dyspessa karatavica is a moth in the cossidae family .

it was described by yakovlev in 2007 .

it is found in kazakhstan .

the length of the forewings is 10 mm for males and 10 – 12 mm for females .

the forewings are yellowish brown , the basal area suffused with brownish scales .

the hindwings are light yellowish .

dyspessa karatavica

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a . n . streltzov , r . v . yakovlev zaranga tukuringra , sp . n . — the new species from new genus for russian fauna ( lepidoptera : notodontidae )
a . v . volynkin , ju . e . perunov on the fauna of owlet mots ( lepidoptera : noctuidae s . l . ) of the reserve “tigireksky” ( nw altai , russia )
o . e . kosterin new records of butterflies ( lepidoptera : hesperioidea et papilionoidea ) for tyva republic ( tuva ) . iv . the early summer aspect of the fauna of the protected zone of the khan - deer cluster of the ubsunurskaya kotlovina state biosphaeral nature reserve ( west sayan )
book review f . slamka . pyraloidea of europe ( lepidoptera ) . vol . 1 . pyralinae , galleriinae , epipaschiinae , cathariinae & odontiinae . identification - distribution - habitat - biologie . — bratislava , 2006 . — 138 p . , 16 pls .
scopula marginepunctata , the mullein wave , is a moth of the family geometridae .
the small fan - footed wave ( idaea biselata ) is a moth of the family geometridae .
thera obeliscata , the grey pine carpet , is a moth of the family geometridae .
phthorimaea operculella , also known as the potato tuber moth or tobacco splitworm , is a major pest on potatoes in new zealand and south africa .
licigena is a monotypic genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae .
notioclepsis is a monotypic genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
the riband wave ( idaea aversata ) is a moth of the family geometridae .
the swallow - tailed moth ( ourapteryx sambucaria ) is a moth of the family geometridae .
selenia dentaria , the early thorn , is a moth of the family geometridae .
the clouded border ( lomaspilis marginata ) is a moth of the family geometridae .
pyrsarcha is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
wheeleria spilodactylus ( the horehound plume moth ) is a moth of the pterophoridae family .
pandemis cerasana , the barred fruit - tree tortrix , is a moth of the family tortricidae .
enarmonia formosana , the cherrybark tortrix or cherry - bark moth , is a small but colorful moth species of the family tortricidae .
epermenia insecurella , the chalk - hill lance - wing , is a moth of the family epermeniidae .
coleophora argentifimbriata is a moth of the coleophoridae family that can be found in algeria and turkey .
coleophora strophingella is a moth of the coleophoridae family that can be found in algeria and iran .
apsidophora is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae .
home address : ul . chkalova , 57 - 81 , barnaul 656049 , russia e - email : cossus _ cossus @ urltoken i was born 30 . 11 . 1974 in barnaul , altaiskij krai , russia in 1974 in a family of medical doctors . since my childhood myinterest has been orientated to animals , especially insecta . i attended primary and secondary school in barnaul and graduated in 1996 at the altai state medical university , studying child psychiatry and neurophysiology . during my studies at university i took part in a great number of expeditions to altai , sayan mountains , kazakhstan andrussian far east . after my degree in medicine , i worked as a child neurophysiologist and as a volunteer of the altai state university ( zoological museum )
in the field of medicine , i published 6 articles about pharmacotherapy of episyndrome , mbd - syndrome and neural perinatal pathology . currently , i work as chief of department of practical psychology in the altai regional institute and as lecturer for school teachers . in the entomological field i prepared the thesis â€śbutterflies ( lepidoptera , rhopalocera ) of altai mountain countryâ€ť , [ dissertation autoreferate ] at the altai state university , barnaul ) and worked as a scientific researcher in the biological department of the altai state university . my general interest is directed to the butterflies ( rhopalocera ) â€“ fauna of altai mountains , especially to the russian and mongolian parts . i own a private collection of palearctic rhopalocera ( 20 . 000 specimens , including 500 paratypes ) and a collection of world cossidae ( 4 . 