the atlantic sailfish ( istiophorus albicans ) is a species of marine fish in the family istiophoridae of the order perciformes .

more recent studies even suggest sailfish do not exceed swimming speeds of 36 km/h ( 22 mph ) .

atlantic sailfish

fish of tropical and temperate waters in the atlantic ocean . it ranges from approximately 40°n in the northwestern atlantic to 40°s in the southwestern atlantic , and 50°n in the northeastern atlantic to 32°s in the southeastern atlantic . it is a
sailfish are divided into stocks of the western atlantic , eastern atlantic , eastern pacific , western central pacific and indian oceans .
conventional tag returns for atlantic sailfish . lines join the locations of release and recapture .
the atlantic sailfish , istiophorus albicans , is a species of marine fish in the family istiophoridae of the order perciformes . it is found in the atlantic oceans and the caribbean sea , except for large areas of the central north atlantic and the central south atlantic , from the surface to depths of 200 m ( 656 ft ) . the atlantic sailfish is related to the marlin .
this species is found in tropical and temperate waters approximately 40°n in the northwest atlantic , 50°n in the northeast atlantic , 40°s in the southwest atlantic , and 32°s in the southeast atlantic . it has entered the mediterranean sea from the red sea via the suez canal .
atlantic sailfish hunt schooling fish , such as sardines , anchovies and mackerel although they also feed on crustaceans and cephalopods .
iccat . 2009 . international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas : report of the 2009 sailfish assessment . [ links ]
atlantic sailfish are found in tropical and temperate parts of the atlantic ocean , though juveniles have been found in the mediterranean sea . adults can weigh up to 60kg . females grow larger than the males .
richardson de , cowen rk , prince ed , sponaugle s . importance of the straits of florida spawning ground to atlantic sailfish (
very little information is available regarding the population status of the atlantic sailfish . assessment of recent trends suggests that in the east , atlantic sailfish populations have declined and currently show very few signs of recovery . in the west , the atlantic sailfish has also declined , but populations appear to have remained relatively stable since the 1980s . based on these observations , the international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas ( iccat ) have recommended that catch levels should be reduced in the eastern atlantic , and should not exceed current levels in the west ( 11 ) .
the two main subspecies of sailfish , atlantic and indo - pacific , range throughout the warm and temperate parts of the worldâ€™s oceans .
post jt , serafy je , ault js , capo tr , de sylva dp . field and laboratory observations on larval atlantic sailfish (
richards wj . early stages of atlantic fishes : an identification guide for the western central north atlantic . 2006 . taylor & francis group , boca raton , fl .
the atlantic sailfish is a highly sought after trophy by recreational and professional fishermen . first recognized as a species in the late 1700′s , the atlantic sailfish has the scientific name of either istiophorus albicans or istiophorus platypterus . the former , more commonly used name distinguishes it from the pacific sailfish . scientists still disagree on whether the two are in fact different species , but a total of 34 parasitic species have been recorded from the atlantic ocean and pacific ocean range of sailfish .
atlantic ocean : in tropical and temperate waters approximately 40°n in the northwest atlantic , 50°n in the northeast atlantic , 40°s in the southwest atlantic , and 32°s in the southeast atlantic . migrating to mediterranean sea , mostly based on juvenile specimens . highly migratory species , annex i of the 1982 convention on the law of the sea ( ref . 26139 ) . some authors recognize a single worldwide species , istiophorus platypterus ( shaw 1792 ) but we follow nakamura 1990 ( ref . 10820 ) retaining the usage of istiophorus platypterus for the indo - pacific sailfish and istiophorus albicans for the atlantic sailfish in recognition of differences between them .
atlantic ocean : in tropical and temperate waters approximately 40°n in the northwest atlantic , 50°n in the northeast atlantic , 40°s in the southwest atlantic , and 32°s in the southeast atlantic . migrating to mediterranean sea , mostly based on juvenile specimens . highly migratory species , annex i of the 1982 convention on the law of the sea ( ref . 26139 ) . some authors recognize a single worldwide species , istiophorus platypterus ( shaw 1792 ) but we follow nakamura 1990 ( ref . 10820 ) retaining the usage of istiophorus platypterus for the indo - pacific sailfish and istiophorus albicans for the atlantic sailfish in recognition of differences between them .
southwestern mediterranean sea , atlantic [ if treated as a valid species or subspecies ] .
kraus rt , wells rjd , rooker jr . horizontal movements of atlantic blue marlin (
iccat ( 2009 ) . report of the 2009 sailfish assessment . international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas , madrid . available at : urltoken
standing committee on research and statistics ( scrs ) . “atlantic sailfish , executive summary . ” madrid , spain october 3 - 7 2016 . iccat
there is debate amongst scientists over whether or not the atlantic sailfish ( istiophorus albicans ) and the indo - pacific sailfish ( isiophorus platypterus ) are separate species . because of this , the atlantic sailfish is also sometimes referred to as istiophorus platypterus ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . there is very little genetic evidence to separate atlantic from indo - pacific populations , but it is commonly accepted that there are marked morphological differences between the two , with the atlantic sailfish typically reaching far smaller sizes than its indo - pacific counterpart ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .
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relative abundance indices used in the assessment of the eastern atlantic sailfish stocks . all indices were scaled to the mean of each series prior to graphing .
sailfish grow rapidly and reach a maximum size of 160 cm for males and 220 cm for females , with a mean maximum age of at least 12 years . a new length at 50 % maturity ( l50 ) has been estimated for west atlantic female sailfish ( 146 . 12 cm ljfl ) ; while the previous l50 value used for western sailfish males remains at 135 . 7 cm ljfl . no values are currently available for eastern atlantic sailfish .
the atlantic sailfish is a highly sought after trophy of recreational and professional anglers . its large dorsal fin and long upper jaw make this fish a prize trophy .
the atlantic sailfish comes under the remit of the highly migratory species division of the united states national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) , which manages atlantic highly migratory species ( hms ) including tuna , shark , swordfish and billfish ( 3 ) , and it is also included in the nmfs u . s . fishery management plan for the atlantic billfishes . in 1998 , the atlantic sailfish was added to the nmfs list of overfished species ( 12 ) . commercial fishing vessels in the u . s . are prohibited from possessing atlantic sailfish , and vessels that are used to fish recreationally are required to possess a hms angling permit from nmfs . under this permit , recreational fishermen are not permitted to sell , barter , or trade atlantic hms , including the atlantic sailfish , and most recreational fishing is done entirely by catch and release , with individuals released back into the ocean soon after being caught ( 3 ) ( 11 ) .
the following habitats are found across the atlantic sailfish distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .
in the atlantic ocean , sailfish istiophorus platypterus ( shaw , 1792 ) are widely distributed in subtropical and tropical waters and are occasionally found in temperate waters , as well as the mediterranean sea . based on commercial catch data , the geographical limits for the species ' distribution is approximately 40ºn in the western north atlantic , 50ºn in the eastern north atlantic , 40ºs in the western and eastern south atlantic ( beardsley et al . , 1975 ; nakamura , 1985 ) .
sailfish grow larger in the pacific than in the atlantic . the all - tackle game fish record in the pacific is of a 100 . 24 kg fish caught off santa cruz island , ecuador in 1947 while the largest sailfish from the atlantic was only 64 kg and was caught off luanda , angola in 1994 ( igfa 2011 ) .
serafy je , guillermo ad , prince ed , orbesen es , legault cm . atlantic blue marlin ,
ingram gw , richards wj , lamkin jt , muhling b . annual indices of atlantic bluefin tuna (
iccat ( international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas ) report of the 2006 iccat billfish stock assessment .
based on life history information , migration rates and geographic distribution of catch , iccat has established two management units for sailfish , eastern and western atlantic stocks ( figure 2 ) . however , a recent preliminary study investigating genetic differentiation among groups of atlantic sailfish suggests genetic stock structure between both the eastern and western atlantic , and northern and southern hemispheres , suggesting the need for further investigations to elucidate and confirm the presence of additional stock structure that may influence future assessments .
possibly the biggest threat to the atlantic sailfish is incidental catch in longline and gillnet fisheries . the species itself is not commercially fished because of its tough meat , but is often discarded as bycatch when caught up in commercial fishing lines . the atlantic sailfish is also highly sought after by recreational fishermen , putting it at risk from overfishing ( 3 ) ( 12 ) . a 2009 assessment of sailfish stocks in both the eastern and western atlantic indicated that it is currently overfished in both regions , but particularly in the east ( 11 ) .
minimum and maximum daily temperature and depth experienced by sailfish i , ii and iii . box - plots represent the depths experienced by tagged sailfish .
die d . are atlantic marlins overfished or endangered : some reasons why we may not be able to tell .
sailfish spawn over a wide area and year around . for the western stock , evidence of spawning has been detected in the straits of florida , and off the venezuelan , guyanese and surinamese coasts . in the southwestern atlantic , spawning has been confirmed off the southern coast of brazil between 20° and 27°s . additional spawning areas occur in the eastern atlantic off senegal and côte d’ivoire . timing of spawning can differ between regions ; from the florida straits to the areas off guyana western atlantic sailfish spawn in the second and third quarter of the year , while in the southwestern atlantic they spawn during the austral summer .
the atlantic sailfish is widely distributed throughout the coastal tropical and subtropical waters of the atlantic ocean , with occasional sightings offshore in more temperate waters and in the mediterranean sea ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 9 ) . in the west , the atlantic sailfish is most abundant along the coast of florida , the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea , and south along the brazilian coast ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . in the east , important populations of the atlantic sailfish are known from the coast of senegal to the gulf of guinea ( 6 ) . during the winter , the atlantic sailfish is restricted to the warmer parts of its range , migrating away from the tropics with the expansion of warm water currents during the summer ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 9 ) . although a migratory species , very few trans - atlantic movements have ever been recorded , suggesting that populations do not mix between east and west ( 9 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) .
