the large palau flying fox ( pteropus pilosus ) is an extinct species of medium-sized megabats from the palau islands in micronesia .

it had brownish fur with long , silvery hairs on its belly , and a wingspan of about 60 cm .

it probably became extinct around 1874 , possibly due to overhunting .

it is known from two specimens , one of which is in the natural history museum in london .

large palau flying fox

caption : large palau flying - fox , pteropus pilosus , last recorded 1874 , palau islands , micronesia .
andersen , 1908 ) the large palau flying fox ( pteropus pilosus ) is an extinct species of middle - sized megabat from the palau islands in micronesia . ( wiki )
— flying fox redirects here . for other uses , see flying fox ( disambiguation ) . flying fox a malayan flying fox ( pteropus vampyrus ) scientific classification kingdom : animalia …
flying fox
redirects here . for other bats known as flying fox , see acerodon . for other uses , see flying fox ( disambiguation ) .
the sheathtail bat is considered endangered while another species , the large palau flying - fox ( pteropus pilosus ) is presumed to be extinct ( flannery 1995 , wiles et al . ( full text )
eby p ( 2007 ) flying - fox roosts of the grey - headed flying - fox . hurtsville , nsw : department of environment and conservation .
— this is a list of the mammal species recorded in palau . there are 12 mammal species in palau , of which 0 are critically endangered , 2 are endangered , 1 is vulnerable , and 0 are near threatened . 1 of the species listed for palau is considered to… …
torresian flying fox , p . alecto , initially was described as separate species p . banakrisi
most flying fox species are considerably smaller and generally weigh less than 600 g ( 21 oz ) .
this page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article large palau flying fox ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa
fox island , australia , is believed to be home to the largest colony of flying foxes on the continent .
this species is endemic to palau . it is widespread in the main islands of palau , but is also present on nearby kayangel atoll and on the more distant islands of sonsorol and fanna . it is known from sea level to 213 m asl . ( the highest point in the islands ) .
tidemann cr ( 1999 ) biology and management of the grey - headed flying fox , pteropus poliocephalus . acta chiropt 1 : 151–164 .
west c ( 2002 ) contemporary issues in managing flying fox camps . in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 176–195 .
the head and body length of pteropodids varies from 50 mm to 406 mm . despite size , many characteristics are shared among genera . a relatively long rostrum ( pronounced in nectarivores ) , large eyes , and simple external ears give members of this family a dog or fox - like appearance ( hence “flying fox” ) . the genera
hall ls ( 2002 ) management of flying fox camps : what have we learnt in the last twenty five years ? in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 215–224 .
rogers j ( 2002 ) the economic and social implications of flying - fox predation on the north coast of nsw . in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 58–62 .
but a few other species may match it , at least in some measurements . the large flying fox has a wingspan up to 1 . 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) and five individuals weighed 0 . 65–1 . 1 kg ( 1 . 4–2 . 4 lb ) .
tidemann cr , nelson j ( 2004 ) long - distance movements of the grey - headed flying fox ( pteropus poliocephalus ) . j zool 263 : 141–146 .
ratcliffe fn ( 1931 ) the flying - fox ( pteropus ) in australia . council for scientific and industrial research . bulletin no . 53 . 81 p .
have rather outlandish facial features , while females have the conservative fox - like look . males of the genus
tidemann cr , kelson sl , jamieson g ( 1997 ) flying - fox damage to orchard fruit in australia – incidence , extent and economic impact . australian biologist 10 : 179–186 .
jonsson nn , johnston sd , field h , de jong c , smith c ( 2004 ) field anaesthesia of three australian species of flying fox . vet rec 154 : 664 .
dickman c , fleming m ( 2002 ) pest , or passenger pigeon ? the new south wales scientific committee’s assessment of the status of the grey - headed flying - fox . in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 20–28 .
eby p , lunney d ( 2002 ) managing the grey - headed flying - fox pteropus poliocephalus as a threatened species in nsw : adjusting to a long - term vision . in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 273–284 .
individuals gather in large numbers and migrate hundreds of kilometers northward with seasonal rains , only to return to southern africa at the end of the rainy season .
eby p , lunney d ( editors ) ( 2002 ) managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 286 p .
the fruit - bat or flying - fox family ( pteropodidae ) contains many highly mobile species capable of strong flight . flying - foxes feed at night on nectar and / or fruit , and roost during the day , often in large aggregations [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] . their patterns of movement and roost usage are , in most cases , poorly understood [ 6 ] – [ 8 ] , even though a number of flying - fox species are the subject of conservation or management programs [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] . radio - tracking and limited satellite telemetry studies have revealed complex patterns of movement of flying - foxes between roosts , including long - distance movements in some species [ 4 ] , [ 10 ] – [ 14 ] .
birt p ( 2005 ) mutualistic interactions between the nectar - feeding little red flying fox pteropus scapulatus ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) and eucalypts : habitat utilisation and pollination . phd thesis . brisbane : university of queensland .
thiriet d ( 2010 ) flying fox conservation laws , policies and practices in australia – a case study in conserving unpopular species . the australasian journal of natural resources law and policy 13 ( 2 ) : 161–194 .
palmer c , woinarski jcz ( 1999 ) seasonal roosts and foraging movements of the black flying - fox ( pteropus alecto ) in the northern territory : resource tracking in a landscape mozaic . wildl res 26 : 823–838 .
waples k ( 2002 ) review of the npws policy on the mitigation of commercial crop damage by flying - foxes . in : eby p , lunney d , editors . managing the grey - headed flying - fox as a threatened species in nsw . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 39–46 .
