the tawny-flanked prinia ( prinia subflava ) is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus prinia in the family cisticolidae , a family of old world warblers .

it is widespread and common in most parts of africa south of the sahara .

the plain prinia ( p. inornata ) of southern asia was formerly included in this species but is now usually considered to be a separate species .

tawny - flanked prinia

tawny - flanked prinia ( prinia subflava ) is a species of bird in the cisticolidae family .
this outraged tawny - flanked prinia has just seen a cuckoo finch near its nest .
tawny - flanked prinia , prinia subflava ( synonym , prinia mistacea ; protonym , motacilla subflava ) , jf gmelin , 1789 , also known as the tawny prinia , or as the west african prinia , as the tawny - flanked longtail , as the tawny - flanked warbler , or as the plain wren warbler , photographed on awash lake , ethiopia ( africa ) .
museum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of tawny - flanked prinia were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of tawny - flanked prinia here .
african tawny - flanked prinias are the targets of cuckoo finches in southern zambia .
picture of the tawny - flanked prinia has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : tawnyflanked prinia author : chris eason from londoncamera location
the tawny - flanked prinia ( latin name prinia subflava ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 683 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 842 also a picture of the tawny - flanked prinia on page 865 . the tawny - flanked prinia belongs to the family of birds classified as cisticolidae . more
english : plain prinia ; french : prinia modeste ; german : braunkopfprinie ; spanish : prinia de dorsos castaños .
the outside circle shows eggs laid by tawny - flanked prinia females , and the inside circle shows eggs laid by different cuckoo finch females .
it is possible that the recording is of a pale prinia ( prinia fluviatilis ) or even a river prinia ( prinia somalica ) . please see the forum post at : urltoken
the female african tawny - flanked prinia , a species of warbler , lays eggs in a wide spectrum of colours in an effort to fool cuckoo finches .
the tawny - flanked prinia is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .
the tawny - flanked prinia is a southern african bird that belongs to the cisticolidae bird family group which includes birds such as african warblers . the description for the tawny - flanked prinia ( latin name prinia subflava ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the prinia subflava can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 683 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 842 . more
we specifically looked at cuckoo finches , as there is already good evidence of an evolutionary arms race between it and its primary host in southern zambia , the tawny - flanked prinia .
prinia subflava ( tawny - flanked prinia ) bruinsylangstertjie [ afrikaans ] ; ungcuze [ xhosa ] ; harudeve ( generic term for cisticola or prinia ) [ kwangali ] ; timba ( generic name for cisticolas and warblers ) [ shona ] ; matsinyani [ tsonga ] ; roestflankprinia [ dutch ] ; prinia modeste [ french ] ; rahmbrustprinie [ german ] ; prínia - de - flancos - castanhos [ portuguese ] distribution and habitat common from southern asia to much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal to ethiopia south to southern africa… .
the film clip shows a nest of the most frequent host of the cuckoo finch , the tawny - flanked prinia , which has an extravagantly diverse range of eggs . the prinia parent has recognised that an egg in its nest is that of a cuckoo finch , and proceeds to eject it by spearing it on the end of its beak and carrying it away .
introduction : tawny - flanked prinias ( prinia subflava ) think nothing of living in trees in the winter to forage for invertebrates , but will avoid forests . tall grass , shrubs and bushes growing along the edges of streams , woodland clearings and rural villages , also attracts this species .
ryan , p . & dean , r . ( 2018 ) . tawny - flanked prinia ( prinia subflava ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
we found that african cuckoo finches – brood parasites that rely on a different kind of bird to raise their young – have evolved to look like harmless weaver birds in an attempt to deceive their hosts . but we also discovered that their tawny - flanked prinia hosts have caught onto this and responded by being aggressive to anyone resembling their enemy – a form of collective punishment .
so were the prinia really deceived by the cuckoo finches’ mimetic plumage ? to answer this , we carried out one last experiment . we presented a female cuckoo finch , a female southern red bishop or a male southern red bishop model near a prinia nest . after that , we replaced a prinia egg with an experimental egg to simulate egg laying by a real cuckoo finch .
