the emerald shiner ( notropis atherinoides ) is one of hundreds of small , silvery , slender fish species known as shiners .

the identifying characteristic of the emerald shiner is the silvery emerald color on its sides .

it can grow to 3.5 inches in length and is found across north america from canada to the gulf of mexico , commonly in large , deep lakes and rivers , though sometimes in smaller bodies of water as well .

it feeds on small organisms such as zooplankton and insects , congregating in large groups near the surface of the water .

it is a quite common fish and is often used as a bait fish .

emerald shiner

emerald shiner ( top ) compared with rosyface shiner ( breeding , bottom ) . notice the longer and sharper snout of the rosyface shiner .
emerald shiner ( top ) compared with rosyface shiner ( breeding , bottom ) : notice the longer and sharper snout of the rosyface shiner .
millburn , naomi .
habitat of the emerald shiner
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
walleye age with respect to length . - the big 2014 / 2015 hatches - and emerald shiner shortages
millburn , naomi .
habitat of the emerald shiner .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - emerald - shiner - 3338 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
millburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . habitat of the emerald shiner . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - emerald - shiner - 3338 . html
notropis atherinoides is similar to the rio grande shiner ( n . jemezanus ) as well as the sharpnose shiner
emerald shiner current position and history of port calls are received by ais . technical specifications , tonnages and management details are derived from vesselfinder database . the data is for informational purposes only and vesselfinder is not responsible for the accuracy and reliability of emerald shiner data .
what is the ship ' s current position ? where is the ship located ? emerald shiner current position is 1 . 4236 n / 103 . 22782 e on jul 2 , 2018 16 : 56 utc . vessel emerald shiner ( imo : 9289776 , mmsi : 538005423 ) is a oil products tanker built in 2005 and currently sailing under the flag of marshall islands . below you can find more technical information , photos , ais data and last 5 port calls of emerald shiner detected by ais .
a major problem for anglers all around lake erie , has been a lack of emerald shiner minnows , a native baitfish that is the most popular for catching yellow perch . ohio fisheries experts know the schools of emerald shiner minnows have been hard for after - dark minnow netters to find over the last couple of years . there is no way of estimating the emerald shiner population , as well . the odow nets used to sample young yellow perch or walleye are generally ineffective at rounding up the smaller baitfish .
designed to resemble live minnows , berkley gulp ! minnow bait is infused with emerald shiner coloration , which is highly attractive to fish . the bait includes gulp ! scent formulation , which promotes rapid diffusion of a natural minnow scent over a wide dispersion field . specifications and features : quantity : 18 color : emerald shiner size : 2 . 5in .
topeka shiner 5 - year review ( 44 - page pdf ; 1 . 5mb )
flitner , g . a . 1964 . morphology and life history of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides . university of michigan , ann arbor . phd thesis . 213 pp .
fin origin is behind the pelvic fin origin . it has a large , terminal oblique mouth on a fairly pointed snout . it has a smaller eye than the similar emerald shiner (
flittner , g . a . 1964 . morphometry and life history of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides rafinesque . ph . d . diss . , univ . michigan , ann arbor .
emerald shiners are mass spawners , and because of that do not look after their youngsters once they release their eggs into the water . it takes approximately 24 hours for emerald shiner eggs to hatch . reproductive activities take place in open water settings . emerald shiners generally achieve reproductive maturity once they hit 2 years old . spawning takes place in the summer every year , usually in july , but sometimes earlier or later on in the season . as far as life expectancy goes , it is very uncommon for emerald shiners to survive past their third year .
campbell , j . s . and h . r . maccrimmon . 1970 . biology of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides rafinesque in lake simcoe , canada . j . fish biol . 2 : 259 - 273 .
mesohabitat : tolerant of low oxygen levels ( matthews and maness 1979 ) and turbidity ( boschung and mayden 2004 ) . campbell and maccrimmon ( 1970 ) reported the temperature preference for the emerald shiner as 25°c ( 77°f ) .
the emerald shiner is a midwater plankton feeder , consuming a variety of zooplankton . protozoans are important in the diet of the young - of - the - year shiners , and fish and insect larvae are eaten by adults .
fuchs , e . h . 1967 . life history of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides , in lewis and clark lake , south dakota . transactions of the american fisheries society 96 ( 3 ) : 247 - 256 .
the emerald shiner spawns in the late spring or early summer , sometimes as late as mid - august . water temperatures at that time are around 75 f and the eggs hatch in 24 to 32 hours . emerald shiners rarely live through their third summer . population numbers fluctuate and they are extremely abundant in some years , scarce in others .
emerald shiners prefer living in open water environments , and generally don ' t travel very far away from the top . however , they sometimes remain at mid - water . most emerald shiners inhabit big streams , reservoirs and rivers . they tend to gravitate toward bodies of water that move at somewhat slow and calm paces . emerald shiners are usually capable of managing well in muddy water habitats , as well . as far as substrate goes , emerald shiners are very adaptable .
fuchs , e . h . 1967 life history of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides , in lewis and clark lake , south dakota . trans . amer . fish . sco . 96 ( 3 ) : 247 - 256 .
emerald shiners usually reach body lengths of between 2 and 4 inches , according to the ohio department of natural resources . in terms of coloration , emerald shiners are usually silver with pale green backs and sides . these wide - eyed fish usually have pale belly regions and conspicuously tiny heads . emerald shiners ' fins are devoid of any blots and are clear in color .
campbell , j . s . and h . r . maccrimmon . 1970 . biology of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides ( rafinesque ) in lake simcoe , canada . journal of fish biology 2 ( 3 ) : 259 - 273 .
campbell , j . s . and h . r . maccrimmon . 1970 . biology of the emerald shiner , notropis atherinoides ( rafinesque ) in lake simcoe , canada . journal of fish biology 2 ( 3 ) : 259 - 273 .
emerald shiner minnows require certain environmental conditions to thrive . since they are short - lived , however , they have the ability to reproduce at a high level . it would only take a good year or two for the baitfish population to bounce back .
emerald shiners average three to four inches in length and have very short snouts with large eyes . they are generally silver in color with green iridescence on the top fading to silver / white on the belly . young emerald shiners are semi - transparent in appearance .
questions and answers : topeka shiner reintroduction in missouri and designation of non - essential experimental population ( jan . 17 , 2013 )
an ongoing debate that never will be totally resolved about shiner minnows is that some anglers believe that big crappie like big shiners . other anglers are convinced that big crappie like little shiners better . refusing to argue , the middle - of - the - roaders will opt for medium - sized shiners . i fish with a fairly - large shiner , and my favorite is the emerald shiner . here on kentucky lake we’re fortunate to catch some pretty - big crappie . often , i’ve found that the big crappie seem to prefer a bigger minnow .
the range of the emerald shiner includes a broad band across southern canada from lake champlain and the st . lawrence river to the southern part of the northwest territories . its southern limit dips through the mississippi basin to the gulf of mexico coast from texas to alabama . in new york , emerald shiners are found in the great lakes and in the hudson - mohawk system , and were formerly very abundant within the great lakes .
the emerald shiner ( notropis atherinoides ) is a narrow , delicate and tiny fish that is part of the family cyprinidae , which is also known as the minnow family . these robust minnows feed mostly on zooplankton , phytoplankton , algae , bug larvae and bugs , such as midges . emerald shiners are frequently used as fishing bait , although only in places where they are very populous . they are also occasionally known as common emeralds and buckery shiners .
draft a bridle shiner recovery plan which will identify critical habitat for protection , populations vulnerable to extirpation , potential restoration opportunities , and research needs .
in the spring of 2015 after a major walleye hatch , lake erie minnow dippers were frustrated by the huge numbers of tiny walleye mixed in with the small emerald shiner minnows . they finally had to give up netting baitfish , and we have seen similar conditions in 2016 and this year as well .
the emerald shiner can be distinguished by its round lateral - line scales , 10 - 12 anal fin rays , by its lack of barbels and its terminal mouth , and by its pre - dorsal scales , which are similar in size and spacing to the flank scales . see also similar species information .
bridle shiner spawning behavior has been observed over stands of variable milfoil . these two individuals were photographed at the northern end of lake winnipesauke in moultonbourough .
emerald shiners travel in large schools . unlike most other minnows , they do not spawn over gravel or vegetation , but release their eggs in mid - water .