500 specimens ) . i participated in several expeditions to different parts of south siberia , kazakhstan , mongolia , russian far east and peru . my scientific work was supported by thomas â€“ witt - stiftung in 2003 and 2006 in order to enable me to study material in different european museums ( kiev , moscow , vladivostok , st . petersburg , munich , berlin , bonn , karlsruhe , london , paris , bruxelles , leiden , amsterdam , tervuren ) . in 2003 we ( together mr . thomas j . witt ) launched a new project on the taxonomy and faunistics of the eurasian cossidae . the results are planned to be published in a series of articles and finally in a revisional monograph of the family cossidae .
abb . 2 . i in the central peru ( janin prov . , shima village , jan . 2001 )
abb . 3 . complex entomology - botany expedition : prof . v . anikin ( coleophoridae ) , dr . d . belkin ( botanist ) , dr . r . yakovlev ( diurna , cossidae ) , dr . elena guskova ( chrysomelidae ) , alexander shalimov ( botanist ) in the russian altai ( kosh - agach distr . , near kuray village ) .
abb . 4 . sw mongolia , dzhungarien gobi , uvkhod - ula mts . , july 2007
abb . 5 . in the tamarix jungle ( s . mongolia , near alag - nuur lake , july 2007 ) .
abb . 7 . yak flies as butterfly ( russia , altai , ukok plateau ) .
abb . 8 . russia , altai , ukok plateau ( border of 4 countries : russia , kazakhstan , china and mongolia ) .
more than 50 new species for fauna of russia and mongolia4 new genera and 7 new species of cossidae , 7 new species and 21 new subspecies of diurna , 1 new species of notodontidae . publication ( as coauthor ) of 2 faunistic monographs about lepidopterofauna of altai - sayan mountains and mongolia .
3 . lakshmia hauensteini yakovlev , 2004 ( north thailand , prov . chiang mai , 450 m , mok fa garden resort , 98âş48â€™ e ; 19âş06â€™ n )
12 . cossus siniaevi yakovlev , 2004 ( china , shaanxi prov , tai bai shan mts . , tsiling mts . , houzhenzi )
19 . paracossus khmer yakovlev , 2004 ( s cambodia , sre klong env . , kirirom )
20 . paracossus microgenitalis yakovlev , 2004 ( s borneo , sabah prov . , trus madi bei , apin apin )
23 . garuda galina yakovlev , 2004 ( china , yunnan prov . ( ne ) , jinsha river , tiger leping gorge )
25 . butaya gracilis yakovlev , 2004 ( china , w yunnan prov . xishuangbanna dai auton . pref . , puwen , 30 km ssw of simao )
26 . trismelasmos robinson yakovlev , 2004 ( philippines , leyte ( s ) , mt . balocaue )
27 . panau borealis yakovlev , 2004 ( china , w - yunnan prov . , xishuangbanna dai auton . pref . , puwen , 30 km ssw simao )
29 . catopta perunovi yakovlev , 2007 ( russia , altai rep . , near ongudai )
30 . catopta saldaitisi yakovlev , 2007 ( s . mongolia , omnogovi aimak , govi altay mts . , gurvan sayhan )
37 . semagystia kamelini yakovlev , 2004 ( s altai , narym mts . )
71 . paracossus rama yakovlev , sp . n . ( tl : n . thailand )
75 . sundacossus gauguini yakovlev , 2008 ( tl : indonesia , sumba isl . )
86 . luzoniella meyi yakovlev sp . n . ( tl : the philippines , luzon )
94 . phragmataecia pacifica yakovlev , 2007 ( tl : russia , dagestan , 5 km e . urma )
96 . stygia nilssoni saldaitis et yakovlev , 2008 ( tl : canary isl . )
4 . cossus cossus dauricus yakovlev , 2007 ( russ . transbaicalien , tschita geb . , nizhnij tsasutchej )
27 . colias mongola ukokana korb et yakovlev , 1999 ( se altai ) = ? c . mongola mongola
5 . meharia yakovlevi saldaitis et ivinskis , 2009 ( sokotra isl . ) ( lepidoptera , cossidae )
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76 . dysphoric mania 77 . dysphoric milk ejection reflex 78 . dysphoric mood 79 . dysphorics 80 . dysphotic 81 . dysphrasia 82 . dysphrasias 83 . dysphrenia 84 . dysphylaxia 85 . dyspigmentation 86 . dyspinealism 87 . dyspituitarism 88 . dysplasia 89 . dysplasia arteriohepatic 90 . dysplasia associated lesion or mass 91 . dysplasia bronchopulmonary 92 . dysplasia cleidocranial 93 . dysplasia congenital hip 94 . dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica 95 . dysplasia epiphysealis multiplex 96 . dysplasia epiphysealis punctata 97 . dysplasia epiphysialis hemimelia 98 . dysplasia epiphysialis multiplex 99 . dysplasia epiphysialis punctata 100 . dysplasia faciodigitogenital
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phyllopertha horticola , or the garden chafer , is a beetle from the scarabaeidae family .