oschlies a , garçon v . eddy - induced enhancement of primary production in a model of the north atlantic ocean .
in the atlantic , sailfish has little value as a commercial fishery , with the meat being relatively tough and rarely sold unless smoked . however , the sailfish is highly sought after by recreational fishermen . popular fishing locations include bermuda , puerto rico , windward islands , and the gulf of mexico . atlantic sailfish are usually hooked by trolling , with either whole mullet or ballyhoo as bait . in the indo - pacific , sailfish are taken as bycatch by commercial tuna longliners . they are also caught with driftnets , harpoons , and by trolling by commercial fishers .
. 2006 ) . however , there are two distinct mtdna clades , both evident in the atlantic while only one is found in the indo - pacific . there is also no difference in pectoral fin length or in any other morphometric or meristic characters between atlantic and indo - pacific populations of sailfish ( morrow and harbo 1969 , mcdowell 2002 ) . populations of the indo - pacific sailfishes and the atlantic sailfishes are conspecific ( mcdowell 2002 , collette
the average life span of a sailfish is 5 to 7 years . did you now that a sailfish ' s color depends on it ' s level of excitement . the female sail fish is larger that the male sailfish . it is threatened .
de sylva dp , breder pr . reproduction , gonad histology , and spawning cycles of north atlantic billfishes ( istiophoridae ) .
a voracious and opportunistic predator , the atlantic sailfish is able to depress its pelvic fins into grooves along the side of the body , reducing drag as it moves through the water and making it one of the fastest recorded fish , capable of attaining speeds of up to 110 kilometres per hour ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the atlantic sailfish feeds primarily on fish , as well as consuming some squid and octopuses ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 9 ) . young of the atlantic sailfish feed mostly on copepods ( 2 ) ( 9 ) . when feeding , the atlantic sailfish will often herd shoals of fish into a tight group , known as a ‘bait ball’ , using its dorsal fin . the sailfish will then thrash from side to side at great speed using its bill to stun the schooling fish on impact , before leisurely picking off those that are injured ( 3 ) .
tests in the 1920s estimated that the atlantic sailfish was capable of short sprints of up to 111 kilometres per hour ; however , more conservative estimates of 37 to 55 kilometres per hour are more widely accepted .
how often does reproduction occur ? indo - pacific sailfish breed three times a year .
breeding season indo - pacific sailfish breed in the spring , summer , and fall .
spatial scale contains a standard term such as global , regional ( e . g . for the whole atlantic ) , sub - regional ( e . g . for a part of the atlantic ) , national , local ( for sub - national levels ) .
atlantic sailfishes ' habitat varies according to water temperature and in some cases wind conditions . at the northern and southern extremes of their distribution , atlantic sailfish appear only during the warmer months . these seasonal changes in distribution may be linked to prey migrations . usually found in the warmer , upper layers above the thermocline , the species often migrates into near - shore waters , preferring temperatures between 21° to 28 °c , but is also capable of descending into rather deep water . in general , atlantic sailfishes are highly migratory and can be found from approximately 40°n to 40°s in the western atlantic ocean and from 50°n to 32°s in the eastern atlantic ocean . there is a known aggregation that occurs off the coast of west africa . although few records exist for the mediterranean sea , several juvenile specimens have been caught there . in the western atlantic ocean , its highest abundance is in the gulf of mexico , the caribbean sea , and the atlantic coast of florida , where it is the official state saltwater fish .
in the atlantic , the international commission fr the conservation of atlantic tunas standing committee on research and statistics ( iccat - scrs ) in 2009 recommended that catches for the eastern stock should be reduced from current levels . the committee recommended that catches of the western stock of sailfish should not exceed current levels . any reduction in catch in the west atlantic is likely to help stock re - growth and reduce the likelihood that the stock is overfished . artisanal fishermen harvest a large part of the sailfish catch of the western sailfish stock . the iccat - scrs is concerned about the incomplete reporting of sailfish catches , particularly for the most recent years , because it increases uncertainty in stock status determination . the iccat - scrs recommends all countries landing or having dead discards of sailfish , report these data to the iccat secretariat ( iccat 2009 ) .
several standardized cpue data series were used in 2016 for the atlantic sailfish stock assessment . for the eastern atlantic stock , the eight indices of abundance used were : côte d’ivoire , ghana , and senegal artisanal , chinese taipei longline , japan longline ( early and late ) , eu - portugal longline , and eu - spain longline ( figure 4 ) .
) , and therefore future efforts to rebuild atlantic stocks of these pelagic fishes may benefit by protecting this specific region of the ngom .
indian ocean tuna commission . status of the indian ocean indo - pacific sailfish ( sfa :
pop - up satellite archival tags ( psats ) were deployed on four sailfish , istiophorus platypterus , in the coastal waters of rio de janeiro state in southeast brazil during january and february of 2009 ( sailfish i and ii ) and between november 2010 and january 2011 ( sailfish iii and iv ) . the total number of days monitored ( i . e . , time that the tags remained attached ) were 12 ( sailfish i ) , 51 ( sailfish ii ) , 16 ( sailfish iii ) and 43 days ( sailfish iv ) . the results indicate a clear pattern of vertical habitat utilization with the majority of the time spent concentrated near the uniform sea surface layer occupying a relatively narrow temperature range . despite the clear preference for epipelagic surface waters , sailfish regularly undertook vertical excursions into deeper waters ( > 50 m ) within three to six hour intervals .
most probable tracks
( estimated from raw geolocations using the state - space kalman filter model ) and linear displacements suggested that tagged sailfish did not move significant distances from the tagging site . in brief , our report provides information regarding the biology of sailfish in the southwestern atlantic and how vertical distributions during the day and night are influenced by water temperature and how this information can improve sailfish stock assessments in southwestern atlantic ocean .
mourato , b . , h . hazin , p . travassos , c . arfelli , a . amorim , f . hazin . 2010 . environmental and spatial effects on the size and distribution of sailfish in the atlantic ocean .
) released from commercial and recreational fishing gears in the western north atlantic ocean : inferences from short duration pop - up archival satellite tags .
the atlantic sailfish is the least oceanic of all billfish species , and although capable of descending into deep water , most of its time is spent above the thermocline , at depths of 10 to 20 metres ( 2 ) ( 9 ) ( 11 ) . preferentially sticking to shallow coastal waters , the atlantic sailfish can usually be found in the warmer , upper layers within a temperature range of 21 to 28 degrees celsius ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 9 ) .
arocha , f . and ortiz , m . ( 2006 ) iccat manual , chapter 2 . 1 . 8 . 1 . sailfish ( sai ) . international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas , madrid . available at : urltoken
jolley , j . 1972 . on the biology of florida east coast atlantic sailfish , ( istiophorus platypterus ) . proceedings of the international billfish symposium , 675 / 2 : 81 - 88 . accessed february 18 , 2014 at urltoken .
luthy sa , cowen rk , serafy je , mcdowell jr . toward identification of larval sailfish (
in conclusion , our results provide information into the biology of sailfish in the southwestern atlantic and show how vertical distributions during the day and night are influenced by temperature . however , the basic lack of information about sailfish habitat use and fisheries interaction action ( e . g . , depth of fishing gear ) persists but our study has provided initial information on sailfish vertical movement patterns in brazil . lastly , longer track durations , through international cooperative tagging projects , would be necessary to get a broader picture of residence times , exchange rates and migration corridors in the south atlantic ocean .
mcdowell , j . r . and graves , j . e . ( 2002 ) a genetic perspective on atlantic sailfish stock structure . collective volume of scientific papers iccat , 54 ( 3 ) : 805 - 810 . available at : urltoken
jolley , j . w . & e . w . irby . 1979 . survival of tagged and released atlantic sailfish ( istiophorus platypterus : istiophoridae ) determined with acoustic telemetry . bulletin of marine science , 29 : 155 - 169 . [ links ]
as a broadcast spawning species , indo - pacific sailfish do not provide any investment for their offspring .
in the atlantic , sailfish have little value as a commercial fish , since their meat is relatively tough . however , sailfish are highly sought after by recreational fishermen . popular fishing locations include bermuda , puerto rico , windward islands , and the gulf of mexico . a total of 34 parasitic species have been recorded from the atlantic ocean and pacific ocean range of sailfish . parasites include protozoans , digenea ( flukes ) , didymozoidea ( tissue flukes ) , monogenea ( gillworms ) , cestoda ( tapeworms ) , nematoda ( roundworms ) , acanthocephala ( spiny - headed worms ) , copepods , barnacles , and isopods .
the sailfish is distributed from approximately 40° n to 40° s in the western atlantic ocean and from 50° n to 32° s in the eastern atlantic ocean . it has been taken in the mediterranean sea , although few records exist for this region . in the western atlantic ocean , its highest abundance is in the gulf of mexico , the atlantic coast of florida , and the caribbean sea . in this region , distribution is apparently influenced by wind conditions as well as water temperature . in the northern and southern extremes of the its distribution , sailfish appear during warm seasons . these seasonal changes in distribution may be directly linked to prey movement . in the eastern atlantic ocean , there is an aggregation off the coast of west africa . in the pacific ocean , the sailfish is widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions . it resides in waters from 45° to 50° n to 35° s in the western pacific and from 35° n to 35° s in the eastern pacific . sailfish are especially abundant off papua new guinea and the philippines as well as from tahiti to the marquesas and off hawaii . this species may also be found in the indian ocean to approximately 35 - 45° s latitude .
in the most recent stock assessment of sailfish in the atlantic , using data up to 2008 , results indicated a decline in biomass , particularly in the eastern atlantic . the results were interpreted with considerable caution due to data deficiencies and the resulting uncertainty in the assessment ( iccat , 2009 ) . in order to reduce the uncertainty involved in the stock assessment , the international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas ( iccat ) recognized the necessity to better understand the geographic distribution of sailfish , including : ( 1 ) identifying main areas of occurrence for different size classes , ( 2 ) understanding migration patterns , and ( 3 ) determining the influence of environmental factors on catch rates and movements .
