the western terrestrial garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) is a western north american species of colubrid snake .

at least five subspecies are currently recognized .

western terrestrial garter snake

how often does reproduction occur ? western terrestrial garter snakes mate once a year .
stochastic population dynamics in populations of western terrestrial garter snakes with divergent life histories .
western terrestrial garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) , dorostkar park , reno . feb 2015 . photo : kelsey mccutcheon .
western terrestrial garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) , dorostokar park , reno . feb 2015 . photo : kelsey mccutcheon .
stochastic population dynamics in populations of western terrestrial garter snakes with divergent life histories . - pubmed - ncbi
hallock , l . a . and mcallister , k . r . 2009 . western terrestrial garter snake . washington herp atlas . urltoken
weaver , r . e . 2004b . thamnophis elegans ( western terrestrial garter snake ) . herpetological review 35 ( 3 ) : 278 .
western terrestrial garter snakes eat a wide variety of animals , depending on their body size . young snakes eat mainly
western terrestrial garter snakes are reasonably common in the pet trade , at least as garter snakes go . the most commonly seen varieties are the coast garter snake ( especially the red morph ) and the wandering garter snake . melanistic wandering garters have been produced .
in western washington , spotted forms of the northwestern garter snake look similar to western terrestrial garter snake . the scale counts differ with the northwestern garter snake having 17 scales at mid - body ( occasionally 19 ) , 7 upper labial scales and 8 or 9 lower labials . also , the dorsal spots do not invade the vertebral stripe . overall , the northwestern garter snake is a smaller snake and has a relatively small head .
hallock , l . , k . mcallister . 2009 .
western terrestrial garter snake
( on - line ) . accessed november 05 , 2013 at urltoken .
) , a close relative of western terrestrial garter snakes , grows to 150 grams . western terrestrial garter snakes produce a very mildly neurotoxic venom , but do not pose a threat to people as they cannot effectively deliver the venom to anything but their small prey .
western terrestrial garter snakes are similar in appearance to western aquatic garter snakes , but have a well - defined stripe down the center of their back ( aquatic do not ) . urltoken has many photographs of each .
also called the western wandering garter , this slender snake is primarily active in the day and is harmless to humans .
fitch h s 1983 . thamnophis elegans ( baird and girard ) . western terrestrial garter snake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 320 : 1 - 4 - get paper here
the home range size of western terrestrial garter snakes is not reported in the literature and is likely to vary , depending on local habitat quality .
western terrestrial garter snakes have been documented in all washington ecoregions . occurrences in the northwest coast , west cascades and north cascades ecoregions are uncommon .
western terrestrial garter snakes are important predators of small animals and are , in turn , preyed on by larger predators , such as birds and mammals .
western terrestrial garter snakes are considered least concern because they have large populations , are not facing significant threats , and many populations live in protected areas .
the terrestrial garter snake can grow between 45 and 107 cm . females do not lay eggs . they give birth to live young .
, the western terrestrial garter snake , is found in north america , ranging from northern mexico to canada . in mexico , they can be found in northern baja california . in the united states ,
bronikowski , a . m . and s . j . arnold . 2001 . cytochrome b phylogeny does not match subspecific classification in the western terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans . copeia ( 2 ) 508 - 513 .
the western terrestrial garter snake is considered one of the easiest garter snake species to maintain in captivity because of its wide prey preferences . it should not be difficult to convert a snake of this species to a mouse - based diet , though there are always exceptions . in my experience , feeding response is very good , if not outright ferocious .
upper basin garter snake , t . e . vascotanneri tanner and lowe , 1989
garner , t . w . j . and k . w . larsen . 2005 . multiple paternity in the western terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans . canadian journal of zoology 83 ( 5 ) : 656 - 663 .
bronikowski , anne m . and steven j . arnold 2001 . cytochrome b phylogeny does not match subspecific classification in the western terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans . copeia 2001 ( 2 ) : 508 - 513 - get paper here
goldberg , s . r . 2004b . reproduction in the western terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans ( serpentes , colubridae ) from arizona . journal of the arizona - nevada academy of science 36 ( 2 ) : 77 - 80 .
garter snake hibernaculum disturbed in b . c . ( news , 28 feb 2015 )
mountain garter snake , t . e . elegans ( baird and girard , 1853 )
wandering garter snake , t . e . vagrans ( baird and girard , 1853 )
experimental evidence for the adaptive evolution of growth rate in the garter snake thamnophis elegans .
waye , h . l . 1999 . size and age structure of a population of western terrestrial garter snakes ( thamnophis elegans ) . copeia 1999 ( 3 ) : 819 - 823 .
differences in scale counts are important for distinguishing the garter snakes . western terrestrial snakes typically have 19 or 21 scales at mid - body , 8 upper labial scales and 10 lower labial scales .
western terrestrial garter snake lifespans vary based on habitat . some populations found in high elevation or near lakes have shorter lifespans , populations at lower elevations often have longer lifespans . the most common cause of mortality is predation or over winter starvation in young snakes .
do you have information on western terrestrial garter snakes , or original photographs taken locally ? if so , please contribute photos and observations here , or email information to kelseymccutcheon @ gmail . com . thanks !
the terrestrial garter snake is grey , or brown to greenish in colour with light orange / yellow stripes on its back . it has distinguished from the red - sided garter eight scales on the upper lip and no red bars between the back and side stripes . this distinguishes it from the red garter snake .
isaac , leigh anne ; patrick t . gregory 2013 . can snakes hide in plain view ? chromatic and achromatic crypsis of two colour forms of the western terrestrial garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) . biological journal of the linnean society , 2013 - get paper here
wright , d . l . . , k . v . kardong , and d . l . bentley . 1979 . the functional anatomy of the teeth of the western terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans . herpetologica 35 ( 3 ) : 223 - 228 .
