aculifera is a proposed clade of molluscs incorporating those groups that have no conch or shell , that is , the polyplacophora , caudofoveata ( = chaetodermomorpha ) and solenogastres ( = neomeniomorpha ) .

it is sister to the conchifera .

aculifera

comments : either basal aculiferan , intermediate between aculifera and monoplacophora , or both .
› childia aculifera nilsson , wallberg & jondelius , 2011 › childia sp . n . 1 kn - 2011
] that also placed cephalopoda a sister group to aculifera . the odd placement of cephalopoda here and in the above - mentioned studies [
] ) , although with low support ( except aculifera in bi that has a posterior probability of 0 . 99 ) . in contrast , both phylogenetic analyses failed to recover the monophyly of conchifera because cephalopoda was placed as sister group of aculifera ( with low support in ml but with maximal bayesian posterior probability ) ( figure
] genes , respectively , recovered monophyletic mollusca , aplacophora , and aculifera , thus rejecting the testaria hypothesis . one of these studies included monoplacophora , which was placed within conchifera , thus providing no support for the serialia hypothesis [
ivanov dl : origin of aculifera and problems of monophyly of higher taxa in molluscs . origin and evolutionary radiation of the mollusca . edited by : taylor jd . 1996 , oxford university press , oxford , 56 - 65 .
] place polyplacophora ( chitons ) as sister group of conchifera ( monoplacophora , bivalvia , gastropoda , cephalopoda , and scaphopoda ) , forming the clade testaria . alternatively , the aculifera hypothesis proposes a sister group relationship of polyplacophora and aplacophora , suggesting that the aplacophoran morphology was secondarily modified from a chiton - like ancestor [
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see the world ( and its fossils ) with ucmp ' s field notes .
a cuttlefish , a coleoid cephalopod , moves primarily by undulating its body fins .
mollusca is one of the most diverse groups of animals on the planet , with at least 50 , 000 living species ( and more likely around 200 , 000 ) . it includes such familiar organisms as snails , octopuses , squid , clams , scallops , oysters , and chitons . mollusca also includes some lesser known groups like the
, a group once thought to be extinct for millions of years until one was found in 1952 in the deep ocean off the coast of costa rica .
molluscs are a clade of organisms that all have soft bodies which typically have a
head
and a
foot
region . often their bodies are covered by a hard exoskeleton , as in the shells of snails and clams or the plates of chitons .
a part of almost every ecosystem in the world , molluscs are extremely important members of many ecological communities . they range in distribution from terrestrial mountain tops to the hot vents and cold seeps of the deep sea , and range in size from 20 - meter - long giant squid to microscopic aplacophorans , a millimeter or less in length , that live between sand grains .
on the left is a marine snail , the california trivia ( trivia californiana ) . here the mantle covers much of the shell . note how a portion of the mantle is rolled into a tube shape to form the siphon just above the head . at the right is a restoration of one of the largest of all molluscs , the giant squid ( architeuthis ) .
they also have a very long and rich fossil record going back more than 550 million years , making them one of the most common types of organism used by paleontologists to study the history of life .
molluscan systematics are still in flux . as you can see from the cladogram below , there is still no agreement on some of the major relationships . the polytomies shown indicate that the question of which molluscs are the most closely related is still a matter of debate .
however , new types of data and much larger and more sophisticated analyses continue to be performed . the resolved relationships shown ( such as cephalopods , scaphopods , and gastropods ) are recent discoveries .
visit the mollusca pages on the tree of life for more on molluscan systematics .
despite their amazing diversity , all molluscs share some unique characteristics that define their body plan . the body has a head , a foot and a visceral mass . this is all covered with a mantle ( also known as a pallium ) that typically secretes the shell . in some groups , like slugs and octopuses , the mantle is secondarily lost , while in others , it is used for other activities , such as respiration .
the freshwater sinistral pond snail ( physella sp . ) scrapes algae from the glass with its radula , the two
toothy
arcs you can see lining the mouth . click on the photo for a closer look .
the buccal cavity , at the anterior of the mollusc , contains a radula ( lost in bivalves )  a ribbon of teeth supported by an odontophore , a muscular structure . the radula is generally used for feeding . the ventral foot is used in locomotion . this foot propels the mollusc by utilizing muscular waves and / or cilia in combination with mucus .
typically , at least in the more primitive members of each group , there are one or more pairs of gills ( called ctenidia ) which lie in a posterior cavity ( the pallial cavity ) or in a posterolateral groove surrounding the foot . the pallial cavity typically contains a pair of sensory osphradia ( for smelling ) and is the space into which the kidneys , gonads , and anus open .
molluscs are coelomate , although the coelom is reduced and represented by the kidneys , gonads , and pericardium , the main body cavity which surrounds the heart .
molluscs occur in almost every habitat found on earth , where they are often the most conspicuous organisms . while most are found in the marine environment , extending from the intertidal to the deepest oceans , several major gastropod clades live predominantly in freshwater or terrestrial habitats . remarkably , one study found around 3000 species within a single locality at a coral reef in new caledonia . in terrestrial communities , gastropods can achieve reasonably high diversity and abundance : as many as 60 - 70 species may coexist in a single habitat and abundance in leaf litter can exceed more than 500 individuals in four liters of litter .
many marine molluscs emerge from their eggs as planktonic trochophore larvae , however , sinistral pond snails ( physella sp . ) emerge from their eggs as young snails . the whitish , jellybean - shaped organisms are ostracodes ( crustaceans ) .
including rocky shores , coral reefs , mud flats , and sandy beaches . gastropods and chitons are characteristic of these hard substrates , and bivalves are commonly associated with softer substrates where they burrow into the sediment . however , there are many exceptions : the largest living bivalve ,
, lives on coral reefs , and many bivalves ( e . g . , mussels and oysters ) attach themselves to hard substrates . some microscopic gastropods even live interstitially between sand grains .
large concentrations of gastropods and bivalves are found at hydrothermal vents in the deep sea . living in these or other dysoxic habitats appears to be a plesiomorphic condition for the mollusca and several outgroups . for example , the fauna of palaeozoic hydrothermal vent communities includes the molluscan groups bivalvia , monoplacophora and gastropoda as well as the outgroups brachiopoda and annelida .
) that resembles those of molluscs . the earliest unequivocal molluscs are helcionelloid molluscs that date from late
the coeloscleritophora are also present . most of the familiar groups , including gastropods , bivalves , monoplacophorans , and rostroconchs , all date from the early cambrian , whereas cephalopods are first found in the middle cambrian , polyplacophorans in the late cambrian , and the scaphopoda in the middle
. most of these early taxa tend to be small ( 10 mm in length ) . the late vendian - early cambrian taxa bear little resemblance to the cambrian - ordovician taxa ( most of which remain extant today ) .
on the left is inoceramus sp . , a bivalve from the cretaceous of alameda county , ca . at right is turritella andersoni , a gastropod from the eocene of ventura county , ca .
original text by paul bunje , 2003 . photos of cuttlefish , california trivia , giant squid , sinistral pond snail radula and eggs , all © larry jon friesen . photos of inoceramus and turritella andersoni by sarah rieboldt , © ucmp . mollusca phylogeny based on sigwart , j . d . , and m . d . sutton . 2007 . deep molluscan phylogeny : synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data . proceedings of the royal society b 274 ( 1624 ) : 2413 - 2419 ; and suggestions from gonzalo giribet , harvard university .
