were made of its outer hole diameter , the hole’s elevation height ( distance from reef floor ) , the distance to its nearest neighbour ( fig .
) , and its position along the transect line . the shelter - hole diameter was measured by using a calliper . height above the reef floor , transect position , and distance to nearest neighbour were measured using a measuring tape with accuracies of 5 , 5 , and 1 cm , respectively . host corals that could not be identified in situ were photographed and identified afterwards with the help of a field guide ( humann and deloach
) . photographs were taken with an olympus tough tg - 2 underwater camera in an olympus pt - 053 underwater housing . all findings were noted by use of a pencil and a plastic slate .
quadratat per depth ( 5 , 10 , and 15 m ) at reef sites indicated in fig .
for the second part of this study ( small - scale at site 5 ) , four coral heads were selected at approximately 5 m depth . the size of each coral head was measured , and the number of blennies inhabiting it was counted . per blenny a coordinate was given and the elevation above the reef floor was measured . in this way , the exact position of each blenny on its host coral head was documented . afterwards , the hole diameter and hole type were determined in the same manner as described before . the fish (
= 62 ) were individually caught by squirting a harmless anaesthetic ( a dilute solution of quinaldine sulfate ) into their shelter holes and holding a plastic vial over its opening ( baldwin et al .
) . all captured fish were brought to the laboratory and stored in vials with a 70 % alcohol solution . their body length ( bl ) was measured with a calliper ( accuracy 1 mm ) , and their sex was determined under a dissecting microscope by looking for the presence of finger - like papilla posterior to the anus only known from females .
statistical analyses were carried out with r . general linear models ( glm - anova ) were conducted to test for differences in fish abundance at various depths and locations . error structure of the test was quasi - poisson in order to correct for overdispersion . anova tests were used to test the differences between males and females for shelter - hole diameter , elevation above the reef surface , body size , and sex of the nearest neighbor . a linear model was used to test the correlation between body length and elevation above the reef surface . the clark - evans nearest neighbor analysis was used to calculate the distribution pattern of
among 852 observed shelter holes , 42 % could be clearly recognized as serpulid tubes and 58 % as holes of other ( usually unclear ) origin . this difference is significant ( χ 2 = 10 . 924 , p < 0 . 001 ) . the average shelter - hole diameter was 5 . 4 mm within a range of 3–9 mm ( n = 986 ) . average elevation of the holes above the reef floor was 44 cm within a range of 0–170 cm .
quadrat , and at 10 m depth this number was around 10 . the mean density at 15 m depth was approximately two individuals per quadrat , which is significantly lower than at both other depths (
) , whereas at site 1 the mean number of individuals per quadrat differed significantly among all three depths ( fig .
individuals was slightly higher at 10 m than at 5 m ( not significant ) , whereas the quadrat at 15 m depth shows a significant lower density ( fig .
) . sites 1–3 show a gradually decline in blenny density with depth ( fig .
fishes per quadrat , whereas sites 2–4 showed mean numbers of approximately 8–15 ( fig .
- values 0 . 002 , < 0 . 001 , < 0 . 001 , and 0 . 002 , respectively ( post hoc tukey test in r ) . there was no clear gradient along the coastline since site 1 is the northernmost location , whereas the next location , site 2 , had a maximum mean number of almost 15 fish per quadrat .
mean number ( ± s . d . ) of acanthemblemaria spinosa individuals per quadrat at four sites along the leeward side of curaçao . density at site 1 is significantly lower than at other sites ( p < 0 . 01 )
the average nearest - neighbour distance was 32 . 8 cm . this was calculated from measurements taken from 338 fish counted in a total of 32 quadrats . from this a density of 53 . 8 10
was calculated , which would result in an expected nearest - neighbour distance of 68 . 8 cm in a hypothetical randomly distributed population . a relatively low r - value of 0 . 476 was calculated from the clarke - evans nearest - neighbour analysis based on the ratio of observed and expected values . this value is < 1 , suggesting that the distribution pattern of
was clustered . the corresponding standard error of the mean distance to nearest neighbour in a randomly distributed population with density rho ( σre ) is 1 . 9 . this means that the probable range of distance to nearest neighbour in a randomly distributed population lies between 66 . 9 and 70 . 8 cm . the average distance to nearest neighbour that was measured during this study does not lie within this range and thus it can be assumed with certainty that the distribution pattern of
the mean diameter of shelter holes was slightly smaller for females ( 5 . 7 mm ) than for males ( 6 . 1 mm ) , but this difference was not significant (
) , 19 . 3 cm for females and 19 . 7 cm for males . the highest recorded individual was a male observed at 46 cm height . the coral heads used for this part of the study had a maximum elevation above the reef surface ranging from 35 to 65 cm . the body length of the fish ranged between 11 and 20 mm . the mean body length of females ( 16 . 3 mm ) was less than for males ( 17 . 2 mm ) , but this difference was not significant (
comparisons between females and males of acanthemblemaria spinosa at piscadera bay , curaçao ( site 5 ) by means ( ± s . d . ) of a diameter of shelter holes ( mm ) , b elevation above reef bottom ( cm ) , c body length ( mm )
) . this result suggests that larger fish occupy holes that are located higher up on the coral heads . however , the r
- value is low , meaning that only a small proportion of the variation in height above the reef is explained by the body length . a log - transformation was performed because there was no homogeneity of variance in the original data .
correlation between elevation above reef bottom and body length of acanthemblemaria spinosa specimens in piscadera bay , curaçao ( site 5 ) . measurements in cm ; log scales
worm that was removed 2 days in advance . the worm tube was situated more than 1 . 5 m high on a pillar of a jetty at site 5 ( fig .