this is a fairly common and widespread snake . the wandering garter snake ( t . e . vagrans ) is a species of special concern in oklahoma .
western terrestrial garter snakes have toxic salivary secretions that may help immobilize prey . people have reported localized swelling from bites . these reports are infrequent and the toxins are not thought to be a serious problem for humans .
western terrestrial garter snakes have grayish - green backs and yellow bellies . along the sides , they have a yellow stripe that runs the length of the body and sometimes dark spots along the back . there are sometimes all black ( melanistic ) individuals . females are larger than males and they grow longer until about one year after they mature . western terrestrial garter snakes are considered mildly venomous , but pose no real threat to people .
queiroz , a . and r . r . groen . 2001 . the inconsistent and inefficient constricting behavior of colorado western terrestrial garter snakes , thamnophis elegans . journal of herpetology 35 ( 3 ) : 450 - 460 .
san pedro mártir garter snake , t . e . hueyi ( van denburgh and slevin , 1923 )
western terrestrial garter snake females retain their eggs inside their bodies until the young hatch , when they are born live . after the young are born , they are immediately independent . they begin life at about 23 cm long and must begin to feed immediately to store energy for hibernation .
the terrestrial garter snake , if present in the northwest territories , is probably confined to the liard river valley . while it is not as aquatic as some garter snakes , it most likely could be found near a body of water .
females retain the eggs in their body before they hatch , which is a significant energy investment . however , once western terrestrial garter snakes are born , they are left to defend themselves and there is no further parental care .
, a closely related species , live between 6 and 12 years in captivity , but the average life span in the wild is only 2 years . it is likely that the lifespan of western terrestrial garter snakes is similar .
a website for garter snake enthusiasts , urltoken provides information on every species of garter snake , including articles , answers to your questions , and the most comprehensive guide to keeping them in captivity on the web .
the species thamnophis elegans - western terrestrial gartersnake , occurs from sea level to 13 , 100 ft . ( 3 , 990 m ) in elevation in colorado . ( stebbins , 2003 )
james , d . k . , l . petrinovich , t . l . patterson , and a . h . james . 1983 . predation of white - crowned sparrow nestlings by the western terrestrial garter snake in san francisco , california . copeia 1983 ( 2 ) : 511 - 513 .
experimental evidence for the adaptive evolution of growth rate in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . - pubmed - ncbi
western terrestrial garter snakes are often found near water bodies , and do sometimes enter the water . they feed on earthworms , fish , frogs , toads , lizards , other snakes , small mammals and sometimes birds ( stebbins 1966 ) .
the species ' range extends from central british columbia , central alberta , and southwestern manitoba in canada , south through all of the western united states ( east to western south dakota , western nebraska , colorado , extreme western oklahoma , and new mexico ) to ( disjunctly ) northern baja california . there are many isolated populations around the margins of the main range ( fitch 1983 , rossman
western terrestrial garter snakes generally have grayish - green backs and yellow bellies . along the sides , they have a yellow stripe that runs the length of the body . dark spots occasionally occur on the back . there are also melanistic variants of
coastal populations of western terrestrial garter snakes primarily eat organisms that are found on land . their prey includes slugs , salamanders , small mammals , and lizards . individuals that live in inland areas usually hunt in and around water . they commonly eat
western terrestrial garter snakes are commonly found around lakes and slow flowing streams , but are also found in desert areas , plains , mountains , meadows , and forests as well . when these snakes hibernate during winter , they often move into rocky areas .
it ' s no secret that snakes shed their skin . here , a common garter snake mugs for the camera .
usually western terrestrial garter snakes mate in the spring , but mating can also occurs in the fall . courtship begins when the temperature rises in the spring and females release a pheromone to alert males they are ready to mate . mating occurs in their hibernation sites .
western terrestrial garter snakes avoid predation by blending into their surroundings using cryptic coloration . when they feel threatened , they secrete a musky , foul - smelling substance or they may feign death . they are preyed on by a wide variety of predatory birds and mammals .
in the lower puget sound area , female garter snakes of all three species are commonly found clustered in open grassy areas near water bodies . aggregations of as many as 20 individual gravid female western terrestrial garter snakes have been observed in other parts of the range . western terrestrial garter snakes give birth to their young rather than lay eggs ; the young are born in late summer and early fall depending on location . in the lowland puget sound area , newborns start to appear in late august and early september . starting in september , the snakes migrate back to their overwintering locations .
western terrestrial garter snakes are considered least concern by the iucn red list . there are rough estimates of there at least 100 , 000 mature individuals in the wild , and there are no significant threats to this species . in addition , many populations live in protected areas .
thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia ( san francisco garter snake ) : according to california herps , this san francisco peninsula snake has a red head , big eyes , and wide , blue - green , black , and red stripes . its underside is blue - green . like the red - sided garter snake , it eats pacific newts .
the most widespread subspecies , and the subspecies found most often in captivity , is the wandering garter snake . in the wild it’s found across the western great plains and canadian prairies and into the rocky mountains . in captivity a number of pattern morphs , as well as an albino , have been produced . moving westward , the mountain garter snake is found in california , nevada and oregon , and the coast garter snake is found along the pacific coast in california and oregon . the coast garter snake is also seen in the pet trade : three colour morphs — brown , black and a colourful red — are known .
two of these subspecies — the arizona garter snake , found in arizona and new mexico , and the upper basin garter snake , found in utah and along utah’s borders with arizona , colorado and wyoming — are poorly defined and not recognized by the cnah .
hendricks , p . 1996 . thamnophis elegans vagrans ( wandering garter snake ) . herpetological review 26 ( 2 ) : 89 .