data for sailfish are not routinely recorded , however , it is inferred that no significant declines are occurring .
) . variables not retained in the sailfish model were month , sea surface chlorophyll , and water depth .
environmental and temporal variables in final generalized additive models for sailfish , blue marlin , white marlin and swordfish .
white marlin biological review team ( 2007 ) atlantic white marlin status review . national marine fisheries service , southeast regional office , united states . available at : urltoken
there are two stocks of sailfish in the atlantic : one in the western atlantic , and one in the eastern atlantic . there is considerable uncertainty regarding the status of atlantic sailfish stocks , but most models present clear evidence of overfishing and that stocks are overfished , more in the east than in the west . the eastern stock is more productive than the western , probably providing greater maximum sustainable yield ( msy ) . the eastern stock is probably suffering stronger overfishing and has been reduced further below the level that would produce msy than the western stock . both eastern and western stocks suffered greatest declines prior to 1990 . since 1990 , trends in relative abundance conflict between different indices , with some indices suggesting declines , other increases , and others not showing a trend . examination of length frequencies do not show changes in the average length or length distribution ( iccat 2009 ) .
the atlantic sailfish munches on small pelagic fish mackerels , tunas , jacks , half beaks and needlefish . sometimes they even eat octopuses and squids . this eat on the surface sometimes but , usual feedings occur in the mid waters . they eat mostly near coral reefs edge .
the first electronic tagging study on sailfish was conducted off the east coast of florida ( usa ) and sought to assess the post - release mortality of eight sailfish ( jolley & irby , 1979 ) . the advent of fishery independent pop - up satellite archival tags ( psats ) in the late 1990s , however , provided a new tool to research the movements of large pelagics , including sailfish . the first experiment using psats on sailfish was conducted in the gulf of arabia ( hoolihan , 2004 ) . prince & goodyear ( 2006 ) also deployed pop - up tags on sailfish in the northwestern atlantic and in the eastern central pacific to assess the vertical distribution of this species . hoolihan & luo ( 2007 ) tagged 18 sailfish with pop - up tags which provided detailed information regarding summer residence patterns in the gulf of arabia .
using combined indices of relative abundance ( table 9 , iccat 2009 ) , both eastern and western atlantic sailfish stocks appear to be stable or increasing over the three generation length period ( 13 years ) . the combined indices were chosen over the biomass indices , as the population models which estimated biomass were not considered to be a good fit to the available data . overall , there is data uncertainty , but the combined indices suggest no strong changes over the length of period examined . the greatest declines in atlantic sailfish occurred prior to the three generation lengths .
teo slh , boustany a , dewar h , stokesbury mjw , weng kc , et al . annual migrations , diving behavior , and thermal biology of atlantic bluefin tuna (
the atlantic sailfish swims near the surface of oceanic waters . it generally prefers water above the thermocline between 70º and 83ºf . its first dorsal fin is large ( thus the name “sailfish” ) and runs most the length of its body , with the longest rays being the mid 20th . the more popular fishing locations include bermuda , puerto rico , windward islands , as well as the gulf of mexico .
) . sailfish larvae were the dominant billfish ( n = 2033 ) , accounting for 70 . 4 % of all istiophorid larvae collected . mean density of sailfish per survey ranged from 0 . 45 to 1 . 99 larvae 1000 m
richardson de , llopiz jk , leaman kd , vertes ps , mueller - karger fe , et al . sailfish (
this beautiful billfish natural habitat is in warmer ocean waters , and is an acrobatic fighter that spends a lot of its time in the air . the atlantic sailfish is prized as a mount for its colorful sail and shimmering blue coloration . it is also known as the ballerina of the sea .
indo - pacific sailfish spend most of their time near the ocean surface , however , these fish sometimes dive into deeper waters where temperatures may reach as low as - 8°c , although they prefer water temperatures between 25° to 30°c . indo - pacific sailfish migrate each year to higher latitudes during the summer and towards the equator in autumn . larger adults tend to live in the easternmost areas of the atlantic and pacific oceans .
in the atlantic , this species is taken primarily by longline fisheries , but also by purse seines , and by some artisanal gears which are the only fisheries targeting marlins ( ghana , cote d ' ivoire ) and also by various sport fisheries located on both sides of the atlantic . the increasing use of anchored fish aggregating devices ( fads ) by various artisanal and sport fisheries is increasing the vulnerability of these stocks . many assessment model results show evidence of overfishing , more so in the eastern than in the western atlantic stocks ( stecf 2009 ) .
indo - pacific sailfish are top predators that affect the population of their prey . these fish may also host several parasites .
most - probable tracks for sailfish i , ii , iii , and iv fitted with kalman filter state - space model .
biomass , on the density of sailfish , blue marlin , white marlin , and swordfish larvae from final generalized additive models .
idrisi n , capo tr , luthy s , serafy je . behavior , oxygen consumption and survival of stressed juvenile sailfish (
nmfs ( 2008 ) . stock assessment and fishery evaluation ( safe ) report for atlantic highly migratory species 2008 . national marine fisheries service , maryland , united states . available at : urltoken
brinson aa , alcala a , die dj , shivlani m . contrasting socioeconomic indicators for two fisheries that target atlantic billfish : southeast florida recreational charter boats and venezuelan artisanal gill - netters .
sailfish are a very important resource for various coastal and artisanal fisheries in the caribbean , as well as for recreational fisheries in the usa , venezuela , brazil , and several caribbean countries ( peel et al . , 2003 ) . sailfish are caught as bycatch in most commercial longline fisheries targeting tunas ( thunnus spp . ) and swordfish ( xiphias gladius linnaeus , 1758 ) throughout the atlantic ocean ( restrepo et al . , 2003 ) .
spawning may begin as early as april , but occurs primarily during the summer months . ( the exception is the eastern atlantic , where spawning can occur year - round . ) spawning in offshore waters beyond 100 fathoms has been reported from south of cuba to the carolinas . however , off southeast florida , atlantic sailfish move inshore to shallower waters to spawn near the surface in the warm season , with females swimming sluggishly with their dorsal fins above the water ' s surface , accompanied by one or more males . fertilization is external . a 33 - kilogram female may shed up to 4 . 8 million eggs in three batches during a single spawning . atlantic sailfish larvae are approximately 0 . 3 cm at hatching , and they lack the elongated jaw characteristic of adult sailfish , which only begins to develop at about 0 . 6 cm . at 20 cm , all larval characteristics have disappeared and the juvenile has all the features of an adult .
the atlantic sailfish swims in the surface epipelagic and oceanic waters . it generally remains above the thermocline , in water temperatures between 70° and 83°f ( 21° to 28° c ) . there is evidence that it also swims into deeper water . it is less oceanic than other billfishes , making frequent forays into nearshore water .
sailfish are fairly abundant throughout their range , and their population is considered stable . they are under no special status or protections .
simms jr , rooker jr , holt sa , holt gj , bangma j . distribution , growth , and mortality of sailfish (
as atlantic sailfish can swim at more than 60 miles per hour , trying to capture their grace and agility on film is easier said than done . up for the challenge , the life team used an ultra - high speed camera to film the fastest fish on earth making quick work of a huge ball of sardines .
this document owned by international commission for the conservation of atlantic tunas ( iccat ) , provided and maintained by standing committee on research and statistics , is part of iccat scrs reports data collection .
studies of post - release mortality for sailfish using pop - up tags were later conducted for the pelagic longline fishery in the gulf of mexico ( kerstetter & graves , 2008 ) . more recently , to address factors to improve regional stock assessments and examine vertical swimming speeds , hoolihan et al . ( 2009 , 2011 ) and kerstetter et al . ( 2011 ) provided detailed information regarding the vertical movements of sailfish in the western north atlantic and eastern pacific .
sailfish are only seen during cool months . they are mostly in the location of their praia in waters up to 28 degrees celsius .
the most recent stock assessments for east and west sailfish were conducted in 2016 using catch data available to 2014 , through a process that included meetings for data preparatory , and a catch rate standardization workshop in may . the previous sailfish stock assessments were conducted in 2009 .
the sailfish is one of the smaller members of the family istiophoridae . the maximum size for the sailfish from the atlantic region is 124 inches ( 340 cm ) total length and around 128 pounds ( 100 kg ) . the all - tackle record listed by international game fish association ( igfa ) is ( 100 kg ) . in southern florida , the fish tend to be smaller , generally between 68 - 90 inches ( 173 - 229 cm ) total length . commercial longline vessels in the atlantic generally catch fish of 49 - 83 inches ( 125 - 210 cm ) in length . the largest fish are usually females . in waters of the pacific ocean , the maximum size for the sailfish is recorded at 134 inches ( 340 cm ) total length and around 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) in weight .
orbesen es , hoolihan jp , serafy je , snodgrass d , peel em , et al . transboundary movement of atlantic istiophorid billfishes among international and us domestic management areas inferred from mark - recapture studies .
. while they follow prey , sailfish can be seen swimming quickly with their dorsal fins folded back halfway . when sailfish attack a school of fish , they fold their fin back completely so they can move even quicker . when they approach their prey , they turn their bill quickly and hit the prey , stunning or killing it . indo - pacific sailfish either hunt alone or in small groups . aside from hunting schools of small fish , indo - pacific sailfish will also feed on fish found lower in the ocean , similar to other billfish such as
summary details for setup , release , pop - up and data received from pop - up satellite archival tags deployed on sailfish in brazil .
depth histograms , showing relative frequency of time spent at depth for each tagged sailfish . error bars indicates the standard errors around mean values .
mean , minimum , maximum temperatures and depths with the respective standard deviation experienced by tagged sailfish during the tracked period by fish and period .
geographic distribution of sailfish total catches by decade ( last decade only covers 5 years ) . the dark line denotes the separation between stocks .
sailfish are targeted by coastal artisanal and recreational fleets and are captured to a lesser extent as by - catch in longline and purse seine fisheries . historically , catches of sailfish were reported together with spearfish by many longline fleets . in 2009 these catches were separated by the committee (