the average nearest - neighbour distance at small scale was 8 . 5 cm . this was calculated from measurements of 62 fish with a density of 24 . 7 10
. the expected distance to nearest neighbour in a randomly distributed population was calculated to be 10 . 1 cm . an r - value of 0 . 841 was calculated with the clarke - evans nearest - neighbour analysis . as well as the large - scale distribution , the outcome of the analysis indicates that
showed a clustered distribution at small scale . the probable distance of nearest neighbour in a randomly distributed population ranges from 9 . 4 to 10 . 7 cm ( σre = 0 . 67 ) . variables of the analysis are summarized in online resource
gender of the nearest neighbour did not influence the distance to this neighbour . among all three possible combinations ( female - female , male - female , male - male ) , there was no significant difference in the mean distance to nearest neighbour ( anova ,
) . thus , it did not matter whether the nearest neighbour was of the same or the other sex .
mean distance ( ± s . d . ) to nearest neighbor ( cm ) of acanthemblemaria spinosa individuals observed in three possible combinations of neighbors at in piscadera bay , curaçao ( site 5 ) . f - f = female to female distance , m - f = male to female distance , m - m = male to male distance
cryptobenthic fish fauna appears to show a general preference for dead coral ( harborne et al .
) . about half of all spinyhead blennies encountered during this study occurred in dead coral and the other half in live coral . it is unknown whether suitable holes were more or less abundant in dead coral than in live coral because they were difficult to count . unoccupied holes in dead coral may get overgrown by other organisms , whereas those in live coral may become closed by coral regeneration .
corals , spinyhead blennies have no other option than to select other corals as habitat . curaçao has undergone much reef degradation over the recent decades and dead coral is abundantly present here ( vermeij
) , which are more abundant on dead coral than on live coral ( kramer et al .
feeds primarily on planktonic calanoid and cyclopoid copepods , which have denser swarms at 1 m above the substrate than at 0 . 2 m height ( clarke
, and a high number of individuals in corals that grow higher above the substrate ( e . g . ,
) . this also explains the high average of elevation above the reef bottom of 44 . 4 cm and why
occupying serpulid tubes is very high , especially considering that this type of hole in dead coral type is difficult to recognize ( fig .
) . this preference can be explained when the size and shape of the worm holes are considered . spinyhead blennies can have a body length of 2 . 5 cm ( smith - vaniz and palacio
) . they should be able to retract completely inside the hole for shelter danger , but also to quickly dart out for feeding ( fig .
) , for which they need holes that loosely fit to their size ( fig .
) . an average diameter of 5 . 4 mm is indeed slightly larger than the size of the fish , which may be most suitable for optimal protection and manoeuvrability .
blenny abundance on the reef slope at 15 m depth is lower than in the shallower reef zones , which may be related to a decreasing gradient in prey abundance from shallow to deep , as seen in planktonic copepods ( yamaguchi et al .
) . since there is no significant difference in blenny abundance between 5 and 10 m depth , food availability may not be restricted at 10 m . shelter - hole availability may also play an important role in the bathymetrical distribution of blennies , depending on the depth range and density of worms and other invertebrates constructing their shelter holes .
, as indicated by the nearest neighbour analysis , may depend on two factors . 1 . the presence of shelter holes in live and dead coral may be restrictive , but during the present study empty holes were also observed . since the holes are present in corals that form patches of coral cover over the reef bottom , the available coral surface area with holes is not evenly distributed over the reef , which may explain a clustered distribution pattern of the blennies at large scale . 2 . there may also be a possible tendency in the behaviour of
to form aggregations , but this possibility should be tested with the help of experiments in which a variable number of holes with varying sizes is offered to the fish . perhaps spinyhead blennies are not good long - distance swimmers since experiments showed that some individuals transplanted over distances > 5 m were not able to return to their own hole , and those released over > 20 m not at all ( buchheim and hixon
) . for mating , the distance between males and females can be restrictive . therefore , a mixed assemblage can be most advantageous , while stochastically it is also the most obvious pattern .
also shows a clustered distribution pattern . here , the sample size was much smaller , the fish density about 45 times higher , and the distance to nearest neighbour almost a fourth of the distance at large scale . the small - scale data are based on measurements from four coral colonies that were selected for their high occupancy of blennies . the r - value was almost double that of the large - scale study . for such a small sample size it is important to know the true density of the population , which requires a complete census ( clark and evans
nevertheless , valuable information on the gender distribution on the coral heads could be obtained since no difference was found in the distribution patterns of males and females . both sexes show no preference for having a neighbour of the other sex or the same sex . there is also no difference in elevation height between the sexes , as previously found elsewhere ( clarke and tyler
. in the present study shelter holes occupied by males were slightly ( 4 mm ) wider than those for females , which would make sense because of the egg care of males . however , this difference was not significant , but nearly so , which could have been altered with larger sample sizes .
body length appears to be positively correlated with elevation height above the reef surface . this supports the hypothesis that shelter holes higher above the reef bottom are preferred and suggests that larger individuals are dominant over smaller ones in the competition for shelter holes . however , the variation in the height above the reef is only partially explained by body length and , therefore , there may be additional factors regulating height distribution of a . spinosa , such as the size of the available holes .
all data in this study point to a clustered distribution pattern of a . spinosa on the reef where host coral species , dead coral cover , shelter - hole availability , shelter - hole size , depth , elevation above the reef surface , and body length affect the distribution of the species , apparently independent of gender .