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higher taxa and partial synonyms : matthevina fisher 1962 ; chelodina runnegar et al . 1979 ; paleoloricata cherns 1998 .
characters : massive , elongate , non - overlapping valves , monoplacophoran - like shells and muscle scars . paraphyletic assemblage
hemithecella is a problematic multiplated late cambrian and early ordovician genus , with muscle scars identical to a monoplacophorans , unlike the musculature of the chitons . it therefore cannot be included in the latter group ( stinchcomb & darrough 1995 , pojeta et al 2010 ) . wikipedia
vendrasco and runnegar argue that mattheviids are polyplacophoran on the basis of shared valve characters such as including granules , an apical shelf , a thin anterior margin , bilateral symmetry , three valve types , and a shell layer perforated with canals . the mattheviids themselves constitute a gradation between classic forms such as matthevia variabilis with non - overlapping , spiky valves , and more traditional paleozoic chitons such as chelodes ( vendrasco & runnegar 2004 ) . mak120607
comments : originally sole species of monotypal family septemochitonidae and suborder septemchitonina . seven rather than the usual eight valves ; phylogenetic position uncertain ; the cladogram by sigwart & sutton 2007 makes septemochiton the sister taxon of the mattheviid robustum . hoare & pojeta 2006 define the septemochitonida bergenhayn , 1955 as
paleoloricates with intermediate plates differentiated into central and lateral areas .
and include a number of families and genera . they fgive the range as ordovician to devonian mak120607
two specimens of simrothiellidae sp . ( aplacophora : solenogastres : cavibelonia ) in vivo from north fiji back - arc basin , site white lady ; cruise tuim06mv ( june 2005 , mbari ) . strange as it seems , these shell - less worm - like creatures are actually molluscs .
photo by denisia 18 and chess - biogeography of deep - water chemosynthetic ecosystems . publisher : © chris allen , photographer © g . rouse . , creative commons non - commercial attribution via encylopedia of life .
blumrich j . ( 1891 ) . das integument der chitonen . zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche zoologie 52 , 404– 476 , plates 23–30 [ foreword by b . hatscheck ] . [ details ]
stasek c . , 1972 . the molluscan framework . in : florkin , m . , scheer , b . t . ( eds . ) , chemical zoology , vol . 7 , pp . 1–44 . [ details ]
glaubrecht , g . , maitas , l . & salvini - plawen l . v . ( 2005 ) aplacophoran mollusca in the natural history museum berlin . an annotated catalogue of thiele ' s type specimens , with a brief review of
aplacophora
. mitteilungen aus der museum für naturkunde in berlin – zoologische reihe 81 , 145 - 166 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
scheltema , amélie h . 1993 . aplacophora as progenetic aculiferans and the coelomate origin of mollusks as the sister taxon of sipuncula . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole 184 ( 1 ) : 57 - 78 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
steiner g . & dreyer , h . 2003 - molecular phylogeny of scaphopoda ( mollusca ) inferred from 18s rdna sequences : support for a scaphopoda - cephalopoda clade . zoologica scripta 32 : 343 - 356 . [ details ]
runnegar b . & pojeta , j . 1974 molluscan phylogeny : the paleontological viewpoint . science 186 ( 4161 ) : pp . 311 - 317 [ details ]
phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial sequences showed strong among - lineage rate heterogeneity that produced long - branch attraction biases . removal of long branches ( namely those of bivalves and patellogastropods ) ameliorated but not fully resolved the problem . best results in terms of statistical support were achieved when mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data were concatenated .
] . more recently , attempts to reconstruct the phylogeny of mollusks were based on concatenated matrices spanning many genes . a study [
] arrived at highly supported but contrasting conchiferan interclass relationships . while both studies support a basal position of cephalopoda ( + monoplacophora in [
] . although the number of completely sequenced mollusk mt genomes has increased considerably in the last few years , the majority belong to the most common and economically important mollusk classes i . e . , cephalopoda [
was assembled as a 14662 bp circular molecule . like most metazoan mt genomes , it encodes for 13 protein - coding , 22 trna and 2 rrna genes ( figure
, which begins with gtg . several genes show complete stop codons , either taa ( as in
protein - coding ( red ) , rrna ( green ) and trna ( blue ) genes are shown . arrows indicate sense of transcription . genes have standard abbreviations and are not scaled to real length . s1 , s2 , l1 , and l2 designate genes for those trnas recognizing the codons agn , ucn , cun , and uur , respectively . figure modified from the output of the mitos pipeline [
was compared with the mt genome organization in other mollusks . the unpublished mt genome of the chaetodermomorph
arrangements are conserved , whereas gene pairs that are normally conserved in other metazoan mt genomes ( e . g .
) . new complete mt genome sequences of more ( early - branching ) lineages within scaphopoda are needed in order to determine whether scaphopoda ancestrally conformed or not to the consensus ancestral mt gene order of mollusks . within gastropoda and bivalvia , highly derived mt genome organizations can be found due to extensive gene rearrangements [
] has been proposed to cause higher substitution rates and thus faster saturation of the phylogenetic signal , hampering their use in reconstructing deep phylogenies . in addition , neomeniomorpha and monoplacophora could not be incorporated into the phylogenetic analyses because complete mt genomes are not available for these lineages thus far . finally , due to the relatively high substitution rates of mtdna , saturation is another major issue affecting the reconstruction of deep nodes based on mt markers . here , we opted to analyze mt data at the amino acid level to reduce the effect of saturation .
( heterobranchia ) and scaphopoda , both in ml and bi . this clade is the sister group of remaining gastropods with low bootstrap support in ml or of cephalopods with maximal posterior probability support in bi ( figure
phylogenetic relationships of main mollusk lineages based on complete mt genome data . the reconstructed ml ( a ) and bi ( b ) trees are depicted , inferred from a concatenated data set of mt protein coding genes at the amino acid level ( see main text ) . numbers above nodes correspond to bootstrap proportions ( a ) and bayesian posterior probabilities ( b ) . hyphens ( - ) indicate values below 70 % bootstrap support .
] . here , we selected nuclear genes from those matrices that minimized missing data and maximized taxon coverage to resolve the question at hand . the partial deduced amino acid sequences of 13 nuclear ribosomal protein genes ( see also [
] ) were aligned for 5 outgroup taxa and main mollusk lineages ( 19 species ) . the concatenation of ribosomal proteins yielded an alignment of 2362 positions after removal of ambiguous sites . phylogenetic analyses under ml ( - lnl = 33338 . 02 ) and bi ( arithmetic mean of the two runs , - lnl = 36866 . 21 ) recovered similar topologies that only differed on the relative position of the neritimorph
] , which recovered cephalopoda as the sister group of chaetodermomorpha or neomeniomorpha , respectively . however , our reconstructed trees resemble those based on housekeeping genes [
] . this might be a tree reconstruction artifact produced by lba biases generated by the inclusion of relatively distantly related spiralian phyla in the outgroup .