palau flying - fox can be found in a range of habitats , but they appear to prefer tropical moist forest and swamp forest . although they can be regularly seen feeding in villages and farms , they do not roost near human settlement . likewise , they inhabit savannas and mangroves , but are less numerous here than in their preferred habitats . mangrove use is also likely to be seasonal with the bats heavily using these areas when sonneratia alba is in bloom ( wiles et al . 1997 ) . most of the population appears to roost solitarily or in small groups . colonies are uncommon , usually containing 30 - 200 animals ( wiles et al . 1997 ) . there may be a few colonies that number into the thousands , but this is unproven , and unlike p . mariannus , is probably rare . palau flying - fox also has the unusual tendency to form regular colonies for only a few hours in the early morning . females are thought to give birth annually to a single young .
citation : roberts bj , catterall cp , eby p , kanowski j ( 2012 ) long - distance and frequent movements of the flying - fox pteropus poliocephalus : implications for management . plos one 7 ( 8 ) : e42532 . urltoken
eby p ( 1996 ) interactions between the grey - headed flying - fox pteropus poliocephalus ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) and its diet plants – seasonal movements and seed dispersal . phd thesis . armidale , nsw : university of new england .
chan j ( 2007 ) genetic estimates of dispersal and the implications for conservation management of grey - headed flying - fox ( pteropus poliocephalus ) . b . sc . ( hons ) thesis . sydney : university of new south wales .
pteropus poliocephalus and other flying - fox species inhabiting australia ( p . alecto , p . conspicillatus , p . scapulatus ) are the target of community concerns in relation to public health , amenity and impacts on agriculture . since european settlement of australia , people have taken or advocated various actions aimed at reducing flying - fox numbers or moving ‘problem’ roost sites [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 51 ] . until 1986 in new south wales and 1992 in queensland , all flying - fox species were listed in government statutes as agricultural pests in need of control [ 52 ] . public calls for culling have re - emerged in recent years following the identification of a new and highly virulent zoonotic disease , hendra virus , which may be transmitted to horses by flying - foxes [ 19 ] , [ 24 ] .
net displacement moved by flying - foxes among roosts in time - periods of 1–30 weeks duration .
cumulative displacement moved by flying - foxes among roosts in time - periods of 1–30 weeks duration .
instead , smell and eyesight are very well - developed in flying foxes . feeding ranges can reach up to 40 miles . when it locates food , the flying fox
crashes
into foliage and grabs for it . it may also attempt to catch hold of a branch with its hind feet , then swing upside down – once attached and hanging , the fox draws food to its mouth with one of its hind feet or with the clawed thumbs at the top of its wings .
are adapted to bite through hard fruit skins . large fruit bats must land to eat fruit , while the smaller species are able to hover with flapping wings in front of a flower or fruit .
frequency distribution of net and cumulative displacements by flying - foxes among roosts in different time - periods .
number of roosts used by flying - foxes in relation to cumulative displacement during different time - periods .
most complete pteropodinae phylogeny to date including 85 % of the 55 extant flying foxes and all pteropodine genera .
fruit bats are relatively large , as compared to insectivorous bats , and , with some exceptions , do not echolocate . they are vegetarian and rely on keen senses of sight and smell to navigate and locate food .
with 59 species , many of which are island endemics . body and wing size ranges from small ( 37 mm forearm length ) to large ( 220 mm forearm length ) . the family boasts the largest bats in the world .
the major threat to this species has always been over - exploitation , primarily for commercial trade outside of palau , but also for local use ( wiles et al . 1997 ) . hunting for commercial export ended in 1994 , but considerable hunting for local consumption continues ( g . wiles , unpublished data ) . deforestation and development , particularly of roads of the largest island of babeldaob , were identified as future threats in the 1990s ( wiles et al . 1997 ) , and these threats are present today ( hinchley et al . 2007 ) . additionally , large typhoons , while uncommon in palau , are a potential threat not only because of the direct loss of bats these storms can inflict , or even the loss of habitat , but there is often a sharp increase in hunting of pacific island pteropus bats that follows major storm events ( e . g . , esselstyn et al . 2006 ) .
charles h . smith .
pteropodidae ( fruit bats / flying foxes )
. mammfaun / university of kentucy .
almeida , f , giannini , n . p . , simmons , n . b . and helgen , k . m . 2014 . each flying fox on its own branch : a phylogenetic tree for pteropus and related genera ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 77 : 83 - 95 .
modifications for hanging include a relocation of the hip socket . the acetabulum is shifted upward and dorsally , and articulates with a large headed femur for a wider range of motion . in contrast to most other mammal orders , the legs cannot be positioned in a straight line under the body . in conjunction with large claws on their feet , pteropodids use a tendon - ratchet system that allows them to hang without prolonged muscular contraction . the legs manipulate a primitive uropatagium during flight . aside from
the pelage is long and silky with a dense underfur . no tail is present . as the name suggests , the head resembles that of a small fox because of the small ears and large eyes . females have one pair of mammae located in the chest region . ears are simple ( long and pointed ) with the outer margin forming an unbroken ring ( a defining characteristic of megabats ) . the toes have sharp , curved claws .