the field research of the first author was made possible through the much appreciated financial support from the jan joost ter pelkwijk fund ( naturalis biodiversity center ) and the alida m . buitendijk fund ( naturalis biodiversity center ) . we are grateful to gerrit potkamp and dasha wels ( university of amsterdam ) for their collaboration . we thank dr . mark j . a . vermeij and other staff of the carmabi research station for their great support at curaçao . drs . raymond d . clarke ( sarah lawrence college , bronxville ) and dr . ron i . eytan ( texas a & m university at galveston ) gave helpful advice on the fish gender identification . we also would like to thank prof . dr . a . m . de roos ( university of amsterdam ) for providing helpful tips and feedback during this msc study . finally , we thank dr . carole c . baldwin ( smithsonian institution ) and one anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments on the ms .
ahmadia gn , sheard lj , pezold fl , smith dj ( 2012a ) cryptobenthic fish assemblages across the coral reef - seagrass continuum in se sulawesi , indonesia . aquat biol 16 : 125–135 . doi :
ahmadia gn , pezold fl , smith dj ( 2012b ) cryptobenthic fish biodiversity and microhabitat use in healthy and degraded coral reefs in se sulawesi , indonesia . mar biodivers 42 : 433–442 . doi :


elachista nolckeni is a moth of the elachistidae family .

it is found from estonia to the pyrenees and italy and from france to poland and slovakia .

it is also found in russia .

the wingspan is 8 – 10 millimetres ( 0.31 – 0.39 in ) .

the larvae feed on phleum phleoides .

they mine the leaves of their host plant .

the mine starts a narrow gallery that ascends from the base of the leaf to nearly the tip .

it then descends , forming a pale green inflated blotch .

pupation takes place under the ground .

they are pale yellowsh green to olive green with a yellowish brown head .

elachista nolckeni

baran , t . , 2002 . elachista nolckeni šulcs , 1992 : morphology and bionomics of immature stages ( gelechioidea : elachistidae ) . nota lepidopterol . 25 , 97 - 107 . [ links ]
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . 26 , pupa in dorsal , 27 , ventral and 28 , lateral views , respectively . scale bar = 300 μm .
kaila , l . , varalda , p . g . , 2004 . the elachista juliensis complex revisited ( elachistidae ) . nota lepidopterol . 27 , 217 - 237 . [ links ]
baran , t . , 2009 . the immature stages of elachista zonulae ( sruoga , 1992 ) ( lepidoptera : elachistidae ) . entomol . fenn . 20 , 239 - 244 . [ links ]
kaila , l . , 2011b . on species related to elachista pollutella duponchel ( lepidoptera , elachistidae ) , with descriptions of four new palaearctic species . entomol . fenn . 22 , 129 - 139 . [ links ]
kaila ( 2000 ) recognized seven species of elachista in south america , five of which he described as new , and listed three others as incertae sedis . subsequently , sruoga ( 2010 ) described five species from ecuador , including one not named , and also reported the first ecuadorian record of elachista saccharella ( busck , 1934 ) . kaila ( 2000 ) mentioned two species of elachistinae from chile , describing both from the southern part of this country : elachista beltira kaila , 2000 , also known from southern argentina ; and perittia morgana kaila , 2000 . in addition , elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 , with its type locality in sydney , australia , and also present in new zealand and tasmania ( kaila , 2011c ) , was recently recorded as an alien species in the coastal valleys of the northern chilean atacama desert , mining the leaves of the rescue grass bromus catharticus vahl ( poaceae ) ( gonçalves et al . , 2015 ) .
kaila , l . , 2011a . a review of species related to elachista catalana parenti ( lepidoptera , elachistidae : elachistinae ) , with descriptions of two new species . entomol . fenn . 22 , 85 - 96 . [ links ]
sugisima , k . , kaila , l . , 2005 . japanese elachista mining on the leaf of woody poaceae ( lepidoptera : elachistidae s . str . ) . entomol . fenn . 16 , 83 - 102 . [ links ]
kaila , l . , sippola , l . , 2010 . elachista saarelai sp . n . ( lepidoptera elachistidae : elachistinae ) , a new species from southern finland . entomol . fenn . 21 , 129 - 138 . [ links ]
kaila , l . , sruoga , v . , 2014 . definition of the elachista puplesisi sruoga complex ( lepidoptera , gelechioidea , elachistidae ) , with description of a new species . zootaxa . 3821 , 583 - 589 . [ links ]
kaila , l . , ståhls , g . , 2006 . dna barcodes : evaluating the potential of coi to differentiate closely related species of elachista ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea : elachistidae ) from australia . zootaxa . 1170 , 1 - 26 . [ links ]
baran , t . , buszko , j . , 2005 . elachista baltica hering 1891 sp . rev . – a valid species of elachistidae from the baltic shore ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea ) . entomol . fenn . 16 , 9 - 18 . [ links ]
kaila , l . , 1999a . a revision of the nearctic species of elachista s . l . iii . the bifasciella , praelineata , saccharella and freyerella groups ( lepidoptera elachistidae ) . acta zool . fenn . 211 , 1 - 235 . [ links ]
parenti , u . , 2005 . elachistid moths of the collection antonio curó and the pre - imaginal stages of elachista adscitella stainton and e . pollinariella zeller . riv . mus . civ . sc . nat . e . caffi . 24 , 3 - 9 . [ links ]
baran , t . , buszko , j . , 2010 . preimaginal stages and life history of elachista irenae buszko , 1989 ( insecta : lepidoptera : elachistidae ) – a local montane moth from central europe . ital . j . zool . 77 , 323 - 330 . [ links ]
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . first larval instar : 5 , general , dorsal view ; 6 , head , ventral ; 7 , mouth parts , ventral ; 8 , antenna , laterodorsal ; 9 , prothoracic spiracle , anterolateral . scale bars = 100 , 25 , 5 , 5 and 2 μm , respectively .