peterson , c . r . 1978 . constriction in the wandering garter snake . american zoologist 18 ( 3 ) : 649 .
these two videos show a placer county northwestern fence lizard appearing to taunt a garter snake ( a mountain gartersnake is my guess , because it lacks red . ) the lizard keeps moving down towards the snake but when the snake moves towards the lizard , apparently trying to catch it for dinner , the lizard runs up the wall away from the snake . © rod
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
western terrestrial garter snakes are found in north america from northern mexico to canada . in mexico , they are found in northern baja california . in the united states , they range from new mexico to western oklahoma and nebraska , through the dakotas to the canadian border and west to the pacific coast . in canada , they are found throughout the central and southern regions of saskatchewan , alberta , and manitoba .
fitch , h . s . 1980a . remarks concerning certain western garter snakes of the thamnophis elegans complex . transactions of kansas academy of sciences 83 : 106 - 113 .
stebbins , r . c . 1966 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . houghton mifflin company , boston .
provincially , the wandering garter snake is yellow - listed , which means this species is relatively abundant and currently not at risk of extinction .
western terrestrial garter snakes bite when they feel threatened , such as when they are handled . they are considered mildly venomous , but they are not a threat to people as they have no effective means of delivering the venom and it is only mildly toxic , causing minor irritation . the venom is used by the snake to capture prey and is only delivered to small prey through a chewing action .
while this species is not necessarily more prone to bite humans than other species of garter snake , bites from this species may be of special concern . secretions from these snakes’ duvernoy’s gland may be somewhat toxic ; pain , redness and swelling have been reported by people who have been bitten by western terrestrial garter snakes . this is not a universal reaction — the one bite i have observed produced no such symptoms — but be advised that this is possible .
the san pedro mártir garter snake is found in baja california ; its common name in spanish is culebra de agua nómada de san pedro mártir .
stebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston
bartlett , r . d . and alan tennant . 1997 . snakes of north america : western region . houston : gulf .
western terrestrial garter snakes avoid predation by blending into their surroundings using cryptic coloration . when they feel threatened , they secrete the contents of their cloaca . the secretion has a bad odor that the snake will rub on itself and on predators when attacked . they may also attempt immobility , depending on body temperature and other strategies already employed . they are preyed on by a wide variety of predatory birds and mammals .
western terrestrial garter snakes are often found near water , but can be found in water as well . they are most commonly found around lakes and slow flowing streams , but occur in deserts , plains , mountains , meadows , and forests as well . when these snakes hibernate during winter , they often move into rocky areas .
manier , m . k . ; seyler , c . m . & arnold , s . j . 2007 . adaptive divergence within and between ecotypes of the terrestrial garter snake , thamnophis elegans , assessed with fst - qst comparisons . j evol biol . 20 : 1705 – 1719
webb , robert g . 1976 . a review of the garter snake thamnophis elegans in mexico . contributions in science ( 284 ) : 1 - 13
stuart , j . n . 1987 . serpentes . thamnophis elegans vagrans ( wandering garter snake ) . herpetological review 18 ( 1 ) : 21 .
the garter snake is abundant in the eastern united states ; it is the state reptile of massachusetts . while no snakes are known to be native of alaska , a road - killed specimen of a garter snake was found near haines , alaska , in 2005 , according to an article in the journal of herpetology . researchers who identified the snake through mitochondrial dna concluded that the single snake represented a relict , or remnant , population , a recent natural colonization or a fresh introduction .
thamnophis marcianus ( checkered garter snake ) : this small , southwestern snake has a dark checkered pattern over its entire body , plus three thin light - colored stripes , according to herps of texas . it is rarely longer than 2 feet .
active in daylight . chiefly terrestrial - not as dependant on water as other gartersnake species , but more likely to be found near water .
manier , m . k . 2005 . ecological correlates of population genetic structure for two coexisting garter snake species . abstract . northwestern naturalist 86 : 106 .
fitch , henry s . 1980 . remarks concerning certain western garter snakes of the thamnophis elegans complex . transactions of the kansas academy of science 83 ( 3 ) : 106 - 113 - get paper here
thamnophis sirtalis annectens ( texas garter snake ) : this common garter snake subspecies primarily resides in the lone star state , though according to wildlife north america , there is a population in kansas . it has a dark colored back with a bright red stripe down its center and two light - colored stripes on its sides .
timken , r . no date . amphibians and reptiles of the beaverhead national forest . western montana college , dillon , mt . 16 p .
the wandering garter snake can be found in most parts of southern b . c . , including vancouver island , and as far north as the peace river district .
the mexican wandering garter snake , first described as thamnophis elegans errans by hobart m . smith in 1942 , is now considered a separate species , t . errans .
campbell , r . w . 1969 . notes on some foods of the wandering garter snake on mittlenatch island , british columbia . syesis 2 : 183 - 187 .
scott , j . r . 1978 . thermal biology of the wandering garter snake . ph . d . dissertation , colorado state university , fort collins , colorado .
seyler , c . and s . j . arnold . 2005 . selection on coloration in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . abstract . northwestern naturalist 86 : 115 .
rombough , c . and l . trunk 2017 . geographic distribution : thamnophis elegans ( terrestrial gartersnake ) . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 393
generalist predator in aquatic and terrestrial habitats ( anderson 1977 ) . may specialize in amphibians during metamorphosis ( kephart and arnold 1982 , gregory 1984c ) . diet in western mt : leech 44 % , slug 24 % , fish 10 % , amphibian 10 % , miscellaneous 12 % ( anderson 1977 ) .
arnold , s . j . 1977b . polymorphism and geographic variation in the feeding behavior of the garter snake , t . elegans . science 197 : 676 - 678 .
bronikowski , a . m . 2000 . experimental evidence for the adaptive evolution of growth rate in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . evolution 54 ( 5 ) : 1760 .