it is approximately 10 mm in size with chestnut brown wing casings which are covered in tiny hairs .

the head legs and thorax are dark green in colour .

like other chafers there are fan-like flaps at the ends of their antennae .

the adult beetle can be seen from june to july in parks , hedgerows , woodland edges and gardens , giving them the common name garden chafer .

adults live for up to 8 weeks and feed on a variety of plant and tree leaves .

larval stages will feed on plant roots .

phyllopertha horticola was described by linnaeus in 1758 .

phyllopertha horticola

the measured data were averaged across the adult flight and main larval feeding period ( may – september ) of phyllopertha horticola ( scarabaeidae ) .
the chafer species most often found damaging lawns are the garden chafer , phyllopertha horticola , and the welsh chafer , hoplia philanthus ; the latter is often found in sandy soils and is not confined to wales . adults of p . horticola are about 9mm ( 3 / 8in ) long and have a metallic green head and thorax with light brown wing cases . hoplia philanthus is a similar size with a black head and thorax and reddish brown wing cases .
differences between damaged and undamaged sites considered grub density ( = all species ) and p . horticola density , environmental and management variables were analyzed by t - tests or by mann–whitney - u - tests , in case of nonparametric data .
sites that had recently shown grub damage ( = high risk ) had higher grub densities than sites where grub damage had never been observed by the farmers ( = low risk ) . accordingly , high risk sites can be considered as better habitats for p . horticola development and / or as more attractive locations for oviposition than low risk sites .
the results of this study indicate that p . horticola was the dominant species in the top soil layer of the sampled sites and was largely responsible for grub damage in the investigated region , which was situated at 800 – 1 , 200 m above sea level and characterized by lime - free , sandy leptosols or cambisols over siliceous , gravelly material . the damage threshold for p . horticola lay at 94 grubs / m 2 . also sites which had not shown grub damage revealed significant grub populations , which should be considered when applying control measures . regression analyses indicated high humus contents in soil to be favorable for the development of high grub densities in the sampling sites , while intensive cutting frequencies might have mitigating effects on grub damage .
total mean grub densities per sampling site ( + / − confidence interval , p = 0 . 05 ) . dark bars = sites had recently been affected by grub damage ( damaged sites ) , white bars = grub damage had never been observed by the farmers ( undamaged sites ) ; species composition was dominated by phyllopertha horticola except : light grey section in the white farm 9 bar = mean number of hoplia philanthus , white section at the top of the dark farm 2 bar = mean number of melolontha sp . ; statistical symbols according to t - tests and mann–whitney - u tests , in case of non - parametric data : * * p ≤ 0 . 01 , wt = weak trend = 0 . 1 < p ≤ 0 . 15 , ns = non - significant ; the dashed line marks the grub density level , above which grub damages were visible in 2011 .
since the low and high risk areas of a farm can be situated quite close , local site specific factors must play an important role for the development of high grub densities and the resulting grub damage risk . high risk sites provide adequate conditions for p . horticola to maintain relatively high population densities during unfavorable periods , and to produce outbreaks when the fluctuating factors are in the optimum .
relationships between p . horticola density and management , as well as environmental variables , were modeled and tested by a stepwise multiple linear regression analysis . additionally , pearson correlation analyses and , in case of non - parametric data , spearman rank correlation analyses were conducted . the probability of grub damage , i . e . the probability that a site belonged to the category that had been recently damaged by grubs ( = high risk ) as reported by the farmers , was modeled by a stepwise multiple logistic regression analysis in dependence of management and environment .
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a combination of some species of chafer grub and larger animals that feed on them can quickly turn a lawn into something that resembles a ploughed field .
chafer grubs are the soil - dwelling larvae of chafer beetles . depending on the species of chafer they either feed on decaying plant material or plant roots . some , which are
. however , several species that feed on the roots of grasses can cause problems in lawns .
some species of chafer grub eat the roots of grasses and other plants . evidence of their activities can be seen in a number of ways :
birds , particularly of the crow family ( e . g . jays , magpies , rooks and crows ) , and badgers and foxes tear up turf in order to access the grubs to feed on them
chafer grubs can be found in the soil under the loose turf . they have stout white bodies curved in a c shape , light brown heads , with three pairs of legs at the head end . they are bigger than the adult beetles and , if straightened out , can be up to 18mm ( almost ¾in ) long
, which attack the larvae by infecting them with a fatal bacterial disease . these microscopic animals can be watered into the lawn when the ground is moist and soil temperature range between 12 - 20
and from some garden centres . the turf around the edge of affected areas should be targeted to deal with larvae spreading from infestation “hot spots” . however , by the time areas of infestation become apparent , the soil may be too cold for nematodes to be effective . as a preventive measure , apply nematodes in july to september . nematodes should be applied as soon as possible after purchase , following the suppliers’ instructions . it may be necessary to water the lawn before and after application to ensure the soil is sufficiently moist for nematode activity and survival
there are currently no chemical controls for chafer grubs in lawns which can be applied by home gardeners .
adult chafer beetles feed on the foliage of many plants but are generally not a problem . they will , however , sometimes damage the flowers of roses and other plants . in heavily infested gardens , the adult beetles fly up from turf in large numbers at dusk from late may to june . eggs are laid in the turf and these hatch a few weeks later . the grubs feed on roots but do not cause significant damage until early autumn , by which time the larvae are becoming fully grown . they overwinter as larvae and pupate in the soil in the spring .