— a large number of prehistoric mammals are extinct , e . g . megafauna . see list of prehistoric mammals . this is an incomplete list of historically known extinct mammals , their dates of extinction , and former range . mammals included are organisms… …
nelson je ( 1965 ) movements of australian flying - foxes ( pteropodidae : megachiroptera ) . aust j zool 13 : 53–73 .
birds of prey and carnivorous mammals , as well as snakes and large lizards may prey on pteropodids . pteropodids tend to have fewer predators on islands . however , there have been several cases of introductions of non - native , arboreal snakes which have decimated pteropodid populations .
hall ls , richards g ( 2000 ) flying foxes : fruit and blossom bats of australia . sydney : unsw press . 160 p .
klose , s . m . ( 2006 ) .
the flying fox manual . a new handbook for wildlife carers in australia
. acta chiropterologica 8 ( 2 ) : 573–572 . doi : 10 . 3161 / 1733 - 5329 ( 2006 ) 8 [ 573 : br ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 . issn 1733 - 5329 .
however , since the 1990s , the conservation significance of flying - foxes in australia has been increasingly recognised . pteropus poliocephalus is listed as ‘vulnerable’ by national and state governments and under the international iucn red list [ 9 ] , [ 53 ] . protection and listing have occurred in response to large declines in abundance resulting from the combined effects of habitat destruction , agricultural control efforts , competition with p . alecto and disturbance at roosts , and have been spurred by recognition of the flying - foxes’ important ecosystem functions as pollinators and seed dispersers of many tree species [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] .
roberts bj , eby p , catterall cp , kanowski j , bennett g ( 2011b ) the outcomes and costs of relocating flying - fox camps : insights from the case of maclean , australia . in : law b , eby p , lunney d , lumsden l , editors . the biology and conservation of australasian bats . mosman , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw . 277–287 .
mckeown a , westcott da ( 2011 ) assessing the accuracy of small satellite transmitters on free - living flying - foxes . austral ecology 37 : 295–301 .
public demands for roost relocations have also increased over the past two decades , concurrently with rapid increases in urbanisation in the coastal subtropics [ 24 ] . the results of this study further suggest that roost relocation is unlikely to have the desired goal of permanently shifting a local flying - fox population from an area . as in the case of culling actions , even if relocation activities do induce flying - foxes to move away in the short term , empty roosts are likely to be reoccupied during subsequent months or years or , alternatively , new roost sites may be established nearby . indeed , an analysis of 10 case studies concluded that actions to prevent roosts from being re - established typically need to be repeated many times within and between years [ 25 ] . for example , 12 years of repeated noise disturbances did not prevent flying - foxes from regularly returning in large numbers to a roost in one rural township , while there was a concurrent establishment of additional new urban roost sites in the area [ 25 ] , [ 56 ] .
characteristically , all species of flying foxes only feed on nectar , blossoms , pollen , and fruit , which explains their limited tropical distribution . they do not possess
flowering plants are essential to the diet of pteropodid species ; therefore , flying foxes mostly use woodlands or orchards for food . canopy emergent fruiting trees , such as
hyne r ( 2010 ) flying foxes carrying hendra virus in queensland pose a potential problem in other states . aust vet j 88 ( 4 ) : n20–21 .
pierson ed , rainey we ( 1992 ) the biology of flying - foxes of the genus pteropus : a review . in : wilson de , graham gl , editors . pacific island flying - foxes : proceedings of an international conservation conference . washington dc : united states department of the interior , fish and wildlife service . 1–17 .
all the data obtained in this study were from adult male p . poliocephalus ; potential differences between sexes may warrant examination . in previous studies of p . poliocephalus , females have displayed the same general movement patterns as males [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] . however , lactating females of the ecologically similar black flying - fox ( p . alecto ) have been reported to travel greater distances between roosts and foraging sites than males [ 49 ] .
van parijs , s . , p . corkeron . 2002 . ontogeny of vocalisations in infant black flying foxes , pteropus alecto . behaviour , 139 / 9 : 1111 - 1124 .
roberts bj , catterall cp , eby p , kanowski j ( 2012 ) latitudinal range shifts in australian flying - foxes : a re - evaluation . austral ecology 37 : 12–22 .
rely heavily on figs . many species rely on broad array of resources , though there may be a functional dichotomy between large species that rely heavily on canopy resources and smaller species that can use understory resources . some larger species can use the claws on their thumbs and second digits to climb into the understory and seek out fruit that is hidden or inaccessible by flight .
eby p , law b ( 2008 ) ranking the feeding habitat of grey - headed flying foxes for conservation management . canberra : department of environment , heritage , water and the arts .
the grey - headed flying - fox pteropus poliocephalus is a large bat endemic to eastern australia ( average weight 782 g ) [ 15 ] . radio - tracking and satellite telemetry studies of this species have documented a range of movement patterns from long - distance nomadic movements to short ranging behaviours [ 2 ] , [ 10 ] – [ 12 ] . although predominantly feeding on native blossom and fruits , p . poliocephalus also raids commercial fruit crops [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] . the species has been implicated as a vector of several emerging zoonotic viruses of livestock and humans ( e . g . , hendra virus and menangle virus [ 18 ] – [ 20 ] ) . it often roosts in urban settings , causing residents to object to its noise and smell , and become anxious about perceived risks of disease [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] .
are known colloquially as the flying foxes , or old world fruit bats . the family is composed of 41 genera and about 170 species . the most species - rich genus in the family is
detailed information on the movements of other australian flying - fox species is limited , although there are reports of net movements of 486 km in 90 weeks for p . scapulatus [ 46 ] and 249 km in 49 weeks for p . alecto [ 14 ] . most flying - foxes within the asia - pacific region have not been well studied or systematically monitored . in asia , p . vampyrus has been reported moving 363 km in 4 days [ 13 ] , while eidolon helvum in africa has been reported moving 370 km in one night [ 4 ] . flying - foxes within the asia - pacific region are often viewed as pests of commercial fruit crops or nuisances to the tourist trade , and culled at orchards and roosts ( e . g . , p . giganteus , p . hypomelanus , p . tonganus ) [ 7 ] , [ 47 ] , [ 48 ] .