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . last larval instar : 10 , head chaetotaxy , frontal view ; 11 , thoracic and abdominal chaetotaxy , lateral view ; 12–13 , head and prothorax , dorsal and ventral views , respectively ( open arrows indicate prothoracic legs ) . scale bars = 150 , 300 , 200 and 200 μm , respectively .
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . egg : 1 , dorsolateral view ; 2 , chorionic cells showing location of aeropyles ( indicated by closed arrow in fig . 1 ) ; 3 , micropylar region ( indicated by open arrow in fig . 1 ) ; 4 , aeropyle in detail . scale bars = 50 , 10 , 5 and 1 μm , respectively .
elachista synethes was recently recognized as an alien species in northern chile , where its larvae mine the rescue grass bromus catharticus ( poaceae ) . in order to provide the necessary information to allow field detection of e . synethes during early ontogeny , we conducted a morphological reappraisal of the immature stages of this leaf - miner moth , based on light and scanning electron microscopy , including the first descriptions of the egg and the first - instar larva . this is the first report of the existence of an apodal early larva for a species of elachista treitschke . the legs and prolegs are absent in the first two instars , but are well developed in the last two . additional observations on the life history are also provided , including a description of the mine .
in relation to the thoracic and abdominal chaetotaxy of e . synethes , the closest pattern is found in elachista baltica hering , 1891 , as described by baran and buszko ( 2005 ) . this is interesting , as e . baltica belongs to the freyerella species group ( baran and buszko , 2005 ) , in which the synethes complex is included ( kaila , 2011c ) . apparently the d - group is absent in a10 of the two species ; the d - group may be unisetose or bisetose in species belonging to other groups of elachista ( baran , 2002 , 2009 ; baran and buszko , 2010 ) . however , the homology of the a10 setae should be carefully examined before any conclusion is attempted in this regard ( baran and buszko , 2005 ) .
kaila , l . , nupponen , k . , junnilainen , j . , nupponen , t . , kaitila , j . - p . & olschwang , v . 2003 : contribution to the fauna of elachistidae ( lepidoptera ) of the southern ural mountains . - entomol . fennica 14 : 65–90 . the elachistidae fauna of the southern ural area , russia , is outlined . a total of 51 species are listed , four of which remain unidentified to species level . six species are described as new : elachista ( aphelosetia ) olschwangi kaila sp . n . , e . ( a . ) arduella kaila sp . n . , e . ( a . ) gibbera kaila sp . n . , e . ( a . ) chamaea kaila sp . n . , e . ( a . ) acutella kaila sp . n . and e . ( elachista ) devexella kaila sp . n . four species are reported for the first time from europe and illustrated : perittia sibirica sinev , elachista ( hemiprosopa ) altaica ( sinev ) , e . ( e . ) megagnathos sruoga and e . ( e . ) baikalica kaila . the previously unknown female of e . megagnathos is described . fourteen species are reported as new to russia . further illustrations and notes on some poorly known species are given .
similarly to many of the pupae described for other species of elachista ( e . g . braun , 1948 ; sugisima and kaila , 2005 ) , the integument is highly ornamented in e . synethes , mostly with tubercles and carinae . in general , the pupal morphology of e . synethes fits the pattern described by patočka ( 1999 ) for the freyerella species group , especially regarding that of elachista freyerella ( hübner , 1825 ) . however , the pupae of these two species can be separated by some morphological features , especially those of the terminalia ; for instance , hook - like setae are restricted to the a10 in e . freyerella , but are present not only on this abdominal segment but also on a9 in e . synethes ; furthermore , the posterior projection of a10 is little developed in e . freyerella , but reaches to about midlength of the segment and has a distinctive cone - like appearance in e . synethes .
transverse histological sections of leaf of bromus catharticus , showing the organization levels of mine of elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 in relation to larval ontogeny : 46 , first instar , initial , linear section of mine ; 47 , last instar , final , blotch section of mine . asterisks indicate leaf mines . ab abaxial surface of epidermis ; ad adaxial surface of epidermis ; me mesophyll ; ph phloem ; sc sclerenchyma ; xy xylem . scale bars = 150 and 400 μm , respectively .
morphological studies dealing with immature stages of elachista and other elachistinae regularly include detailed descriptions and figures of the last - instar larva and / or pupa only ( e . g . , baran , 2002 , 2009 , 2010 ; parenti , 2005 ; baran and buszko , 2005 , 2010 ; kaila , 2011c ) . apparently , the present contribution is the first in which the egg and the first - instar larva of a member of this lineage are examined in detail . egg morphology has been little studied in elachistinae , which prevents comparison of the details provided here , especially those obtained by using scanning electron microscopy . the overall shape of the egg of e . synethes closely fits the general pattern described for elachista by braun ( 1948 ) , based on eggshells collected from the beginning of mines . however , the egg of e . synethes clearly differs from those of stephensia stainton , which are cone - shaped ( braun , 1948 ; sruoga and diškus , 2001 ) .
the new information presented here , in particular that related to the first instar , highlights the importance of performing morphological studies with the early life stages of elachistid moths , for comparative purposes . a remarkable characteristic in e . synethes is the absence of legs and prolegs in the two early larval instars , contrasting with the presence of these structures in the two later instars . as far as we know , this pattern has not been reported elsewhere for the family . reduction of thoracic legs has been mentioned for some elachistid species ; and the absence of prothoracic legs was reported for the last instar of some australian members of elachista ( wagner , 1987 ; common , 1990 ) .