two other species , which are generally less damaging , are the summer chafer ( amphimallon solstitialis ) and the brown chafer ( serica brunnea ) . the latter is generally found in or near wooded areas on sandy soils and is about 9mm long and reddish brown in colour . the summer chafer is light brown , about 16mm long , and distinctly hairy .
one species of chafer grub is often found in compost heaps , the larvae of the rose chafer ( cetonia aurata ) . this is a species that feeds on decomposing organic matter and as such is a useful garden insect . the adult beetles are about 2 cm ( 1 inch ) long and metallic green .
chafer grubs can appear similar to the larva of the stag beetle ( lucanus cervus ) . however , larvae of the stag beetle are always associated with dead wood , usually tree roots and can reach 11 cm long ( nearly 4 inches ) . stag beetles are uncommon and cause no damage in gardens and should be welcomed .
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i have struggled with this pest for two years . have tried the nematode worms in august 2014 ( followed the instructions exactly , but complete waste of money - totally ineffective ) , and have tried physically removing beetles and grubs after i ' ve picked up the lawn like a rug . i ' m not a skilled gardener , but am getting desperate to sort this out permanently . the lack of any kind of effective treatment is worrying !
hi , in the garden were i work we make sure the lawn is fed in spring and autumn and scarified so grass is as healthy as possible . also we are on sandy land which is ideal for chafer grubs so we roll the grass twice a year aswell or as soon as we see some damage . hope this helps
we ' re a uk charity established to share the best in gardening . we want to enrich everyone ' s life through plants , and make the uk a greener and more beautiful place .
) . heavy grub feeding to the grass roots reduces the grass yield and can endanger farmers by causing their farm machines to slip down slopes on the detached sward . based on a nationwide survey conducted in 2000 , strasser (
) forecasted increasing damage caused by scarabaeidae larvae in several austrian regions . in a survey , performed by interrogating plant protection consultants of 74 agricultural county chambers all over austria , a cumulated area of 14 , 800 ha of white grub damage were recorded for the investigation period from 2000 to 2006 ( grünbacher et al .
to cause damage mainly in sports turfs , parks and gardens . also the survey results of strasser (
) , the areas damaged by the cockchafers are rather found in the valleys and plains of 300 to 600 m above sea level , while the areas damaged by the garden chafer extend from the valleys up into higher mountainous regions . this observation corresponds to scheerpelz (
can build up high population densities more quickly in response to favourable environmental conditions . faber (
, particularly in some alpine valleys . this trend is probably connected to increasing mean temperatures ( keller
) . however , recent systematic grub density surveys in damaged austrian grasslands are not reported in the literature .
since the larvae of the problematic scarabaeidae species are soil dwelling , their population densities and the associated damage risk are probably depending on site characteristics that influence soil temperature , soil moisture and resilience of the sward , like grain size , humus content or management impact on vegetation coverage . although this hypothesis is supported by observations reported in the literature , the environmental conditions that are determining grub populations and the damage risk in grassland sites are poorly understood .
) stated that grubs are most common in sandy or sandy loam soils , but can also occur in clay soils . according to scheerpelz (
prefers dry , loose soils and sunny meadows , particularly with a slightly gappy sward and a high temperature radiation which might direct the female beetles to suitable locations . furthermore , for the optimal development of the larvae warm , dry , moderately permeable , deep and eutrophic soils are needed ( scheerpelz
) stated that the locations with not too high , but closed vegetation are selected for oviposition . similarly to
adults for dense , unscythed vegetation , but reports that more grubs of the species could be found in dry friable than in moist soils . apart from a possible effect on egg deposition , a dense , well supplied sward reduces soil warming and might endure grub feeding to the roots much better than weak grass plants . accordingly , management measures that support a dense sward , like a balanced cutting , grazing and manuring regime , are considered to reduce the risk of grub damage ( pötsch et al .
the control of scarabaeidae larvae by means of chemical pesticides is quite difficult because of their cryptic habitat . apart from problems with application into soil , there is growing concern about safety and environmental contamination linked to the usage of chemical pesticides ( jackson and klein
) . a grub damage risk forecasting system based on site characteristics and climate would enable the farmers to take measures in time . however , the development of such a system requires better knowledge of the relationships between site , climate and management factors , grub densities and damage .
the main objective of our study was to investigate the factors that determine the risk of grub damage in mountainous agricultural grasslands . therefore the relevant tasks were to i ) survey grub densities in grassland sites to reveal the dominant species and find correlations with environmental and management variables and ii ) to compare damaged and undamaged grassland sites to reveal site and management characteristics that increase the risk of grub damage .
) , which were affected by grub damage , over the last decade . region 1 was situated in north - eastern styria , covering the upper feistritz valley ( district weiz ) and the upper lafnitz valley ( district hartberg ) . this region had a north–south extent of about 8 km and an east–west extent of about 14 km and contained 18 of the 20 sampling sites . the second sampling region ( region 2 ) was situated about 90 km west of region 1 in central - western styria ( upper mur valley , district murtal ) . it contained only two sites with a distance of about 500 m .
the sites are indicated by small black dots : region 1 = south - eastern alpine foothills , region 2 = central - eastern alps . the small map in the upper left corner shows the situation of the sampling regions within austria / europe ( large black dots ) ; at = austria , cz = czech republic , ge = germany , hu = hungary , it = italy , si = slovenia , sk = slovakia (