lynch dl , graves je , latour rj . taylor ww , lynch aj , schechter mg , editors . challenges in the assessment and management of highly migratory bycatch species : a case study of atlantic marlins .
cephalopods ( squid and octopus ) and bony fishes are the primary prey items of the sailfish in the atlantic ocean . mackerels , tunas , jacks , halfbeaks , and needlefish are the most commonly taken fishes . these prey items indicate that some feeding occurs at the surface , as well as in midwater , along reef edges , or along the bottom substrate . sailfish in the pacific region feed on fishes and cephalopods including squid . fishes consumed include sardines , achovies , jacks , dolphin , ribbonfish and triggerfish .
mourato , b . l . , f . hazin , k . bigelow , m . musyl , f . carvalho & h . hazin . 2014 . spatio - temporal trends of sailfish , istiophorus platypterus catch rates in relation to spawning ground and environmental factors in the equatorial and southwestern atlantic ocean . fisheries oceanography , 23 : 32 - 44 . [ links ]
the minimum and maximum daily temperature and depth experienced by the tracked sailfish ( fig . 3 ) show that sailfish i spent most of the time in waters above 20ºc ( average depth of 40 m ) with only two dives on february 2 , 2009 to water temperatures of 16ºc ( 120 m ) ( fig . 3 ) . on the other hand , sailfish ii experienced temperatures and depths much cooler and deeper than sailfish i , with a minimum temperature of 11 . 1ºc during its deepest dive ( 376 m ) on february 25 ( fig . 3 ) . sailfish iii exhibited a similar behavior as sailfish i , spending most of the time in waters above 23ºc ( average depth of 40 m ) , with two dives on november 25 , 2010 to water temperatures of 20ºc ( 120 m ) ( fig . 3 ) . further , the two deepest dives made by sailfish i ( ca . 120 m ) were observed immediately after release . for sailfish ii , the deepest observed dives reached was 376 m , while sailfish iii ' s deepest dive was to 112 m . sailfish iv , however , exhibited the deepest dive to 560 m . between february 25 and march 10 , sailfish ii experienced minimum daily temperatures notably cooler than the rest of the tracked period ( fig . 3 ) . this may indicate that the fish moved near the edge of a cooler water mass . also , the maximum daily depths when the fish moved into the cooler water mass were notably shallower ( around 50 m ) in comparison to the rest of tracked period ( around 100 m ) ( fig . 3 ) .
no iccat regulations for sailfish are in effect , however , some countries have established domestic regulations to limit the catch of sailfish . among these regulations are : requirement of releasing all billfish from longline vessels , minimum size restrictions , use of circle hooks and catch and release strategies in sport fisheries .
. sailfish been observed at cruising speeds with their dorsal fins folded back halfway in pursuit of prey . when sailfish attack a school of fish , they fold their fin back completely , achieving attack speeds of up to 110 km / hr . once they approach their prey , they turn their bill quickly and hit the prey , stunning or killing it . indo - pacific sailfish either hunt alone or in small groups . aside from hunting schools of small fish , indo - pacific sailfish are also opportunistic feeders , occasionally preying on neritic and benthic prey , a behavior similar to other billfish such as
temperature histograms , showing the relative frequency of time spent at temperature for each tagged sailfish individual . error bars indicates the standard errors around mean values .
the final sailfish model included 7 variables , and aic for the final model was 8407 , with percent of deviance explained at 43 . 6 % (
the results indicate a clear pattern of near surface habitat utilization in sailfish , with the majority of the time spent near the sea surface within a relatively narrow temperature range . sailfish i spent 67 % , 90 % , and 81 % of its time between the surface and 10 m , during day , night , and transition periods , respectively , while sailfish ii spent 72 % , 69 % , and 66 % in the same depth stratum and periods ( fig . 1 ; table 2 ) . sailfish iii spent 73 % and 64 % of its time between 0 and 10 m during day and night periods , respectively , while sailfish iv spent 72 % and 54 % in the same depth stratum and periods ( fig . 1 ; table 2 ) .
restrepo , v . , e . d . prince , g . p . scott & y . uozumi . 2003 . iccat stock assessments of atlantic billfish . marine freshwater research , 54 : 361 - 367 . [ links ]
the present results showed a marked preference of tagged sailfish to occupy the upper 10 m of the water column during all times of day . this pattern is consistent with previous studies using acoustic and pop - up tags on sailfish in other parts of world ( hoolihan , 2004 ; hoolihan & luo , 2007 ; prince & goodyear , 2006 ; kerstetter & graves , 2008 ; kerstetter et al . , 2011 ; chiang et al . , 2011 ) . the tagged sailfish also seemed to have a rather narrow temperature distribution . our results showed a marked preference of sailfish for the warmer waters of the mixed layer , with all sailfish having spent less than 3 % of their time in waters colder than 8ºc relative to the warmest water available . moreover , our study suggests that thermal habitat for sailfish near brazil may be adequately described by two dimensions ( this species spend most of their time in the warmest available water ) .
indo - pacific sailfish are epipelagic marine fish that spend most of their adult life between the mixed layer near the surface and the thermocline . although they spend a majority of their time near the surface of the ocean , they occasionally dive into deeper waters where temperatures may reach as low as - 8°c , though preferred water temperatures range between 25° to 30°c . indo - pacific sailfish migrate annually to higher latitudes during summer and migrate towards the equator in autumn . larger adults tend to inhabit the easternmost regions of the atlantic and pacific oceans .
cerdenares - ladron de guevara , g . , e . morales - bojorquez , r . rodriquez - sanchez . 2011 . age and growth of the sailfish
in the indian ocean , sailfish landings are sometimes combined with other billfish species . the landing information on marlins and sailfish for the whole pacific ocean is not available , except for the fao statistics which are not informative as the species are reported as a mixed group . there have been reports of decline in sailfish in india and iran ( iotc 2009 ) , but no information is available on effort . catches in the indian ocean are generally thought to be increasing .
response plots for abiotic variables on the density of sailfish , blue marlin , white marlin , and swordfish larvae from final generalized additive models ( gams ) .
hoolihan , j . p . , j . luo , c . p . richardson , d . goodyear , e . s . orbesen & e . d . prince . 2011 . vertical habitat use of sailfish ( istiophorus platypterus ) in the atlantic and eastern pacific , derived from pop - up satellite archival tag data . fisheries oceanography , 20 : 192 - 205 . [ links ]
no iccat regulations for sailfish are in effect , however , some countries have established domestic regulations to limit the catch of sailfish . among these regulations are , requirement of releasing all billfish from longline vessels , adoption of circle hooks , and catch and release strategies in sport fisheries ( iccat 2009 ) . regulations for the u . s . , bahamas and bermuda include no commercial sale . the mexican government allows sailfish to be taken only with sport fishing gear ( de guevara
breeding typically occurs in inshore shallow waters . the female , accompanied by one or more males , will swim slowly with the dorsal fin extended above the water , spawning close to the surface ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . in the western atlantic , spawning occurs primarily during the summer while in the eastern atlantic spawning can occur all year round , peaking in the summer months ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) . a large female may typically release between 4 . 5 and 4 . 8 million eggs in a single spawning , usually in three batches ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . fertilisation of the eggs occurs in the water , and the eggs hatch within 36 hours ( 3 ) . atlantic sailfish young lack the characteristic elongated jaw of the adults , and measure approximately 0 . 3 centimetres at hatching . at a body length of around 0 . 6 centimetres the bill starts to elongate , and by the time the young juvenile reaches 20 centimetres it displays all the physical features of an adult sailfish ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) .
the fastest fish in the ocean , sailfish can reach speeds of 68 miles per hour . their large size and spirited fight make them a favorite among trophy fishers .
arizmendi - rodriguez , d . , l . abitia - cardenas , f . galvan - magana , i . trejo - escamilla . 2006 . food habits of sailfish
indo - pacific sailfish have an estimated maximum lifespan of 13 to 15 years ; however , the average age of catch and release specimens is 4 to 5 years .
this change in behavior may be related to the oceanographic conditions that prevail during warm periods off southeast brazil . the brazilian coastline in front of cabo frio city ( ca . 23ºs ) is characterized by an upwelling system , which propels the intrusion of nutrient - rich south atlantic central water ( sacw ) over the shelf . the seasonal intrusion of sacw alters the mld in this region and , therefore , may be an important feature that directly affects the depth behavior and preferences of sailfish . however , other oceanographic features have also been shown to affect the depth behavior of pelagic fishes . for example , prince et al . ( 2010 ) and stramma et al . ( 2012 ) demonstrated that the vertical distribution of sailfish and blue marlin was directly related to the amount of dissolved oxygen , which may act as a physical barrier to limit vertical movement ( in the eastern atlantic ) . however , considering the much higher concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the western atlantic ( castro & miranda , 1998 ; braga & niencheski , 2006 ) , such influence is unlikely in the present case .
sailfish i remained in water temperatures between 25º and 28ºc for 90 % of the day , 87 % of the night , and 77 % of the transition periods , while sailfish ii remained between 25º and 28ºc , for 77 % , 73 % , and 74 % of day , night , and transition periods , respectively ( fig . 2 ; table 2 ) . sailfish iii spent more time in cooler waters , with temperatures ranging from 24º to 27ºc for 89 % and 82 % of its time during day and night periods , respectively ( fig . 2 ; table 2 ) . sailfish iv exhibited a similar behavior pattern to sailfish i and ii , remaining in water temperatures between 25º and 28ºc for 90 % of the day and 69 % of the night periods ( fig . 2 ; table 2 ) . δsst calculations showed that all tagged sailfish spent the vast majority of their time in the uniform temperature surface layer , exposed to temperature changes of approximately 8ºc from sst ( table 3 ) .
all psats popped off prematurely and began transmitting data before the expected dates of detachment ( 60 or 140 days after deployment ) . the total number of days monitored were 12 ( sailfish i ) , 51 ( sailfish ii ) , 16 ( sailfish iii ) and 43 days ( sailfish iv ) . however , the total percentage of data successfully transmitted through the argos satellite system was 82 % , 75 % , 46 % , and 12 . 5 % of the total archived data for tags i , ii , iii , and iv , respectively ( table 1 ) . the geographical positions ( raw geolocations ) were obtained for 63 days in total ( table 1 ) .
count ( n ) , density ( larvae 1000 m −2 ) , and percent frequency of occurrence estimates are shown for sailfish , blue marlin , white marlin and swordfish .
peel , e . , r . nelson & p . c . goodyear . 2003 . managing atlantic marlin as bycatch under iccat . the fork in the road : recovery or collapse . marine freshwater research , 54 : 575 - 584 . [ links ]