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . life history : 41 , mine on leaf of bromus catharticus , azapa valley , arica municipality , chile ( open arrows indicate empty chorion and beginning of linear section of the mine ; closed arrow indicates last - instar larva visible through transparent blotch section of the mine ) ; 42 , egg on leaf upper surface ; 43 , young mine in detail ( open and closed arrows indicate respectively the empty chorion and first - instar larva seen by transparence ) ; 44 , last - instar larva weaving the cocoon ; 45 , pupa seen by transparence within cocoon . scale bars = 2 , 0 . 5 , 0 . 5 , and 1 mm , respectively .
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . scanning electron micrographs of last larval instar : 14 , head , lateral view ; 15 , stemmata , lateral ; 16 , antenna , lateral ; 17 , head and prothorax , dorsal ; 18 , labrum and dorsal stemmata in detail , dorsal ; 19 , maxilla and labium , ventral ; 20 , prothorax , ventral ; 21 , detail of prothorax left portion , dorsal ; 22 , spiracle of abdominal segment a1 , lateral ; 23 , prothoracic leg , posterolateral ; 24 , proleg of abdominal segment a4 , ventral ; 25 , last abdominal segments , lateral . scale bars = 100 , 15 , 10 , 200 , 50 , 20 , 150 , 50 , 20 , 50 , 50 and 100 μm , respectively .
elachista synethes meyrick , 1897 . scanning electron micrographs of pupa : 29 , head and thorax , dorsal view ; 30 , head , anterior ; 31 , head , ventral ; 32 , mesothoracic lateral tubercles in detail , dorsal ; 33 , terga of abdominal segments a2 - 4 , dorsal view ; 34 , tergal ridges in detail , dorsal ; 35 , spiracle of abdominal segment a2 , lateral ; 36 , spiracle of abdominal segment a6 , dorsal ; 37–39 , last abdominal segments , in dorsal , ventral and lateral views , respectively ; 40 , cremaster setae on ninth abdominal segment , lateral . scale bars = 200 , 150 , 150 , 100 , 200 , 25 , 250 , 20 , 100 , 100 , 100 and 20 μm , respectively .
although legs and prolegs are absent in the early larva of e . synethes , the thoracic and abdominal segments are provided with a pair of callus - like structures on both the terga and sterna . also , similar structures were found between the dorsal shield and the sd group of setae on the prothorax , and anteriorly to each leg on each thoracic segment of the later instars . these have been mentioned as probable tonofibrillary platelets or other structures that facilitate movement ( kaila , 2011c ) . the function of these structures in the early larval instars of e . synethes is very likely associated with lateral anchorage to the narrow , elongated mine gallery , and deserves further attention . additional studies in this regard should also involve comparisons with other species of elachista and allied genera .
elachista treitschke , 1833 is the most diverse genus within the elachistinae , including more than 600 species ( kaila and ståhls , 2006 ; kaila and sippola , 2010 ; mutanen et al . , 2013 ) . in general , their larvae are leaf miners on species of poaceae , cyperaceae or juncaceae ( braun , 1948 ; kaila , 1999a ; baran , 2002 , 2009 ; sruoga , 2010 ) . species - level identification can be difficult , as in many cases the external appearance of the adults is extremely uniform and differences in genital morphology are subtle , resulting in the formation of apparent species complexes ( kaila and varalda , 2004 ; kaila and sippola , 2010 ; kaila , 2011a , b ; kaila and sruoga , 2014 ) . the genus occurs worldwide ; the northern hemisphere is better known , especially in europe where detailed taxonomic studies have been carried out .
although the microsetae are greatly reduced on the thorax and the abdomen of e . synethes , the bisetose mv group is well represented on the ventral shield of the prothorax . a similar situation for mv2 and mv3 was described for e . baltica by baran and buszko ( 2005 ) and for elachista irenae buszko , 1989 of the bifasciella group by baran and buszko ( 2010 ) . according to baran and buszko ( 2010 ) , this feature could be an apomorphy indicating a close relationship between the freyerella and bifasciella species groups . despite the great similarity between the chaetotaxy patterns of e . synethes and e . baltica , some clear differences were found . for example the xd1 , d1 and d2 setae of the prothorax are located on the dorsal shield in e . synethes , but outside this structure in e . baltica ; the l group of a9 is unisetose in e . synethes but bisetose in e . baltica ; one pair of setae ( probably sd1 ) is present on the anal shield of e . synethes , but no seta is present on that of e . baltica .
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experimental evidence for specific distinctness of the two wood white butterfly taxa , leptidea sinapis and l . reali ( pieridae )
check - list of the broad - winged moths ( oecophoridae s . l . ) of russia and adjacent countries
two new european geometrid moths : xanthorhoe skoui sp . n . and xanthorhoe friedrichi sp . n . ( geometridae )
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elachistidae is a family of gelechioidea moths , with 830 recognized species in three subfamilies , parametriotinae , agonoxeninae and elachistinae ( heikkilä et al . , 2014 ) . the cryptic life mode of many of these species is among the reasons that large numbers of elachistids are still waiting to be discovered and described , even from geographic areas where micro - moth faunas have been the subject of intensive taxonomic studies ( kaila and sippola , 2010 ) . they are collected relatively seldom in south america ( kaila , 1999b , 2000 ) .