fox , w . 1948b . effect of temperature on development of scutellation in the garter snake , thamnophis elegans atratus . copeia 1948 ( 4 ) : 252 - 262 .
licht , e . l . 1985 . thamnophis elegans vagrans ( gray garter snake ) , longevity . bulletin of the maryland herpetological society 21 ( 4 ) : 150 .
nicol , j . t . , r . demaree , and d . m . wootton . 1985 . levinseniella ophidea , new species ( trematoda : microphallidae ) from the western garter snake , thamnophis elegans and the bullfrog , rana catesbeiana . proceedings of the helminthological society of washington 52 ( 2 ) : 180 - 183 .
rosenberg , h . i . 1973 . functional anatomy of pulmonary ventilation in the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . journal of morphology 140 ( 2 ) : 171 - 184 .
tanner , w . w . 1950 . variation in scale and color pattern of the wander garter snake , in utah and southern idaho . herpetologica 6 : 194 - 196 .
the u . s . fish and wildlife service lists the san francisco garter snake is listed as
endangered
because it is threatened by habitat loss and over - collection .
in washington , common garter snakes have 7 upper labials and no dark spotting on the dorsal surface . throughout eastern washington and parts of western washington , the common garter snake has red blotches on the sides of the body above the lateral stripe . in the puget sound area , where common garter snakes lack red side blotches , they usually have white blotches on the skin between the scales above the lateral stripes . it may be necessary to separate the scales to see this trait .
there are 30 species of garter snakes and many more subspecies , according to the integrated taxonomic information system . the taxonomy of garter snakes is :
females retain the eggs in their body before they hatch , which is a significant energy investment . however , once western terrestrial garter snakes are born , they are left to defend themselves and there is no further parental care . the young venture out to eat anything they can find before temperatures drop too low . in order to survive the winter the young need to be aggressive in acquiring food .
cochran , p . a . 1986a . opportunistic scavenging by a garter snake in colorado . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 21 ( 3 - 4 ) : 94 - 95 .
tanner , w . w . 1949 . food of the wandering garter snake , thamnophis elegans vagrans ( baird & girard ) , in utah . herpetologica 5 : 85 - 86 .
vest , d . k . 1981a . envenomation following the bite of a wandering garter snake ( thamnophis elegans vagrans ) . clinical toxicology 18 ( 5 ) : 537 - 579 .
vest , d . k . 1981b . the toxic duvernoy ' s secretion of the wandering garter snake , thamnophis elegans vagrans . toxicon 19 ( 6 ) : 831 - 839 .
a widespread and adaptable snake found across the western half of north america , thamnophis elegans has been recorded from sea level to high elevations . it has possibly the widest prey preferences of any natricine : it will eat amphibians , earthworms , fish , mammals and other reptiles .
butts , t . w . 1997 . mountain inc . wildlife monitoring bull mountains mine no . 1 , 1996 . western technology and engineering . helena , mt .
jansen , d . w . 1980 . possible functions of duvernoy ' s gland in the wandering garter snake ( thamnophis elegans vagrans ) . american zoologist 20 ( 4 ) : 962 .
kasper , s . and s . n . kasper . 1997 . serpentes : thamnophis elegans vagrans ( wandering garter snake ) . paralysis . herpetological review 28 ( 1 ) : 46 .
macartney , j . m . and p . t . gregory . 1981 . differential susceptibility of sympatric garter snake species to amphibian secretions . american midland naturalist 106 : 271 - 281 .
peterson , c . r . and h . j . fabian . 1984 . thamnophis elegans vagrans ( wandering garter snake ) . coloration . herpetological review 15 ( 4 ) : 113 .
the common garter snake occurs throughout north america , from the atlantic ocean to the pacific ocean and into southern canada , according to the virtual nature trail at pennsylvania state university new kensington .
not dangerous ( non - poisonous ) - this snake does not have venom that is dangerous to most humans .
this snake eats a wide range of prey ( among the widest of any snake species ) , including amphibians and their larvae , fish , birds , mice , lizards , snakes , worms , leeches , slugs , and snails .
sparkman , a . , a . bronikowski , j . billings , d . von borstel , s . arnold . 2013 . avian predation and the evolution of life histories in the garter snake
stebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , boston and new york . 533 p .
geluso , keith and kenneth n . geluso . 2011 . geographic distribution : thamnophis elegans ( terrestrial gartersnake ) . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 396 - get paper here
hebard , william b . 1950 . a dimorphic color pattern of the garter snake thamnophis elegans vagrans in the puget sound region . copeia 1950 ( 3 ) : 217 - 219 - get paper here
tanner , wilmer w . 1959 . a new thamnophis from western chihuahua with notes on four other species . herpetologica 15 ( 4 ) : 165 - 172 - get paper here
highfill , d . r . 1976 . function of the corpora lutea of pregnancy in the garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) . ph . d . dissertation , university of idaho ; 52p . 1975 .
webb , r . g . 1976 . a review of the garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) in mexico . natural history museum of los angeles county contributions to science no . 284 . 13 p .
bronikowski , anne and arnold , stevan ( 1999 ) the evolutionary ecology of life history variation in the garter snake thamnophis elegans , ecology , vol 80 ( 7 ) , pg . 2314 - 2325 .
rodgers , t . l . and w . l . jellison . 1942 . a collection of amphibians and reptiles from western montana . copeia ( 1 ) : 10 - 13 .
kephart , d . g . and s . j . arnold . 1982 . garter snake diets in a fluctuating environment : a seven - year study . ecology 63 ( 5 ) : 1232 - 1236 .
bronikowski , a . m . and s . j . arnold . 1999 . the evolutionary ecology of life history variation in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . ecology 80 ( 7 ) : 2314 - 2325 .
kingery , u . c . and h . e . kingery . 2003 . standoff at a chatfield marsh : house wrens and a garter snake . colorado birds 37 ( 4 ) : 190 - 191 .
littrell , e . e . 1983 . a study of the effects of bolero 10g on the mountain garter snake , thamnophis elegans elegans . california fish and game 69 ( 3 ) : 186 - 187 .
as with all snakes , it is best not to handle the wandering garter snake . when a garter snake is handled ( by a predator or a curious human ) , it can thrash its body about , spiralling over and over in an attempt to escape . however , its best escape tactic is the release of a smelly mix of musk and feces from its vent ( the common opening to the reproductive and digestive tract ) . in addition , wandering garter snakes will bite if feeling extremely threatened .