elachista hilda is a moth in the elachistidae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1932 .

it is found in colombia .

the wingspan is about 8 mm .

the forewings are dark bluish-leaden grey with a moderate straight transverse irregularly edged fascia of white suffusion and irroration beyond the middle , slightly narrowed at the extremities .

the hindwings are dark grey .

elachista hilda

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please note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . elachista euthema is a moth of the elachistidae family . it is found in australia . a moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly , both being of the order lepidoptera . moths form the majority of this order ; there are thought to be 150 , 000 to 250 , 000 different species of moth ( about ten times the number of species of butterfly ) , with thousands of species yet to be described . most species of moth are nocturnal , but there are crepuscular and diurnal species .
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here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word cupreella . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word cupreella and , of course , cupreella synonyms and on the right images related to the word cupreella .
this is the place for cupreella definition . you find here cupreella meaning , synonyms of cupreella and images for cupreella copyright 2017 © urltoken


zurcherella is a lower cretaceous ( upper barremian - upper aptian desmoceratid ammonite from france and colombia ( apón and yuruma formations , la guajira ) .

zurcherella is the earliest of the desmoceratid subfamily beudanticeratinae , which includes among others , uhligella , beutanticeras , and beutantiella .

zurcherella

this is the place for zurcherella definition . you find here zurcherella meaning , synonyms of zurcherella and images for zurcherella copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word zurcherella . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word zurcherella and , of course , zurcherella synonyms and on the right images related to the word zurcherella .
how can i put and write and define zurcherella in a sentence and how is the word zurcherella used in a sentence and examples ? 用zurcherella造句 , 用zurcherella造句 , 用zurcherella造句 , zurcherella meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
its shell is moderately compressed and rather involute ( outer whorls covering most of the inner ) , with fine sinuous ribs that arise some distance above the umbilical rim .
zurcherella
differs from its descendant
uhligella
in that in the latter , ribs arise from the umbilical shoulder .
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full reference : a . t . brongniart . 1828 . prodrome d ' une histoire des végétaux fossiles .
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s of cuiza , la guajira ( pg . 149 ) ( cretaceous of colombia )
when : late / upper aptian ( 122 . 5 - 112 . 0 ma )
• stratigraphic relations : from unnamed lithostratigraphic unit , for which lithostratigraphic relationships are not reported . age : late aptian , on the basis of ammonite biostratigraphy . stratigraphic position : list representative of group of beds in local area .
primary reference : h . bürgl . 1960 . geologia de la peninsula de la guajira .
paleodb collection 97675 : authorized by austin hendy , entered by austin hendy on 22 . 08 . 2010
• coverage : not exhaustive , but fairly comprehensive . nomenclature : somewhat antiquated nomenclature , but with species - resolution identifications .
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ancylodes pallens is a species of snout moth in the genus ancylodes .

it was described by émile louis ragonot in 1887 and is known from iran , iraq , spain , croatia , greece , russia , kazakhstan and north africa .