although native to south america , b . catharticus has been introduced into many localities in the world as forage ( rosso et al . , 2009 ) . its use as a host plant by e . synethes was previously reported from australia , where it is an exotic plant ( common , 1990 ) . the host plants of e . synethes in australia , tasmania and new zealand include a wide spectrum of grasses , mostly with broad soft leaves , but the rescue grass is the most important ( kaila , 2011c ) . the recent discovery of e . synethes in hyperarid northern chile suggests that the primary factor underlying the successful colonization was the presence of b . catharticus in the area ( gonçalves et al . , 2015 ) . currently there are no records of pest status for e . synethes ; however , its ability to mine leaves of rescue grass could be a threat in areas where this grass is cultivated .
thus , accurate description of e . synethes is important , not only to follow its eventual population expansion in chile , but also to detect new occurrences of this leaf - miner moth at other localities , if any . detailed morphological characterizations of the adult stage of e . synethes are already available , particularly for the male and female genitalia ( common , 1990 ; kaila , 2011c ; gonçalves et al . , 2015 ) . gross morphologies of the pupa , last - instar larva and the mature mine in holcus mollis l . , 1759 ( poacaeae ) were provided by kaila ( 2011c ) . here we provide a reappraisal of the external morphology of the immature stages of e . synethes , based on light and scanning electron microscopy , including the first descriptions of the egg and early larval instars . information on the life history is also provided , together with a detailed description of the leaf mine .
all the specimens used in this study were collected as either leaf - miner larvae or attached eggs and pupae , on b . catharticus in the azapa valley ( 18°31′s ; 070°10′w ) between june 2012 and august 2013 . the rearing was conducted in plastic vials at room temperature , in the departamento de recursos ambientales , facultad de ciencias agronómicas , universidad de tarapacá , arica , chile .
for observations of the gross morphology , the specimens were cleared in 10 % koh , dissected , and slide - mounted in either glycerin jelly or canada balsam ; chlorazol black was used to stain membranous structures . observations were performed with the aid of a leica m125 stereomicroscope , where structures selected to be drawn were photographed with an attached sony ® dsc - h10 digital camera ; or using an olympus bx51 microscope , where the selected structures were photographed with a qimaging™ micropublisher™ 3 . 3 rtv - digital camera . vectorized line drawings were then made with the software coreldraw ® x4 , using the corresponding digital images as a guide . measurements were made with an attached ocular micrometer ; unless noted , values are presented as mean ± standard deviation .
for scanning electron microscope examination , the specimens were dehydrated in a bal - tec™ cpd 030 critical - point dryer , mounted with double - sided tape on metal stubs , and coated with gold in a bal - tec scd050 sputter coater . they were then examined and photographed in a jeol jsm - 5800 scanning electron microscope at the centro de microscopia eletrônica ( cme ) of the federal university of rio grande do sul ( ufrgs ) , porto alegre , state of rio grande do sul , brazil .
descriptions of plant anatomy were based on diaphanized , field - collected leaf mines ( n = 5 ) from leaves of b . catharticus that were fixed in faa ( 37 % formaldehyde , glacial acetic acid , and 50 % ethanol , 1 : 1 : 18 , v / v ) , stained with toluidine blue ( aqueous solution : 0 . 05 g / 100 ml ) and mounted either whole or in freehand section in glycerin on slides , following a procedure described in detail by brito et al . ( 2012 ) .
in addition to those vouchers with their respective collection data and accession numbers listed by gonçalves et al . ( 2015 ) , the following slide preparations should be added as material examined in the present study [ all with the same data , deposited in the insect collection of the laboratório de morfologia e comportamento de insetos ( lmci ) , of the departamento de zoologia , ufrgs ] : five larvae mounted in glycerin jelly ( lmci 191 - 25a - e ) , and five mature leaf mines , mounted in glycerin ( lmci 191 - 25f - j ) .
dimensions ; n = 4 : length = 0 . 42 ± 0 . 02 mm ; width = 0 . 19 ± 0 . 01 mm . flat and elliptical , deposited with micropylar axis parallel to longitudinal leaf veins ( fig . 1 ) ; chorion translucent ; surface sculptured with slightly differentiated , broad ridges , forming elongated and poorly defined cells that are longitudinally arranged ( fig . 2 ) ; circular aeropyles at intersections of ridges ( figs . 2 and 4 ) ; micropylar area with 4–5 subcircular cells ( fig . 3 ) .
with two clearly different morphs : first and second instars without legs and prolegs ; third and fourth instars with a more typical eruciform appearance , with well - developed legs and prolegs .
dimensions ( n = 4 ) : length = 1 . 03 ± 0 . 04 mm ; head - capsule width = 0 . 10 ± 0 . 006 mm .
head ( figs . 5 - 8 ) : prognathous , slightly flattened ( figs . 5 and 6 ) , brown ; without stemmata ; with few short hair - like setae ; frontoclypeus subrectangular , abruptly narrowing posteriorly . antennae ( fig . 8 ) greatly reduced , bisegmented , with five sensilla on broad basal segment , two sensilla on narrow distal segment . mouthparts of chewing type ( fig . 7 ) ; labrum bilobed , distal margin with spiniform serrations and median notch , external face with ten short hairlike setae ; mandibles with two short hairlike setae on outer face , three cusps on distal margin ; maxillae with galea and palpi well developed and provided with many sensilla ; labium with slightly developed palpi , spinneret cylindrical with orifice at tip .