wandering garter snakes eat almost anything that will fit in their mouth – as long as it’s alive of course ! they have the most varied diet of any snake in b . c . most wandering garter snakes eat slugs , small mammals , and fish . they also will eat amphibians , leeches , birds , and even other snakes . in coastal areas , these snakes may eat mainly fish , either fresh or salt water . despite their terrestrial name , they can be very aquatic !
for general information on keeping garter snakes in captivity , please see the care guide .
——— . 2005 . garter and water snakes . irvine ca : advanced vivarium systems .
grismer , jesse l . 1994 . food observations on the endemic sierra san pedro mártir garter snake ( thamnophis elegans hueyi ) from baja california , méxico . herpetological natural history 2 ( 1 ) : 107 - 108
drummond , h . and g . m . burghardt . 1983 . geographic variation in the foraging behavior of the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . behaviour of ecological sociobiology 12 ( 1 ) : 43 - 48 .
this is a wide ranging and common snake species associated with water . no declines have been reported in washington at this time .
western terrestrial garter snakes have well - developed senses of taste and smell but poor eyesight and poor depth perception . like other snakes , they use their tongue to pick up chemicals in the air and insert them into pits in the top of their mouth , called a jacobson ' s organ , allowing them to
smell
their environment . they can sense movement visually and respond to vibrations . they use chemical cues in mating and use a foul - smelling musk to deter predators .
arnold , s . j . 1981b . behavioral variation in natural populations ii . the inheritance of a feeding response in crosses between geographic races of the garter snake , t . elegans . evolution 35 : 510 - 515 .
farr , d . r . and p . t . gregory . 1991 . sources of variation in estimating litter characteristics of the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . journal of herpetology 25 ( 3 ) : 261 - 268 .
fox , w . , c . gordon , and m . h . fox . 1961 . morphological affect of low temperatures during the embryonic development of the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . zoologica 46 : 57 - 71 .
grismer , l . l . 1994 . food observations on the endemic sierra san pedro martir garter snake ( thamnophis elegans hueyi ) from baja california , mexico . herpetological natural history 2 ( 1 ) : 107 - 108 .
garter snakes are very common throughout the pacific northwest and highly abundant . the members of the
garter snakes are generally active during the day . beane described them as “relatively fast - moving [ and ] highly terrestrial , but [ some ] may climb into shrubs or vines ; some species climb more than others . ” wildscreen’s arkive initiative pointed out that some species are also excellent swimmers .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
western terrestrial garter snake activity patterns depend on local climates and the time of year . usually , mornings are spent warming up in the sun , they bask on surfaces that absorb and retain solar heat . once warmed up , they are active during the day and spend time hunting . they return to shelter in the evening before temperatures drop too low . they also retreat to shelter when it is too hot during the summer and emerge from their dens to bask on rocks on warm winter days . they are solitary during their active times of year , but hibernate in groups during winter or during very hot times in the summer .
farmer , p . and s . b . heath . 1987 . wildlife baseline inventory , rock creek study area , sanders county , montana . western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
a 1992 study on truckee river amphibians and reptiles found western terrestrial garter snakes living along the entire truckee river , from tahoe to pyramid . they were the most abundant reptile found during this study , and were often found near the edge of the river in grassy areas beneath under mountain alders ( alnus tenufolia ) or pacific willow ( salix lasiandra ) . these snakes were observed in the river about 19 % of the time , and were often observed swimming under rocks ( panik & barrett 1994 ) .
arnold , s . j . 1981a . behavioral variation in natural populations i . phenotypec , genetic , and environmental correlations between chemoreceptive responses to prey in the garter snake , t . elegans . evolution 35 : 489 - 509 .
berner , n . j . 1988 . molecular basis of the difference in oxygen affinity between maternal and fetal blood in the viviparous garter snake , thamnophis elegans . m . s . thesis , university of idaho . 40 p .
osypka , n . m . and s . j . arnold . 2000 . the development effect of sex ratio on a sexually dimorphic scale count in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . 34 ( 1 ) : 1 - 5 .
wandering garter snakes have one hunting trick that other species of garter snakes don’t share . when attacking large critters like adult rodents , this snake can coil its body around the prey as if constricting it , while simultaneously biting and chewing . biologists discovered that these snakes have modified saliva glands that secrete a mild toxin ( harmless to humans ) . by chewing on their prey with the enlarged teeth found in the back of their jaws , the snake injects the prey with toxin . coiling around the prey subdues it and likely protects the predator ( the snake ) from possible injury inflicted by its prey !
terrestrial gartersnakes eat a wide range of prey ( among the widest of any snake species ) , including amphibians and their larvae , fish , birds , mice , lizards , snakes , worms , leeches , slugs , and snails . at high elevations in the sierra nevada , mountain gartersnakes rely almost exclusively on amphibians for food , mostly sierran treefrogs .
cold - climate garter snakes hibernate during the winter . they hibernate in dens in large groups , with hundreds of garter snakes sometimes found together ( and sometimes other snake species , according to beane ) . according to the virtual nature trail , one den in canada was the hibernation spot of more than 8 , 000 snakes . garter snakes will travel long distances to a communal den for hibernation , according to the adw .
boundy , j . and d . a . rossman . 1995 . allocation and status of the garter snake names coluber infernalis blainville , eutaenia sirtalis tetrataenia cope , and eutaenia imperialis coues and yarrow . copeia 1995 : 236 - 240 .
kelly , k . c . , s . j . arnold , and j . gladstone . 1997 . the effects of substrate and vertebral number on locomotion in the garter snake thamnophis elegans . functional ecology 11 : 189 - 198 .
western terrestrial garter snakes have well - developed senses of taste and smell but poor eyesight and poor depth perception . their senses of taste and smell are combined and sensed through the jacobson ' s organ , a series of sensory pits at the roof of the mouth . this organ is employed when a snake thrusts its tongue out , allowing the snake to
taste