many species are threatened today with extinction , and in particular in the pacific , a number of species have died out as a result of overharvesting for human consumption . in the marianas , flying fox meat is considered a delicacy , which led to a large commercial trade . in 1989 , all species of pteropus were placed on appendix ii of convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) and at least seven on appendix i , which restricts international trade . the subspecies p . hypomelanus maris of the maldives is considered endangered due to limited distribution and excessive culling . the commerce in fruit bats continues either illegally or because of inadequate restrictions . local farmers may also attack the bats because they feed in their plantations , and in some cultures , their meat is believed to cure asthma . nonhuman predators include birds of prey , snakes , and other mammals .
for cases where flying - foxes shifted roosts at least once during a time - period , the number of different recorded roost sites increased logarithmically with the cumulative displacement within each time - period up to 20 weeks ; for 30 weeks where n = 5 there was no significant relationship ( figure 6 ) . the logarithmic relationships confirm that , while individuals used more roosts as they progressively travelled further , the longest travel distances were achieved by increasing the step size between roosts . between time - periods the relationship was linear : as elapsed time increased , flying - foxes increased the number of different roosts visited in proportion to the distance travelled , adding about one additional roost for each accumulated 100 km travelled , which on average occurred every 3–4 weeks although there was very large variation ( figure 6 , table s1 ) .
two studies of its abundance in palau were conducted using point counts from april to may 1991 ( wiles et al . 1997 ) and from april to may 2005 ( g . wiles , unpublished data ) . both studies were inconclusive about total numbers , but provided baseline encounter rates that could , and should , be repeated in the future to determine population trends . data from 2005 have not yet been analyzed , but bats were common in many locations . numbers appeared to have increased since 1991 . prior to the early 1990s the species had gone through a large decline due to commercial exploitation with thousands of bats being exported annually to markets in guam and the northern marianas . in the 1940s the species was considered abundant ( marshall 1945 , as reported in wiles et al . 1997 ) , but by the 1970s numbers were starting to decline ( owen 1977 ) , and at some point in the 1980s this trend reversed itself with less bats being exported ( wiles et al . 1997 ) .
eby p ( 1991 ) seasonal movements of grey - headed flying - foxes , pteropus poliocephalus ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) , from two maternity roosts in northern new south wales . wild res 18 : 547–559 .
wilson de , graham gl ( 1992 ) editors ( 1992 ) pacific island flying - foxes : proceedings of an international conservation conference . washington dc : united states department of the interior , fish and wildlife service .
some scientists have proposed that flying foxes are descended from primates rather than bats and that mammalian flight ability has evolved more than once . this theory is not accepted by most modern zoologists and it goes against dna evidence .
the data obtained in this study have improved our understanding of the frequency and complexity of movements of p . poliocephalus , and enabled clear conclusions to be drawn regarding the efficacy of current management practices . however , larger samples of individuals , preferably varying in age , sex and reproductive status , are required to provide a robust understanding of movement patterns . further technological developments which enable lighter weight and lower cost satellite telemetry should facilitate research which extends the quantitative foundations provided by the present study to more comprehensive models of flying - fox movement patterns and their drivers .
philbey aw , kirkland pd , ross ad , field he , srivastava m , et al . ( 2008 ) infection with menangle virus in flying foxes ( pteropus spp . ) in australia . aust vet j 86 : 449–454 .
hall , l . s . & richards , g . c . ( 2000 ) . flying foxes : fruit and blossom bats of australia . sydney : university of new south wales press . isbn 0 - 86840 - 561 - 2 .
cox , p . , t . elmquist , e . pierson , w . rainey . 2005 . flying foxes as strong interactors in south pacific island ecosystems : a conservation hypothesis . conservation biology , 5 / 4 : 448 - 454 .
lunney d , moon c ( 1997 ) flying - foxes and their camps in the rainforest remnants of north - east nsw . in : dargavel j , editor . australia’s ever changing forests iii . canberra : australian national university . 247–277 .
breed a , field h , perkins n , eby p , cunningham a , et al . ( 2010 ) re : flying foxes carrying hendra virus in queensland pose a potential problem in other states . aust vet j 88 ( 8 ) : n24 .
the recorded visit duration at any particular roost site was typically short , with 64 % being for < 5 days ; however , the frequency distribution was skewed ( figure 4a ) . about 26 % of roost visits involved > 10 consecutive days ( figure 4a ) , but these visits accounted for 78 % of the total 1 , 480 roost days . one flying - fox remained at its point of capture for 133 consecutive days . extended periods at one roost were often followed by times of frequent movement among roost sites which were either in close proximity or involved progressive stops during longer north - south movements . between consecutive recorded roosts , the flying - foxes travelled modal step sizes of 21–50 km in elapsed times of 2–5 days ; the mean step size in 2–5 days was 61 km ( range 3–576 km ) and the mean 2 - day step size was 45 km ( range 3–166 km ) ( figure 4b , c ) .
there was regular interchange of individual p . poliocephalus among roost sites within a region , with individuals often remaining less than five days at a roost . even irregularly - used roosts remained occupied for much longer periods of time than they were used by individual animals . short - duration stays may be a response to local shifts in food availability , or may assist individuals to obtain information about food resources , or improve social ( e . g . , mating ) opportunities . additionally , some roosts were clearly stopovers for animals undertaking longer movements . however , extended stays of months at a single roost were also observed . individual flying - foxes have been reported roosting at a single site for periods up to seven months , in response to a reliable food source nearby [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 42 ] . in general , proximal cues for flying - fox movement and the causes of variation in their movement patterns remain poorly understood .