both regions were mountainous and dominated by agricultural grassland . the altitudes of the sampling sites varied between 839 and 1 , 104 m above sea level in region 1 and 898 and 906 m in region 2 . the climatic characteristics of the regions are shown in table
the individual sampling sites were determined in two steps . first , we selected 10 farms which had recently reported grub damage ( without knowing the grub species ) and , in the case of region 1 , were evenly distributed over the sampling region ( figure
) . at each farm , we asked for two sites : a grassland site which had recently been damaged by grubs ( = damaged sites ) and a second site at which grub damage had never been observed by the farmers ( = undamaged sites ; mean distance between the two sites : 315 m ; range : 180 – 836 m ) . we postulated that : 1 ) the observations of farmers regarding grub damage were highly reliable , because grub damage meant difficulties in management , economic loss and even danger , since machines can slide on a detached sward . 2 ) the risk of grub damage is higher at sites where grub damage had recently occurred ( damaged sites = high risk ) than at sites at which damage had never been observed by the farmers ( undamaged sites = low risk ) . our approach assured that the sampling sites met two important requirements for our study . each site had a grub infestation potential , since grub damage had been reported recently , at least in its vicinity , and the sites covered two grub damage risk levels ( low risk and high risk ) . this was important for investigating relationships between grub damage risk , environmental and management variables .
annual weather conditions and the occurrence of grub damage since 2000 in region 1 .
) , as well as the number of investigated farms in sampling region 1 ( near fischbach , 9 farms in total ) that reported grub damages in the respective year ( grey bars ) ; solid black line with black circles = annual mean air temperatures , solid grey line with white circles = annual precipitation sums , dashed black line = mean air temperature from 1971 to 2000 ( may – september ) , dotted grey line = mean precipitation sum from 1971 to 2000 ( may – september ) , dotted black line with white squares = annual palmer drought severity index ( pdsi ) , ranging from + 5 = extreme wetness to −5 = extreme drought .
. for measuring grub density , 24 soil samples were taken evenly distributed across this area . these subsamples had an extent of 20 × 20 cm and reached about 10 cm into the topsoil ( a - horizon ) , since the common grub species in middle european grasslands (
) . the subsamples were cut out with a spade and searched on a tablet for grubs . all grubs were counted : all undamaged grubs were collected for determining the species ( klausnitzer
2011 . at this time , the grubs were feeding on the grass roots a few millimeters to centimeters beneath the soil surface . thus , the grubs could easily be found ( figure
in addition to estimating the grub densities , we also recorded current grub damage in 2011 ( yes / no ) . in order to obtain material for soil chemical analyses , we took five evenly distributed soil samples ( 0 – 10 cm ) per site . the soils were analyzed by bio forschung austria for the contents of humus ( % ) , n
) : maximum depth of the a - horizon ( cm ) , humus content ebod ( % ; derived by the ikt petzenkirchen ) and water supply ( = estimated values : 1 = very low to 7 = very high ) . topographical data were derived from the styrian gis system (
) : altitude ( m above sea level ) , slope ( degrees ) and aspect ( degrees ) . the soil texture ( percentage of sand , silt and clay ) of the soil samples was analysed by the ikt - petzenkirchen ( a - 3252 petzenkirchen ) . furthermore , the management regime and the detailed damage history of each site was recorded by interrogating the respective farmers : the usual numbers of cuts and grazings and the usual amount of applied manure ( 0 = none , 1 = low , 2 = medium , 3 = high ) per year .
the data were statistically analyzed using spss 11 . 5 . 1 ( spss inc . , chicago , il , usa ) . an error probability of p ≤ 0 . 05 was considered as statistically significant , 0 . 05 < p ≤ 0 . 1 was considered as trend and 0 . 1 < p ≤ 0 . 15 as weak trend . for each sampling site , the grub numbers per subsample and species were averaged . to assess the accuracy of the estimated mean grub densities per site , the confidence intervals ( 95 % , p = 0 . 05 ) were calculated .
to investigate the influence of grub feeding activity on the humus content of the soil , the relationship between the humus contents in the soil samples and the corresponding ebod humus contents , which had been derived from a soil map and were therefore unaffected by grub densities , was modeled by a linear regression analysis . in a second step , the effect of grub feeding on this relationship was evaluated by testing the explanatory contribution of the parameter “grub density per m 2 ” ( all species ) , when added to the linear regression model .
normal distribution was tested by the kolmogorov–smirnov - test . if necessary , data were transformed by natural logarithm ( ln ( x ) ) , square root ( x 2 ) , division ( 1 / ( x * - 1 ) ) or , in case of percentages , by arcussinus ( arsin√ ( x / 100 ) ) , to meet statistical requirements .
) , we calculated the monthly palmer drought severity index ( pdsi ) , using historical climate data from 1990 to 2012 . the pdsi ranges from extreme wetness ( index value : + 5 ) to extreme drought ( index value : −5 ; palmer
( may – september ) . accordingly , in both years the palmer drought severity index value was lower than zero , indicating drought conditions . the years before both
outbreaks showed high mean temperatures as well , whereas their precipitation sums were diverging with low values in 2001 and 2002 but high values in 2009 and 2010 . mean temperatures in the region were almost continuously higher than the long term average from 1971 to 2000 , with only one exception in 2004 .
. since the confidence intervals indicated a high accuracy of the mean grub densities per site , meaningful site comparisons could be expected . the sites , that had recently shown visible grub damage ( dark grey ) mainly tended to higher grub densities than the respective sites without noticeable damage ( white ) . a
- test calculated across all farms confirmed the difference between the two site categories to be highly significant ( p = 0 . 002 ) . however , at some individual farms ( 1 , 5 , 8 , 9 ) the differences were not significant . the collected grubs were largely determined as the garden chafer (
= 99 % of 1 , 422 collected individuals in total ) . the grub density threshold , above which grub damage in the sward was visible in late summer and early autumn 2011 , lay at about 94 grubs / m