the emerald shiner belongs to a genus that contains about 100 species of minnows commonly called shiners . emerald shiners are schooling fish native to the missouri - yellowstone river basin . they seem to prefer the larger prairie rivers and the open central waters of impoundments . fish with this type of habitat preference are called pelagic . in some areas of the u . s . , this fish has been widely introduced for forage ; that is , as food for the larger predatory game fish . although they are of lesser importance as prey in montana , emerald shiners do have some value as a commercial bait fish in eastern montana . they grow to about 4 inches in length .
gilbert c . r . and burgess , g . h . 1979 . notropis atherinoides ( rafinesque ) , emerald shiner . pp . 231 in d . s . lee et al . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .
cochran , j . l . 2017 . ecology of the young - of - the - year emerald shiner ( notropis atherinoides ) in the upper niagara river , new york : growth , diversity , and importance as a forage species . unpublished m . a . thesis . state university of new york college at buffalo , buffalo , ny .
emerald shiners are interesting schooling fish that add a great iridescent shine to stream tanks or great lakes biotopes but are not considered hardy and are better suited to more experienced hobbyists . quick info : name : emerald shiner scientific name : notropis atherinoides tank size : 15 gallons max size : 2 - 4
temperament : peaceful experience : difficult feeding : omnivore temperature : 50 - 76 f ph : 7 . 0 - 9 . 0 subscribe to everything fish ! like , share , comment , and leave video suggestions !
habitat - usually found in larger streams and rivers . is one of the most common notropis species in the ohio river . this shiner is also found in lakes and man - made reservoirs . in riverine habitat it prefers pools or areas of reduced flow over a firm bottom free of silt and sediment . often found in large school in larger rivers and lakes where it is also more pelagic in its habits . in clearer waters the emerald shiner may stay deeper , coming to the surface at night to feed .
federal register final rule ( jan . 17 , 2013 ) : establishment of a nonessential experimental population of topeka shiner in northern missouri 17 - page pdf ; 1 . 6mb
what we can do - keep streams sediment and pollution free . introducing alewife in lakes have been known to out - compete emerald shiners , thus reducing their numbers in such situations .
the bridle shiner ( bottom ) and the juvenile creek chubsucker ( top ) are similar in appearance . note the smaller scales and the downward turned mouth of the creek chubsucker .
there were actually five
wishbones
. one dog named soccer , the main actor , and four
stunt
dogs named phoebe , bear , slugger , and shiner .
important as forage fish in many parts of its range ( boschung and mayden 2004 ; scott and crossman 1973 ) . their glistening sides , unique form , and graceful movements make the emerald shiner an excellent aquarium fish . hardiness in cold weather makes it a favorite bait for winter fishing ; especially good bait for bass , perch , and walleye ( becker 1983 ) .
emerald shiner inhabits larger lowland lakes and streams . in lakes , such as lake erie , it is found in midwater habitats . it is found in 16 watersheds . it is absent only from newark bay and long island . because it is a popular baitfish , it has been released and has become established in the atlantic slope watersheds , where it is non - native .
the emerald shiner is a fish of big waters , the great lakes and larger rivers , such as the niagara and the hudson . it is a midwater or near - surface species that usually lives in large - or moderate - sized schools . in the spring , they often make vertical migrations , approaching the surface at night and retreating to deeper water during the day .
approximately 4 ¼ inches in length with a slender , compressed body . body color is light olive above with a narrow dusky stripe along the back and silver stripe with emerald sheen along the side . the
there is not really a good good way to index shiner populations , the reality seems to be a reduced shiner population the last two years . dnr would be really be concerned if the condition of walleye and yellow perch were in trouble ( because of a lack of forage ) . but there has not been substantial impact on predators because there are so many other baitfish for them to eat .
plankton feeders , emerald shiners will approach the surface at dark to feed , but retreat to deeper water in the day . their population levels widely fluctuate , with one year their numbers being low and the next year their numbers being high . in years when emerald shiners are abundant , they are important forage fish for predators , as well as important bait fish for anglers . many anglers know these fish as
buckeyes .
bringing back topeka shiners includes providing new habitat by restoring oxbow ponds in iowa and minnesta and reintroducing them back to good habitat in missouri . check out the links below for stories and slideshows abouttopeka shiner recovery work .
while it is too early to tell exactly how the ruffe will affect other fish in the st . louis river and duluth / superior harbor area of lake superior , its numbers have increased dramatically while other species , especially emerald shiner , yellow perch and troutperch , have declined . it would be easy to blame all of these changes on the ruffe , but some could be the result of natural fluctuations , fishing pressure , or fisheries management practices .
step - by - step instructions to tie the unweighted blacknose dace thunder creek , weighted emerald shiner thunder creek , marabou shiner thunder creek , and silver shiner thunder creek with tailall the tools you ' ll need to tie the entire thunder creek seriesbased on fulsher ' s tying and fishing the thunder creek series published in 1973 , thunder creek flies is a completely revised edition of the fly - tying classic , with nearly twice as many patterns and striking color photographs by david klausmeyer to demonstrate the unique thunder creek style of tying . new materials and techniques make it easier to create sleeker , better - swimming flies that look and act like real baitfish . with details on constructing the twenty - two freshwater flies and six saltwater designs , descriptions of specific baitfish they imitate , and large glamour shots of each pattern , this book showcases some of the most effective flies an angler can use .
overall silvery with iridescent light green back . usually has an emerald green or silvery midside stripe , particularly toward the rear . young are somewhat translucent . eye large . body slender and flat sided , fragile looking . scales easily rubbed off .
different from many other species of minnows , emerald shiners are open water ( pelagic ) fish . they are only found in large rivers and lakes , such as the hudson , niagara , and lower mohawk rivers , and in the great lakes , oneida lake , and lake champlain .
conservation and management as it name implies the common shiner is one of our most common minnows . consequently , it has no special conservation status in minnesota . commercial bait dealers and individual anglers harvest it for bait , and it occasionally ends up on an angler ' s hook .
mccormick , j . h . , and c . f . kleiner . 1976 . growth and survival of young - of - the - year emerald shiners ( notropis atherinoides ) at different temperatures . j . fish . res . bd . can . 33 ( 4 ) : 839 - 842 .
description : the bridle shiner is a small minnow species with a black lateral band that extends from the tip of the snout , through the eye , back to the base of the tail . it is golden in color , with large , diamond shaped scales and a white underbelly .
hartman , k . j . , b . vondracek , d . l . parrish , and k . m . muth . 1992 . diets of emerald and spotfin shiners and potential interactions with other western lake erie planktivorous fishes . j . great lakes res . 18 ( 1 ) : 43 - 50 .
bright silver in color , smaller fallfish ( under eight inches ) are often confused with their relative the common shiner . however , larger adults are rather dull silver in color and the differences between the two fish species is more apparent . mature male fallfish will develop a pinkish tint to their heads during breeding season .
bridle shiners may be confused with juvenile creek chubsuckers , which also have a prominent lateral band . the mouth of the creek chubsucker is sucker - like and pointed downward , compared to the mouth of the bridle shiner , which is positioned just below the tip of the snout . juvenile creek chubsuckers , and most other minnow species , also have smaller scales than bridle shiners .
the topeka shiner , an endangered species , is a small minnow that lives in small to mid - size prairie streams in the central united states where it is usually found in pool and run areas . suitable streams tend to have good water quality and cool to moderate temperatures . in iowa , minnesota , and portions of south dakota , topeka shiners also live in oxbows and off - channel pools .
the service designated 836 miles of stream in iowa , minnesota , and nebraska as critical habitat for the topeka shiner . critical habitat designates areas that contain habitat essential for the conservation of a listed species . a critical habitat designation does not set up a preserve or refuge and has no specific regulatory impact on landowners ' actions on their land that do not involve federal agency funds , authorization or permits .
as visual foragers , bridle shiners are sensitive to water clarity and are therefore susceptible to the effects of eutrophication and siltation . declines in water quality have been associated with urbanization , which has been shown to alter fish communities . eutrophication has the combined effect of reducing visibility , altering aquatic plant communities , and reducing oxygen levels . bridle shiners are known to exist in dark or tea colored water , yet they are unlikely to persist in areas with chronic turbidity issues resulting from landuse activities in the watershed or persistent boat wakes . naturally vegetated buffers , with a width of at least 15 m , should be maintained along the shorelines of water bodies known to support bridle shiner habitats . it is critical to prevent nutrient and sediment loading into bridle shiner habitat from fertilizers , failed septic systems , and stormwater runoff throughout the contributing watershed .
what do they eat ? the common shiner is an opportunistic omnivore , which means it eats pretty much whatever it comes across and includes both plant and animal items . in fact , common shiners eat about equal amounts of plant and animal matter . their diet normally consists of a variety of aquatic insects ( both the adults and larvae ) , filamentous algae , and other higher plant matter . large common shiners also eat small fish .