lancaster , w . c . , o . w . henson , and a . w . keating ( 1995 ) .
respiratory muscle activity in relation to vocalization in flying bats
. journal of experimental biology 198 ( pt 1 ) : 175–191 . pmid 7891034 .
pteropodids typically occur in primary or maturing secondary forests . a few species inhabit savannah habitats where they roost in bushes and low trees . over half of the 41 genera are made up of species that roost in trees . gregarious species roost on the open branches of large , canopy - emergent trees . pteropodids that roost singly or in small groups can be found in dead palm leaves , aerial roots , and even arboreal termite nests . these bats also tend to have cryptic coloration and wrap themselves with their wings in order to resemble dead leaves . in one species ,
species on the island of guam has been so great that it has resulted in the extinction of at least one species in the pacific region . flying foxes are also important in the dispersal and pollination of economically important plants . they attract tourists in some areas and produce accumulations of guano that can be used as fertilizer .
previously suggested characterisations of movements by p . poliocephalus include annual north - south migration , annual return to the place of birth , and dispersal into small groups during winter [ 12 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 40 ] . our results support the proposal that p . poliocephalus exhibits a range of movement patterns , from residency to regional and long - distance nomadism , combined with facultative latitudinal migration [ 2 ] , [ 11 ] . our data revealed some seasonally - correlated long distance movements of several hundred kilometres , consistent with latitudinal migration , although only for a subset of individuals . like their avian counterparts , australia’s flying - foxes display movement patterns that respond to the largely irregular and ephemeral resource shifts characteristic of the continent [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 41 ] . indeed , it is becoming increasingly apparent that patterns of large - scale movement in many animal species , particularly in the southern hemisphere , are more variable and complex than the regular north - south movements considered typical among long - distance migrants of the northern hemisphere [ 1 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 41 ] .
welbergen , j . ; klose , s . ; markus , n . ; eby , p . ( 2008 ) .
climate change and the effects of temperature extremes on australian flying - foxes
. proceedings . biological sciences / the royal society 275 ( 1633 ) : 419–425 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2007 . 1385 . pmc 2596826 . pmid 18048286 .
monson , c . s . ; banack , s . a . ; cox , p . a . ( 2003 ) .
conservation implications of chamorro consumption of flying foxes as a possible cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis - parkinsonism dementia complex in guam
. conservation biology 17 ( 3 ) : 678–686 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1523 - 1739 . 2003 . 02049 . x .
many flying vertebrates can travel relatively long distances in a few days [ 1 ] – [ 5 ] . for some species , long - distance movement provides access to widely spaced and temporally variable food resources , as well as the opportunity to use different areas for roosting and for feeding . frequent long - distance movements create particular management and conservation challenges for the species concerned , because impacts or management actions in one place may have outcomes elsewhere in the species’ range .
quantitative analysis of the movement patterns of p . poliocephalus leads to the conclusion that most control actions are likely to have only temporary effects on local populations . these data explain why both culling and relocation attempts have had limited success in resolving conflicts between humans and flying - foxes in australia , despite both approaches having been utilised since european settlement . developing alternative methods to manage these conflicts in a manner informed by a better understanding of species’ movement and roost usage patterns remains an important challenge .
the raw transmission data from all 14 tagged flying - foxes comprised 4 , 356 location records , of varying presumed accuracy . records for roosting sites were extracted using fixes that were either : ( 1 ) obtained during daylight hours ( between sunrise and sunset , data from the geoscience australia website adjusted for geographical location ) ; or ( 2 ) cases where bats had returned to known roosts before sunrise . from the resulting 2 , 616 roost records , we removed the 14 % which fell within argos accuracy classes a , b and z , with no upper limit to their error margins , yielding 2 , 254 fixes for further analysis .
orientation of solar powered satellite transmitters on flying - foxes . a : collar design 1 , a 12 g solar powered ptt with the bottom of the unit mounted to the collar and the solar array facing down when the animal was roosting ( photo ©t . holmes ) . this orientation did not allow sufficient recharging of the unit and therefore number and accuracy of fixes were poor . b : collar design 2 , a 12 g solar powered ptt attached to the collar on its side with the solar array orientated towards the sky with an angled antenna ( photo ©g . bottroff ) . this orientation reduced recharge time and improved power and accuracy and was the primary design used in this study .
a : 1 week ( n = 132 ) , b : 5 weeks ( n = 55 ) , c : 10 weeks ( n = 29 ) , d : 20 weeks ( n = 13 ) , e : 30 weeks ( n = 5 ) . ‘x’ shows the median of each dataset . f graphs the median values of each dataset . cases where flying - foxes did not shift roosts during a time - period were excluded . fitted lines show significant regressions ( p < 0 . 05 ) , with either log or linear selected as the best fit based on pearson’s r values . note that the results in a were unaffected by removal of the isolated point at displacement of 600 km .