we tested these predictions in the tawny - flanked prinia and its parasite , the cuckoo finch . egg appearance ( colour and pattern ) varies greatly among individuals in both host and parasite , but individual females always lay a single egg - type throughout their lives 7 , 8 . cuckoo finches do not target prinia clutches that resemble their own eggs but instead rely on chance matches to succeed 7 . therefore , mimicry can range from very good to poor . a cuckoo finch female commonly lays two eggs in the same host nest 22 ( see below ) .
both sexes look alike . this species can be distinguished from its former conspecifics based on minor plumage differences and by range and habitat differences : the plain prinia , p . inornata , is found in southern asia whilst the pale prinia , p . somalica , prefers drier , more open habitats in northeastern africa . the river prinia , p . fluviatilis , is found only in waterside vegetation in west africa .
distribution of tawny - flanked prinia in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 . food it mainly eats invertebrates , foraging on bare ground and in the undergrowth , sometimes along with other species in a foraging flock . more
( the tawny - flanked prinia nests in herbage and lays 2–4 eggs . ) these 13–14 cm long warblers have short rounded wings , a longish tail , strong legs and a short black bill . in breeding plumage , adults are grey - brown above , with a short white supercilium and rufous fringes on the closed wings . underparts are whitish - buff . the sexes are identical . in winter , the upperparts are a warmer brown , and the underparts more buff . the tail is longer than in summer . more
11–12 cm ; 7–12 g . brownish unstreaked prinia with long and strongly graduated tail . male nominate race breeding has broad creamy supercilium , fading into greyish . . .
picture of prinia subflava above has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : blake matheson - blake matheson - author : blake matheson permission : some rights reserved
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : prinia subflava . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
naturally parasitized clutches at our study site during 2007–2009 and 2012–2013 are consistent with the prediction that repeated parasitism should benefit the cuckoo finch : of 62 parasitized prinia nests where the final clutch composition was known ( that is , incubation had begun ) , two - thirds contained either two ( 61 % ) or three ( 5 % ) parasitic eggs laid by the same female ( as assessed phenotypically by the human eye ; cuckoo finch eggs are highly variable and distinctive among individuals for colour and pattern 7 , making it relatively easy to identify eggs as belonging to the same individuals ) . parasitic eggs were in the majority in 68 % of nests ( in 36 of 42 cases , no host eggs were present ) , equal numbers of host and parasitic eggs were present in 19 % of nests , and host eggs made up the majority of the clutch in just 13 % of parasitized nests .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as locally common ( del hoyo et al . 2006 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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songs from a bird perched high in a tall tree at the edge of disturbed secondary forest .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
sometimes treated as conspecific with p . inornata ( which see ) . races vary clinally . ten subspecies recognized .
( j . f . gmelin , 1789 ) – s sahel from s mauritania and senegal e to c ethiopia and n uganda .
madarász , 1914 – n sahel from mali e to sudan , w ethiopia and nw eritrea .
( jardine & fraser , 1852 ) – savannas from sierra leone e to sw nigeria , and cameroon e to s uganda and w kenya .
e . j . o . hartert , 1920 – rwanda , and e & s drcongo s to angolan highlands .
c . m . n . white , 1946 – e angola and w zambia .
( a . smith , 1843 ) – se drcongo , sw tanzania , c zambia , zimbabwe , e botswana , w mozambique and ne south africa ( s to lebombo mts , in ne kwazulu - natal ) .
macdonald , 1941 – sw angola , n namibia , w botswana and extreme sw zambia and nw zimbabwe .
meise , 1936 – s tanzania , malawi , e zambia , n & c mozambique and e zimbabwe .
roberts , 1922 – s mozambique , e swaziland and e coastal plain of south africa .
male sings from prominent perch , usually with tail cocked , a loud series of notes as “przzt . . .
rank grass , tall shrubs and bushes along edges of streams and swamps , clearings in woodland , and . . .