although with a different lineage sampling and species representation , the mt and nuclear data sets rendered rather congruent trees with several nodes in common . therefore , we concatenated the nuclear and mt data sets . the phylogenetic analyses of the combined ( mt and nuclear ) data set ( 5032 sites after removal of ambiguous positions ) under ml ( - lnl = 101714 . 93 ) and bi ( arithmetic mean of the two runs , - lnl = 116220 . 97 ) arrived at very similar topologies that only differed in the relative position of bivalvia and scaphopoda ( figure
] . it is noteworthy that the reconstructed phylogeny based on the combined data set differs from the nuclear - based tree indicating that addition of mt data has a significant ( and distinct ) contribution to the overall phylogenetic inference . furthermore , previously encountered lba artifacts when mt data was analyzed alone ( related to scaphopoda , bivalvia and
reconstructing the monophyly and internal phylogenetic relationships of mollusca based on molecular data has been challenging over the years . earlier studies were mostly based on partial gene sequences with insufficient informative characters to reconstruct robust and resolved trees [
] based on concatenated nuclear genes have produced well - resolved trees . however , comparison of these trees showed some contradicting but highly supported nodes . another alternative is to investigate phylogenetic information contained in complete mt genomes . a first attempt to use whole mt genome data for clarifying the relative phylogenetic position of mollusks within bilaterians was not satisfying [
] . our phylogenetic analyses reveal that the use of mt genome data for reconstructing the internal phylogenetic relationships of mollusks is flawed by the existence of high heterogeneity of evolutionary rates among lineages . in particular , the mt genomes of bivalvia and
salvini - plawen , 1968 ( mollusca ; chaetodermomorpha ) were collected in march 2010 close to bergen , in the norwegian west coast . total genomic dna of a single specimen was isolated following standard phenol - chloroform extraction procedures [
buffer , 2 μlof dntp mixture ( 2 . 5 mm each ) , 1 . 5 μlof each primer , 0 . 5 μlof template dna , 0 . 16 μlex
hot start dna polymerase ( 5 units / μl ; takara bio inc . , otsu , shiga , japan ) , and sterilized distilled water up to 25 μl . the following temperature profile was used : an initial denaturing step at 98°c for 2 min ; 35 cycles of denaturing at 98°c for 10 s , annealing at 50°c for 30 s , and extending at 72°c for 1 min ; and a final extending step at 72°c for 1 min . pcr products were purified by ethanol precipitation , and sequenced in an automated dna sequencer abi prism 3700 using the bigdye terminator v3 . 1 cycle - sequencing kit ( applied biosystems ; foster city , ca , usa ) , and pcr primers .
the complete mt genome was assembled into a single contig from the shotgun clone sequences using sequencher v . 5 . 0 . 1 ( gene codes co . ; ann arbor , mi , usa ) . the mt genome was annotated using the mitos [
] webservers . briefly , protein - coding genes were annotated by identification of their open reading frames and similarity searches against other reported mollusk mt genomes . ribosomal rna genes were identified by sequence comparison with other reported mollusk mt genomes , and assumed to extend to the boundaries of adjacent genes . transfer rna genes were identified using trnascan - se v . 1 . 21 [
] , which can infer cloverleaf secondary structures of the corresponding gene products . the complete mt genome sequence reported in this paper has been deposited at ncbi genbank under accession number kc757645 .
: table s1 ) . similarly , a nuclear data set was constructed with the deduced amino acid sequences of the genes coding for 40s ribosomal proteins s8 and s15 , and 60s ribosomal proteins l3 , l4 , l5 , l6 , l7 , l8 , l10a , l16 _ l10 , l17 , l18a , and l32 . these genes were extracted from kocot et al . ( 2011 ) and were selected among available genes because they minimized missing data . this nuclear data set included five species representing several metazoan phyla other than mollusca and 19 representatives of the main extant mollusk lineages ( see additional file
] already merged closely related species to maximize gene coverage . the species showing the shortest branches were selected as representatives of the different lineages in the three data sets .
deduced amino acid sequences of the different mt and nuclear protein - coding genes were downloaded from genbank and aligned separately using mafft v . 7 [
] with default settings . ambiguously aligned positions were removed using gblocks , v . 0 . 19b [
and ( 4 ) all genes independently . for the nuclear data set we tested ( 1 ) all genes combined , ( 2 ) by functional group (
genes ) , and ( 3 ) all independent . for the combined data set , we tested all above - mentioned partition schemes . the aic favored independent gene partitions in the nuclear and the combined data sets , whereas the best partition scheme for the mt data sets was that with all genes analyzed separately except for
phylogenetic relationships were inferred using maximum likelihood ( ml ) and bayesian inference ( bi ) . ml analyses were conducted with raxml v . 7 . 0 . 4 [
] using the rapid hill - climbing algorithm . for bi , we used mrbayes v . 3 . 1 . 2 [
] running two independent analyses , each consisting in four simultaneous mcmc ( markov chain monte carlo ) for 10 million generations , sampling every 1 , 000 generations , and discarding the first 25 % generations as burnin ( as judged by plots of ml scores and low sd of split frequencies ) to prevent sampling before reaching stationarity of markov chains . support for internal branches was evaluated by non - parametric bootstrapping [
] with 1 , 000 replicates ( ml ) and by posterior probabilities ( bi ) .
additional file 1 : figure s1 . : comparison of mitochondrial gene orders of scutopus ventrolineatus and chaetoderma nitidulum . table s1 . complete mitochondrial genomes used in the phylogenetic analyses . table s2 . fragments of nuclear ribosomal proteins used in phylogenetic analyses . table s3 . best - fit partitions and models selected by protein partition finder . ( pdf 569 kb )
rz conceived the study . ct conducted the sampling and identification of individuals . do carried out laboratory work . do , cg and ii performed phylogenetic and comparative analyses . all authors contributed to the writing and improving of the manuscript , as well as read and approved the final version .
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henslow 's sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) is a passerine bird in the emberizidae family , which contains buntings , juncos and towhees .

it was named by john james audubon in honor of john stevens henslow .

henslow ' s sparrow

henslow ' s _ sparrow _ 1 _ 3 - 8 - 16 . jpg
henslow ' s _ sparrow _ 2 _ 3 - 8 - 16 . jpg
henslow ' s _ sparrow _ singing _ 3 - 8 - 16 . jpg
one of the main threats to henslow’s sparrow is the destruction of its grassland habitat .
henslow’s sparrow lives in prairies , moist grasslands , alfalfa fields , and weedy fields .
robins , j . 1971 . a study of henslow ' s sparrow in michigan .
adult male henslow ' s sparrow ; prairie state park , mo ; may 1994 .
henslow’s sparrow is typically found in tall , dense grassland , including swamps and tallgrass prairies .
henslow ' s _ sparrow _ in _ prairie _ 3 - 8 - 16 . jpg
the song of the henslow’s sparrow is a simple , easy to overlook , insectlike song .
henslow ' s sparrow at the nature conservancy ' s caveny tract along the central platte river . © chris helzer
henslow’s sparrow is a small , inconspicuous bird , and produces a feeble hiccup - like call .
henslow’s sparrow is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
herkert , j . 2007 . evidence for a recent henslow ' s sparrow population increase in illinois .
meadows , and pastures are home to breeding and migrating henslow’s sparrows . henslow’s sparrows prefer habitats of high , dense
the henslow ' s sparrow sings most actively at dawn and dusk , but sometimes sings all night long .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . henslow ' s sparrow status assessment . - . bloomington , indiana : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1996 .
the henslow ' s sparrow takes flight only with great reluctance , preferring to flee from threats by running through the grass .
henslow’s sparrow is a tiny , four - inch bird weighing less than an ounce that lives reclusively in tall prairie grasses .
grasslands which provide henslow ' s sparrow breeding habitat are characterized by tall , dense grass with a well - developed litter layer and a relatively high coverage of standing dead vegetation . the grasslands support sparse woody vegetation , but extensive woody invasion preclude use by henslow ' s sparrow . habitat area is considered a limiting factor for henslow ' s sparrow ; only large grasslands support persistent populations .
henslow ' s sparrow was named by john james audubon in honor of john stevens henslow , a botanist , minister , good friend of audubon , and teacher of charles darwin .
the henslow ' s sparrow’s nest is a cup of grasses and is lined with finer materials . it is placed on or near the ground , well hidden in vegetation .
henslow’s sparrow is small , shy , with a flat - looking , olive - green head . it lives in prairies and other grasslands .
henslow ' s sparrow breeds best in large plots of grassland within an even larger matrix of similar habitats , and the partners in flight ‘bird conservation area’ management plan tries to maintain such conditions . so far , henslow ' s sparrow has responded positively to these efforts ( 4 ) .
henslow ' s sparrows historically bred in the tallgrass prairies of the great plains .