where do they live ? common shiners occur in all of the major drainages of minnesota . they occur in lakes , rivers , and streams , but are the most common in streams and small rivers . in these streams , they frequent the downstream ends and riffles , pools , and beaver ponds . water where they live may be turbid ( cloudy ) with bottoms of gravel , sand , and mud . they often are found with bluntnose minnows , mimic shiners , emerald shiners , spotfin shiners , and johnny darters .
how big do they get ? how long do they live ? the common shiner is one of the
big three
native minnesota minnows ( the other two are creek chub and hornyhead chub ) . it can reach a length of 300 mm ( 12 in ) , but lengths of 75 - 125 mm ( 3 - 5 in ) are more usual . normally this fish lives for 4 - 6 years but there is a record of a 9 - year - old ( not in minnesota ) .
this species was stocked as forage in jennings randolph reservoir , maryland ( christmas , personal communicaton ) , lake mcconaughy , nebraska ( bouc 1987 ) , and in certain wyoming reservoirs ( hubert 1994 ) . its presence in two reservoirs in new york may be due either to bait bucket releases or to movement through the old chenango canal ( snelson 1968 ; smith 1985 ) . snelson ( 1968 ) also hypothesized that the widespread occurrence of this species in the mohawk - hudson system of new york may have been a result of dispersal through the erie canal system . if records from west virginia represent introductions , the method of entry was likely by way of bait bucket releases . the species probably was brought to maine illegally as a baitfish ; however , information on the location and exact date of its first occurrence in the state has been lost ( kircheis 1994 ) . it was introduced into willard bay reservoir in utah in 1983 ( sigler and sigler 1987 ) . the emerald shiner has been stocked for forage in many colorado reservoirs ( colorado division of wildlife ) .
because the small town of neosho , missouri , houses a national fish hatchery where imperiled fish are being raised , we get to be right on the forefront of the fight against extinction . this summer we were able to successfully spawn and raise the federally endangered topeka shiner ( notropis topeka ) in our spring - water raceways . and , in early december , we were able to put into the wild about 2 , 200 young fish that were reared for the first time in a federal fish hatchery ! read more »
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in some cases , bridle shiners have adapted to the impounded conditions upstream of a small dam , culvert , or bridge . drainage of this upstream habitat may extirpate the local population of bridle shiners . dam removal , culvert , or bridge replacement should proceed with caution in bridle shiner habitat . sediment deposition upstream of the dam may have filled in the original wetland , pond , or slow flowing stream habitat that the bridle shiners inhabited before the construction of the dam or road . rapid draining of the impoundment may result in a narrow channel with riffle habitat that is unsuitable for bridle shiners . draw down of the impoundment should occur slowly to give aquatic plants time to adjust to the new water level . in some cases , sediment may have to be removed to ensure that adequate habitat for bridle shiners will exist when the project is complete .
notropis , greek , meaning “back keel ; ” atherinoides greek , meaning “silverside - like , ” in reference to resemblance to a member of the silverside family ( pflieger 1997 ) .
based on his own work and the work of coburn ( 1982 ) , mayden ( 1989 ) listed n . atherinoides in the subgenus notropis .
notropis atherinoides rafinesque 1818 : 204 ; hildebrand and towers 1928 : 117 ; cook 1959 : 118 .
maximum size : 127mm ( 5 . 00 in ) tl ( flittner 1964 ) .
coloration : live fish are a bright , iridescent silvery green with a silver mid - lateral band . the back and upper sides are greenish to straw colored , and the venter is silvery white . the dorsal scales with melanophores and have pigmented margins and clear centers . there is a variable mid - dorsal stripe extending from the back of the head to the caudal base , and the head is diffusely pigmented with melanophores from the occiput anteriorly to the snout . the area between the nostril and eye lacks melanophores and only a few melanophores surround orbit . the lips are pigmented medially and the pigment continues about half way down the midline of the lower jaw . the cheek , suborbital , and opercle are silvery . a mid - lateral band about 1 . 5 scales wide extends from the opercle to the caudal base , and is diffusely stippled anteriorly , becoming more prominent on the caudal penduncle . scales along the side are bright and silvery . the dorsal , caudal , and leading rays of the pectoral fins are lined with melanophores , but the remaining rays and membranes are clear . no nuptial colors are exhibited by either sex ( ross 2001 ) .
counts : pharyngeal teeth 2 , 4 - 4 , 2 or 1 , 4 - 4 , 1 ; usually 9 - 12 anal fin soft rays ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) ; lateral line scales 35 - 43 , predorsal scale rows 19 - 20 ( 18 - 21 ) ; pectoral fin soft rays 14 - 16 ; pelvic fin soft rays 8 ( 8 - 9 ) ; gill rakers 10 - 12 ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .
body shape : body slender and compressed , its depth contained 1 . 9 to 2 . 5 times in distance from dorsal origin to occiput .
u . s . distribution : widely distributed across united states especially in the mississippi basin it is at the edge of its range in texas ( hubbs et at . , 1991 ) .
texas distribution : occurs in red , sabine , neches , and lower trinity drainages ( hubbs et at . , 1991 ) . sabine lake unit ( including minor coastal drainages west to galveston bay ; warren et al . 2000 ) .
not listed as threatened or endangered by texas parks and wildlife department ( 2006 ) . populations in the southern united states considered currently stable ( warren et al . 2000 ) .
macrohabitat : restricted to open rivers and lakes of variably turbidity where it swims in large schools ( gilbert and burgess 1979 ) .
spawning season : in iowa , females taken in mid - july had completed spawning ; in illinois , ripe females taken from mid - may to early june ; in lake erie , spawning from late june to late july , or even mid - august ( carlander 1969 ) . in wisconsin , major spawning period is in june and july ; may occur as early as late may , extending to the beginning of august ( becker 1983 ) . in michigan , protracted summer spawning period . spawning is temperature dependent , beginning shortly after the 22 . 2°c ( 72 . 0°f ) threshold temperature is exceeded ( flittner 1964 ) . in southern canada , gravid females taken from water temperatures ranging from 20 . 1 - 23 . 2°c ( 68 . 2 - 73 . 8°f ) ( campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) .
spawning habitat : near surface in open water ( carlander 1969 ; flittner 1964 ) . spawning substrate is normally gravel shoals ( dobie et al . 1956 ) ; rounded boulders , course rubble and sand ( campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) , hard sand or mud swept clean of detritus are also used ( flittner 1964 ) .
reproductive strategy : pelagophils ( simon 1999 ) . spawning occurs at night , as fish form large schools in the surface waters over a substratum of clean sand or hard mud . the shiners first appear about 1 to 2 feet below the surface milling and darting rapidly and erratically in a circular path . the smaller males appear to pursue larger females for a few seconds at a time . as these pairs swim about in a 10 to 20 foot circle , the male overtakes the females and presses closely on either the right or the left side in what appears to be an interlocking of pectoral fins . the pair gyrates briefly , and then slows down as female arches her side upward stops for an instant , rolling over further , eggs are released and fertilized at the instant of rolling ( flittner 1964 ) .
fecundity : in the wisconsin river , in late june , an age - i female 69 mm ( 2 . 72 in ) tl , with ripe ovaries constituting 33 % of total weight , contained approximately 2 , 990 mature yellow eggs 0 . 9 mm ( 0 . 03 in ) diameter . immature white eggs also present ( approx . one - fourth the number of mature eggs ) . a female ( estimated to be an age - ii specimen ) 75 mm ( 2 . 95 in ) tl , collected mid - july from the wisconsin river , held approximately 2 , 040 mature eggs averaging 0 . 8 mm diameter ( becker 1983 ) . in lake simcoe , canada , the number of eggs in pre - spawning mature females varied from 868 in an age - i specimen , 69 mm ( 2 . 72 in ) tl , weighing 2 . 5 g to 8 , 733 eggs in an age - iii specimen , 98mm ( 3 . 86 in ) tl and 8 . 9 g ; egg of ripe females ranged from 0 . 21 - 0 . 67 mm ( 0 . 008 - 0 . 026 in ) diameter ; number of eggs increased with total length , weight and gonadal weight ( campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) . the fertilized nonadhesive eggs sink to the bottom where they hatch in 24 - 32 hours ( becker 1983 ) .