. the only site with a higher mean grub density that showed no damage was the “undamaged” site at farm 9 ( = site 92 , white bar ) . this was the only site , at which a significant part of the grubs was not determined as
. visible grub damage was recorded in 2011 only at sites that had already been damaged by grubs before our study ( = damaged sites ) . comparing the two site categories based on management and environmental variables showed that the usual number of cuts was significantly higher at the undamaged than at the damaged sites ( table
) . cutting frequency was significantly positively correlated with the usual amount of applied manure ( r = 0 . 51 , p = 0 . 023 ; table
) and significantly negatively correlated with the usual number of grazings ( p = − 0 . 56 , p = 0 . 010 ) . however , neither of these variables ( amount of applied manure , number of grazings ) showed significant differences between damaged and undamaged sites . on the contrary , the doc contents were significantly higher at the damaged than at the undamaged sites . humus content tended to have a similar result with a higher mean value for the damaged sites . no other measured variable showed differences . doc and humus contents were weakly , but significantly positively correlated ( r = 0 . 49 , p = 0 . 030 ) .
for parametric data the means ( + / − sem = standard error of the mean ) , in case of ordinal parameters ( ord ) the medians were calculated . significant differences between the two site categories are indicated by : * * = p ≤ 0 . 01 , * = 0 . 05 ≥ p > 0 . 01 , t = 0 . 1 ≥ p > 0 . 05 trend . the p - values were calculated by t - tests or mann whitney u - tests in case of ordinal variables . parameters : the soil parameters were analysed from soil samples ( 0 – 10 cm ) , except the parameters marked by “ebod” which were read from a soil database ( ebod ,
) ; “doc” = dissolved organic carbon , “a - horizon max” . = maximum depth of the a - horizon , “water supply” ( 1 = very low to 7 = very high ) , “aspect” = deviation from facing south ( 180 degrees ) , “usual manure amount / year” ( 0 = no to 3 = much ) .
the correlation coefficients were calculated across all sites according to pearson or spearman in case of the variables “water supply” , “cuts” = usual number of cuts per year , “grazings” = usual number of grazings per year and usual “manure amount” per year . significant coefficients are marked : * = 0 . 05 ≥ p > 0 . 01 , * * = p ≤ 0 . 01 . for the definition of parameters see table
) . from the environmental variables , only humus content was significantly correlated to the larval distribution of the species , showing a positive relationship ( r = 0 . 461 , p = 0 . 041 ) .
density ) had a deeper a - horizon ( = larger circles ) than the sites deviating negatively .
grub density on humus content in the soil ; color of circles : white = grub damage had never been observed by the farmers ( undamaged sites ) , dark = sites had recently been affected by grub damage ( damaged sites ) .
= 0 . 140 , when added to the regression model ) . as shown in figure
) scattered comparably around the dashed linear regression line . similarly to the humus contents in the soil samples , the ebod humus contents weakly tended to a positive correlation with grub density ( r = 0 . 366 , p = 0 . 112 ) .
the effect of grub feeding on the measured humus contents . scatter plot showing the relationship between the humus content , derived from the ebod soil map , and the humus content in the soil samples ; small circles : sites with grub densities ≤ 50 individuals / m 2 ( all species ) , large circles : sites with grub densities > 50 individuals / m 2 ; dashed line = regression line for the two humus variables , r 2 corr . = 0 . 16 , p = 0 . 046 .
) . the higher the humus content in soil and the lower the usual cutting frequency , the higher the probability of damage was . on basis of this model , 85 % of the sites could be correctly classified as recently damaged ( = high risk ) and undamaged ( = low risk ) sites , when defining 50 % probability as decision limit . as shown in figure
, only two recently damaged sites ( = dark grey circles ) had less than 50 % probability ( dashed line ) and only one undamaged site ( = white circles ) had more than 50 % probability to belong to the high risk category .
the relationship between humus content , cutting frequency and grub damage . x - axis : humus content in soil samples ( % , 0 – 10 cm soil depth ) , y - axis : the probability of grub damage calculated by a multiple logistic regression analysis , size of circles : the usual number of cuts per year ( small = 0 – 1 cut , medium = 2 , large = 4 ) ; color of circles : white = grub damage had never been observed by the farmers – low risk ( undamaged sites ) , dark = sites had recently been affected by grub damage – high risk ( damaged site ) ; dashed line = 50 % probability that a site belongs to the high risk category .
our study provides systematically collected information on grub densities and the dominant grub species at damaged and undamaged mountainous grassland sites in eastern austria . additionally , the results contribute to understanding the site and management characteristics that favor high grub densities and the resulting grub damage .
comparing grub damage histories recorded at the investigated sites with corresponding weather data indicated that grub damage is promoted by drought conditions in the growing season ( may to september ) , resulting from high mean temperatures and comparatively low precipitation sums . this outcome supports several reports in the literature . studies by laughlin (
larvae and improve the survival prospects of the pupae . apart from temperature , also proper soil moisture has shown to be important for
) , though exact limits have not been specified yet . grünbacher et al . (
) already found that from 2000 to 2006 , the heaviest grub damage occurred in the year of heat and drought 2003 . by studying meteorological data , it became obvious that the damaged areas in this year were mainly situated in regions with a strong precipitation deficit from january to august 2003 compared to average precipitation sums for this period ( hann et al .
) . drought can additionally intensify the effects of grub feeding to the sward by accelerating its withering and delaying its regeneration ( grünbacher et al .
might be responsible for increasingly common grub damages over the past decades in region 1 , as reported by the farmers .
was the most frequent species at the sampling sites ( 99 % of all collected grubs ) . the rather shallow sampling depth of 10 cm allowed more samples per site , but could have biased the outcome to some degree . first , other grub pest species than