diet mainly insects and other invertebrates , including termite alates ( isoptera ) , mayflies ( ephemeroptera ) , beetles and their larvae ( . . .
nesting mainly in rains , may–nov n of equator and jul–apr in s ; some pairs raise two broods in a season ( breed in both long and . . .
mostly resident , but some local movements . may be a partial migrant in w africa ( nigeria ) , moving . . .
not globally threatened . locally common . average density 0·23 birds / ha in guinea savanna at lamto , in ivory coast ; in riverine forest in swaziland highly variable , 0 . . .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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image : dan logen , 31 january 2011 ( with permission , for grrlscientist / guardian use only ) [ velociraptorise ] . d300s , 600 mm lens , iso 640 , 1 / 250 sec , f / 5 . 6
question : this small ethiopian mystery bird is widespread throughout sub - saharan africa and can be mistaken for several other species . however , this bird can be readily distinguished from those closely related species based on one character , what is that ? can you identify this bird ' s taxonomic family and species ?
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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diet : eats beetles , flies , caterpillars and grasshoppers , foraged on bare ground between tufts of grass or low down in shrubs and bushes .
description : a small warbler with a long , graduated tail and short and rounded wings . upper parts pale greyish - brown with dark brown flight feathers .
breeding : both male and female build a pear - shaped to oval nest woven and knitted with strips of grass leaves , often over shallow water or moist ground . usually 2 to 5 eggs are laid at daily intervals between either july and august , december and january or march and april . the incubation period is 14 days .
a traditional owambo homestead which offers a unique opportunity of interacting with the local community while getting involved in local activities such as cattle herding and basket making .
north of etosha , east of osahakati & west of opuwo this remote lodge is situated on the vast plains of the omusati region . attractions here include tracking black rhino .
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it is 10 - 13 centimetres in length with a long , narrow , graduated tail and a fairly long , slender bill . the tail is often held erect or waved from side to side . the upperparts are grey - brown with rufous - brown edges to the flight feathers and a rufous tinge to the rump . the throat and breast are whitish while the flanks and vent are warm buff . there is a whitish stripe over the eye and the lores are dark . the tail feathers have a white tip and a dark subterminal band .
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the reference for the information following is
roberts birds of southern africa
, 7th edition * edited by par hockey , wrj dean and pg ryan , published by
the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund .
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the southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .
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5 . 1 - 5 . 5 in ( 13 - 14 cm ) ; 0 . 3 - 0 . 4 oz ( 7 - 11 . 5 g ) . mmedium to large warbler with short rounded wings and a fairly long , graduated tail . upperparts uniformly rufous - brown to gray - brown , underparts whitish . short whitish eye line . legs long , bill relatively short , slightly decurved .
sub - saharan africa , southern asia , from indian subcontinent to china , taiwan , most of mainland southeast asia .
lowlands ; grassland and savanna , wetlands , mangroves , scrub , forest clearings and edges .
active , vocal and conspicuous . often in pairs or family groups . males territorial , defending year - round by singing . apparently sedentary , but movement may occur in parts of range during dry season . duetting occasionally occurs .
nest is an oval of woven grasses with a side - top entrance . two to five eggs are incubated for 13 - 14 days . young , fed by both parents , fledge after 13 - 17 days , but remain with parents 2 - 3 weeks .
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cuckoo finches lay multiple eggs in the nests of other birds to make it harder to detect the ' imposters ' , researchers have found .
the name cuckoo is common to many parasitic bird species that rely upon others to raise their young .
prinias ' egg colours vary widely but by laying multiple eggs in a nest , cuckoo finches reduce the risk of rejection .
the results of the study undertaken by researchers from the university of exeter and the university of cambridge are published in the journal nature communications .
many brood parasites [ such as cuckoo finches ] and hosts are locked in ongoing evolutionary arms races , with parasites evolving attack strategies to get their eggs accepted - such as egg mimicry - and hosts evolving defences - such as egg rejection ,
explained co - author dr martin stevens from the university of exeter .