age at maturation : spawning fish were primarily in age classes 2 - 3 . males are mature at 55 - 60 mm ( 2 . 17 - 2 . 36 in ) tl , and females at 65mm ( 2 . 56 in ) tl ( flittner 1964 ; fuchs 1967 ; campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) .
migration : schooling species , staying offshore during summer months , usually near the surface ; moving inshore in autumn and aggregating at times off docks , piers , and river mouths in great numbers ; these large schools in inshore waters usually composed of young - of - the - year ; as season advances , move into deeper water for overwintering ; in early spring , moving into surface waters at night and descending to deeper waters during the day ( scott and crossman 1973 ; campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) .
growth and population structure : during their first year fish reach 63 - 78mm ( 2 . 48 - 3 . 07 in ) tl . ages 2 - 3 are 88 - 98mm ( 2 . 48 - 3 . 86 in ) tl and 98 - 110mm ( 3 . 86 - 4 . 33 in ) tl ; ( flittner 1964 ; fuchs 1967 ; j . s . campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) . maximum growth rates occur at 24 - 29°c ( 75 . 2 - 84 . 2°f ) and growth markedly declines below 15°c ( 59°f ) ( mccormick and kleiner 1976 ) .
longevity : females live longer than males . may live up to three to five years ; all older fish were females . ( flittner 1964 ; fuchs 1967 ; campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ) .
food habits : planktivore ; size selective picker ; move with planktonic food source up at dusk , back down at dawn ( simon 1999 ) . adults may remain planktivorous and seem to prefer cladocerans . insects make up a much smaller component of overall diet . most insects consumed were adult rather then larval stages . algae and plant materials may also be eaten especially during spring ( flittner 1964 ; fuchs 1967 ; campbell and maccrimmon 1970 ; hartman et al . 1992 ) .
( n . oxyrhynchus ) . n . jemezanus differs from n . atherinoides in that it has a larger , less slanted mouth extending under eye ; smaller eye ; deeper snout ; lacks black lips ( may be dusky ) , black around anal fin base and along underside of caudle peduncle . n . oxyrhynchus differs from n . atherinoides in that it has a sharply pointed snout , and the upper jaw is level with upper edge of eye ( page and burr 1991 ) . the posterior position of the dorsal fin ( posterior to pelvic fin base ) renders the n . atherinoides similar to species of the genus lythrurus . lythrurus species can be distinguished by the presence of numerous crowded predorsal scales ( usually greater than 22 predorsal rows ; ross 2001 ) . mayhew ( 1983 ) reported hybridization of n . atherinoides and mimc shiners ( notropis volucellus ) in the monongahela river , western pennsylvania .
gyrodactylus parvicirrus ( harris et al . 2004 ) ; trematoda : neodactylogyrus archis , posthodiplostomum minimum ; cestoda : proteocephalus ambloplitis , p . pinguis , exper . ( hoffman 1967 ) .
bailey , r . m . 1951 . a checklist of the fishes of iowa , with keys for identification , pp . 187 - 283 . in : iowa fish and fishing . j . r . harlan and e . b . speaker ( eds . ) . state . conserv . comm . of iowa , des moines .
bailey , r . m . , and m . o . allum . 1962 . fishes of south dakota . museum of zoology , university of michigan , ann arbor . 131 pp .
balon e . k . 1981 . additions and amendments to the classification of reproductive styles in fishes . environmental biology of fishes . 6 : 377 - 389 .
becker , g . c . 1983 . fishes of wisconsin . the university of wisconsin press , madison . 1052 pp .
boschung , h . t . , jr . , and r . l . mayden . 2004 . fishes of alabama . smithsonian books , washington . 736 pp .
coburn , m . m . 1982 . anatomy and relationships of notropis atherinoides . ph . d . diss . , ohio state univ . , columbus .
cook , f . a . 1959 . freshwater fishes in mississippi . mississippi game and fish commission , jackson .
dobie , j . r . , o . l . meehean , s . f . snieszko , and g . n . washburn . 1956 . raising bait fishes . u . s . fish wildl . serv . circ . 35 . 123 pp .
etnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . the university of tennessee press , knoxville . 681 pp .
harris , p . d . , a . p . shinn , j . cable and t . a . bakke . 2004 . nominal species of the genus gyrodactylus von nordman 1832 ( monogenea : gyrodactylidae ) , with a list of principal host species . systematic parasitology 59 : 1 - 27 , 2004 .
hay , o . p . 1881 . on a collection of fishes from eastern mississippi . proc . u . s . nat . mus . 3 : 488 - 515 .
hay , o . p . 1883 . on a collection of fishes from the lower mississippi valley . bull . u . s . fish comm . 2 : 57 - 75 .
hildebrand , s . f . and i . l . towers . 1928 . annotated list of fishes collected in the vicinity of greenwood mississippi , with descriptions of three new species . bull . u . s . bur . fish . 43 ( 2 ) 105 - 136
hoffman g . l . 1967 . parasites of north american freshwater fishes . university of california press . berkeley and los angeles , ca 1 - 486 .
hubbs , c . , r . j . edwards and g . p . garret . 1991 . an annotated checklist of freshwater fishes of texas , with key to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 56 .
matthews , w . l . , and j . d . maness . 1979 . critical thermal maxima , oxygen tolerances and success of cyprinid fishes in a southwestern river . amer . midl . nat . 102 ( 2 ) : 374 - 377 .
mayden , r . l . 1989 . phylogenetic studies of north american minnows , with emphasis on the genus cyprinella ( teleostei : cypriniformes ) . misc . publ . mus . nat . hist . univ . kans . 80 : 1 - 189 .
mayhew , d . a . 1983 . a new hybrid cross , notropis atherinoides x notropis volucellus ( pisces : cyprinidae ) , from the lower monongahela river , western pennsylvania . copeia 1983 ( 4 ) : 1077 - 1082 .
rafinesque , c . s . 1818 . description of two new genera of north american fishes , opsanus and notropis . amer . monthly mag . crit . rev .
ross , s . t . 2001 . inland fishes of mississippi . university press of mississippi , jackson mississippi . 624 pp .
scott , w . b . , and e . j . crossman . 1973 . freshwater fishes of canada . fisheries research board of canada , ottawa . 966 pp .
simon , t . p . 1999 . assessing the sustainability and biological integrity of water resources using fish communities . crc press . boca raton ; london ; new york ; washington .
snelson , f . f . jr . 1968 . systematics of the cyprinid fish notropis amoenus , with comments on the subgenus notropis . copeia , 1968 ( 45 ) : 766 - 802 .
texas parks and wildlife department , wildlife division , diversity and habitat assessment programs . county lists of texas ' special species . [ 30 may 2006 ] . urltoken
warren , l . w . , jr . , b . m . burr , s . j . walsh , h . l . bart , jr . , r . c . cashner , d . a . etnier , b . j . freeman , b . r . kuhajda , r . l . mayden , h . w . robison , s . t . ross , and w . c . starnes . 2000 . diversity , distribution , and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern united states . fisheries 25 ( 10 ) : 7 - 29 .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , and lack of major threats . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable , or the species may be declining but not fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories under criterion a ( reduction in population size ) .
has one of the largest ranges of all north american minnows . gulf slope drainages from galveston bay , texas , to mobile bay , alabama , st . lawrence drainage , quebec , and hudson river drainage , new york , to mackenzie river drainage ( arctic basin ) , northwest territories , and south through great lakes and mississippi river basin to the gulf ; common , probably the most abundant fish in the mississippi and other large rivers ( page and burr 1991 ) .
this species is represented by a large number of subpopulations and locations . total adult population size is unknown but relatively large . has increased in abundance in the lower missouri river as a result of human - caused changes in the river ( e . g . , reservoir construction ) ( pflieger and grace 1987 ) .
large open rivers , lakes , and reservoirs ; pools and runs of rivers with low or moderate gradient ( burkhead and jenkins 1991 ) ; also mouths of smaller streams . seemingly tolerant of turbidity in great plains streams , but avoids turbid streams in ohio ( trautman 1981 ) . most common in clear water over sand or gravel ( page and burr 1991 ) . often aggregates in large schools in mid - water or near surface . may move closer to surface at night . in lakes , spawns over detritus - free substrate offshore at night at depths of 2 - 6 m ; eggs sink to bottom ( becker 1983 ) . spawns over various substrates , typically over gravel
localized threats may exist , but on a range - wide scale no major threats are known .
currently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
a misnomer given by rafinesque to shriveled specimens , with the meaning of
back keel
; from greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )
from the words atherina , meaning silverside ; and oides , greek suffix indicating resemblance ( ref . 10294 )
north america : widely distributed throughout canada and south to virginia and texas , usa .
maturity : l m 4 . 2 range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 8 . 6 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )
adults inhabit lakes and pools and runs of medium to large rivers . most common in clear water over sand or gravel . form schools ( ref . 1998 ) . move to the surface at dusk to feed on microcrustaceans , midge larvae , and algae ; descends to deeper waters at daybreak ( ref . 1998 ) . are preyed upon by birds ( gulls , terns , mergansers , cormorants ) and fishes ( ref . 1998 ) . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) .
robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott , 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 20 ) : 183 p . ( ref . 3814 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00661 ( 0 . 00325 - 0 . 01342 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 ±0 . 29 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tm = 1 ; k = 0 . 87 ; tmax = 4 ; fec = 2 , 990 ) .
prior r = 1 . 02 , 2 sd range = 0 . 51 - 2 . 04 , log ( r ) = 0 . 02 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 35 , based on : 1 m , 1 k , 1 tgen , 1 tmax , 1 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .
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preferred habitat is larger streams and their impoundments . it is pelagic and avoids areas with aquatic vegetation . prefers main channel border as specific habitat type .
food consists largely of zooplankton and small aquatic insects ; but some algae and terrestrial insects have been found in stomachs .
important food item of sport fishes , particularly burbot , rainbow trout , and northern pike .
sexually mature at 2 yrs . spawns in july - august . spawning has been shown to peak mid to late july in middle missouri river study .
. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .
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the nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .
becker ( 1983 ) ; robison and buchanan ( 1988 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) ; jenkins and burkhead ( 1994 ) ; pflieger ( 1997 ) .
st . lawrence drainage , quebec ; hudson river drainage , new york to mackenzie river drainage ( arctic basin ) , northwest territories , and south through great lakes and mississippi river basins to gulf ; gulf slope drainages from mobile bay , alabama , to galveston bay , texas ( page and burr 1991 ) .
table 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations† . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of notropis atherinoides are found here .
in its native range in the upper niagra river , notropis atherinoides juveniles are more often found in natural habitat ( e . g . marshes ) than developed habitat ( e . g . seawalls ; cochran 2017 ) . cochran ( 2017 ) also found that larvae recruited to sampling gear in july and august . this species is a key forage species in its native range ( cochran 2017 ) .
introduced populations considered established in maine , maryland , massachusetts , nebraska , new york , utah , west virginia , and wyoming .
according to hartel et al . ( 1996 ) , the massachusetts specimens have never been examined by specialists . however , this species is sold in bait stores in that state ( hartel 1992 ; hartel et al . 1996 ) . schmidt ( 1986 ) listed this species as introduced into the housatonic and connecticut drainages , probably in the massachusetts portion of these waters . hocutt et al . ( 1986 ) regarded it as
introduced , but possibly native
for the susquehanna river drainage . in their summary table of west virginia fishes , stauffer et al . ( 1995 ) regarded this species as
native but possibly introduced
for the kanawha above the falls . this species was found in the au sable river in michigan in 1931 , but does not survive to reproduction in most of the inland waters of michigan ( hubbs 1931 ) . pflieger ( 1997 ) noted that the progressive and dramatic increase in abundance of this sight - feeding minnow in the missouri river ( part of its native range ) was the result of decreases in turbidity and other factors relating to the construction of upstream reservoirs .
hocutt , c . h . , r . e . jenkins , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1986 . zoogeography of the fishes of the central appalachians and central atlantic coastal plain . in c . h . hocutt and e . o . wiley , eds . the zoogeography of north american freshwater fishes . 161 - 212 .
hubbs , c . l . 1931 . identification of lake shiners in au sable river , iosco county , and desirability of planting same in hubbard and other lakes . ( fisheries research report : 108 ) . michigan department of natural resources , ann arbor , mi . urltoken ; view = fulltext .
zoogeography of the northern appalachians . in c . h . hocutt and e . o . wiley , eds . the zoogeography of north american freshwater fishes . 137 - 160 .
nico , l . , 2018 , notropis atherinoides rafinesque , 1818 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 6 / 5 / 2018 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018
this information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .
the data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .
citation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .
contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .
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the white-bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) is a species of drongo found across the indian subcontinent .

like other members of the family dicruridae they are insectivorous and is mainly black in colour but with a white belly and vent .

young birds are , however , all black and can be confused with the black drongo , although smaller and more compact in appearance , and the subspecies found in sri lanka has white restricted to the vent .

white - bellied drongo

white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) – complete detail – updated . description of white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) . classification of white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) .
the adult white - bellied drongo averages 9 . 4 inches ( 24 cm ) in length .
the white - bellied drongo has dark grey upper plumage . the tail is long and deeply forked .
size of white - bellied drongo is between 22 cm to 25 cm including the tail . the weight of adult is between 70 g . to 100 g . the white - bellied drongo has dark grey upper plumage .
the white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) is a small asian bird . that is restricted to the old world tropics ( europa , asia , and africa ) .
the tail is long and deeply forked . dicrurus caerulescens has a pale grey under plumage – from the head to the breast , and is white from the abdomen down . the white - bellied drongo is black without any glossy on the upper side and greyish on the throat and breast while the belly and vent are entirely white .
what a lovely article . i am enjoying reading your website . you have created a wonderful resource here . keep up the great work is the white - bellied drongo seen or found in or around delhi ?
this bird is glossy black with a wide fork to the tail . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape . the iris is dark brown ( not crimson as in the similar ashy drongo ) . the sexes cannot be told apart in the field . juveniles are brownish and may have some white barring or speckling towards the belly and vent , and can be mistaken for the white - bellied drongo . first - year birds have white tips to the feathers of the belly , while second - years have these white - tipped feathers restricted to the vent .
this bird is glossy black with a wide fork to the tail . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape . the iris is dark brown ( not crimson as in the similar ashy drongo ) . the sexes cannot be told apart in the field . juveniles are brownish and may have some white barring or speckling towards the belly and vent , and can be mistaken for the white - bellied drongo . first - year birds have white tips to the feathers of the belly , while second - years have these white - tipped feathers restricted to the vent . [ 15 ]
this bird is glossy black with a wide fork to the tail . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape . the iris is dark brown ( not crimson as in the similar ashy drongo ) . the sexes cannot be told apart in the field . juveniles are brownish and may have some white barring or speckling towards the belly and vent , and can be mistaken for the white - bellied drongo . first - year birds have white tips to the feathers of the belly , while second - years have these white - tipped feathers restricted to the vent . [ 15 ]
the fork of the tail is less deep than in the black drongo which is often seen in the same habitats . young black drongo’s can have a lot of white on the underside but it is usually scaly in appearance .
adult in northern india . note the white rictal spot at the base of the beak .
the black drongo was once considered a subspecies of the fork - tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) , a close relative that diverged relatively recently . the two are now considered distinct species , with the fork - tailed drongo restricted to africa and separated from the asian range of the black drongo .
the tail is long and deeply forked . dicrurus caerulescens has a pale grey under plumage – from the head to the breast , and is white from the abdomen down . the fork of the tail is less deep than in the black drongo which is often seen in the same habitats . young black drongo’s can have a lot of white on the underside but it is usually scaly in appearance…………
“the white - crested laughingthrush ( garrulax leucolophus ) is a rather gregarious , sociable species that often forage in . . .
dodia , jf ; parasharya , bm & yadav , dn ( 1989 ) .
black drongo feeding on
the black drongo was once considered a subspecies of the fork - tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] a close relative that diverged relatively recently . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] the two are now considered distinct species , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] with the fork - tailed drongo restricted to africa and separated from the asian range of the black drongo . [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
the black drongo was once considered a subspecies of the fork - tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] a close relative that diverged relatively recently . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] the two are now considered distinct species , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] with the fork - tailed drongo restricted to africa and separated from the asian range of the black drongo . [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
rocamora , g . & yeatman - berthelot , d . ( 2018 ) . white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
antique print : indian birds : the white - bellied drongo . caption below print : ' the white - bellied drongo ' . type : vintage colour print . date of printing : 1943 . size : 13 . 0 x 9 . 0cm , 5 x 3 . 5 inches ( small ) , 118 sq cm . artist , cartographer or engraver : h . n . wandrekar . condition : good ; suitable for framing . please check the scan for any blemishes prior to making your purchase . verso : there are images and / or text printed on the reverse side of the picture . in some cases this may be visible on the picture itself ( please check the scan prior to your purchase ) or around the margin of the picture . provenance :
the book of indian birds
; by salim ali , published by the bombay natural history society , bombay : 2nd edition . subject categories : indian birds india .