starts pupating in deeper soil layers approximately at the end of june ( pötsch et al .
) . these grubs would have been missed in the grub survey from september to early october . however , no main flight year of
) . accordingly , the proportion of third instar larvae in 2011 would have been rather low . third , under drought stress grubs might migrate into deeper soil regions with more favorable conditions ( ritterhaus
) . consequently , the densities of some grub species might be underrepresented in our results . but , if sites would have harbored significant populations of other species than
, it would have been quite unlikely that all individuals were located strictly below 10 cm soil depth . according to keller et al . (
) grub damage is usually caused by a single species . therefore , we conclude that
was the dominant species at all sampling sites . this supports observations reported in the literature that this species is largely responsible for damage in austrian mountainous grassland , while
during heavy outbreaks . because of its dominance in our data , regression analyses with environmental and management variables were only conducted for this species . only at one site in region 1 ( figure
in 2011 , grub damage was only recorded at sites which had also been damaged in preceding years ( = damaged sites , high risk ) . whereas , the sites at which the farmers had never observed any grub damage ( = undamaged sites , low risk ) , were not damaged in 2011 as well . this consistency confirmed the farmers’ observations on high risk and low risk sites . however , not all high risk sites had grub populations that were strong enough to cause visible feeding damage in 2011 . this might reflect the irregular year to year fluctuations of
) . the author described weather conditions , but also enemies ( predators , diseases ) and intraspecific competition as main factors , responsible for these fluctuations . even though the population densities are fluctuating , the recently damaged sites had significantly higher grub densities than the undamaged sites , indicating that sites which were classified as high risk sites by the farmers are more suitable habitats for
grub development than low risk sites . interestingly , at three farms ( 1 , 5 , 9 ) the undamaged sites also revealed significant grub populations . at these sites , the differences to the corresponding damaged sites were quite weak . obviously , low risk sites , which never show visible grub damage can harbor high
populations . this fact should be considered , when determining where to conduct grub control measures , e . g . the application of entomopathogenic fungi or nematode products ( pernfuss et al .
were found than in soils with lower humus contents . at least , this outcome is valid for the sandy and mostly shallow grounded and sloping sampling sites in this study . the positive correlation corresponds very well to the results of laznik and trdan (
and the content of organic matter . in a former study the same authors already measured a high organic matter content ( 12 . 4 % ) in a slovenian grassland soil with critical grub densities ( laznik et al .
larvae than in soils at undamaged sites . the author interpreted the increased organic carbon content at damaged sites as an effect of the grub feeding activity on grass roots . in order to examine this relationship , we compared the humus content in the soil samples with the ebod humus contents . the latter were derived from a soil map and were therefore unaffected by grub feeding . if grub feeding activity would have been the cause for the increased humus contents at sites with larger grub populations in 2011 , the deviations of the soil sample humus contents from the ebod humus contents would have been connected to the measured grub densities . as shown in figure
, the hypothesis of raw was not supported by our data . on the contrary , the two humus contents even showed a weak positive , but significant correlation and grub density contained no significant information for explaining the residues in this relationship . the deviations between the soil sample and the ebod humus contents can be attributed to inaccuracies of the soil map , which might not reflect the impact of grassland management on humus content and / or small scale heterogeneity . similarly to the humus percentages in the soil samples , the ebod humus values weakly tended to a positive correlation with grub densities , as well . hence , high humus contents might actually favor the oviposition of
) concluded from the grassy natural habitat of the species that its main food is grass roots . but mcquillan and webb (
( scarabaeidae ) , which cause increasing damage in southeastern australian pastures , can selectively feed on concentrated sources of soil organic matter . kahrer et al . (
) humivorous scarabaeidae larvae can utilize the microbial biomass as well as the nitrogenous components of humus .
, high humus contents might provide optimal moisture conditions by contributing to the water permeability in soils with higher clay or silt content , but retaining enough soil water in sandy soils ( scheffer et al .
) , which were typical for the investigated grassland sites . on the one hand , laughlin (
) showed that the eggs are not resistant to desiccation with relative humidities ≤ 98 % being lethal . on the other hand , moist soils are inadequate for
) even considered that : ” apart from proper food , which is provided by grassland , the most important living condition for the garden chafer in the soil appears to be proper soil moisture” . gaylor and frankie (
( scarabaeidae ) , causing heavy damage to crops and turfs in north - and central - america , did not oviposit in very wet or very dry soil and egg as well as early larval instar survival were low under extreme conditions . comparably ,
additionally , due to the darker color humus rich soils are more susceptible to warming by sun radiation ( scheffer et al .
) . as grubs are poikilothermic , all soil characteristics affecting soil temperature are potentially important factors for grub development . scheerpelz (
to adequate sites for oviposition . high humus contents might also promote optimal soil structures for the mobility of the larvae and the adults , which deposit their eggs up to 20 cm below the soil surface ( milne
the second factor , significantly connected to grub density was the maximum depth of the a - horizon . the deeper the a - horizon , the more grubs per square meter could be found . together , humus content and depth of a - horizon explained 38 % of the grub density variation with the highest grub densities in deep humus rich soils . raw (
) considered soil depth to affect grub mortality most likely during hibernation in severe winters , but the hypothesis was not supported by his data . milne (