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hyde , a . s . 1939 . the life history of henslow ' s sparrow : passerherbulus henslowi ( audubon ) . ann arbor : univ . of michigan misc . publ . close
habitat fragmentation is also a significant threat to henslow ' s sparrow due to this species preferring to breed in large areas of continuous habitat ( 4 ) .
the diet of the henslow’s sparrow is comprised of invertebrates and seeds . the bird consumes crickets , grasshoppers , and other invertebrates . in addition , these sparrows
jones , c . m . 1881 . henslow ' s sparrow nesting in northern connecticut . ornithol . oölogist no . 6 : 17 - 18 . close
when flushed from prairie grasses , henslow ' s sparrows typically make only short flights .
the oldest recorded henslow ' s sparrow was at least 6 years , 6 months old when it was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in louisiana in 2001 .
u . s . department of agriculture , forest service . conservation assessment : henslow’s sparrow . gen . tech . rep . nc - 226 . . north central : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service . 2002 .
a migratory species , henslow’s sparrow winters in some south - easterly states of the usa , and travels to more north - easterly states in the summer to breed .
robins , j . d . 1971a . a study of the henslow ' s sparrow in michigan . wilson bull . no . 83 : 39 - 48 . close
burhans , d . e . ( 2002 ) conservation assessment - henslow’s sparrow ammodramus henslowii . north central research station , forest service , u . s . department of agriculture , st . paul , minnesota .
henslow’s sparrows resemble adults but are duller overall , and have little , if any , streaking below . the song of this sparrow is a two - note , buzzy “
once common on the tallgrass prairies of the midwest and wet grasslands of eastern north america , the henslow ' s sparrow is a remarkably inconspicuous grassland bird . it prefers habitats with tall , dense vegetation and thick litter , whereas the allied grasshopper sparrow (
herkert , j . r . 1994b . status and habitat selection of the henslow ' s sparrow in illinois . wilson bull . no . 106 : 35 - 45 . close
henslow’s sparrows are a grassland bird in decline nationally and considered a “species of concern” by the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the henslow’s sparrow is a small short - tailed sparrow ( 13 cm , 10 - 15 g ) distinguished by its relatively large , flat - topped head with olive - green colouring , chestnut - coloured wings and back , and lightly streaked pale breast . the henslow’s sparrow is considered an indicator species for the state of grassland habitats , including native prairies and surrogate agricultural grasslands in southern ontario and in the eastern and central united states .
smith , d . j . , and c . r . smith . 1992 . henslow ' s sparrow and grasshopper sparrow : a comparison of habitat use on finger lakes national forest , new york . bird observer 20 ( 4 ) : 187 - 194 .
originally the distribution of henslow ' s sparrow was concentrated in two areas : the central prairies of the united states and the coastal marshes of the atlantic coast . as the forests in the intervening states were cut down , the henslow ' s sparrow moved into the newly created grasslands , connecting the two centers of distribution . it has largely disappeared from coastal marshes .
during late april and may , henslow’s sparrows arrive on their breeding grounds . singing males perch atop tall
henslow’s sparrow is found in several protected sites within its range , including apalachicola national forest in florida and big oaks national wildlife refuge in indiana ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . however , many of these areas are protected primarily for the conservation of other species . for instance , henslow’s sparrow has responded indirectly to efforts to preserve the mississippi sandhill crane ( grus canadensis pulla ) in mississippi . however , in missouri and illinois the methods of conservation in place for the greater prairie chicken ( tympanuchus cupido ) are not necessarily beneficial to henslow’s sparrow ( 4 ) .
in the eastern united states , the most similar species are the savannah sparrow and the grasshopper sparrow . the savannah sparrow has distinctive yellow on the lores , the area between the bill and the eyes , and on its eyebrow . the grasshopper sparrow lacks the greenish color of the head and has almost no streaking on the breast and belly .
breeding interval henslow ' s sparrows may raise 2 broods per year , in early spring and late summer .
the juvenile henslow’s sparrow is similar to the adult but has less distinct markings on its head , is duller in colour , and lacks the streaks on the chest ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .
zimmerman , j . l . 1988 . breeding season habitat selection by the henslow ' s sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) in kansas . wilson bull . no . 100 : 17 - 24 . close
learn more about how we work to save landscapes across the globe to protect species like henslow ' s sparrows .
humans present a great threat to henslow ' s sparrow populations through fragmentation of territory and agriculture . snakes such as blue racers are known predators of this species . there are a few reports of nest parasitism by brown - headed cowbirds but the level of parasitism is relatively low ( as henslow ' s sparrow coevolved with brown - headed cowbirds , it is likely that the sparrow has become adapted to resist nest parasitism from this species ) . thirteen - lined ground squirrels are documented predators of young henslow ' s sparrows , as are feral cats . investigators have documented increased nest predation with proximity of grassland to woody cover .
the henslow ' s sparrow is a species of concern throughout most of its southeastern range . because of its preferences for moist grasslands , mowing and draining low - lying fields causes great disturbance for these birds .
there are few reports of nest parasitism by brown - headed cowbirds ; this may be because henslow ' s sparrows coevolved with brown - headed cowbirds and the sparrows have become adapted to cowbird parasitism . however , rejection of cowbird eggs or other potential behaviors to minimize the impacts of cowbird parasitism have not been observed in henslow ' s sparrow . henslow ' s sparrows are also hosts to a number of parasites , including red mites and lice .
) usually select drier sites with shorter and less dense vegetation . henslow ' s sparrow is often difficult to detect because it sings from inconspicuous perches on low forbs , shrubs , or grasses . even when singing from an exposed perch , it is easy to overlook this sparrow ' s dry , thin , insectlike song , accurately described as a “feeble hiccup” (
henslow ' s sparrows inhabit tallgrass prairies with little woody vegetation , reclaimed surface mines , and moist , weedy fields .
herkert , j . 2003 .
northern prairie wildlife research center
( on - line ) . effects of management practices on grassland birds : henslow ' s sparrow . accessed april 01 , 2012 at urltoken .
periodic fire or other disturbances are needed to control brush in henslow ' s sparrow habitat , but disturbances that are too intensive or too frequent do not leave behind enough thick , grassy cover for the species to occupy .
henslow’s sparrows arrive in missouri in spring and remain here to breed . they leave our state by the end of october .
henslow ' s sparrows nests are difficult to locate , because the female often runs some distance before flushing from the nest .
an uncommon and famously inconspicuous bird , the henslow ' s sparrow breeds in weedy grasslands of the east - central united states . its population numbers have declined steadily over the past few decades , largely because of habitat loss .
the henslow ' s sparrow is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .
winter habitats of henslow ' s sparrow are similar to breeding habitats , in that they are dominated by dense groundcover . either pine forests or open prairies are suitable winter habitat , provided that dense groundcover is present . the winter habitat requirements have not been rigorously studied until recently ; 3 ongoing studies represent the first systematic research on wintering henslow ' s sparrows .
similar species : sparrow ids can be tricky . in this case , consider the habitat . here are two other sparrows to look for in missouri’s prairies : grasshopper sparrow has tan cheeks and clear buff underparts , with no streaks on the neck . le conte’s sparrow is rarely seen here in summer ; it has a broad , orange - buff eyebrow . dickcissels are somewhat sparrowlike and can be common in prairies , too .
the future of grassland habitats is uncertain . the grassland habitats required by henslow ' s sparrow are transitory in nature and require cyclic disturbance ( natural or man - made ) to be maintained . publicly - owned lands , lands owned by private conservation organizations , and possibly lands enrolled in the conservation reserve program ( crp ) offer the most potential for henslow ' s sparrow management . there is a need to evaluate the potential for improving grassland management practices , particularly on publicly owned lands which currently support most large , persistent populations of henslow ' s sparrow . opportunities to incorporate grassland bird management into agricultural programs , particularly the crp , and innovative agricultural practices , such as rotational grazing , should also be evaluated .
eaton , s . w . 1988 . henslow ' s sparrow . ammodramus henslowii . pages 450 - 451 in andrle , r . f . and j . r . carroll , eds . the atlas of breeding birds in new york state . cornell univ . press , ithaca , ny .
tallgrass prairies support a staggering diversity of plants and animals , even within a small section of land . in the past , the central united states was a sea of prairie , but today it’s a sea of agriculture . henslow’s sparrow is part of the glorious diversity supported in our native grasslands .
a shy bird , the henslow’s sparrow will usually flee interlopers on foot , rather than flying away . however it is social within its species , breeding in loose colonies , building nests at the base of grass clumps and feeding on insects and seeds . the sparrow requires very specific breeding habitat : dense grass with standing dead vegetation and little to no woody vegetation .
one of the main threats to henslow ' s sparrow is the destruction of its grassland breeding habitat ( 4 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) , be it through conversion to agriculture and pine plantations or the draining of wetlands ( 8 ) . the use of faster - growing hay has also meant that harvesting occurs earlier and more frequently , actively destroying the ground nests of grassland - nesting birds such as henslow’s sparrow ( 4 ) . in addition , this species is known to be vulnerable to pesticide exposure ( 9 ) .
henslow ' s sparrows breed locally across parts of the eastern u . s . , midwest , and eastern great plains . they winter in the southeastern u . s . the population has declined in some areas , but has increased in the western portions of its range .
peterson , a . 1983 . observations on habitat selection by henslow ' s sparrows in broome county , new york . kingbird 33 - 155 - 164 .
a grassland species , henslow’s sparrow historically bred in the tallgrass prairies of the great plains . it now nests mostly in neglected grassy fields , pastures and meadows . there are two distinct subspecies of the sparrow : eastern and western . the western sparrow inhabits the rough parallelogram described by eastern south dakota , southern ontario , central kansas and central west virginia . the eastern variety can be found along the american east coast from northern new york to central north carolina . a possible third subspecies once resided in coastal texas , but is considered extinct .
the head and neck of henslow’s sparrow are olive - green ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) , with blackish stripes patterning the crown ( 6 ) . the wings and upperparts of this species are mostly brown to reddish - brown ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) and are marked with black streaks and narrow whitish fringes to the feathers ( 6 ) . henslow’s sparrow has a white or buffy chest , and is finely streaked across the breast and flanks ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the bill is grey ( 4 ) .
any effort to manage for henslow ' s sparrow should not be viewed in isolation , but rather should be seen as an opportunity to benefit a wide - range of species associated with grassland habitats . the grassland ecosystems on which henslow ' s sparrow depends are considered among the most endangered ecosystems in north america . integrated management for grassland - dependent species is a sound ecological approach , and also makes most efficient use of economic and logistic resources . recent initiatives demonstrate that conservation and management of grassland birds are receiving increased attention ; these initiatives need to be encouraged and expanded .
most henslow ' s sparrows breed in the northern areas of eastern united states . they spend winters in southern coastal areas in the southeast , and during this time may breed in low numbers in virginia and kentucky . within georgia , wintering henslow ' s sparrows occur in the southern two - thirds of the state .
mcgowan , k . j . 2008 . henslow ' s sparrow . ammodramus henslowii . pages 558 - 559 in mcgowan , k . j . and k . corwin , eds . the second atlas of breeding birds in new york state . cornell univ . press , ithaca , ny .
during the breeding season , henslow’s sparrow generally favours tall , dense grassland ( 3 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) with a thick litter layer in which to hide nests ( 3 ) ( 8 ) , and can even be found on hayfields and reclaimed strip mine sites which have been planted with grasses ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . breeding habitats for this bird tend to be within large , flat and damp areas with few or no trees , although forbs are often present , and are used by henslow’s sparrow as perches upon which to sing ( 3 ) .
plentovich , s . m . , n . r . holler and g . e . hill . 1998a . site fidelity of wintering henslow ' s sparrows . j . field ornithol . no . 69 : 486 - 490 . close
the lifespan of henslow ' s sparrows is short , with a generation time ranging from 2 to 3 years age and an average longevity of 6 . 5 years .
robins , j . d . 1971b . differential niche utilization in a grassland sparrow . ecology no . 52 : 1065 - 1070 . close
herkert , j . r . , vickery , p . d . and kroodsma , d . e . ( 1997 ) henslow’s sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) . in : poole , a . ( ed . ) the birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
committe on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . cosewic assesssment and status report on the henslow ' s sparrow ammodramus henslowii in canada . x + 37 pp . ottawa : cosewic . 2011 . accessed april 01 , 2012 at www . sararegistry / . gc . ca / status _ e . cfm .
prairies , moist grasslands , alfalfa fields , and weedy fields . like the le conte’s sparrow , it is shy , reluctant to fly , and requires some effort to get a good look . listen for its song at dusk and dawn ; it sometimes sings at night , too . compared to the grasshopper sparrow , henslow’s is more likely to be found in less dry , medium - high to tall grasslands with a 2–3 year accumulation of grass thatch from previous growing seasons . prefers native prairie and diverse , nonfescue grasslands .
plentovich , s . , n . r . holler and g . e . hill . 1999 . habitat requirements of henslow ' s sparrows wintering in silvacultural lands of the gulf coastal plain . auk no . 116 : 109 - 115 . close
the loss of winter habitat is also affecting henslow ' s sparrow ( 4 ) ( 7 ) ( 9 ) , though not as greatly . in particular , it is being affected by the conversion of grassland for intensive grazing and the suppression of the burning of longleaf pine forests ( 4 ) ( 9 ) .
henslow ' s sparrow research priorities include : 1 ) monitoring the status of the largest , persistent breeding populations , 2 ) documenting additional breeding populations , 3 ) systematically surveying suitable habitat on the winter range to identify key wintering areas , and 4 ) evaluating habitat requirements and ecology of the species in winter range .
winter , m . 1999a . nesting biology of dickcissels and henslow ' s sparrows in southwestern missouri prairie fragments . wilson bull . no . 111 : 515 - 526 . close
herkert , james r . , peter d . vickery and donald e . kroodsma . 2002 . henslow ' s sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
the henslow ' s sparrow has a dark back patterned with much rufous , rufous wings , an olive - greenish cast to much of the head and nape , a white eye ring , a buffy breast with dark streaking , and a white belly . like all ammodramus sparrows , its short tail is evident in flight .