thorax ( figs . 5 and 9 ) : cream - white , setae extremely reduced or absent ; legs absent . prothorax : spiracle circular , without pronounced peritrema ; dorsal shield as narrow brownish band ; ventral surface with pair of brown circular blotches ; integument sculptured with broadly rounded coniform processes , mostly around spiracles , and forming broad transverse band on ventral surface near posterior margin ; one pair of callus - like structures laterodorsally and another pair of similar structures lateroventrally . meso - and metathorax : without spiracles ; coniform processes similar to those on prothorax , forming dorsal and ventral transverse bands ; one pair of callus - like structures laterodorsally and another ventrolaterally .
abdomen ( fig . 5 ) : cream - white , setae extremely reduced or absent ; prolegs absent ; circular spiracles with slightly developed peritreme , laterally on a1 - 8 ; ornamentation of integument similar to that on thorax but widely scattered , except near spiracles .
dimensions ( n = 6 ) : length = 4 . 81 ± 0 . 53 mm ; head - capsule width = 0 . 34 ± 0 . 02 mm .
head ( figs . 12 - 19 ) : prognathous , brown , slightly depressed ; frontoclypeus subtriangular , with lateral sides ca . three times length of anterior side ; six subcircular stemmata near lateral margin ( fig . 15 ) ; stemma 6 ventrally between setae s2 and s3 , stemma 5 hidden by antenna in dorsal view , stemmata 1–4 between seta a3 and antenna . antenna ( fig . 16 ) greatly reduced , bisegmented ; five sensilla on broad basal segment , two sensilla on narrow distal segment . mouthparts of chewing type ( figs . 18 and 19 ) ; labrum bilobed with ten short hairlike setae ; mandibles with three cusps .
thorax ( figs . 12 - 13 , 17 , 20 - 23 ) : cream - white , integument slightly rough , provided with hairlike setae ; prothoracic dorsal shield composed of two light yellowish - brown semi - triangular plates , divided postero - longitudinally by indistinctly marked , unpigmented area ( fig . 12 ) ; one ellipsoid callus - like structure ( fig . 21 ) between dorsal shield and sd group ; one pair of circular spiracles laterally on t1 ; prothoracic sternum with elongated , subrectangular shield ( fig . 20 ) , with lateral margins broadly excavated , and anterior margin slightly broader than posterior margin ; pair of well - developed legs on each segment , each bearing one pair of flattened setae and one curved claw at apex ( fig . 23 ) ; one callus - like structure anterior to each leg .
abdomen ( figs . 24 and 25 ) : cream - white , integument slightly rough , provided with hairlike setae , and anal shield slightly differentiated ; one pair of circular spiracles laterally on a1 - 8 ; one pair of prolegs on segments a3 - 6 and a10 , each with 4–6 hooklike crochets arranged in transverse bars .
head : f group unisetose ; f1 ca . equidistant between epicranial notch and distal margin of frontoclypeus ; fa pore between f1 and distal margin of frontoclypeus ; c group replaced by small pores ; af group unisetose , af1 greatly reduced , near epicranial notch ; cd group trisetose , cd1 , cd2 and cd3 almost in straight line , cda pore between cd2 and cd3 ; a group bisetose , a1 absent , a2 between stemmata 2 and 3 and frontoclypeus , aa pore posteromedial to a2 , a3 proximal to stemma 1 ; p not represented by setae , pa pore medial to a3 , pb distomedial to cd1 ; l group unisetose , l1 a small seta posterolateral to a3 , la pore posterior to l1 ; s group bisetose , s2 posterolateral to stemma 6 , a pore between s2 and stemma 6 , s3 between stemmata 5 and 6 , sb pore between stemmata 3 and 4 ; mg group bisetose , both setae greatly reduced , near posterior margin of gena , mga pore between mg setae .
prothorax : d group bisetose , with d1 and d2 posterolaterally on dorsal shield ; xd group bisetose , with xd1 anterolaterally on dorsal shield , xd2 ventral to xd1 , outside of dorsal shield ; sd group bisetose , sd1 and sd2 ca . equidistant between xd2 and spiracle ; l group trisetose , l2 ventral to xd2 , l3 ca . equidistant between l2 and spiracle , l1 posteroventral to l2 ; sv group unisetose , sv1 posteroventral to l3 ; v group unisetose , v1 between coxa and ventral shield ; mv group bisetose , mv2 and mv3 on ventral shield , near lateral margin .
meso - and metathorax : d group bisetose , d2 posteroventral to d1 ; sd group unisetose , sd1 anteroventral to d2 ; l group trisetose , l2 anteroventral to sd1 , l1 posteroventral to l2 , l3 posterodorsal to l1 ; sv group unisetose , sv1 between l3 and coxa ; v group unisetose , v1 medial to coxa .
abdominal segment 1 ( a1 ) : d group bisetose , d1 greatly reduced , d2 posteroventral to d1 ; sd group bisetose , sd1 dorsal to spiracle , sd2 greatly reduced , anteroventral to sd1 ; l group bisetose , l1 posteroventral to spiracle , l3 anteroventral to l1 ; sv group bisetose , between l3 and v1 , sv3 anterior to sv1 ; v group unisetose .
abdominal segments 2 , 7 ( a2 , 7 ) : similar to a1 , except sd1 anterodorsal to spiracle , sd2 anteroventral to sd1 , and sv3 anteroventral to sv1 .
abdominal segments 3–6 ( a3 - 6 ) : similar to a2 , except sv group trisetose , inserted anterolaterally on proleg , v1 on medial surface of proleg .
abdominal segment 8 ( a8 ) : similar to a7 , except l and sv groups unisetose .
abdominal segment 9 ( a9 ) : d , l , sv and v groups bisetose , with d1 , l1 , sv1 and v1 almost in straight line .