the indian race d . c . caerulescens has a pale grey under plumage - from the head to the breast , and is white from the abdomen down .
habit and habitat of white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) . generally , inhabits well - wooded deciduous tracts , bamboos , light forests , hill and plain , and avoids cultivation and treeless country as well as heavy evergreen forest . these birds are particularly found in bamboo and thin tree jungle . these are aggressive at the nest and will potential threats much larger than themselves . birds are often seen singly or in groups of 2 or 3 individuals . the cup nest is typically situated in a tree………… .
shukkur , eaa ( 1978 ) biology , ecology and behaviour of the black drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) . thesis , university of calicut .
frequency of vigilance scanning by foraging dwarf mongooses : ( a ) in the presence ( black bars ) and absence ( white bars ) of fork - tailed drongos ; ( b ) during the playback of fork - tailed drongo non - alarm calls ( black ) and mongoose ‘contact calls’ ( white ) ; and ( c ) during the playback of fork - tailed drongo ( black ) and white - bellied sunbird ( white ) non - alarm calls . error bars show s . e . ( a ) parallel scans : t 7 = 3 . 35 , p = 0 . 012 ; side ways scans : t 7 = 3 . 05 , p = 0 . 022 ; raised scans : t 7 = 3 . 72 , p = 0 . 007 . ( b ) parallel : w = 36 . 0 , n = 8 , p = 0 . 008 ; side ways : w = 36 . 0 , n = 8 , p = 0 . 008 ; raised : w = 22 . 0 , n = 8 , p = 0 . 078 . ( c ) parallel : t 7 = 6 . 32 , p < 0 . 001 ; side ways : t 7 = 5 . 64 , p < 0 . 001 ; raised : w = 28 . 0 , n = 8 , p = 0 . 016 .
one sri lankan race , d . c . leucopygialis , has the white on the under plumage restricted to the vent area and undertail feathers . the young bird is duller and have a brownish - grey breast .
the black drongo has been introduced to some pacific islands , where it has thrived and become abundant to the point of threatening and causing the extinction of native and endemic bird species there .
the breeding season is from february to july . the cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo , but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass .
the causality of this relationship was confirmed by the results of the playback experiments . in the first experiment , foraging mongooses scanned their environment 3 . 92 ± 0 . 36 times min −1 during the control session ( when mongoose ‘contact’ calls were played ) , but only 1 . 95 ± 0 . 21 times min −1 when the presence of a drongo was simulated by the playback of its non - alarm calls ( paired t - test : t 7 = 5 . 47 , p < 0 . 001 ; figure 1 b ) . in the second experiment , the mongooses scanned for danger 4 . 02 ± 0 . 38 times min −1 during the playback of the calls of a non - co - foraging bird species ( the white - bellied sunbird ) , but only 1 . 65 ± 0 . 17 times min −1 during the playback of drongo calls ( paired t - test : t 7 = 7 . 48 , p < 0 . 001 ; figure 1 c ) .
lamba , bs ( 1963 ) the nidification of some common indian birds . 3 . the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus viellot ) . res . bull . panjab univ . 14 ( 1–2 ) : 1–9 .
shukkur , eaa ; joseph , kj ( 1980 ) annual rhythm in the black drongo dicrurus adsimilis ( family dicruridae , passeriformes , aves ) . comparative physiol . ecol . 5 ( 2 ) : 76–77 .
like most other cuckoos , koels do not build their own nests or incubate their own eggs . instead , females lay their eggs in the nests of other birds . these ' hosts ' incubate the eggs and feed the resulting young after they hatch . as koels are large cuckoos , the young are frequently around twice the size of the foster parents that feed them . for example koels weigh around 190 g , compared with 95 g for the olive - backed oriole and 90 g for the magpie - lark , two of its common hosts . other hosts that have been recorded include the : black - faced cuckoo - shrike , blue - faced honeyeater , figbird , grey shrike - thrush , helmeted friarbird , little friarbird , noisy friarbird , red wattlebird , silver - crowned friarbird , spangled drongo , victoria ' s riflebird , white - bellied cuckoo - shrike and yellow - throated miner .
the black drongo is found predominantly in open country and usually perches and hunts close to the ground . they are mostly aerial predators of insects but also glean from the ground or off vegetation . they are found as summer visitors to northeastern afghanistan and northern pakistan but are residents from the indus valley until bangladesh and into india and sri lanka . some populations show seasonal movements that are poorly understood . the black drongo can be found in savannas , fields , and urban habitats .
nominate race exhibits decrease in size and reduction in extent of white on abdomen from n to s ; overlap in individual measurements of wing and tail , however , is c . 50 % , and more than that for bill , so determination of geographical distinctions not possible . sri lankan races intergrade . three subspecies recognized .
the black drongo is found predominantly in open country and usually perches and hunts close to the ground . they are mostly aerial predators of insects but also glean from the ground or off vegetation . they are found as summer visitors to northeastern afghanistan and northern pakistan but are residents from the indus valley until bangladesh and into india and sri lanka . [ 13 ] some populations show seasonal movements [ 17 ] that are poorly understood . [ 18 ] the black drongo can be found in savannas , fields , and urban habitats .
sexes alike , blackish - blue above ; longish , forked tail ; grey - brown throat , breast ; white belly , under tail - coverts . pairs or small bands of up to four birds , sometimes in association with other birds : arboreal and noisy ; makes short flights after winged insects ; often hunts till very late in evening .
the black drongo is found predominantly in open country and usually perches and hunts close to the ground . they are mostly aerial predators of insects but also glean from the ground or off vegetation . they are found as summer visitors to northeastern afghanistan and northern pakistan but are residents from the indus valley until bangladesh and into india and sri lanka . [ 13 ] some populations show seasonal movements [ 17 ] that are poorly understood while populations in korea are known to be migratory . [ 18 ] [ 19 ] the black drongo can be found in savanna , fields , and urban habitats .
in this study we use observational data to establish whether the presence of fork - tailed drongos affects vigilance in dwarf mongooses . we assess rates of sentinel behaviour in mongoose groups and rates of vigilance scanning in foraging individuals . we then simulate the presence of a drongo experimentally ( using playbacks of the bird ' s non - alarm vocalizations ) to test the causality of any differences in vigilance behaviour .
their habit of driving away predators from near their nests is believed to encourage other birds such as orioles , doves , pigeons , babblers , and especially bulbuls , to nest in the vicinity . in one study 18 of 40 nests had red - vented bulbuls nesting within 10 m . an abnormal case of a red - vented bulbul feeding the chicks of a black drongo at their nest has been recorded .
black drongos were introduced just before the second world war from taiwan to the island of rota to help in the control of insects . it is believed that they dispersed over the sea to the island of guam in the 1950s . by 1967 , they were the fourth most commonly seen birds in roadside counts on guam and are today the most abundant bird there . predation by and competition from black drongos have been suggested as factors in the decline of endemic bird species such as the rota bridled white - eye and the guam flycatcher .
the presence of drongos appeared to have a marked effect on the anti - predator behaviour of foraging mongooses . groups posted sentinels 42 . 4 ± 3 . 6 per cent of the time when foraging without a drongo compared with 21 . 2 ± 1 . 5 per cent when accompanied by a drongo ( paired t - test : t 7 = −5 . 82 , p < 0 . 001 ) . because environmental factors may have been responsible for this relationship , we also compared rates of mongoose sentinel behaviour within single morning sessions , for 141 sessions in which drongos were both present and absent for at least 10 min of the session . this analysis yielded identical results , both statistically ( paired t - test : t 140 = −9 . 43 , p < 0 . 001 ) and with regards to the percentage of time that groups posted sentinels .
these are aggressive and fearless in nature . the breeding season is from february to july . the cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo , but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass . the average clutch consists of two to four eggs . color of eggs is pale salmon colored with reddish blotches on the broad end , are laid in the nest which may be 20 to 30 feet high in the fork of a tree………… .