our work shows that the cuckoo finch has evolved another novel strategy of attack , whereby it defeats both sensory and cognitive components of host rejection behaviour .
although cuckoos have adapted their egg patterns to mimic those of their hosts they cannot guarantee their eggs will exactly match those of their chosen nest .
having highly variable eggs among individuals makes it hard for each female cuckoo finch to match many of the egg types that different prinias lay ,
explained dr stevens .
to understand more about prinias ' egg rejection behaviour , the scientists experimented by mixing the clutches in birds ' nests .
one theory was that the birds reject eggs based on their appearance compared with the rest of the clutch .
alternatively , researchers thought the birds could be using a learnt
internal template
of what their eggs should look like to identify imposters .
results of the trials suggested the birds combined the two methods to asses the colour and pattern of the eggs .
but as a result of comparing the eggs with others in the clutch , the birds struggled to successfully identify and reject the parasites as the proportion of foreign eggs in the nest increased .
researchers found that the cuckoo finches repeatedly targeted the same nests to improve the probability of their eggs being cared for .
in general there are many species of brood parasite that we don ' t know much about and it will be exciting in the future to see what strategies they have to successfully parasitise hosts ,
said dr stevens .
it would be great to know whether other parasites have a similar strategy to the cuckoo finch , and whether there is any way hosts can fight back .
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duckling disaster . duck deserts so hens hatch eggs . patitos eclosión con gallina . canetons éclosion
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humans are notorious for cheating and deceiving . but we also like to see cheaters get punished . surprisingly , our research has revealed that the same holds true in the animal kingdom – at least among birds .
brood parasites never build their own nests or raise their own offspring . instead , they lay their eggs in the nests of other birds and abandon the care of their young to the hosts .
the first act of most brood parasite species’ chicks after hatching is to do away with the host’s own brood . different species do this by ejecting their nest mates from the nest , by using their sharp beaks to fatally injure them , or by physically dominating them .
while hosts obviously do all they can to defend their nests , brood parasites evolve responses to this behaviour . this in turn drives the evolution of better defences in the host , and so on – a process known as an “evolutionary arms race” .
one of the most common strategies for brood parasites to manipulate their hosts into raising their offspring is known as “aggressive mimicry” . this is a way for the birds to dupe a host by looking harmless , for example by resembling a species that is not parasitic .
the strategy is already well - documented in a variety of brood parasite species : some lay eggs that resemble those of their hosts , while the chicks and fledglings of others look ( and sound ) like the host’s own chicks and fledglings . this is necessary , as hosts will reject parasitic eggs , chicks and fledglings , if they can detect them .
the first challenge for brood parasites is for a female to get her egg into a host nest . because of this hosts are often very aggressive towards adult brood parasites near their nests . our research focused on whether natural selection has shaped aggressive mimicry in female brood parasites to help them slip past host defences .
we were suspicious that adult female cuckoo finches might be employing aggressive mimicry to get into their host’s nest because they look remarkably similar to another group of species that shares their grassy habitats : females of the several common species of weavers , known as bishopbirds or widowbirds . is this coincidence , or a deceptive strategy shaped by natural selection ?
to answer this question , first we measured and compared the colour and pattern of cuckoo finches’ plumage to those of vidua finches ( the cuckoo finch’s closest relatives ) and weavers at the natural history museum at tring , uk .
if female cuckoo finches looked more similar to vidua finches than to weavers , then it would suggest that the cuckoo finch plumage is a product of their shared ancestry . if they looked equally similar to vidua finches and weavers , it would suggest that their plumage has been shaped through shared selection pressures from a shared environment ( for example , having to avoid shared predators ) . however , if they looked more similar to the weavers than the vidua finches , it would suggest that natural selection for mimicry has driven their resemblance .
we found the latter , which suggested that female cuckoo finches have evolved to mimic weavers . we then conducted two field experiments in southern zambia to test whether we could verify this apparent case of mimicry . this meant months of long days watching these birds from the inside of a hide , which was absolutely brilliant !