the air , and it quickly withdraws its tongue back into the mouth to further process the sensation by rubbing the tongue on the sensory pits . they can perceive small movements and follow them closely . they can sense vibrations , but it is unclear if they can hear well with their ears . these snakes have a chemical that is secreted from their cloaca and musk glands when threatened . the chemical has a foul odor that the snake rubs on itself and onto the threat when there is contact . females also use a pheromone to alert males they are ready to mate .
arnold , s . j . and p . c . phillips . 1999 . hierarchical comparison of genetic variance - covariance matrices . ii . coastal - inland divergence in the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . evolution 53 : 1516 - 1527 .
gregory , p . t . and k . m . skebo . 1998 . trade - offs between reproductive traits and the influence of food intake during pregnancy in the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . american naturalist 151 : 477 - 486 .
manier , m . k . and s . j . arnold . 2005 . population genetic analysis indentifies source - sink dynamics for two sympatric garter snake species ( thamnophis elegans and thamnophis sirtalis ) . molecular ecology 14 : 3965 - 3976 .
where did the garter snake get its funny name ? according to doug wechsler , a wildlife biologist at the academy of natural sciences of drexel university in philadelphia and author of
garter snakes
( powerkids , 2001 ) , their stripes resemble garters men used to wear to hold up their socks . another theory is that it is a corruption of the german word for “garden . ” garter snakes are sometimes erroneously called
garden snakes .
barker , b . s . , s . j . arnold , and m . e . pfrender . 2003 . comparisons of inheritance matrices in three populations of the garter snake ( thamnophis elegans ) . abstract . northwestern naturalist 84 : 94 .
gregory , p . t . , j . m . macartney , and d . h . rivard . 1980 . small mammal predation and prey handling behavior by the garter snake thamnophis elegans . herpetologica 36 ( 1 ) : 87 - 93 .
weaver , r . e . and b . a . bauer . 2005 . diet and foraging behavior of the wandering garter snake ( thamnophis elegans vagrans ) at umtanum creek , kittitas county , washington . abstract . northwestern naturalist 86 : 121 .
fitch , h . s . 1949 . study of snake populations in central california . american midland naturalist 41 ( 3 ) : 513 - 579 .
arnold , s . j . and c . r . peterson . 2002 . a model for optimal reaction norms : the case of the pregnant garter snake and her temperature - sensitive embryos . american naturalist 160 ( 3 ) : 306 - 316 .
ayres , f . a . and s . j . arnold . 1983 . behavioral variation in natural populations . iv . mendelian models and heritability of a feeding response in the garter snake , t . elegans . heredity 51 : 405 - 413 .
gomez , h . f . , m . davis , s . phillips , p . mckinney , and j . brent . 1994 . human envenomation from a wandering garter snake . annals of emergency medicine 23 ( 5 ) : 1119 - 1122 .
stevenson , r . d . , c . r . peterson and j . tsuji . 1982 . locomotion , digestion and tongue flicking of the garter snake , thamnophis elegans , at different body temperatures . america zoologist 22 ( 4 ) : 916 .
some garter snakes have intricate splotchy patterns between their stripes , making them look checkered . and their appearance really does depend on the species — beane pointed out that some garter snakes are “virtually stripeless . ”
despite its abundance , relatively few details are known about the wandering garter snake’s natural history . most garter snakes spend the winter in communal hibernacula ( underground dens shared with other snakes , even other species of snakes ) , coming out in the warm days of spring to mate . female garter snakes are live - bearing - their young are carried inside them and are born live . females give birth to between 1 and 17 young in mid to late summer .
kardong , k . v . and d . l . luchtel . 1986 . ultrastructure of duvernoy ' s gland from the wandering garter snake , thamnophis elegans vagrans ( serpentes , colubridae ) . journal of morphology 188 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 .
jennings , w . b . , d . f . bradford , and d . f . johnson . 1992 . dependence of the garter snake thamnophis elegans on amphibians in the sierra nevada of california . journal of herpetology 26 ( 4 ) : 503 - 505 .
washington’s three garter snake species are similar in appearance and have coloration and patterns that vary regionally and by individual . correct identification requires consideration of all traits including scale counts , color and pattern . although little appreciated , these are beautiful snakes with many stunning color variations .
ranges from new mexico to western oklahoma and nebraska , through the dakotas to the canadian border and west to the pacific coast . in canada , it can be found throughout the central and southern regions of saskatchewan , alberta , and manitoba .
arnold , s . j . 1982 . a quantitative approach to antipredator performance : salamander defense against snake attack . copeia 1982 ( 2 ) : 247 - 253 .
imagine yourself out doing some yard work . then you freeze in horror . there on the ground is a gleaming snake adorned with brown and pink hourglass - shaped patches . a copperhead , you think , as you and the scaly creature ease away from each other . you must behead this venomous snake immediately . where’s your hoe ?
arnold , s . j . , c . r . peterson , and j . gladstone . 1995 . behavioural variation in natural populations . vii . maternal body temperature does not affect juvenile thermoregulation in a garter snake . animal behaviour 50 ( 3 ) : 623 - 633 .
berner , n . j . , and r . l . ingermann . 1988 . molecular basis of the difference in oxygen affinity between maternal and fetal red blood cells in the viviparous garter snake thamnophis elegans . journal of experimental biology 140 ( 0 ) : 437 - 454 .
ridenhour , b . j . , e . d . brodie , jr . , and e . d . brodie iii . 1999 . effects of repeated injection of tetrodotoxin on growth and resistance to tetrodotoxin in the garter snake thamnophis sirtalis . copeia 1999 : 531 - 535 .
sweeney , roger . 1992 . the garter snakes : natural history and care in captivity . london : blandford .
schwartz ts , tae h , yang y , mockaitis k , vanhemert jl , proulx sr , choi j , bronikowski am 2010 . a garter snake transcriptome : pyrosequencing , de novo assembly , and sex - specific differences . bmc genomics 2010 , 11 : 694 - get paper here
ingermann , r . l . , n . j . berner , and f . r . ragsdale . 1991a . changes in red cell atp concentration and oxygen - affinity following birth in the neonatal garter snake , thamnophis elegans . journal of experimental biology 157 : 579 - 584 .
mead , r . a . , v . p . eroschenko , and d . r . highfill 1981 . effects of progesterone and estrogen on the histology of the oviduct of the garter snake , thamnophis elegans . general comparison of endocrinology 45 ( 3 ) : 345 - 354 .
wirsing , a . j . , j . d . roth , and d . l . murray . 2005 . can prey use dietary cues to distinguish predators ? a test involving three terrestrial amphibians . herpetologica 61 ( 2 ) : 104 - 110 .
woodbury , angus m . ; hansen , richard m . 1950 . a snake den in tintic mountains , utah . herpetologica 6 : 66 - 70 - get paper here