it is a very rare immigrant to southern great britain .

the wingspan is 18 – 20 mm .

ancylodes pallens

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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roesler , r . u . - phycitinae 1 : trifine acrobasiina in microlepidoptera palaearctica 4 : 752 + 90 pp . , . 1973
baez , m . - mariposas de canarias . in editorial rueda , alcorcon ( madrid ) , 216 pp . 1998
we have no records for this species in sussex in the sxbrc database as yet . . .
2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by speidel , w . & segerer , a . nuss , m .
this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license
pesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi


trissolcus halyomorphae is a parasitoid wasp species in the family platygastridae .

it is chiefly known for parasitizing halyomorpha halys ( brown marmorated stink bug ) .

it deposits eggs into the eggs of the stink bug .

as the wasp larvae develop , they kill the stink bug eggs .

a single adult wasp emerges from each stink bug egg .

trissolcus halyomorphae has since been treated as a junior synonym of trissolcus japonicus .

trissolcus halyomorphae

according to talamas et al . ( 2013 ) , trissolcus halyomorphae yang is a junior synonym of trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) .
ty - jour ti - new synonymy of trissolcus halyomorphae yang t2 - journal of hymenoptera research vl - 33 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2013 sp - 113 ep - 117 do - 10 . 3897 / jhr . 33 . 5627 au - talamas , elijah au - buffington , matthew au - hoelmer , kim kw - brown marmorated stink bug kw - halyomorpha halys kw - trissolcus halyomorphae kw - trissolcus japonicus er -
figure 4 . female trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) head . photograph by elijah j . talamas , ars usda .
figure 5 . female trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) wing . photograph by elijah j . talamas , ars usda .
suszkiw j . 2014 . up close and personal with tiny , beneficial wasps . agricultural research 62 : 18 - 19 . talamas ej , buffington m , hoelmer k . 2013 . new synonymy of trissolcus halyomorphae yang . journal of hymenoptera research 33 : 113 - 117 . doi : 10 . 3897 / jhr . 33 . 5627
figure 2 . female trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) , dorsal view . photograph by elijah j . talamas , ars usda .
figure 3 . female trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) , lateral view . photograph by elijah j . talamas , ars usda .
this video was one of three finalists in the instruction category of the 2012 esa youtube your entomology contest . the video by chris hedstrom , a graduate research assistant at oregon state university , showcases the life cycle of trissolcus japonicus ( formerly known as trissolcus halyomorphae ) , an egg parasitoid of the brown marmorated stink bug , from mating to the emergence of the adult wasp from the host egg . this video was submitted to the instruction category of the 2012 esa youtube your entomology contest ( see urltoken ) .
one of the recovered beltsville specimens of trissolcus japonicus emerges from a bmsb egg . source : elijah talamas , usda agricultural research service , systematic entomology laboratory
click here to view a video of the life cycle of trissolcus japonicus inside bmsb . ( video by chris hedstrom , published by entomology society of america , 2012 )
medal j , smith , t . 2015 . reversible polyphenism in trissolcus japonicus ( hymenoptera : platygastridae ) induced by stink bug egg size . journal of entomological science 50 : 363 - 366 .
how t . japonicus came to the beltsville site is unknown and is presumed accidental . there are no research cooperators working with live asian trissolcus at beltsville . it is quite possible that parasitized stink bug egg masses ( which could have been either bmsb or other asian stink bug hosts ) arrived with foliage of live plants imported to the u . s . adult trissolcus wasps are capable of living for several months , so it is also possible they arrived as ‘hitchhiking’ adults .
talamas ej , herlihy mv , dieckhoff c , hoelmer ka , buffington m , bon mc , weber dc . 2015b . trissolcus japonicus ( ashmead ) ( hymenoptera , scelionidae ) emerges in north america . journal of hymenoptera research 43 : 119 - 128 .
talamas ej , johnson nf , buffington , ml . 2015a . key to nearctic species of trissolcus ashmead ( hymenoptera , scelionidae ) , natural enemies of native and invasive stink bugs ( hemiptera , pentatomidae ) . journal of hymenoptera research 43 : 45 - 110 .
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zhongqi , y . , y . yanxia , q . lanfen , and l . zhongxin . 2009 . a new species of trissolcus ( hymenoptera : scelionidae ) parasitizing eggs of halyomorpha halys ( heteroptera : pentatomidae ) in china with comments on its biology . annuals of the entomological society of america 102 : 39 - 47
yang z - q , yao y - x , qiu l - f , li z - x . 2009 . a new species of trissolcus ( hymenoptera : scelionidae ) parasitizing eggs of halyomorpha halys ( heteroptera : pentatomidae ) in china with comments on its biology . annuals of the entomological society of america 102 : 39 - 47 .
eggs : trissolcus japonicus deposits eggs singly within eggs of the brown marmorated stink bug . an average female trissolcus japonicus contains 42 eggs in her ovaries at any one time , enabling her to parasitize an entire brown marmorated stink bug egg mass ( yang et al . 2009 ) . females chemically mark the egg in which they oviposit and will defend the egg clutch against other rival parasitoids . males will commonly emerge first , wait atop the egg mass for the female to emerge , and then mate with females as they emerge . the female to male ratio is approximately 5 . 5 : 1 . 0 ( yang et al . 2009 ) . the parasitoid can have up to ten generations per year , whereas their host generally has one to two generations a year .
the asian wasp trissolcus japonicus has been found in the wild in the united states . the wasp , native to the regions of asia where the brown marmorated stink bug ( bmsb ) originates , is known to attack the eggs of bmsb and possibly other stink bugs . the wasp doesn’t sting or otherwise harm humans , but scientists are working to determine how it might affect stink bugs of all kinds . kim hoelmer , an entomologist with the usda agricultural research service , wrote :
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brown marmorated stink bug ( bmsb ) has recently been introduced from asia into the northeastern u . s . it was first detected in 1996 in allentown , pennsylvania
. it was later found in new jersey , maryland and delaware , and in october 2004 it was found in montgomery county , virginia , and in tennessee in 2008 . a
like most stink bugs , bmsb has a wide host range . it is important to consider the hosts on which bugs develop . for example ,
uses tree fruit for a feeding host for adults , but the nymphal stage is found elsewhere - on herbaceous hosts like soybean and weeds . bmsb will use tree fruits and grapevines as reproductive hosts . therefore , injury is inflicted by all stages after the egg stage .
about 3 / 4 inch long . the brown background contains tiny flecks of light color , and the antennae and legs possess white bands , unlike bsb . there is also a pattern of alternating dark and white spots on the edges of the abdomen . the
the term
marmorated
refers to the marbled pattern of coloring , with flecks of white interspersed with the background of brown .
iv . biology : this species is new to the mid - atlantic area , and even some questions of basic biology need to be clarified . in its native china , there are 2 - 6 generations . it appear that there are two in our area , though workers in nj thought it likely to have a single generation there . bmsb has a host range of about 300 species . unlike some stink bugs , which use some fruit crops only as feeding hosts , undergoing nymphal development on herbaceous hosts like soybean and weeds , bmsb used tree fruits and grapevines as reproductive hosts , therefore nymphs cause feeding injury in addition to adults . adults overwinter in protected places , often invading houses in large numbers . this is another aspect of its pest status , becoming a severe nuisance . in new jersey , it has been reported to now be the most abundant stink bug collected .
can be severe , exceeding 25 % ( individual blocks have been estimated to have much higher levels of fruit injury ) . externally , fruit may have multiple reddish dents at feeding sites , resembling hail strikes . upon cutting into fruit , corky areas are seen in the flesh of the fruit (
and be transported to the winery in lugs or bins , where the wine can be imparted with a
stink bug taint
. research is underway to test short - residual insecticides to knock down bmsb from clusters at harvest . in addition to potential impact of wine quality , bmsb will feed directly on grape berries , causing a progressive necrosis of berries ( see video of
in addition to its status as a pest of fruit and other crops , bmsb has become a domestic pest in autumn , in its native asia as well as the u . s . adult bugs appear on the south and west sides of dwellings , seeking a protected place in which to overwinter . hundreds of bugs may reach the interior rooms , creating a nuisance with their activity and their scent . more information on this aspect of bmsb is given in the virginia tech fact sheet .
monitoring for bmsb should include direct examinations for adults and nymphs , as well as for injured fruit . action thresholds have not been established .
pheromones for bmsb have not been identified , thought it responds to pheromone components of another stink bug species .
pyrethroids provide fairly effective control of bmsb , however even these pesticides may fail to control immigrating stink bugs after a few days . in addition , summer applications of pyrethroids are associated with outbreaks of secondary pests such as mites in orchards and mealybugs in vineyards . some neonicotinoids such as dinotefuran and clothianidin are also effective in the short term . since this is such a new pest in our area , control studies are still in progress . in
, where residual control is not needed , belay ( clothianidin ) and pyganic ( pyrethrins ) have successfully reduced bmsb in grapevines ; that latter material is not expected to provide residual control , however . see the
( bridgade wsb , bifenture ec , bifenture 10df ) for use against brown marmorated stink bug in apple , peach and nectarine .
regarding this approval on june 29 . this section 18 use was renewed for 2012 and 2013 , and was active through 15 october 2013 . venom (
) are the two approved commercial products of dinotefuran . dinotefuran has a 3 - day phi on tree fruits . see the section 18 labels for venom and scorpion . you should be in possession of these if the products are used . at the same time , an organically - approved product containing azadiracthin and pyrethrins was approved for bmsb by epa . the
may be found here . label rates of azera range from 1 to 3 . 5 pts / acre . while a specific rate is not provided for bmsb , the label recommends 3 - 3 . 5 oz / a for high pest populations and difficult to control pests . residual life of azera is expected to be short . azera may be used up to the day of harvest . all of these products have very low mammalian toxicity ; however , all are highly toxic to honey bees , and care is needed around bees .
there are natural enemies that attack native stink bugs , but many of these have limited success attacking bmsb . a scelionid wasp native to china ,
, has been reported to have high parasitization rates , and is now in quarantine for research in the us . this species was apparently introduced separately in the wild in the mid - atlantic region and is slowly spreading . an excellent
has been posted by oregon state university researchers showing mating , oviposition and emergence behavior of this species .
trapping bmsb after household invasion : researchers at virginia tech have developed an easy - to - make trap to collect household bmsb .
viii . multi - state research : there are currently two multi - state research projects on brown marmorated stink bug . one is an scri project , the other deals with organic management of bmsb . check the web site for progress in organic management of bmsb . ( housed at eorganic ) .
. there is opportunity to participate in grower forums . see the new stop bmsb web site ,
biology and current spread of the brown marmorated stink bug in north america . rutgers univ . and northeast ipm center . urltoken .
hamilton , g . c . , p . w . shearer and nielsen , a . l . 2008 . brown marmorated stink bug : a new exotic insect in new jersey . rutgers university cooperative extension . fs002 .
( stål ) ( heteroptera : pentatomidae ) : a polyphagous plant pest from asia newly detected in north america . proc . entomol . soc . wash . 105 : 225 - 237 .
( hemiptera : pentatomidae ) , with potential economic and ecological implications . fla . entomol . 92 : 177 - 178 .
kamminga , k . , d . a . herbert , s . malone , t . p . kuhar and j . greene . 2009
leskey , t . c . , g . c . hamilton , d . j . biddinger , m . l . buffington , c . dieckhoff , g . p . dively , h . fraser , t . gariepy , c . hedstrom , d . a . herbert , k . a . hoelmer , c . r . r . hooks , d . inkley , g . krawczyk , t . p . kuhar , d . - h . lee , a . l . nielsen , d . g . pfeiffer , c . rodriguez - saona , p . w . shearer , e . talamas , e . tomasino , j . tooker , p . d . venugopal , j . whalen , v . walton , k . m . makkouk and n . wiman .
nielsen , a . l . 2013 . webinar on organic management of brown marmorated stink bug . eorganic , 19 february 2013 .
( hemiptera : pentatomidae ) in northeastern united states . ann . entomol . soc . am . 102 : 608 - 616 .
pfeiffer , d . g . , j . c . bergh , d . l . frank , c . r . r . hooks , g . m . peck , c . s . walsh , k . s . yoder , a . r . biggs , j . b . kotcon , j . f . derr , r . s . chandran , m . j . weaver , a . brown and j . parkhurst .
2014 spray bulletin for commercial tree fruit growers . va . coop . ext . serv . publ .