reinking , d . a . , d . a . wiedenfeld , d . h . wolfe and jr . rohrbaugh , r . w . 2000 . distribution , habitat use , and nesting success of henslow ' s sparrow in oklahoma . prairie nat . no . 32 ( 4 ) : 219 - 232 . close
named after john stevens henslow , friend and mentor of charles darwin ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , henslow ' s sparrow is a small , secretive and inconspicuous bird ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . with little obvious difference in appearance between the two sexes ( 4 ) , this species is characterised by its large , flat head , heavy beak and short , pointed tail ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
habitats other than those for breeding includes wet grassy areas in pine woodlands . the henslow ' s sparrow is mostly insectivorous , but also eats spiders , snails , and seeds . most of the food is found by searching the ground and low vegetation . this species is migratory , but most birds spend the winter in the united states
henslow ' s sparrows are social birds , living in solitary loose flocks . these flocks may combine where more suitable habitat or resources are found . they are not strictly colonial as the term is applied to herons , gulls , terns , or swallows . when migrating or wintering , henslow ' s sparrows are usually found in small groups or alone . this species is diurnal and migratory . henslow ' s sparrows have individual songs and often sing as a chorus or in dispute over territory . males show territorial dominance through a two syllable song . henslow ' s sparrows are non - territorial during the winter and it is unknown if they exhibit site fidelity during this season . henslow ' s sparrows forage on or near the ground . this species has the habit of dropping to the ground and running , rather than flying , when flushed from its nest or covering . the flight pattern of henslow’s sparrows has been described as erratic , rising and falling with a characteristic twisting of the tail just after beginning flight . when flushed they frequently fly only a little way before again dropping to the ground and running .
habitat loss and fragmentation have contributed to the decline of henslow’s sparrows and continue to limit breeding populations . vegetative succession , development , the draining and filling of wetlands , and the invasion of
henslow’s sparrow is a small grassland bird . males and females cannot be distinguished by appearance . the top of the head , the hind - neck , and the sides of the neck of all adults are pale olive green . there are two black stripes on the bird’s crown , on either side of a pale stripe . the species’ back is black and the back feathers have white tips . the rump , wings and tail are chestnut , with black in the middle of the feathers , and the breast , sides , and flanks are buff with black streaks . young henslow ' s sparrows have buff underparts with no streaks .
due to the shy and reclusive nature of henslow’s sparrow it is difficult to spot in the wild . even its song can often be overlooked ( 3 ) , as it is a simple , insect - like ( 3 ) ( 7 ) and tinny call , which has been described as being a feeble hiccupping sound ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
little is known about the behaviour of henslow ' s sparrow , but it is thought to be a ground forager ( 3 ) , feeding mainly on insects such as grasshoppers and beetles ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . adults may also eat the seeds of grasses and of sedges , although the young are fed almost exclusively on insects ( 4 ) .
herkert , j . r . , p . d . vickery , and d . e . kroodsma . 2002 . henslow ' s sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) . in the birds of north america , no . 672 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa .
over the winter , henslow ' s sparrow is found in habitats relatively similar to those it breeds in , although they may be much smaller than its breeding sites ( 4 ) and do not require a thick litter layer or abundant standing dead plant material ( 4 ) ( 8 ) . henslow’s sparrow is also known to winter in dense cover within the pine savannah in the south of its range ( 5 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) , often associating with longleaf pine ( pinus palustris ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) . this species demonstrates a preference for recently burned areas on its wintering grounds ( 8 ) , and dense grasslands and the edges of bogs are also suitable winter habitats for this bird ( 4 ) .
predators of adult henslow ' s sparrows are usually large birds of prey , such as harriers or hawks , whereas snakes and mammals are thought to pose the greatest risk to chicks and nestlings ( 4 ) .
moss , e . d . 2001 . distribution and reproductive success of native grassland birds in response to burning and field size at fort campbell military reservation : special focus on henslow ' s and grasshopper spar - rows . master ' s thesis , thesis , univ . of tennessee , knoxville . close
originally , henslow ' s sparrow was found in both the central prairies of the united states and the coastal marshes of the atlantic coast ( 3 ) ( 7 ) , in habitats including swamps , salt marshes , tallgrass prairies and meadows . however , following the decline of these native habitats , this species has moved into additional sites such as areas of cultivated grassland ( 3 ) .
as a summer resident , uncommon and local in southwestern missouri ; rare in the north . in many areas , henslow’s sparrow populations are declining , undoubtedly because of shrinking grassland habitat . seven states have declared it endangered within their borders . conservation organizations and government agencies are working to establish grassland areas large enough to support this and many other prairie species , such as the greater prairie - chicken .
two distinctive characters help in identification of this sparrow : the flat - headed profile and the olive - colored head . the wings are rust - colored and the buffy breast and sides are streaked with black . juveniles have the characteristic rust - colored wings and olive head of an adult , but its underparts are not streaked . the call is a weak , cricket - like , metallic
tslit
or
tsi - like .
the ventriloquial quality of the voice and the secretive nature of the henslow ' s sparrow make this bird an easy one to overlook and difficult to observe .
henslow ' s sparrow is generally found in the east - central united states , wintering in more south - easterly states , from eastern texas to north carolina and florida ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . in the summer , this species moves to more north - easterly states to breed , from kansas and wisconsin to new york ( 3 ) , reaching as far as south - eastern canada ( 6 ) .
greenish - buff head , central crown stripe , and nape ; dark striping on head ; wings dark chestnut with some buff markings ; tail dark with chestnut markings ; streaking on chest and flanks ; belly white . 13 cm ( 5 in ) in length . the head appears flat and large , and the tail is forked . the song of the henslow ' s sparrow is a short se - lick .
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in weedy eastern fields in summer , this little sparrow climbs to the top of a weed stalk , throws its head back , and delivers one of the least impressive of all bird songs , a short tsilick . when not singing it becomes extremely hard to observe , hiding in dense grass . if flushed , it flies away low for a short distance before dropping into the weeds . despite its lack of vocal prowess , henslow ' s sparrow is a beautifully marked bird if seen well . local populations vary from year to year ; overall , the species is becoming quite scarce over most of its range .
the henslow’s sparrow occurs in several national wildlife areas , which are federal lands protected under sara . it is the protected by the canada national parks act within point pelee national park . it is also protected by the federal migratory birds convention act . under this act , it is prohibited to kill , harm , or collect adults , young , and eggs . provincially , it is protected under the ontario endangered species act .