using model cuckoo finches and model southern red bishops ( a common weaver species at the study site ) , we tested whether the prinias reacted differently towards female cuckoo finches and female southern red bishops , compared to male cuckoo finches and male southern red bishops . unlike females , males of these two species look very different : male cuckoo finches are bright yellow and male southern red bishops are black and red .
surprisingly , we found that the prinias were extremely aggressive to both the harmful female cuckoo finches and harmless southern red bishops – treating both as threats . they were not , however , aggressive to males of either species .
just as expected , we found that the prinias were much more likely to reject the foreign egg after seeing one of the two female species than when they saw a male bird . this showed that they were unable distinguish between the two female species and that the cuckoo’s mimicry is successful , but does not give the cuckoo finch the advantage in the arms race at this site .
the analogy of the “wolf in sheep’s clothing” could be helpful here . the prinias recognise the wolf as a threat , but as they are unable to tell wolves from sheep , they respond by punishing all the sheep , just to be safe .
this is unfortunate for the cuckoo finch – and we suspect this is because the rate of parasitism is consistently high at this site , making this strategy worthwhile for the crafty prinias .
similar to cheating in human society , it seems like the real loser in this situation is the innocent bystander : the unassuming female southern red bishop .
they aren’t just pretty birdies - superb fairy - wrens teach each other to identify and fend off parasitic species such as cuckoos .
we estimate china only makes $ 8 . 46 from an iphone – and that’s why trump’s trade war is futile
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avian brood parasites lay their eggs in other birds’ nests , leaving all parental care to the host 1 . they are ideal to investigate sensory and cognitive mechanisms underlying decision - making because visual information is pivotal to their interactions . information leads to a reduction in uncertainty about an aspect of the environment or current state 2 and is crucial in making effective choices 3 . however , greater uncertainty exists when sources of information are ambiguous or mechanisms underlying decision - making are conflicting , and antagonists such as parasites could exploit this to their own advantage .
many host species reject foreign eggs , resulting in the evolution of egg mimicry by parasites . hosts are more likely to reject eggs that differ more from their own in perceptual terms 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . however , to reject a parasitic egg successfully , hosts must also identify which eggs are theirs and which are a parasite’s . to do so , hosts could either use a simple rule of thumb and reject the odd one out in a clutch ( the ‘discordancy hypothesis’ ) or reject eggs that differ from a learnt or innate ( inherited ) internal template of their own egg appearance ( ‘true recognition’ ) 9 , 10 , 11 . most work supports the template - based hypothesis 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , although discordancy mechanisms exist in some species 17 , 18 and may occur alongside template ( true ) recognition 19 , 20 . regardless of the mechanisms , the two key problems that hosts must solve are to discriminate between eggs ( a sensory task ) and to recognize their own eggs ( a cognitive task ) . an antagonist , such as a parasite , would benefit from exploiting either or both of these processes .
here , we show that prinias prioritize a template - based approach to identify foreign eggs , but that they also utilize information about the relative proportions of their own and foreign eggs in making rejection decisions . second , we show that hosts are less likely to reject foreign eggs when they outnumber their own and when the level of mimicry is very good , and correspondingly cuckoo finch eggs are more likely to be accepted under such circumstances . finally , we show that cuckoo finch females have a strategy of repeatedly targeting the same host nests with more than one egg to increase the likelihood of acceptance , and this constitutes a further adaptation by brood parasites to defeat host defences .
in 31 of 48 trials hosts showed rejection behaviour , but in only three of these did they reject any of their own eggs : in two trials hosts rejected one experimental and one host egg , and in one trial they rejected only a host egg .
figure 3 : host behaviour in relation to the proportion of foreign eggs and the level of colour difference between eggs .
foreign eggs were more likely to be rejected the more they differed in colour from the host’s own eggs . however , this effect was dependent on their relative proportions in the nest . as foreign eggs increased in number , hosts required a greater difference in colour to reject them . colour differences are discrimination units or ‘just noticeable differences’ ( jnds ) , where a jnd of < 1 . 0 means that two objects cannot be discriminated , and values between 1 . 00 and 3 . 00 should be difficult to discriminate . boxplots show median bars and interquartile ranges ; whiskers show outer quartiles . there were 79 trials with eggs accepted and 90 trials with eggs rejected ( see results ) .