the recorded roost locations of all individuals spanned a north - south distance of 1 , 075 km and an east - west distance of 128 km ( figure 1 ) . twelve of the 14 tagged individuals had moved from the point of capture within three weeks ( figure 2 ) . distances and directions travelled varied greatly , within and between regions ( figures 2 and 3 ) . five individuals travelled overall cumulative displacement distances > 1 , 000 km ( table s1 ) . the three individuals with the longest tracking durations ( 254–277 days ) had maximum overall displacement distances of 93 , 547 , and 855 km , whereas their respective net displacements from first to last roost fix were 33 , 312 , and 378 km , and the corresponding cumulative displacements were 489 , 1652 , and 1562 km ( figure 2 , table s1 ) . four individuals returned to their points of capture at some time during the study ( figure 2 , table s1 ) . two individuals moved a step size during two days ( the minimum time between consecutive day roost fixes ) as large as 166 km , but if night feeding records were also considered , five individuals had 2 - day step sizes of > 200 km , including one of 500 km ( table s1 ) . one animal moved 130 km within 4 . 8 hours ( calculated using night - time fixes ) , which is equivalent to an average flight speed of 27 km / hr .
within one - week periods , both the net and cumulative displacements were mostly of zero km ( table 1 , table 2 , figure 5 ) , largely due to occasional long stays by individuals at particular roosts ( see above ) . in 6 % of the 214 cases of zero net weekly movement , the cumulative displacement exceeded the net displacement indicating that these individuals had made side - trips to other roosts during the week ; there may have been some additional undetected side - trips during the 48 - hr transmitter off period . all individuals showed broadly similar distributions of weekly net displacement ; most displacements were zero but some were > 50 km and 10 of 13 flying - foxes tracked for > 12 weeks had some weekly movements > 100 km ( figure s2 ) .
effective management of flying - foxes requires a good understanding of the frequency and extent of movements among roost sites . this study quantifies the patterns of movement by p . poliocephalus among roost sites at a range of temporal and spatial scales . data collected from 14 satellite - tracked individuals over a period of nine months and an area of 137 , 600 km 2 were used to address the following questions : ( 1 ) what patterns of movement ( in terms of distances and directions ) are exhibited by p . poliocephalus at time scales of days , weeks , and months ? ( 2 ) how much do these patterns vary among individuals ? ( 3 ) what is the relationship between individuals’ movement patterns and their use of different roost sites ? ( 4 ) what are the implications of these findings for management ?
sixty - three male p . poliocephalus were caught and all were aged , weighed and assessed for general body condition . only large reproductively mature males ( weight 615–845 g , forearm length 155–171 mm ) were fitted with solar - powered satellite transmitters ( 12 g ptt - 100 , microwave telemetry , columbia , usa ; see also [ 34 ] ) . total package weighed approximately 22 g ( < 3 . 6 % of the body mass of the smallest individual ) ; transmitters were fitted around the neck using a soft leather collar lined with 3 mm neoprene ; oriented crosswise with the solar array facing upward in roosting animals to reduce recharge time , improve power , and enhance accuracy ( see figure s1 ) . transmitters were programmed to a duty cycle of 10 hours on , alternating with 48 hours off , which provided sufficient off time to recharge the battery and provided regular location data including positional fixes during both day and night . the minimum time between two consecutive roost fixes was therefore 48 hours ( with one recorded exception ) . the theoretical maximum number of fixes per 10 - hour transmission cycle in the study area was 14 , with accuracy and success dependent on the level of battery power . this duty cycle enables analysis of movements both between day roosts and during nocturnal feeding , although only the former are considered here . data were obtained via the argos global data collection and location service system ( collecte localisation satellites , france ) . each data record ( fix ) included the latitude and longitude , presumed accuracy of the location ( in seven classes ) , utc time and date , and battery voltage .
fourteen adult male p . poliocephalus were fitted with satellite transmitters and released at the capture site : in october 2007 , two bats from canungra and two from stafford , and in june 2008 , five bats from fraser island and five from north stradbroke island . flying - foxes were captured using mist - nets ( mesh size 31 mm ) suspended between 11 m tall poles , set in the early morning and late evening in the flight path of animals leaving or entering the roost site . inhalation anaesthesia ( isoflurane , laser animal health pty limited ) was used to sedate animals for attachment of the transmitter and collar , following the protocol described by jonsson et al . [ 33 ] . males were selected to minimise the impacts on bats of carrying the transmitters : males are larger than females and are not subject to stresses of pregnancy and lactation .
this study has tracked the broad - scale movement patterns of p . poliocephalus at a finer temporal resolution than has been previously possible , due to improvements in lightweight satellite telemetry . our findings agree with previous work that australian flying - foxes are highly mobile , capable of frequent movement among roost sites in a regional area as well as long - range movements [ 10 ] – [ 12 ] , [ 37 ] . the statistical quantification of the species’ movement patterns shows that ( i ) individuals move among roost sites far more frequently than previously reported ; ( ii ) individuals are capable of rapid sustained long - distance flight and ( iii ) movements vary considerably between individuals and within individuals over time . these results are consistent with previous findings that p . poliocephalus exists as a single , genetically panmictic population across its range [ 37 ] – [ 39 ] .
individuals that achieved larger maximum displacements did so by making occasional rapid long - distance movements rather than through progressive sequences of smaller steps ( figures 2 and 3 , table s1 ) . overall , the flying - foxes tended to remain at the north of their range ( 24–28°s ) during winter ( june−august ) , and moved to higher latitudes after september ( figure 2 ) . five individuals undertook a total of nine long - distance movements ( net displacement > 300 km during one month ; figure 2 ) , three travelled northward ( from january–march and in july ) , and five travelled southward ( from september−december and in march ) . eight of the nine long - distance movements were to areas where there were reports of mass flowering of known food trees ( including eucalyptus tereticornis , e . siderophloia , e . pilularis , corymbia citriodora , c . intermedia , melaleuca quinquenervia : all myrtaceae ) .