a coast gartersnake eating a spotted towhee in santa cruz county . the bird looks too big for the snake to swallow , but the final outcome is unknown © scott peden
usually western terrestrial garter snakes mate in the spring , but mating can also occurs in the fall . males become sexually active when the air temperature beings to rise . they produce sperm at the end of summer , which is then stored until springtime mating . females produce eggs about the same time . courtship begins when the temperature rises in the spring and females release a pheromone to alert males they are ready to mate . once females have mated , they move out of the den where they were inseminated . males stay in the den to continue mating . this suggests females with multiple male partners is the result of sexual conflict .
matthews , k . r . , r . a . knapp , and k . l . pope . 2002 . garter snake distributions in high - elevation aquatic ecosystems : is there a link with declining amphibian populations and nonnative trout introductions ? journal of herpetology 36 : 16 - 22 .
stevenson , r . d . , c . r . peterson , and j . s . tsuji . 1985 . the thermal dependence of locomotion , tongue flicking , digestion and oxygen consumption in the wandering garter snake thamnophis elegans . physiological zoology 58 ( 1 ) : 46 - 57 .
[ vtnwi ] vtn wyoming incorporated . no date . second year ' s analysis of terrestrial wildlife on proposed mine access and railroad routes in southern montana and northern wyoming , march 1979 - february 1980 . vtn wyoming incorporated . sheridan , wy . 62 p .
finley , r . b . , jr . , d . chiszar , and h . m . smith . 1994 . field observations of salivary digestion of rodent tissue by the wandering garter snake , thamnophis elegans vagrans . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 29 ( 1 ) : 5 - 6 .
bourguignon , t . 2002 . garter snakes , origins , care and species . stuttgart : verlag eugen ulmer . 2002 .
flowers , m . a . and b . m . graves . 1997 . juvenile toads avoid chemical cues from snake predators . animal behaviour 53 ( 3 ) : 641 - 646 .
minton , s . a . and s . a . weinstein . 1987 . colubrid snake venoms : immunologic relationships , electrophoretic patterns . copeia 1987 ( 4 ) : 993 - 1000 .
test , f . c . 1893 . annotated list of reptiles and batrachians collected . in b . w . evermann . a reconnaisance of the streams and lakes of western montana and northwestern wyoming . bulletin of united states fish commission 11 ( 1891 ) : 57 - 59 .
fox , w . 1952a . notes on the feeding habits of pacific coast garter snakes . herpetologica 8 : 4 - 8 .
jansen , d . w . 1987 . the myonecrotic effect of duvernoy ' s gland secretion of the snake thamnophis elegans vagrans . journal of herpetology 21 ( 1 ) : 81 - 83 .
the klamath garter snake , thamnophis elegans biscutatus ( cope , 1883 ) , is now considered an intergrade of t . e . elegans and t . e . vagrans . dark - coloured populations from the puget sound area , once classified as thamnophis elegans nigrescens johnson , 1947 , are now considered t . e . vagrans .
only one occurrence has been documented in the north cascades ecoregion . collected in 1920 , this specimen is in the us national museum collection . because of the convoluted taxonomic history of t . elegans , this specimen should be examined to verify that is not the northwestern garter snake ( t . ordinoides ) . see distribution map .
perlowin , david . 1994 . the general care and maintenance of garter snakes and water snakes . lakeside ca : advanced vivarium systems .
garter snakes defend themselves by releasing the contents of their cloaca and musk glands then smearing this pungent foul smelling mixture over themselves and their attacker . some will also regurgitate the content of their stomach and most will bite . this can make handling garter snakes somewhat unpleasant .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
this picture shows some of the variety of colors and patterns seen in a single population of this snake . all three snakes were all found at the same location in san mateo county . © john worden
drummond , h . 1983 . aquatic foraging in garter snakes : a comparison of specialists and generalists . behaviour 86 : 1 - 30 .
female garter snakes give off pheromones to attract males . dozens of males will come to one female , which is why homeowners sometimes think garter snakes are overrunning their neighborhoods . according to the biology department at reed college , this mass of mating snakes is called a “mating ball . ”
szaro , r . c . , s . c . belfit , j . k . aitkin , and r . d . babb . 1988 . the use of timed fixed - area plots and a mark - recapture technique in assessing riparian garter snake populations . u . s . forerst service general technical report rm - 166 : 239 - 246 .
while most species are classified as harmless ( non - venomous ) , their bite can cause minor swelling or itching in humans , and anyone bitten by a garter snake should clean the bite thoroughly . it is not ultimately a cause for concern . allergic reactions to the saliva have been known , but cases are extremely rare , according to the adw .
local climate and seasons dictate when western terrestrial garter snakes are active . mornings are spent warming up in the sun . they bask on surfaces that absorb and retain solar heat . once warmed up , they are most active during the day and spend time hunting . these snakes require energy to invest in reproduction and they need to eat enough to survive winter hibernation . they return to shelter in the evening before temperatures drop too low . they also retreat to shelter when it is too hot during the summer and emerge from their dens to bask on rocks on warm winter days . they are solitary during active times of the year . they den communally for winter hibernation and if they become dormant during the summer . they are likely to return to the same rocky hibernation site annually .
arnold , s . j . 1980 . inheritance and evolution of reproductive traits in garter snakes . american zoologist 20 ( 4 ) : 781 .
kephart , d . g . 1982 . microgeographic variation in the diets of garter snakes . oecologia 52 ( 2 ) : 287 - 291 .
peterson , c . r . 1981 . body temperature and energy balance in wandering garter snakes . american zoologist 21 ( 4 ) : 957 .
fox , w . 1952b . seasonal variation in the male reproductive system of pacific coast garter snakes . journal of morphology 90 : 481 - 554 .
peterson , c . r . 1979 . body temperature variation in free - living wandering garter snakes . american zoologist 19 ( 3 ) : 975 .
fox , w . 1951 . relationships among the garter snakes of the thamnophis elegans rassenkreis . univ . california publ . zool . 50 : 485 - 530
variation : the mid - dorsal stripe may be indistinct , absent or incomplete in some individuals . the lateral stripes may be indistinct . some individuals appear more spotted than striped . melanistic forms have been observed in washington . coloration of this species in the columbia basin tends to be rather dull in comparison with populations in western washington . see photos page .