( a ) simulations between 999 random pairs of host and cuckoo finch eggs show that as the proportion of parasitic eggs in the nest increases , they are more likely to be accepted . error bars show ±1 s . e . m . ( b ) the probability of rejection also depends on the level of colour difference between host and parasitic eggs : closely matching eggs are less likely to be rejected when they comprise a greater proportion of the clutch .
avian brood parasites have evolved a suite of adaptations to facilitate access to host nests and acceptance of their young , including mimicry at the egg , chick , fledgling and adult stages 5 , 7 , 12 , 25 , 26 , 27 . the coevolutionary battleground of the egg stage poses two main challenges for host parents . first , they must detect that a foreign egg is present in the nest , which requires them to discriminate between their own eggs and those of a parasite ( a sensory task ) . second , they must reject the correct egg ( s ) , which requires them to recognize correctly which eggs belong to each party ( a cognitive task ) . for a parasite to be successful , it must defeat either or both these defences .
rejection experiments ( undertaken with permission from the zambia wildlife authority ) were conducted in ~ 800 ha on and around musumanene farm ( 16 o 47′s , 26 o 54′e ) , zambia , during january–march 2007–2009 by c . n . s . 7 and 2012 by m . s . , j . t . and c . n . s . each trial involved a different female , replacing one or more eggs from the clutch with the equivalent number of eggs from another clutch . nests were monitored daily , where possible , for 3–4 days unless rejection or predation occurred earlier . eggs missing from the nest were considered rejected . rejection almost always occurred by day 3 ( ref . 7 ) .
differences between host and experimental egg colour , luminance , volume , five pattern variables and incubation state and year were included in the statistical model ( performed in r ref . 31 ) . an interaction with the proportion of experimental eggs in the clutch was included for all terms . the final model was selected using stepwise addition and subtraction of terms based on akaike information criterion 32 and explained 44 . 0 % of variance in the incidence of rejection behaviour 33 .
how to cite this article : stevens , m . et al . repeated targeting of the same hosts by a brood parasite compromises host - egg rejection . nat . commun . 4 : 2475 doi : 10 . 1038 / ncomms3475 ( 2013 ) .
r development core team . r : a language and environment for statistical computing ( 2011 ) .
m . s . and j . t . were funded by a biotechnology and biological sciences research council david phillips research fellowship ( bb / g022887 / 1 ) and c . n . s . was funded by a royal society dorothy hodgkin research fellowship and the dst / nrf centre of excellence at the percy fitzpatrick institute , university of cape town . in zambia we thank the bruce - miller , colebrook - robjent , duckett and nicolle families , collins moya and numerous other nest - finding assistants , and the zambia wildlife authority . we are grateful to nick davies , rebecca kilner and graeme ruxton for comments .
c . n . s . established the study population and collected long - term observational data . all authors performed experiments and wrote the manuscript ; m . s . performed visual modelling and j . t . performed statistical analyses .
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the bare-necked fruitcrow ( gymnoderus foetidus ) is a species of bird in the family cotingidae .

it is the only member of the genus gymnoderus .

it is found in the amazon rainforest , especially near rivers .

it is relatively common , but generally rarer and more local north of the amazon river .

both sexes are overall mainly blackish , but the male has distinctive , large greyish-blue facial - and neck-wattles and greyish-white wings , which flash conspicuously in flight .