pfeiffer , d . g . , c . rodriguez - saona and j . fiola . 2012 . potential impacts on grapes and small fruits in the mid - atlantic usa
rider , d . 2011 . pentatomoidea home page . urltoken ( viewed 26 april 2012 ) .
wermelinger , b . , d . wyniger and b . forster . 2008 . first records of an invasive bug in europe :
stål ( heteroptera : pentatomidae ) , a new pest on woody ornamentals and fruit trees ? bull . soc . entomol . suisse 81 : 1 - 8 .
washington state university . 2014 . apple : brown marmorated stink bug . urltoken ( 13 june 2014 ) .
yang , z . q . , y . x . yao , l . f . qiu and z . f . li . 2009 . a new species of
( heteroptera : pentatomidae ) in china with comments on its biology . ann . entomol . soc . am . 102 : 39 - 47 .
wmra npr interview of drs . tray leskey and tom kuhar , of virginia tech department of entomology .
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figure 1 . distribution of the brown marmorated stink bug halyomorpha halys ( stål ) in the united states and canada . map generated june 21 , 2016 by tracy leskey , usda ars .
figure 6 . adult emerging from a brown marmorated stink bug halyomorpha halys ( stål ) egg . photograph by elijah j . talamas , ars usda .
ashmead wh . 1904 . descriptions of new hymenoptera from japan 1 . journal of the new york entomological society 12 : 65 - 84 .
bergman ej , venugopal pd , martinson hm , raupp mj , shrewsbury pm . 2016 . host plant use by the invasive halyomorpha halys ( stål ) on woody ornamental trees and shrubs . plos one 11 : e0149975 .
dieckhoff c , hoelmer ka . 2014 . classic biological control : status of host range tests with asian egg parasitoids . northeastern ipm center . ( 14 november 2016 )
haye t . 2014 . seasonal field parasitism of halyomorpha halys and co - occurring non - target species in china . brown marmorated stink bug working group meeting , georgetown , de .
hirashima y , yamagishi k , cora j , johnson n . 1981 . redescriptions of the types of some japanese scelionidae preserved in the united states national museum ( hymenoptera : proctotrupoidea ) . journal of the faculty of agriculture , kyushu university 25 : 153 - 159 .
hoebeke er , carter me . 2003 . halyomorpha halys stål ( hemiptera : pentatomidae ) a polyphagous plant pest from asia newly detected in north america . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 105 : 225 - 237 .
jentsch pj . 2015 . third find of t . japonicus : winchester , virginia , june 2015 . the jentsch lab blog ( 14 november 2016 )
leskey t . 2016 . stop bmsb biology , ecology , and management of brown marmorated stinkbug in specialty crops . urltoken ( 14 november 2016 )
matsuo k , honda t , itoyama k , toyama m , and hirose y . 2016 . discovery of three egg parasitoid species attacking the shield bug glaucias subpunctatus ( hemiptera : pentatomidae ) . japanese journal of applied entomology and zoology ( in japanese , english abstr . ) 60 : 43 - 45 .
mckellar rc , engel ms . ( 2012 ) . hymenoptera in canadian cretaceous amber ( insecta ) . cretaceous research 35 : 258 - 279 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cretres . 2011 . 12 . 009 .
milnes jm , wiman ng , talamas ej , brunner jf , hoelmer ka , buffington ml , beers eh . 2016 . discovery of an exotic egg parasitoid of the brown marmorated stink bug , halyomorpha halys ( stål ) in the pacific northwest . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 118 : 466 - 470 .
rice k , bergh c , bergman e , biddinger d , dieckhoff c , dively g , fraser h , gariepy t , hamilton g , haye t , herbert a , hoelmer k , hooks c , jones a , krawczyk g , kuhar t , leskey t , mitchell w , neilson al , pfeiffer d , raupp m , rodriguez - saona c , shearer p , shrewsbury p , tooker j , venugopal d , whalen j , wiman n . 2014 . biology , ecology , and management of brown marmorated stink bug ( halyomorpha halys ) . journal of integrated pest management 5 : a1 - a13 .
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, hereafter referred to as bmsb ) has become a well known pest to the mid - atlantic and northeastern united states . as of 2010 ( pennsylvania state university ) , the species has been confirmed in 23 states ( ca , cn , de , fl , in , kt , me , md , ma , mo , ms , nc , nh , nj , ny , oh , or , pa , ri , sc , tn , vi , wv , as well as the d . c . area ) and 10 unconfirmed but likely locations ( al , az , ga , il , io , mi , mn , ne , wa , wi ) . while identified as a major pest in the mid - atlantic , current estimates for the specie ' s range is expected to mimic that of the green stink bug (
) , in that the species will encompass much of the united states , including the farm belt , where estimates for agricultural damage is expected to be critical .
in its native range , bmsb is known as an agricultural pest of soybean and fruit orchards . once established in the u . s . , the species has been observed to be a generalist feeder , attacking phloem of new growth as well as a variety of fruit and seeds . some individuals have demonstrated to pierce through the bark of mature trees to feed on phloem ( mitchell 2010 personal observation ) .
damage that has been observed involves puncture of the pest ' s mouthparts and release of digestive enzymes , causing discoloration to the area . in fruit , this distortion is referred to as
cat - facing
, and renders the crop value worthless due to a cultural market . in leguminous plants , such as soybean ( glycine max ) , feeding has been shown to retard growth and development of mature seeds . an estimated $ 37 million has been lost from apple orchards in pennsylvania , virginia , and west virginia due to the presence of the stink bug ( u . s . apple association 2011 ) .
and limit its native range . one possible management option that has been proposed involves the introduction of the stink bug ' s natural enemies from china , korea , and japan . currently , research at the beneficial insects introduction research unit ( biirl ) has shown the effectiveness of the egg paraistoid
, a genus of scelionid wasps that oviposit their own eggs within the eggs of pentatomidae , the stink bug family . a single egg from an egg mass would develop a single wasp , but the potential for multiple stings in an egg mass ( of which the stink bug is capable of laying an average of 28 eggs in one sitting ) is quite common , and regardless of development of the larvae , the sting prevents the stink bug egg from completing embryonic development . native
at this given time ( a . mitchell and k . hoelmer , in editing ) .
, has shown to be an effective controller of bmsb in china , with the potential to control up to 50 % of the wild population ( zhongqi et al 2009 ) . if selective for bmsb in the u . s . , the natural enemy may be registered as a biological control agent and released into the wild in the coming years . however , release sites have not been determined for management , nor have locations been assessed for regions where release sites would benefit the most .
. data would be gathered from each county , in which county officials would be responsible for relaying information of locations where bmsb densities are highest , as well as locations ( agricultural stations , orchards , fields , botanical gardens , grainage silos , storage facilities ) where bmsb may causes economic loss . locations will also be determined by areas of high human densities ( urban and suburban areas ) where bmsb would theoretically cause homeowner damage or concern .
data obtained from this information would be constructed into shapefiles utilizing spatial analysist tools from an arcgis program . shapefiles would be constructed into raster form for a database spread of the continental u . s . under a contiguous projection .
data would be composed of multiple shapefiles , each correlating to separate factors . one shapefile would be a composed layer of the continental u . s with fields for populations based on a 2010 census ( labeled pop2010 ) for a county by county basis . information gathered for urban and suburban damages would be estimated through projected cool - hot color map , with the highest populated areas in states with known infestations (
hot
regions ) designated as areas of highest concern .
the second shapefile to be determined would be a landuse shapefile for each individual county , determined between five categories in an equalized histogram system . this layer database will be extensive and may take the bulk of funding to perform due to amount of information space required to compute , and shapefiles may be restricted to a state by state basis until summed through a raster calculator . summed values would consist of land use labeled for
agriculture
, or regions where economical loss will occur due to agricultural damage . values could then be computed over the pop2010 shapefile to compare locations of possible sites of concern .
land use layers and population layers would be configured to create raster cells in clumps that would be selected for in the values field to determine larger core values as top priority . these cores would be large orchards and agricultural fields that would sustain the greatest amount of economic loss from a massive bmsb infestation , and would benefit from
image from national agricultural pest information system . shapefiles are estimated to appear similar .
as cooperation is needed on an interstate level to obtain all the necessary data for the initial step of the proposal , an exchange of free information may permit the public to be more aware of the insect pest and may allocate additional funds to help support management procedures or monitoring programs such as these to help limit the range of bmsb and other invasive pests within the counties . this may also help establish cooperation between state and non profit organizations to encourage legislature to creat quarantines on botanical plants or produce in infected counties to help prevent the spread of bmsb .
based on current trends in market , an assumed $ 12 , 000 would be allocated to purposes of purchasing the appropriate software and programming for arcgis and datafiles .
an additional pay of $ 150 , 000 for pay to employees ( an anticipated 5 - 10 individuals working at wages of $ 25 - 30 hourly ) .
overhead costs and maintenance are expected to average at $ 3500 , including costs for facility upkeep . transportation costs are not deemed necessary for field testing until initial releases are confirmed .
in summation , we estimate a total cost of $ 165 , 500 for the first year , with annual reviews of budget to help allocate additional funds or cut back on costs . while considerably high for an initial investment , we believe the output will outweight the costs and help save millions , compared to the amount of dollar damage received in one growing season for orchards and standing crops .
we anticipate the incorporation of all data to be completed within the span of the 2012 fiscal year , by which an annual review will be required to address additional concerns for fund allocations and budget upkeep . upkeep and maintenance of the database is expected to occur on a monthly basis , as well as to include any additional information of new states and counties where bmsb was confirmed during the recent states as information is given , as well as regions where bmsb is likely to occur . it is the hope of this project that updates will continue in terms of monitoring the effectiveness of the biological control agent
as it is released , as well as documenting and collaborating with u . s . officials and researchers the locations of all release sites and the expansion range of the parasitoid in comparison to
gyeltshen , j . , bernon , g . , and hodges , a . ( april 2005 ) . brown marmorated stink bug
pennsylvania state university college of agricultural sciences . 2011 . brown marmorated stink bug .
u . s . apple association . 2011 . brown marmorated stink bug causes $ 37 million in losses to mid - atlantic apple growers .
biodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to… urltoken
biodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p… urltoken
all of the t . japonicus recovered at barc were found in a wooded habitat in parasitized bmsb egg masses collected from july through september of 2014 . in contrast , egg masses placed in nearby soybean fields and an abandoned apple orchard at barc showed no sign of t . japonicus parasitism . two other nearby ars studies in vegetable crops at barc and in woody ornamentals at the us national arboretum in d . c . ( 13 km south of barc ) showed no sign of t . japonicus . at the ars lab in newark , delaware , we have examined numerous specimens from studies in seven surrounding states and none of these samples contained any t . japonicus . thus , we think this population has probably been detected at an early stage .
we plan to conduct surveys this coming field season to see whether t . japonicus survived the winter at the barc site , and determine the extent of the population in the region . we are also examining the 2014 specimens using microsatellite dna , which is sensitive enough to distinguish among different geographic populations of the species , to glean additional information on their geographic origin in asia . ”
urltoken provides information about our team ' s efforts to control brown marmorated stink bug ( bmsb ) , through funds provided by the usda ' s specialty crop research initiative . if republishing our news , please acknowledge the source (
from urltoken
) along with a link to our website .
the brown marmorated stink bug , halyomorpha halys ( stål ) , can damage fruit , vegetable and ornamental crops in north america . our team of more than 50 researchers seeks management strategies for growers , to protect our food , our environment , and our farms .
this material is based upon work that is supported by the national institute of food and agriculture , u . s . department of agriculture , specialty crop research initiative under award numbers 2016 - 51181 - 25409 and 2011 - 51181 - 30937 . any opinions , findings , conclusions , or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the u . s . department of agriculture . website maintained by the northeastern ipm center .