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prior to european settlement , henslow ' s sparrow ( ammodramus henslowii ) bred primarily in prairie habitat . with the loss of native prairie to agriculture , the henslow ' s sparrow adapted to breeding in secondary grassland habitats , particularly hayfields and pasture . the availability of these secondary habitats also allowed the species ' range to expand to the north and the east as forests were cleared for agriculture . the species currently breeds locally across the great lakes region of the eastern united states and southern ontario ( canada ) , to new york , south to maryland , across northern virginia , west virginia and kentucky , and west to eastern portions of oklahoma and kansas . the breeding range , particularly in the northwestern and eastern portion of the range , is contracting . the species winters in coastal areas from south carolina , south to florida , and west to texas .
henslow’s sparrow breeds only in the northeastern united states and southern canada , and winters in the southern united states in the gulf coast states and south carolina . in canada , it now occurs in southern ontario . historical information indicates that the species probably occurred in natural prairie areas and that forest clearing in the 1800s probably lead to an expanded range for a time . in addition to southern ontario , the henslow’s sparrow used to occur in southwestern and eastern ontario and also in quebec . there is no early information on species population size and trends . it is very difficult to estimate the population size for this bird , but information suggests that the species has been declining since the 1950s . henslow’s sparrows were known to breed in southern quebec up until the late 1960s but are now considered vagrants in the province . in the 1980s , the canadian population was estimated at no more than 50 pairs . thorough searches for the bird were carried out in the early 1990s . these data suggest that less than 10 pairs were probably left at that time . recent surveys have yielded similar results . in 1998 , one bird was reported and at least one other was known to occur in the province . the latest population estimate available in 2001 counts 2 to 3 pairs of henslow ' s sparrows , with the total population remaining critically small .
the henslow’s sparrow has a large , flat head with a heavy , pale gray bill . the head is a distinctive olive - green color with dark brown crown , short dark lateral throat stripe , and white eye ring . the wings are chestnut brown , the breast is buff with black streaks , and the belly is white . the chestnut brown tail is short and appears rounded in flight . the sexes are alike in plumage .
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is conducted solely by the female for 10 to 11 days . both adults care for the young , which fledge at 9 to 10 days of age . henslow’s sparrows may raise two broods per season , provided that sufficient time and food resources exist .
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ehrlich , p . r . , d . s . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder ' s handbook . simon and schuster , inc . , new york . p . 568 .
henslow’s sparrows eat caterpillars , crickets , grasshoppers , beetles , spiders , and the seeds of herbaceous plants that they forage for on the ground . studies have shown fledglings ' diets to consist of about 80 % grasshoppers and butterfly larvae . adult sparrow diets have been reported to be approximately 36 % crickets and short - horned grasshoppers , 19 % beetles and 18 % plant matter , with spiders , butterfly larvae , and bees making up the remainder of the food intake .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
in the early 1900s , henslow ' s sparrows were uncommon and rare in all parts of new york state . populations increased from 1920 to 1940 , with several new colonies appearing throughout the state , including long island , central and western new york , and corridors along the hudson , delaware and susquehanna rivers . populations began to decline in the 1950s . breeding bird survey data through 1989 have shown a steady , statistically significant declining trend in new york state and throughout the northeast . the henslow ' s sparrow has been on the american birds ' blue list ( special concern ) since 1974 . it was listed in new york state as a species of special concern in the early 1980s and was re - classified as threatened in 1999 . populations continue to decline .
( as perception channel keyword ) . this animal has a special ability to detect the earth ' s magnetic fields .
henslow’s sparrows use vocalizations and body language to communicate . they sing individually ( to attract a mate ) , as a chorus , and to settle territorial disputes . they have a wide variety of calls used in different situations including predator alarm calls , courtship calls and calls of young in nests . the most often heard call is the two syllable
zee - lick
, described by some as sounding like an insect . nestlings can give off a faint chirp while begging for food . henslow ' s sparrows use a variety of wing fluttering movements to communicate .
male henslow ' s sparrows arrive in the breeding areas ahead of the females in late april and early may . the age at which henslow ' s sparrows first breed is not known . nests are built on the ground . clutches contain from 3 to 5 eggs . several pairs may nest in the same field , forming a small , loose colony . the species prefers to spend time out of sight in the long grass and herbs , and males can most easily be seen when they perch on plant tops to sing . their song is a weak short insect - like se - lick .
and a thick layer of ground litter . unmowed agricultural fields or ungrazed pastures are preferred for their thick cover . henslow’s sparrows tolerate a variety of moisture regimes and will occupy wet and dry habitats . large open areas are preferred ; fields of 25 to 250 acres may be needed to support breeding populations .
henslow’s sparrows occupy open fields . the vegetation of these areas includes tall grasses that are interspersed with tall herbaceous plants , or shrubby species . the sparrow avoids areas that have been grazed or burned . it prefers undisturbed areas with dense living grasses and a dense thatch of dead grasses . the species may occupy hayfields , but if the hay is cut early , the nests are destroyed and the resulting losses are severe . only areas that remain undisturbed for several years appear to be more successfully colonized . the precise amount of remaining suitable habitat in ontario is unknown .
several other conservation efforts are in place for this species , including mowing , harvesting and haying at appropriate times of the year , once the birds have finished breeding . the removal of tree - lines , hedgerows and fences to reverse the effects of habitat fragmentation is also carried out , although such actions must be weighed against the loss of habitat for other species that may use these areas for cover , breeding or perching ( 4 ) . rotational grazing and prescribed burning of grassland are also methods of habitat management which could help to conserve henslow’s sparrow ( 4 ) ( 9 ) .
the species is monitored within the north american breeding bird survey and christmas bird count . it is listed as an endangered species in canada , and within its u . s . breeding range is considered endangered in seven states , threatened in five , and of special concern in four . some grassland conservation activities will be undertaken as part of the national partners in flight bird conservation efforts . the conservation reserves programme , while not specifically intended to benefit this species , has provided a large area of undisturbed grassland habitat , and henslow ' s sparrow has colonised these fields in many areas . creation of large areas of undisturbed grasslands through this programme appears to have contributed to recent reversal of long - term population declines ( cooper 2012 ) . it is on the watch list as part of the state of north america ' s birds ( north american bird conservation initiative 2016 ) .
the major limiting factor is loss of habitat , especially habitat used for breeding , and habitat used for wintering in the united states . suitable henslow’s sparrow habitat is lost through the conversion of grasslands and pastures to grow crops . it is also lost with the intensive use of land that leaves very little area undisturbed for periods of time . in addition , drainage of wetlands and wet grasslands , successional change to woodland and shrubland where fires are suppressed , and encroaching urbanization , all contribute to the loss of this species’ habitat . the vulnerability of this species is increased due to the fact that small populations of sparrows inhabitat isolated areas .
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wells , j . v . ( 2010 ) birder ' s conservation handbook : 100 north american birds at risk . princeton university press , new jersey .
henslow ' s sparrows are socially monogamous after courtship occurs . courtship includes a
call of intimacy ,
wing fluttering , and an evaluation of potential nest sites . males return to breeding areas each spring and establish and defend territories through song . most henslow ' s sparrows establish their territories by singing from dead woody vegetation less than 1 m tall . individual territories average 0 . 8 acres . females almost exclusively build the nests ; these are cup shaped or domed , made of coarse grass and dead leaves , and lined with finer grasses and sometimes hair . nests are always well concealed and placed near or on the ground located above the base of a dense clump of grass . they are usually attached to stems that lean over the nest , creating a partial roof for protection .
to cite this page : thorson , s . 2012 .
ammodramus henslowii
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
each map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird’s “climatic range . ”
henslow’s sparrows belong to a relatively small genus ( 6 to 20 species ) . they are among the smallest of sparrows , noted for being a shy bird with a quiet , short , two - syllable song . they range in size from 11 to 13 cm , weighing an average of 13 g , with an average wingspan of 20 cm . the most distinctive feature is their large , relatively flat , olive - colored head with dark stripes . they have streaked chests , reddish - brown tinged wings and short tails , with no sexual dimorphism . juveniles are clay colored and streaked with black on the back and head . due to their timid nature , henslow’s sparrows are more likely to be heard than seen . when disturbed , they will often run instead of fly ; in flight , they fly low and quickly over the grass in a drooping , zigzag fashion .
lutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .
it is the loss of this habitat that has primarily contributed to the species’ decline . changes in agricultural practice , especially in the midwest , have converted fields once used for grazing and hay to specialized crop fields unsuitable for the sparrow . consequently , it has been on the national audubon blue list since 1974 and is listed as endangered or threatened in 12 states .
henslow ' s sparrows breed from south dakota , minnesota , wisconsin , michigan , ontario and massachusetts south to kansas , missouri , illinois , kentucky , west virginia , virginia , and north carolina and locally in texas . in new york , populations are very localized and found primarily in the central and western parts of the state , especially the appalachian plateau and great lakes plain . in eastern new york , it may also be found in the mohawk valley .
henslow’s sparrows start arriving here in mid - april . bowl - shaped nests are constructed of dry grasses , built over the ground on a clump of grass . a clutch comprises 2–5 eggs . in the first half of september , southward migration begins ; they are all gone from missouri by the end of october . the wintering range extends from eastern texas to the southern tip of north carolina . birds that eat seeds off the ground cannot tolerate much snow cover .
there is a potential use for henslow ' s sparrows as an indicator species for the health and productivity of large grassland habitats within the species ' range , as well as for the health of groundcover in mature longleaf pine forests and other area . the grassland ecosystems on which it depends are among the most endangered ecosystems in north america and a combined use of management practices for grassland - dependent species and the grasslands themselves is a sound ecological approach , making the most efficient use of fiscal and scientific resources .
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henslow ' s sparrows eggs are incubated by the female only . the incubation period begins with the last egg laid and lasts approximately 11 days . the young remain in the nest 9 - 10 days after hatching . the young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state and are unable to feed , care for themselves or move independently for a short period of time after hatching . females are largely responsible for their young during all periods of development , with increased involvement from males after hatching . their diet consists mainly of butterfly larvae , grasshoppers , and other insects .
in the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .
grasslands should be actively managed to provide breeding habitat for henslow’s sparrows and other grassland birds . active management , through mowing or grazing , is necessary to maintain an early successional stage and prevent the eventual transition to forest . mowing should not be conducted during the breeding season , cattle should be present prior to the birds’ arrival so that they may select an alternative breeding site . each year some pasture fields should be allowed to go fallow while others are actively grazed . these fallow fields will provide future feeding grounds for cattle while offering breeding habitat to grassland birds in the interim .
in many parts of their range , populations are somewhat unstable and have tended to decrease each year . it has been reported that habitat area and fragmentation are the most important factors influencing population ( henslow ' s sparrows are rarely encountered in grasslands less than 250 acres in size ) . individual territory sizes vary but are on average 0 . 8 acres ( 3237 . 4 m ^ 2 ) , though boundaries are not well defined . some studies report that most of the territories from southwestern michigan to madison , wisconsin range from 0 . 75 acres to 1 . 21 acres .
the first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird’s suitable climate may shift in the future—one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .
during the courtship period , the male hops up and down with nesting material in his bill and sings to the female . he then leads her on foot to several potential nesting sites which he indicates by rapidly fluttering his wings . the female approves of one and builds a nest there over the next 5 - 6 days . she incubates 3 - 5 eggs for a period of 9 - 11 days . the young fledge in about 9 - 10 days . henslow ' s sparrows have two broods each year . nesting occurs in loose colonies which may be the result of clumped food resources . the species is believed to be monogamous .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
the continued investment in fire suppression programmes could result in reduced funding for prescribed fire in longleaf pine savannas and therefore loss of suitable wintering habitat for this species ( united states department of agriculture 2015 ) . further , significant , additional u . s . department of agriculture’s ( usda ) conservation reserve program grasslands are predicted to be converted to agricultural fields if the high price of corn continues , resulting in loss of breeding habitat ( cooper 2012 , lark et al . 2015 ) . this species has been reported to suffer mortality as a result of collisions with communications towers ( longcore et al . 2013 ) .
in canada , this species occurs sporadically in ontario and quebec . its canadian population is extremely small , ranging from 0 to 25 individuals depending on the year . populations in adjacent parts of the u . s . , which are a likely source of birds for canada , are declining . habitat loss is ongoing for this species .
henslow ' s sparrows prefer uncultivated grasslands or old fields with stalks for singing perches ( ranging from 30 to 61 cm off the ground ) and a substantial litter layer to nest in . well - established litter depth , vegetation height ( tall , dense grass ) , and number of standing dead herbaceous stems are important components of chosen areas . they prefer to settle in grasslands over 100 ha ( 247 ac . ) , but smaller areas of habitat can be used by this species . they are found in open fields and meadows with grass interspersed with weeds , un - mowed hayfields , or shrubby vegetation are often used , especially in damp or low lying areas adjacent to salt marshes . they are not typically associated with overgrazed areas , though they can survive quite well in pastures that are only lightly or moderately grazed .
under canada’s species at risk act ( sara ) , the foremost function of cosewic is to “assess the status of each wildlife species considered by cosewic to be at risk and , as part of the assessment , identify existing and potential threats to the species” . cosewic held two wildlife species assessment meetings during the past year assessing the status or reviewing the classification of a total of 92 wildlife species .
the current population of henlow ' s sparrows is estimated to be 79 , 000 individuals . this species is observed within the north american breeding bird survey and christmas bird count to help with conservation efforts . it is listed as an endangered species in canada and seven states in its u . s . breeding range , as threatened in five other states , and of special concern in four states . populations have declined over the last three decades , with the greatest declines being in the northern and eastern portions of the range . southern populations have increased slightly , likely due to the creation of undisturbed grassland habitat by the conservation reserve program . creation of large areas of undisturbed grasslands through this program appears to have been responsible for recent reversal of long - term population declines but this species is still in dire need of attention .


its natural habitat was subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

it is now extinct .

samana hutia

you selected samana hutia ( english ) . this is a common name for :
the samana hutia ( plagiodontia ipnaeum ) is an extinct species of rodent in the family capromyidae . it was found in the dominican republic and haiti .
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with reverso you can find the english translation , definition or synonym for samana hutia [ plagiodontia ipnaeum ] [ extinct ] and thousands of other words . you can complete the translation of samana hutia [ plagiodontia ipnaeum ] [ extinct ] given by the english - french collins dictionary with other dictionaries such as : wikipedia , lexilogos , larousse dictionary , le robert , oxford , grévisse
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
mcknight , m . ( global mammal assessment team ) & amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority )
justification : listed as extinct . the species is known from recent fossil deposits which also contain rats , suggesting that it persisted until the modern era and that the extinction followed the arrival of european settlers .
the species is known from recent fossil deposits in hispaniola . it is possible at this species is the animal referred to as
quemi
by gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdes who lived in hispaniola between 1536 - 1546 ( miller 1929 ) . there is also a remote possibility that this represents an animal referred to as
comadreja
which allegedly survived into the 20th century ( woods et al . 1985 )
the fossil deposits from which this is known from also contained rat remains . this suggests that the species persisted until the modern era and that the extinction followed the arrival of european settlers .
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english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
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urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2a8c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2b9b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322dc3ac - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 366d7933 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
tom orrell ( custodian ) , dave nicolson ( ed ) . ( 2018 ) . itis global : the integrated taxonomic information system ( version jun 2017 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 77ae1188 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
woods , charles a . , and c . william kilpatrick / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2
status : iucn - extinct . probably extinct ( woods et al . , 1985 )
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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