bare - necked fruitcrow

nobody uploaded sound recordings for bare - necked fruitcrow ( gymnoderus foetidus ) yet .
the bare - necked fruitcrow birds can fly almost 700m higher into the atmospheric air .
the species of bare - necked fruitcrows were first introduced in the year 1758 by linnaeus .
the overall population of bare - necked fruitcrows has declined but not up to 30 percent to make them threatened ones .
the male is mainly blue - black with silver - grey wings . it gets its name from the blue bare skin on its neck which is all crinkled and folded . the eyering is also bare and blue . the female lacks the grey wings and has much less bare skin on the head .
the bare - necked fruit crow birds love to inhabit the thick green areas of the forests that are commonly considered as lowlands . however , they also feel easy near sides of lakes and rivers . it can be said about bare - necked fruit crow that they are crazy about green fields and wet places . another good thing about these birds is that they are always found in groups around lakes , that proves their harmony and unity with one another .
snow , d . & bonan , a . ( 2018 ) . bare - necked fruitcrow ( gymnoderus foetidus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
as the very name suggests , the bare - necked fruitcrows mostly fed on fruits of trees growing in their natural habitat , but they also eat bulky insects . their most popular food items are grasshoppers and dragonflies . moreover , they love to catch their preys on branches of the trees and consume them right on the spot .
bare - necked fruitcrow belongs to birds ' species that are heavily found in thick rain forests and along riversides in amazon basin , brazil , colombia , guiana , peru , bolivia and venezuela . coming to the color of the only species of the genus gymnoderus , both the female and male birds are black in appearance . the major difference between a female and male bird is the grey - blue fur at the neck region of the male bird . moreover , male birds have white wings that differentiate them from female members . these birds are a classic blend of magnificent colors in nature .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : gymnoderus foetidus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
there are many ways to contribute—we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !
) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
lowland forests of amazonia and upper r orinoco drainage , from se colombia ( also extending n along base of andes to w meta ) , s venezuela ( amazonas , w bolívar ) and the guianas s to e ecuador , e peru , brazil ( e to r tocantins drainage and s to s mato grosso , including upper r paraguai drainage ) and c bolivia ; in n , apparently absent from much of r negro drainage .
male 34–38 cm , 331–359 g ; female 30–34 cm , 1 bird 220 g . bill smaller , less stout and more flattened dorsoventrally than in other fruitcrows , legs and feet . . .
mainly forested banks of rivers and lakes , and seasonally flooded forest ; to 500 m .
laying probably in sept–feb at s end of range , on basis of records of moult ( presumably post - breeding ) becoming progressively later . . .
regularly moves in high - flying flocks , conspicuous when crossing wide rivers . uncertain whether . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . fairly common along banks of major rivers of amazonia , forming flocks of 20 or more ; less numerous in guianan region . occurs in . . .
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es el huevo del gymnoderus , siempre a puesto y criado a un solo pichon .
marc de bont , agustin carrasco , jacob . wijpkema , josep del hoyo .
anselmo d affonseca , thore noernberg , jacob . wijpkema , joshuamacias , oswaldocortes , holger teichmann , agustin carrasco , johannes pfleiderer , nick athanas , dusan m . brinkhuizen , pia öberg , tomasz doroń , marcelo camacho , jacqueserard , christophe gouraud , marvinhyett .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 13 . 7 - 14 . 7 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 10 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .
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all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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the lovely bird can be classified scientifically under phylum chordata of kingdom animalia , while placed in class aves , family cotingidae and genus gymnoderus .
in binomial nomenclature , they are known as gymnoderus foetidus where the first name refers to their genus and second part denotes species , i . e . the only surviving species of this particular genus .
you cannot easily disturb these birds with noise , and for most of the time they will pay no attention to it .
they have not yet been classified in the list of endangered species by the greatest world authority actively involved in their conservation .
the size of these birds mostly varies between 34 cm to 38 cm in length .
as a general criterion , to put a bird , animal , or plant species in the vulnerable list ( threatened species that may become endangered in the near future ) there must be evidence that 30 percent of the population has decreased over three generations or in the period of ten years .
the members of this species of class aves are termed as peaceful and beautiful birds that always fly in clusters in the blue sky , thus presenting a charming scene for your eyes . for this very reason they are classified as absolute believers of unity . they are usually found in the branches of dense trees of rain forests for breeding and resting purposes .