abdominal segment 10 ( a10 ) : provided with 10 pairs of setae with uncertain identities ; one pair on anal shield , remaining nine pairs outside of dorsal shield .
dimensions ( n = 5 ) : length = 3 . 24 ± 0 . 23 mm . overall dark yellowish brown ( fig . 28 ) , occurring within a cocoon that is generally constructed on a leaf blade of b . catharticus .
head ( figs . 26 - 31 ) : integument with abundant tiny punctures , almost evenly distributed ; frons and eyes not separated by sutures , forming subrectangular area , anterior margin forming broad carina interrupted at middle , posterior margin slightly projected between galeae , tentorial pits near posterior margin ; vertex triangular , with two tubercle - like projections anteriorly , posterior margin with conspicuous carina . antennae narrow , elongated , reaching posterior margin of a5 . proboscis on ventral surface broad anteriorly , narrowing distally , reaching middle of a2 .
thorax ( figs . 26 - 29 , 31 - 32 ) : integument ornamented as on head . prothorax a narrow band between head and mesothorax . mesothorax mostly evident by forewings , pair of broad longitudinal carinae dorsally , and dorsolateral group of longitudinally arranged tubercle - like process ; tip of forewings reaching middle of a6 ; dorsal margin strongly sinuous between meso - and metathorax ; broad longitudinal carina along middle of metathorax ; hindwings mostly covered by forewings . forelegs lateral to proboscis , not reaching proboscis tip ; middle legs between forelegs and antennae , almost reaching posterior margin of a2 .
abdomen ( figs . 26 - 28 , 33 - 40 ) : integument ornamented as on head and thorax ; each segment with one dorsal longitudinal carina , one pair of dorsolateral carinae ( fig . 28 ) , and two transverse carinae ( figs . 33 and 34 ) , one on anterior margin , another on posterior margin ; spiracles of a1 not visible , spiracles a2 - 7 at tip of coniform projection ( figs . 35 and 36 ) ; spiracle of a8 greatly reduced ; group of elongated , hooklike setae ( figs . 37 - 40 ) ventrolaterally on broadly rounded outgrowths on a9 - 10 , an additional group of similar setae ventrally at middle on a10 ; posterior half of a10 coniform ( figs . 37 - 39 ) , with broadly rounded tip .
eggs are deposited mostly on the adaxial surface of the leaf ( figs . 41 - 43 ) . the first - instar larva bores into the leaf mesophyll through the chorionic surface adhered to the epidermis ; the tip of the abdomen remains in the egg , while the cephalic portion of the larva progressively penetrates into the leaf tissues . as the larval feeding progresses , some feces are deposited into the empty subchorionic space ( fig . 43 ) . initially , the mine is narrow and straight , elongated and parallel to the leaf veins ( fig . 41 ) , and remains restricted to the upper mesophyll portion ( fig . 46 ) . later on , starting with the third instar , it changes to a blotch type , as large numbers of cells are eaten by the larva ; almost all the mesophyll is consumed , the epidermal cells and the main vascular bundles remaining mostly intact ( fig . 47 ) . when it finishes feeding , the last - instar larva exits the mine and builds the silk cocoon on the leaf surface ( figs . 44 and 45 ) , in which the pupa is concealed . the cocoon is white , made of flimsy silk threads that are arranged diagonally , crossing from one side of the pupa to the other ; generally constructed on the upper surface of a leaf blade of b . catharticus .
the pupa has no silken girdle , remaining attached to the substrate by the hooklike setae of abdominal segments a9 - 10 .
the pattern illustrated in the present study resembles the hypermetamorphic development described for some species of bucculatricidae ( e . g . , davis et al . , 2002 ; vargas and moreira , 2012 ) and in the gracillariid spinivalva gaucha moreira and vargas ( brito et al . , 2013 ) whose early apodal , tissue - feeder instars are followed by later larval instars with well - developed thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs . this ontogenetic transformation in the larval stage of e . synethes is presumably associated with progressive changes in the mine appearance ; that is , from a narrow elongated type at the beginning , to a blotch type at the end . these two larval morphotypes may represent morphological adaptations to locomotion under these different conditions within the mine , which should be further explored .
as far as we know , this is the first description of the chaetotaxy for a species of the synethes complex , and the information presented here may be useful in future comparative studies of this species complex . many setae are absent on the cephalic head capsule of e . synethes larvae compared with those of stephensia , another genus of elachistinae for which the chaetotaxy has been described ( baran , 2010 ) . for instance , all setae from the c - group were replaced by pores in e . synethes , but c1 is present in stephensia ; also , setae of the p - group are absent in e . synethes , whereas this group is bisetose in stephensia .
we are grateful to the staff members of the centro de microscopia eletrônica of universidade federal do rio grande do sul for the use of facilities and for their assistance in scanning electron microscopy analyses . thanks are due lauri kaila , tomasz baran and virginijus sruoga for kindly providing literature ; to victor l . finot , for taxonomic comments about the host plant ; and also to janet w . reid for editing the text . financial support was obtained from project 490124 / 2010 - 0 , prosul–08 / 2010 ( cnpq – conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico e tecnológico , brazil ) and diexa - uta 9710 - 13 ( universidad de tarapacá , chile ) . d . s . basilio and r . brito were supported by cnpq master ' s and doctoral program fellowships , respectively . g . r . p . moreira was supported by a cnpq research grant ( project number 309676 / 2011 - 8 ) .
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* corresponding author . e - mail : gilson . moreira @ urltoken ( g . r . p . moreira ) .
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