it is found on crete .

the wingspan is 18 – 26 mm .

the ground colour is ochreous yellow .

the larvae feed on platanus orientalis .

cyclophora ariadne

cyclophora ariadne is a moth in the geometridae family . it is found on crete .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
vaahteravyömittari
to
cyclophora annularia
.
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
tammivyömittari
to
cyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758
.
hans - martin braun added the english common name
mocha moth
to
cyclophora annularia
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
ahornunterholz - gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora annularia
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
ahorn - gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora annularia
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
grauroter gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
gelblicher ahornunterholz - gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora annularia
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
gesprenkelter eichen - gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
gepunkteter eichen - gürtelpuppenspanner
to
cyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758
.
cyclophora - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .
a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
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, +
and the number of omitted authors .
attribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .
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created by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .
2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by
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pesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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phtheochroa waracana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alberta , arizona , california , indiana , maine , manitoba , ontario and saskatchewan .

the wingspan is about 20 mm .

adults have been recorded on wing from june to august .

phtheochroa waracana

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poole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 3 ( diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .
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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .
metzler , e . h . and j . w . brown . 2014 . an updated check list of the cochylina ( tortricidae , tortricinae , euliini ) of north america north of mexico including greenland , with comments on classification and identification . journal of the lepidopterists ? society 68 ( 4 ) : 274 - 282 .
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
canada : alberta , kananaskis country , peter lougheed provincial park ( 1 . 7 km se interlakes powerhouse )
canada : alberta , kananaskis country , hailstone butte ( 0 . 6 km e of , summit of savannah creek road )
canada : alberta , j . j . collett natural area ( 11 km ne of lacombe )
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marsh fern moth ( fagitana littera ) . photographed at portage lake , parry sound district , ontario on 5 july 2015 . © david beadle .