gnorimoschema powelli is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it was described by povolný in 1998 .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california and arizona .

the length of the forewings is 11.2 – 13 mm .

the forewings are cinereous whitish with numerous radiate striae of deep grey to blackish .

the costa is blackish and a distinct blackish stigma in the discal area .

there is a group of blackish stigmata with distinct black but delicate scales at the apex .

there is also a linear rust ochreous shade in the apical area .

the hindwings are grey to whitish lustrous , with the veins darker .

the larvae induce galls on the stems of baccharis sarothroides .

gnorimoschema powelli

gnorimoschema powelli povolny , 1998 , n . sp . , stapfia , v . 55 , p . 327 - 347 , was formerly in the genus neoschema , zootaxa , 2231 : 24 .
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
lee , s . , r . w . hodges , & r . l . brown , 2009 , . checklist of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) in america north of mexico . zootaxa , 2231 : 1 - 39 .
povolny , d . , 1998 . new taxa and faunistic records of the tribe gnorimoschemini from the nearctic region ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . stapfia , 55 : 327 - 347 .
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eupithecia lanceata is a moth of the geometridae family .

it is found from northern europe to anatolia .

the wingspan is 17 – 21 mm .

there is one generation per year with adults on wing from mid june to mid july .

the larvae feed on a wide range of plants , including quercus robur , rumex crispus , silene cucubalus v. litoralis , angelica archangelica v. litoralis , veronica longifolia , galium verum , valeriana officinalis , chrysanthemum vulgare , artemisia vulgaris , artemisia campestris and sonchus arvensis .

larvae can be found from july to august .

it overwinters as a pupa .

eupithecia orphnata

if you know the species , please , click on the picture and write the species name in comments section . also , you can go to the gallery page with all photos of eupithecia sp . ( large size ) .
a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
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and the number of omitted authors .
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the data comes from archaeological sites , essentially directly related to human activity . species presence can have a varied origin : food leftovers ( farming , hunting , fishing or harvesting ) ; crafts ( working shell , horn , but also bones preserved inside prepared skin , etc . . . ) with the possibility of interaction between human group ; commensal anthropophilic species ( rat , mouse , sparrow , cockroach ) ; or accidentally present species .
do not be surprised to find cod or mackerel in paris in the late middle ages ( 14th - 15th c . ) . . . the sea did not come that far , but trade did .
in compliance with laws and intellectual property practices in the scientific world , unpublished data under five years ( from excavation reports , analyses , but also academia ) is never communicated .
the dots represent the sites for which a study ( or a simple recording ) of fauna and / or flora was performed ; these sites were recorded in the database zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical inventories of france ( i2af ) . the lack of dots can mean both a lack of data and / or lack of recording .
the dots remain gray when the selected species is absent from the site . symbols of different colour mark the presence of the species in different periods .
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