black drongos were introduced just before the second world war from taiwan to the island of rota to help in the control of insects . it is believed that they dispersed over the sea to the island of guam in the 1950s . by 1967 , they were the fourth most commonly seen birds in roadside counts on guam and are today the most abundant bird there . [ 20 ] [ 21 ] predation by and competition from black drongos have been suggested as factors in the decline of endemic bird species such as the rota bridled white - eye [ 22 ] and the guam flycatcher . [ 20 ] [ 23 ]
black drongos were introduced just before the second world war from taiwan to the island of rota to help in the control of insects . it is believed that they dispersed over the sea to the island of guam in the 1950s . by 1967 , they were the fourth most commonly seen birds in roadside counts on guam and are today the most abundant bird there . [ 19 ] [ 20 ] predation by and competition from black drongos have been suggested as factors in the decline of endemic bird species such as the rota bridled white - eye [ 21 ] and the guam flycatcher . [ 19 ] [ 22 ]
their habit of driving away predators from near their nests is believed to encourage other birds such as orioles , doves , pigeons , babblers , [ 49 ] and especially bulbuls , to nest in the vicinity . [ 50 ] [ 51 ] in one study 18 of 40 nests had red - vented bulbuls nesting within 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . [ 15 ] an abnormal case of a red - vented bulbul feeding the chicks of a black drongo at their nest has been recorded . [ 52 ]
their habit of driving away predators from near their nests is believed to encourage other birds such as orioles , doves , pigeons , babblers , [ 51 ] and especially bulbuls , to nest in the vicinity . [ 52 ] [ 53 ] in one study 18 of 40 nests had red - vented bulbuls nesting within 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . [ 15 ] an abnormal case of interspecific feeding with a red - vented bulbul feeding the chicks of a black drongo at their nest has been recorded . [ 54 ]
they are so aggressive that they may sometimes land on large birds of prey and peck them when mobbing . it has been suggested that the asian drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) has evolved to mimic this species . the intensity of mobbing predators was studied in java and observations showed that there was a significant increase in mobbing , during the nesting season , of some predators such as the javan hawk - eagle but the black eagle , a nest predator is mobbed with equal intensity in all seasons . it has been suggested that this strategy may avoid giving away the location of nests during the breeding season .
dwarf mongooses are known to coordinate sentinel behaviour among group members ( rasa 1986 ) , but our findings suggest that they can also facultatively adjust their behaviour to take into account contributions to vigilance by another , unrelated , species . our experiments do not exclude the possibility that the mongooses were responding to the presence of a vocalizing co - foraging bird species , rather than to a drongo specifically . however , they were clearly able to discriminate between bird species on the basis of vocal cues , and they did not lower their vigilance in the simulated presence of a non - co - foraging species ( figure 1 c ) .
they are so aggressive that they may sometimes land on large birds of prey and peck them when mobbing . [ 55 ] it has been suggested that the asian drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) has evolved to mimic this species . [ 56 ] the intensity of mobbing predators was studied in java and observations showed that there was a significant increase in mobbing , during the nesting season , of some predators such as the javan hawk - eagle but the black eagle , a nest predator is mobbed with equal intensity in all seasons . it has been suggested that this strategy may avoid giving away the location of nests during the breeding season . [ 57 ]
they are so aggressive that they may sometimes land on large birds of prey and peck them when mobbing . [ 53 ] it has been suggested that the asian drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) has evolved to mimic this species . [ 54 ] the intensity of mobbing predators was studied in java and observations showed that there was a significant increase in mobbing , during the nesting season , of some predators such as the javan hawk - eagle but the black eagle , a nest predator is mobbed with equal intensity in all seasons . it has been suggested that this strategy may avoid giving away the location of nests during the breeding season . [ 55 ]
dwarf mongooses responded to the presence of fork - tailed drongos by significantly reducing their anti - predator vigilance . individuals halved the period they spent on sentinel duty , allowing them to re - allocate this time to other behaviours . because dwarf mongoose sentinels are known to suffer an elevated risk of predation ( rasa 1987 ) , individuals probably gained direct survival benefits also . mongooses also reduced the frequency with which they interrupted foraging to scan for danger . this is likely to significantly improve foraging efficiency in a species that preys on highly mobile invertebrates . the causality of the relationship between vigilance and the presence of a co - foraging bird species was confirmed by the playback experiments ( figure 1 ) , which simulated the presence of a drongo using vocal cues .
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– india s from haryana and e gujarat , e along lower slopes of himalayas to s nepal , and to west bengal and odisha .
c . 24 cm ; 39–41 g . nominate race has frontal band and lores black and unglossed , rest of head , throat and upper breast varying from smoky blue - grey to brownish - grey , . . .
songs resemble chatter of small passerines such as finches ( fringillidae ) or thrushes ( turdidae ) ; . . .
edges of paths and shady glades in dry and moist deciduous and bamboo forests , wooded compounds in . . .
mostly insectivorous , feeding on winged insects such as crickets and grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , moths ( lepidoptera ) , alate termites ( . . .
resident ; in india some seasonal local and altitudinal movements , e . g . non - breeding visitor in c . . .
not globally threatened . widespread but generally uncommon in india ; locally common in nepal from lowlands to 300 m . recorded in nagarhole national park , in s india . reported . . .
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greg baker , éric roualet , keith and lynn youngs , mkennewell , ron hoff , ram gopal soni , josep del hoyo , fran trabalon .
asiri gauthamadasa , éric roualet , jeel bharat patel , vasanthan . p . j , stanislav harvančík , athula edirisinghe , shantilal varu , paul van giersbergen , tauscher gerhard , fran trabalon , guy poisson , rameshthotta , martin flack , markus lilje , j . m . garg , michaelp , sharad , jayant atrey , josep del hoyo , marco valentini , romuald mikusek , biplab kr . mukhopadhyay , vyatich , lior kislev , james mcculloch , jacqueserard , andrew emmerson , mohamed samsoor ali , drpankajmaheria , ken havard , lars petersson .
bird seen a few metres away . there were other individuals of the same species around . but this one in particular was mimicking a cat and other birds , probably crested serpent eagle which exists in the nearby jungle .
bird not seen at the time of recording but heard with the same call later .
bird not seen at the time of recording but seen later with the same call . heard it calling in this manner only during early hours of the morning .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as locally common below 305 metres in nepal , generally uncommon in india and common in the lowlands in sri lanka ( grimmett et al . 1998 )
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mukandra hills national park , kota , rajasthan , india ( 24 55 13 . 224 n , 75 42 42 . 456 e )
species endemic to the indian subcontinent ( india , nepal & sri lanka ) .
conservational status – schedule – iv , according to wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and classified as least concern ( lc ) by the iucn .
commonly found in india , nepal , bangladesh and sri lanka . this species is usually found in dry scrub or open forests . the distribution is restricted to peninsular india south of the himalayas and to the west of the gangetic delta bounded on the west by the aravallis .
generally , inhabits well - wooded deciduous tracts , bamboos , light forests , hill and plain , and avoids cultivation and treeless country as well as heavy evergreen forest .
these birds are particularly found in bamboo and thin tree jungles , and is usually to be met with about shady paths and small clearings in this .
diet is mainly insectivorous , but it may invariably be seen probing into the blossoms of the silk cotton , flame of the forest and coral trees for the sugary nectar they exude . they perch upright close to the tops of trees and capture insects in the air with short aerobatic sallies . larger insects may be captured using their claws .
these are aggressive and fearless in nature . these are aggressive at the nest and will potential threats much larger than themselves . birds are often seen singly or in groups of 2 or 3 individuals . the cup nest is typically situated in a tree .
the average clutch consists of two to four eggs . color of eggs is pale salmon colored with reddish blotches on the broad end , are laid in the nest which may be 20 to 30 feet high in the fork of a tree .
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dicrurus caerulescens . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
it has short legs and sits very upright whilst perched prominently , like a shrike .
these are aggressive and fearless birds , 24 cm in length , and will attack much larger species if their nest or young are threatened .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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study skin of a medium - sized bird with body and tail straight , wings folded back against the body , and legs parallel .
most of india south and east of a line from se punjab to around kutch ; east to bengal ; occurs to about 1500m in the hills .
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comment : condition : good ; suitable for framing . please check the scan for any blemishes prior to making your purchase .
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taxonomic source ( s ) del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk . sibley , c . g . ; monroe , b . l . 1990 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , new haven , usa .
population justification : the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as locally common below 305 metres in nepal , generally uncommon in india and common in the lowlands in sri lanka ( grimmett et al . 1998 )
seven subspecies have been named but the largely contiguous populations show clinal variation and intergrade with each other . individuals from northern india ( ssp . albirictus ) are larger than those from the sri lankan population minor while those from the peninsular india ( nominate subspecies ) are intermediate in size . race cathoecus is found in thailand , hong kong and china . this race has a much smaller rictal spot and the wings are dark with a greenish gloss . in southern siam a race thai is resident , but overlaps with wintering cathoecus . race javanus is found on the islands of java and bali . race harterti found in formosa has the tail length less than the wing .
they are aggressive and fearless birds , and although only 28–cm ( 11–in ) in length , they will attack much larger species that enter their nesting territory , including crows and birds of prey . this behaviour led to their former name of king crow . they fly with strong flaps of the wing and are capable of fast manoeuvres that enable them to capture flying insects . with short legs , they sit upright on thorny bushes , bare perches or electricity wires . they may also perch on grazing animals .
they are capable of producing a wide range of calls but a common call is a two note tee - hee call resembling that of the shikra ( accipiter badius ) .
helpers , offspring from the previous brood , have sometimes been noted to assist in feeding the fledglings at the nest of their parents . cases of brood parasitism by the asian koel have been noted . an average breeding success of 44 % has been noted with the main cause of fledgling mortality being shortage of insect food which in turn was dependent on rainfall .
young birds have a yellowish - red gape . the feather follicles appear on the fourth day and pin feathers emerge after a week . nestlings increase in weight steadily until they are 12 days old . the eyes open on the eighth day , the iris reddish - black while the gape turns red . the young leave the nest after about 16 to 20 days after hatching . they do not have the fork in the tail until three weeks . the parents continue to feed and protect them for a month . young birds may beg for food for longer , but are often ignored or chased away by the adults . birds reach breeding condition in about two years .
play behaviour has been observed with birds dropping a leaf in the air and catching it in mid - air and these may possibly help young birds acquire aerobatic skills .
in southern india , they moult their feathers from june to october . the wing moult begins in july with the first primary and proceeds towards the tenth . secondaries are replaced from august after the primaries are at the third quill . the secondary moult is not orderly , the 8th and 7th being dropped earlier than the rest . the tail feathers are moulted centrifugally . seasonal colour changes in the testicular tissues are caused by variation in melanin synthesis , with the dark pigmentation being lost during the breeding season .
many ectoparasitic bird lice ( myrsidea spp . and menacanthus spp . ) , endoparasitic cestodes and nematodes have been described from this species . however no predators or diseases are significant factors in adult mortality .
their habit of preying on bees makes them a nuisance to bee - keepers , but farmers attract them to their fields using artificial perches in fields to encourage them to feed on pest insects .
being common , they have a wide range of local names . the older genus name of buchanga was derived from the hindi name of bhujanga . other local names include thampal in pakistan , gohalo / kolaho in baluchistan , kalkalachi in sindhi , kotwal ( = policeman ) in hindi ; finga in bengali ; phenshu in assamese ; cheiroi in manipuri ; kosita / kalo koshi in gujarati ; ghosia in marathi ; kajalapati in oriya ; kari kuruvi ( = charcoal bird ) , erettai valan ( = two tail ) in tamil ; passala poli gadu in telugu ; kaaka tampuratti ( = queen of crows ) in malayalam ; kari bhujanga in kannada and kauda in sinhalese . a superstition in central india is that cattle would lose their horn if a newly fledged bird alighted on it . it is held in reverence in parts of punjab in the belief that it brought water to husayn ibn ali , revered by shī‘a muslims .
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we used paired t - tests when the data were normally distributed ( based on the kolmogorov–smirnov normality test ) and wilcoxon - signed rank tests otherwise . all tests were two - tailed with a significance threshold of 0 . 05 . means ± s . e .
on average , mongoose groups interrupted their foraging to respond to predator alarms 5 . 3 times per hour . of the 3475 genuine predator alarms recorded in this study , 30 per cent were initiated by heterospecific alarm vocalizations . fork - tailed drongos accompanied the mongooses during 38 . 6 ± 7 . 1 per cent of the group ' s foraging time and initiated 15 per cent of these heterospecific warnings .
the presence of fork - tailed drongos was also associated with a 38 . 9 ± 7 . 8 per cent reduction in vigilance at an individual level ( paired t - test : t 7 = 4 . 26 , p = 0 . 004 ) , with a significant decrease in the frequency of all three categories of vigilance scan ( figure 1 a ) .
in conclusion , this study shows that the benefits of using heterospecific predator warnings can extend beyond a presumed reduction in mortality rates by allowing individuals to divert time and resources from vigilance to alternative uses . these findings strengthen our understanding of the importance of this form of interspecies communication , not only its capacity to shape the behaviour of individual species or foraging assemblages , but also its potential role in coevolution .
this research was approved by stellenbosch university ' s ethics committee , and supported by the claude leon foundation and national research foundation , south africa .
we thank phuza moya private game reserve for permission to work in the reserve and ongoing assistance ; lindsey swiacki , kim reijs , roccio de la cruz , nicole howarth , tom chapman and julie kern for help in the field ; and bill smith for accommodation .
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the asian koel is a large cuckoo that arrives in australia from south - east asia to breed in spring . koels arrive in september or october and depart again in march .
although rarely seen , koels are well known to many australians for their loud , repetitive calls , which are particularly noticeable early in the morning .
male koels occupy a home range of perhaps 75 ha ( although this is poorly known ) , in which they advertise their presence by repeated calling , mostly with the ' ko - el ' call . they also produce a ' wurroo - wurroo - wurroo ' call and there is some evidence that the latter call becomes more common later in the breeding season . females are attracted to the male ' s calls and they produce a ' keek - keek - keek - keek ' call of their own . sometimes females will sing in a duet with the male ' s ' wurroo - wurroo - wurroo ' call , resulting in a ' keek - wurroo - keek - wurrooo - keek - wurroo - keek - wurroo - wurroo ' ! after copulation , the female lays a single egg in the host ' s nest . the same female lays eggs in the nests of numerous hosts and these may be within the same , or a different , male ' s home range .
koels eat fruit as well as insects , and they are particularly common in rainforest habitats , which tend to have a higher proportion of fruiting plants . they also appear to be becoming more common in cities , such as sydney and brisbane , perhaps because of the abundance of ornamental plants and weeds that produce berries . however , another factor that probably contributes to their increasing abundance is the proliferation of some of their hosts , particularly the red wattlebird .
higgins , p . j . ( ed ) 1999 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds , volume 4 ( parrots to dollarbird ) . oxford university press , victoria .
maller , c . j . 2001 . vocal behaviour of the common koel , eudynamys scolopacea , and implications for mating systems . emu 101 : 105 - 112
these images of the common kingfisher ( alcedo atthis ) was taken by km sim on 29th december 2012 at the japanese garden in jurong .
note that the kingfisher is in its comfort mode , first scratching its head directly by raising its right foot from under its wing . this method of scratching is typical of terrestrial birds – mainly to preen its head feathers . usually preening is done with the bill . see here in the case of the red - breasted parakeet ( psittacula alexandri ) . on the other hand , with aboreal birds , they scratch with the its foot extended over the wing , as in the barn swallow ( hirundo rustica ) here .
the common kingfisher was also documented manipulating a large fish that it caught earlier ( above and below ) . kingfishers need to be careful to swallow the fish head first . swallowing tail first will result in the spines of the fish causing damage to the bird , sometimes even leading to death . here , the bird is carefully manipulating the fish so that it enters its buccal cavity head first .
goh pei hao sent in a set of images of the osprey ( pandion haliaetus ) that . . .
“was at sungei buloh last weekend , and was rather chuffed to see the largest and . . .
daisy o’neill sent in two images of the large woodshrike ( tephrodornis gularis ) – the left . . .
jonathan kuah’s image above shows a crested goshawk ( accipiter trivirgatus ) with a freshly caught javan . . .
lin yangchen photographed three successive stages of dive sequences of the blue - tailed bee - eaters ( merops philippinus ) . . .
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d . m . macrocercus ( vieillot , 1817 ) [ 2 ] d . m . albirictus ( hodgson , 1836 ) [ 3 ] d . m . minor blyth , 1850 [ 4 ] d . m . cathoecus swinhoe , 1871 [ 5 ] d . m . thai kloss , 1921 [ 6 ] d . m . javanus kloss , 1921 [ 6 ] d . m . harterti baker , 1918 [ 7 ]
seven subspecies have been named [ 12 ] but the largely contiguous populations show clinal variation and intergrade with each other . individuals from northern india ( ssp . albirictus ) are larger than those from the sri lankan population minor while those from the peninsular india ( nominate subspecies ) are intermediate in size . [ 13 ] race cathoecus is found in thailand , hong kong and china . [ 14 ] this race has a much smaller rictal spot and the wings are dark with a greenish gloss . [ 12 ] in southern siam a race thai is resident , but overlaps with wintering cathoecus . race javanus is found on the islands of java and bali . race harterti found in formosa has the tail length less than the wing . [ 12 ]