hyenas belong to the order carnivora and family hyaenidae . although it has . . .
the northern shrike bird is known as lanius excubitor in the scientific world . . .
a bird of prey is also known as a raptor or a hunter . it belongs to the group of . . .
the sloth animal is a mammal with its species belonging to two families . . .
lionfish is a chordate which belongs to the family scorpaenidae and genus . . .
goat is a mammal that belongs to the family bovidae . being a member of the sub - family . . .
this is a kind of hummingbird . it is really small in size , only 8 . 9 cm as it can be seen . . .
lizards are members of the reptilian class in the animal kingdom . they belong to . . .
buffalo is a member of the animal kingdom and belongs to class mammalia . most . . .
mammals are always thought of giving birth to young ones but sometimes it can . . .
the birds that are considered as the symbol of love , peace and harmony are one . . .
the goat and the sheep are related to each other through the same family . they . . .
in our race to make this world a better place in terms of . . .
this species breeding population in costa rican important bird areas ( ibas ) was studied in 2007 and estimated at 740 - 1 , 430 mature individuals and in panama 1 , 050 - 4 , 250 ( birdlife international , 2016 ) in 2009 this was revised to 190 - 330 mature individuals ( sánchez et al . 2009 ) . the article published in the iucn red list of threatened species ( 2013 ) states that the species ' s total population is conservatively estimated at fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals , and it is suspected to be in rapid decline owing to on - going forest clearance and degradation ( birdlife international , 2013 )
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it is found in bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , french guiana , guyana , peru , suriname , and venezuela .
its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps . it is usually found along rivers or beside lakes where it is normally in groups when perched and conspicuous when flying .
the nest is a small cup made out of lichens and lined with fungus placed about 8 meter above ground . clutch size is one egg .
forages for fruit by perching and picking food , also feeds on large insects like grasshoopers and dragonflies . these are hunted by wing and ( unlike onther cotinga ' s ) by foot . this species will run actively on branches chasing prey .
this species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 5 , 300 , 000 kmē . the global population size has not been quantified , but it is believed to be large as the species is described as ' frequent ' in at least parts of its range ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern .
moves regularly in high flying flocks , it is unknown if these movements are just local or part of a migratory pattern .
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the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . . . .


phenacovolva barbieri is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family ovulidae , the ovulids , cowry allies or false cowries .

phenacovolva barbieri

specimen shell : phenacovolva barbieri each seashell we have have been carefully picked to ensure the highest seashells quality . these shells come from all over the philippines , provided by fishermen ( philippines - bohol island ) , divers , ovulidae specimen shell : phenacovolva barbieri lorenz & fehse 2009
sea shell information on : ts125925 - ovulidae phenacovolva - > barbieri . this specimen is of ovulidae . the specimen shell of groupe : phenacovolva . shell found on the philippines . shell is of exceptional quality . more sea shell information
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : phenacovolva barbieri f . jr . lorenz & d . fehse , 2009 - id : 1640056082
family : ovulidae born : 1758 , linnaeus genus and description : phenacovolva barbieri , 31 mm , f + + + / gem origin : collected by local fishermen through diving at about 20 to 50 meters deep off palawan island philippines . may 2015
family : ovulidae born : 2012 , poppe , monnier & tagaro genus and description : phenacovolva barbieri , 28 mm , f + + + / gem origin : collected by local fishermen through diving at about 20 to 50 meters deep off calituban island , bohol philippines .
lorenz f . & fehse d . ( 2009 ) the living ovulidae . a manual of the families of allied cowries : ovulidae , pediculariidae and eocypraeidae . hackenheim : conchbooks . [ details ]
* species are difficult to positively identify without close examination . on this website , they are grouped by external features for convenience of display .
wong , h . w . , 2011 . the ovulidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of singapore . lee kong chian natural history museum .
tan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore lee kong chian natural history museum .
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