larvae do “not necessarily hibernate at a deeper level in fields with deeper soil” . apart from the unclear effect on hibernation depth , deeper soils might simply provide a larger habitat with a more productive root sphere .
when calculated across all sampling sites , the high risk sites had significantly higher doc ( dissolved organic carbon ) contents and also tended to higher humus contents than the low risk sites . the humus content was directly positively correlated to grub density , which is corresponding to the observation that high risk areas are better grub habitats . the doc differences might partly be associated with the humus contents . they might also reflect the larger grub populations at the high risk sites , i . e . their feeding activity , as supposed by raw (
) . however , doc contents were not significantly related to the grub densities measured in 2011 . furthermore , neither of the two variables ( humus , doc ) was correlated with the estimated amounts of applied manure , queried from the farmers .
apart from the soil characteristics , the cutting frequency , i . e . the usual number of cuts per year , was significantly lower at the high risk than at the low risk sites . a higher cutting frequency is usually associated with higher amounts of applied manure , as also supported by our data ( r = 0 . 505 , p = 0 . 023 ) . both management measures promote dense swards which might be unattractive for oviposition and might be more resilient to grub feeding than weak swards ( pötsch et al .
) . additionally , a dense sward hinders the warming of the soil by sun radiation and therefore reduces soil temperature . the lack of a significant difference between damaged and undamaged sites concerning the manuring regime might be an effect of inaccurate data on the amount of applied manure per sampling site .
a stepwise logistic regression analysis resulted in a model that uses cutting frequency together with the humus content for predicting grub damage risk . the higher the humus content and the lower the cutting frequency , the higher the probability was that a site belonged to the high risk category . as discussed above , high humus contents might favor the development of large grub populations , while higher cutting frequencies promote dense swards that might reduce oviposition and are more resilient to grub feeding .
even though we considered various environmental and management parameters , the significant relationships with grub density were few and the correlations were weak . this suggests further unknown factors covering the relationship between grub density and the measured or recorded parameters , e . g . irregular fluctuations of grub populations due to predators , diseases or intraspecific competition ( milne
) . but soil temperature strongly depends from local weather , which might as well confound the relationship between actual grub densities and site characteristics .
in consideration of these results , we recommend future investigations on the relationship between soil temperature , humus content , depth of a - horizon , cutting regime , grub density and grub damage risk . the actual , small scale soil temperatures and moistures at the sampling sites should be measured with soil sensors and samplings should be conducted over several years to cover grub population fluctuations . provided that these relationships are well understood , soil temperature models , like climsoil ( murer et al .
) , might enable weather dependent prognoses of grub damage risks in agricultural grassland . furthermore , we suggest to expand the investigation to the alpine regions in upper austria , salzburg and tyrol to cover all areas within austria where damage by grubs occur frequently or regularly .
the study was part of the project climsoil , which was funded by the austrian climate and energy fund of the federal state ( austrian climate research program ) – managed by the austrian research promotion agency and kommunalkredit public consulting gmbh . we want to thank the farmers for their cooperation and all project partners , particularly the ikt petzenkirchen for analyzing the grain size in the soil samples and providing the humus contents from the ebod soil database .
ph : contributed to the study design , data collection , analysis and interpretation and compiled the manuscript . ct : contributed to the study design , data collection and literature review . kw : contributed to the data collection , literature review and data interpretation . je : contributed to the study design , the collection and interpretation of meteorological data , provided guidance and improved the manuscript . bk : drafted the study design , provided guidance and improved the manuscript . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .
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common throughout britain , although less so than in the past , the garden chafer is not popyular with gardeners because its larvae damage lawns . birds dig up lawns in search of the white larvae of garden chafer beetles .
in upland meadows , these beetles sometimes swarm in great numbers , and on windy days they blow onto the surfaces of lakes and streams thus providing a feast for the wild brown trout that live there . anglers are able to imitate these beetles using swarthy artificial flies , and in wales the pattern known as coch - y - bonddu is particularly popular . . . and effective .
adults emerge , often en - masse , from their pupae during the mornings from april through to june usually leaving the pupae in a mass emergence during mid morning . they are strong fliers and feed on the leaves of trees , bushes and shrubs , and they are also attracted to flowers . ( the garden chafer beetle shown here was found on the flowers of a hawthorn tree , crataegus monygyna , at cae blaen dyffryn nature reserve , near lampeter in west wales .
o ' reilly , pat . ( 1997 ; 8th reprint 2010 ) matching the hatch . shrewsbury : quiller publishing .
foster g . n . & friday l . e . ( 1988 ) key to adults of the water beetles of britain and ireland ( part 1 ) . taunton : field studies council .
harde k . w . & severa f . ( 1984 ) field guide in colour to beetles . littlehampton book services .
if you found this information helpful , you would probably find the new 2017 edition of our bestselling book matching the hatch by pat o ' reilly very useful . get an author - signed copy here . . .


coleophora coenosipennella is a moth of the coleophoridae family .

it is found in the united states , including pennsylvania .

the larvae feed on the seeds of stellaria pubera .

they create a trivalved , tubular silken case .

coleophora coenosipennella

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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