another caveat is that error estimates of location fixes in satellite - tracked flying - foxes can be considerably larger than those indicated by argos ( typically around 2 . 5 km for location class 0 , and mainly up to 2 km for classes 1–3 ) [ 50 ] . we addressed this issue in three ways : first , by using a collar design which enhanced signal strength and therefore accuracy ( see methods and figure s1 ) ; second , by using the clusters of within - day repeat fixes to identify roost locations ; and third , by cross - referencing fixes with independent information on the locations of known roosts . in any case , a somewhat higher level of location error would not affect our substantive conclusions about movement patterns at the spatial scales studied here . furthermore , our conclusion that individuals move frequently between roosts is conservative , as some roost shifts may have remained undetected during the 48 - hour transmitter ‘off’ periods .
the maximum value for net displacement did not vary greatly among the five time - periods ( range 576–776 km ) , however , the medians , means and modes of both net and cumulative displacement increased greatly from one to 10 weeks whereas from 10 to 30 weeks this rate of increase was maintained only in cumulative displacement , whilst the net displacement increased more slowly ( table 1 , table 2 , figure 5 ) . for example , at one week , the median and mode were all zero for both net and cumulative displacement , compared with median net and cumulative displacements of 147 km and 260 km respectively at 10 weeks , increasing to 158 km and 821 km at 30 weeks ( table 1 , table 2 ) . this pattern suggests that a maximum latitudinal seasonal displacement had generally been reached within less than 30 weeks , although there were continuing regional and local movements at a scale of tens of km within a few weeks by all flying - foxes ( see also figure 2 ) . among the 13 individuals with > 12 weeks of data , the range of maximum displacements was 35–679 km at 10 weeks and 63–855 km over the whole study ( table s1 ) . a lack of zero net distances in histograms for longer time - periods ( figure 5 ) indicates low medium - term fidelity to individual roost sites over periods of several months .
the number and duration of visits by each individual to each roost ( counting revisits ) were calculated from data on ‘roost visits’ , defined by the dates of first and last consecutive fixes from a particular individual recorded at a particular roost site . the visit duration was the elapsed number of days at that roost ( including some durations of one day only ) . during the 48 hour ‘off’ duty cycle , there was no transmission , which caused regular data gaps of 2–3 days , and hence the roost visit durations included these gaps . in 20 cases , there were transmission gaps of > 5 days within sequences of consecutive records at the same roost ; these were considered unreliable data and were removed prior to analysis . revisits to previously used roosts were counted separately ; these occurred if an individual had meanwhile been recorded at other roost sites . we documented 161 separate roost visits by the 14 flying - foxes , from which the frequency distribution of roost visit durations was obtained . all roost sites used by more than one animal were further examined to see if there was synchrony in their arrival and departure dates . we also calculated the maximum step sizes ( distances between consecutive useable fixes at different roosts ) across each individual’s full tracking duration , and the frequency distribution of step sizes pooled across all individuals but omitting 22 cases in which consecutive roosts were separated by transmission gaps of > 5 days . to provide a time - standardised estimate of short - term inter - roost movements , we additionally calculated minimum , medium and maximum step sizes for each individual , and the step size frequency distribution across all individuals , using only those cases where consecutive different recorded roosts were two days apart ( the minimum time provided by the transmitter duty cycle ) .
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lamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medellín , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )
justification : listed as extinct because it has not been recorded since prior to 1874 , and extensive surveys over the years have failed to locate this species .
the specific causes of the extinction of pteropus pilosus are unknown . hunting for food by local people may have been a contributing factor as well as the degradation of native forest habitat ( wiles et al . 1997 ) .
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kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
palausaartenlenkko
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pteropus pilosus k . andersen , 1908
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cites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .
unep - wcmc ( comps . ) 2013 . checklist of cites species . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland , and unep - wcmc , cambridge , united kingdom . available online at urltoken
catalogue of the chiroptera in the collection of the british museum , 2nd edition , vol . 1 : megachiroptera
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
simmons , nancy b . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
cites : appendix i per 2013 checklist of cites species : index of cites species published with amendments to the appendices and changes in standard scientific nomenclature following the 16th meeting of the conference of the parties ( bangkok , 2013 ) . for current status see urltoken
status : cites - appendix i . iucn / ssc action plan ( 1992 ) and iucn 2003 - extinct
comments : pselaphon species group . known from only two specimens and presumed to be extinct ; see flannery ( 1995b )
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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pteropus pelewensis is often considered to be a subspecies of p . mariannus ( wiles 2005 ) . we follow simmons ( 2005 ) who lists p . pelewensis as a distinct species pending further investigation .
justification : listed as near threatened because although the species is common within its restricted range , and its populations appear to be stable ( if not increasing ) , its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km 2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat is declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable under criterion b1 . the species is still hunted fairly heavily for subsistence and local commercial use . current harvest levels do not appear to be unsustainable , but more survey work on this topic is desirable .


sinoe kwakae is a moth of the gelechiidae family .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from louisiana to florida .

the wingspan is 9.2 − 12.4 mm .

the forewings range from dark grey to brown , with a dark brown subbasal fascia and a dark brown median spot at the base .

there are three dark brown spots on the costa and a dark brown median streak beyond the discal cell , surrounded by brown .

the terminal area has a black median streak beyond the discal cell and there is a dark brown spot at two-thirds of the dorsum .

the hindwings are light grey or brown .

adults are on wing from january to march in the south and from march to june in the north .

sinoe kwakae

figures 13 − 15 . female genitalia . 13 , sinoe robiniella . 14 , sinoe chambersi sp . nov . , 15 , sinoe kwakae sp . nov .
figures 1 − 9 . imago . arrows indicate basal patch . 1 − 3 , sinoe robiniella . 4 − 6 , sinoe chambersi sp . nov . , 7 − 9 , sinoe kwakae sp . nov .
home » guide » arthropods ( arthropoda ) » hexapods ( hexapoda ) » insects ( insecta ) » butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) » twirler moths and kin ( gelechioidea ) » twirler moths ( gelechiidae ) » gelechiinae » litini » sinoe » sinoe kwakae - hodges # 1834 . 2 ( sinoe kwakae )
figures 10 − 12 . male genitalia , costal part of valva ( vc ) and saccular part of valva ( vs ) . 10 , sinoe robiniella . 11 , sinoe chambersi sp . nov . , 12 , sinoe kwakae sp . nov . a , uncus and tegumen . b , vinculum and valva . c , phallus .
sinoe chambersi lee & brown , 2012 , sp . nov . - plazi treatmentbank
sinoe chambers , 1873 ; can . ent . 5 ( 12 ) : 229 , 231 ; ts : sinoe fusco - palidella [ sic , recte fuscopalidella ] chambers
while i still believe that this is sinoe kwakae , after reassessing the matter on the basis of information in lee and brown ' s paper , i decided to move the image to the genus page ( see also my comment here ) .
after consulting the forewing descriptions and illustrations in the 2012 paper by s . lee and r . brown ( cited on the info page of bugguide and kindly made available to me by sangmi lee ) i am quite certain that my moth is # 1834 . 2 sinoe kwakae .
• sangmi lee & richard l . brown , 2012 . review of the genus sinoe ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) with descriptions of two new species . zootaxa 3332 : 49–59
lee , sangmi & brown , richard l . , 2012 , review of the genus sinoe ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) with descriptions of two new species , zootaxa 3332 , pp . 49 - 59 : 55 - 57
under outdoor globe lamp . my search places it among the sinoe gelechiids but i could not detect any upturned palps in this image , and my lateral shots were out of focus . one is attached and if one tries hard one can detect those palps . is it a sinoe , and if yes , is an id at species level possible ? actually only # 1834 s . robiniella is recorded in j . b heppner ' s florida checklist .
sinoe capsana lee & brambila , 2012 ; florida entomologst 95 ( 4 ) : 875 ; tl : florida , miami - dade co . , homestead , sw 207 ave . , n 25 . 4092° w - 80 . 52543°
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
sattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282
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this specimen has been matched 100 % to species by bold . it can be seen at txlep317 - 16 in the public database .
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) . uncus squared with apical margin convex , 2 x length of gnathos ; gnathos stout , spatulate , middle of gnathos broader than base , 0 . 5 x length of tegumen ; valva with costal part slender , longer than tegumen , with bulbous base ; saccular part absent ; vinculum projecting posteriorly as pair of spatulate processes , sparsely setose on basal 1 / 3 , densely setose on apical 2 / 3 , apices rounded , almost 1 / 3 x length of phallus ; phallus 1 . 5 x length of costal part of valva , with a cornutus , fulcrum not developed .
) . apophyses posteriores 2 . 5 x length of apophyses anteriores ; apophyses anteriores 2 x length of abdominal segment viii ; sterigma sclerotized , cone - shaped ; signum hook - shaped with basal end having lateral flanges .
by the forewing having a brown basal patch extending from the subbasal fascia to the wing base ( fig . 6
) , a dark brown median streak in the discal cell , and the male hindwing with a hair pencil at base . the male genitalia differ by having the uncus squared apically , the valva with costal part present and saccular part absent , and the vinculum projecting posteriorly as a pair of spatulate processes . the female genitalia have a cone - shaped sterigma surrounding the ostium bursae ( fig . 14
holotype . male , mississippi , 6 mi sw starkville , 24 feb 1985 , r . l . brown and b . b . brown ( genitalia slide mem 1754 ) . deposited in usnm
94326 ) . tennessee : sevier co . , great smoky mtns . n . p . , 35 º 41 ’ 56 ”n 83 º 33 ’05”w , 30 mar 2006 , s . lee and j . g . hill ( 113 , 6ƥ ) , 31 mar 2006 ( 73 , 1ƥ ) . wilson co . , cedars of lebanon s . f . , 36 º05’ 26 ”n 86 º 22 ’ 41 ”w , 8 mar 2000 , r . l . brown ( 13 , genitalia slide mem 1756 ) . pennsylvania : susquehanna co . , dimock , 1 jun 1968 , d . f . b . ( 1 ƥ , genitalia slide usnm
distribution and flight period . this species has a wide distribution extending in the united states from pennsylvania to mississippi and also in california and in canada from alberta to quebec with flight times from january to june . the single record from california identified by barcode data and confirmed by dissection of genitalia and may represent an introduction ( j . - f . landry , personal communication . )
is a spring species that flies during late january through march in southern latitudes and march through june in northern latitudes . the early flight periods of
before trees have leaves suggest that oviposition occurs in leaf buds or on flowers of its host .
in the northern parts of its distribution in alberta , canada , e . g . , lac la biche and dunvegan , the species occurs in the boreal zone where plant diversity is limited . potential hosts among deciduous trees include aspen , poplar , birch , and dogwood as well as
and wild rose ( j . - f . landry , personal communication ) .
etymology . the specific epithet is a patronym for v . t . chambers , to recognize his work on
no known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .