the indo-pacific sergeant ( abudefduf vaigiensis ) may also be known as the sergeant major although this name is usually reserved for the closely related species abudefduf saxatilis .

indo - pacific sergeant

the indo - pacific sergeant occurs in tropical and some warm temperate waters of the indo - west and central pacific .
indo - pacific sergeant image by photo2222 - some rights reserved . ( view image details )
the indo - pacific sergeant is a small tropical species that has five black bars on the body .
information on the indo - pacific sergeant ( abudefduf vaigiensis ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
common sergeant , five - banded damsel - fish , five - banded sergeant - major .
the indo - pacific sergeant is found in waters of the indo - pacific and central pacific . in australia , it is found from the central coast of western australia , around the northern territory , queensland , new south wales coast , and south to bass strait .
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the conservation biology research group , is active in the study of biodiversity in different habitats and has discovered various non - native species in the marine environment . among these were the discoveries of the cocoa damselfish , dory snapper , indo - pacific sergeant , sergeant major , african sergeant , lowfin chub , niger hind , monrovia surgeonfish , indo - pacific punctuated flatworm , lionfish , squirrelfish .
an indo - pacific sergeant , abudefduf vaigiensis , at flinders reef , moreton bay , queensland , australia . source : dave harasti / urltoken license : all rights reserved
kūpīpī have a broad range ; they are found through the indo - pacific from hawai‘i to the red sea .
photo : interspecific school of sergeant majors , abudefduf abdominalis ( hawaiian endemic ) , a . vaigiensis ( indo - pacific ) , and their hybrid . photo credit : keoki stender
it has also been called the common sergeant , five - banded damsel - fish and five - banded sergeant - major .
the endemic hawaiian sergeant major , abudefduf abdominalis ( right ) , the hybrid offspring of a . abdominalis and a . vaigiensis ( center ) , the non - native indo - pacific sergeant major , a . vaigiensis . photos : keoki stender
range : indo - pacific ocean : red sea and eastern africa , north to southern japan and south to australia .
an indo - pacific sergeant , abudefduf vaigiensis , photographed in an aquarium . the fish was caught at a in a rockpool at coledale beach , new south wales , december 2015 .
common names : indo - pacific sergeant , south seas sergeant major , sergeant major ; german indopazifik - sergeant ; french poisson - bagnard traditional names : kōmutumutu ( ts tw ) , kotimu moana ( pk ) global distribution : native e . africa - tuamotus ; n . to s . japan ; s . to norfolk cook islands status : native ; marine , near - shore
the indo - pacific sergeant has a white body with five black bars . the upper part of the body usually has a yellow tint . the tail is unmarked , unlike the similar scissortail sergeant which has a black stripe along each lobe of the tail .
the indo - pacific sergeant major defends his patch of purple eggs from the saddle wrasse and various surgeons and damsels in this video shot off the kohala coast of the big island of hawaii .
the indo - pacific sergeant can be recognised by its distinctive colour pattern . it has a white body with five black bars . it is usually yellow dorsally . the species can be separated from the similar - looking scissortail sergeant by the lack of black stripes on the caudal fin .
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also known as common sergeant , five - banded damselfish , five - banded sergeant major , scissortail sergeant , sergeant , sergeant major , yellowback sergeant , found in schools inside holes of rocky crevices and coral ledges over inshore and outer reef slopes . they feed high in the water column on benthic algae , small invertebrates and zooplankton . juveniles in under harbours , jetties , and under floating weeds . length - 19cm depth - 1 - 15m widespread indo - pacific damselfish are egg layers . first they clear a site ready for a nest , then engage in a mating dance with rapid swimming and fin movements , during this time the males will often turn a shade or two darker and may display white blotches . spawning occurs at dawn .
the living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes
the species is widespread in the tropical indo - pacific , from the red sea and eastern africa in the west , to the tuamoto islands in the east , north to japan , and south to australia .
vella , a . , agius darmanin , s . , vella , n . ( 2016 c ) . the first records of indo - pacific sergeant abudefduf vaigiensis ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) and further notes on the occurrence of sergeant major a . saxatilis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) in malta : expanding populations of an invasive genus in the mediterranean sea . journal of the black sea & mediterranean environment , 22 ( 1 ) , 1 - 15 .
research that i recently published confirmed hybridization between a hawaiian endemic damselfish and a non - native congener that is thought to have arrived in hawaii from rafting alongside trash that originated elsewhere in the pacific . the indo - pacific sergeant is not native to hawaii and was first observed in hawaiian waters in 1992 . in that time span it has colonized the entered 2600km of the hawaiian archipelago and has begun breeding with the endemic sergeant . i found that a quarter of the population of both species on some island are made of hybrids and this number is likely to continue to grow . their continued immigration and the frequency of hybridization leaves the long - term persistence of the evolutionary distinct endemic hawaiian sergeant uncertain
many creatures change during their life . juvenile fish become adults and some change shape or their colour . some species change sex and others just get older . the following creature ( s ) are known relatives of the indo - pacific sergeant ( juvenile ) . click the image ( s ) to explore further or hover over to get a better view !
indo - pacific : red sea and eastern africa to the line and tuamoto islands , north to southern japan , south to australia . recorded in bay of islands , new zealand . often confused with the closely related atlantic species abudefduf saxatilis
anemonefishes , also known as clownfishes , are commensal with certain species of anemones and occur throughout the indo - pacific but are absent from hawai ' i and the atlantic . the australian musuem online has the latest facts about the sting - resistance of these interesting fishes .
indo - pacific : red sea and eastern africa to the line and tuamoto islands , north to southern japan , south to australia . recorded in bay of islands , new zealand ( ref . 35942 ) . often confused with the closely related atlantic species abudefduf saxatilis <
francis , m . 1993 . checklist of the coastal fishes of lord howe , norfolk , and kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean .
indo - pacific : red sea and eastern africa to the line and tuamoto islands , north to southern japan , south to australia . recorded in bay of islands , new zealand ( ref . 35942 ) . often confused with the closely related atlantic species abudefduf saxatilis ( ref . 7247 ) .
adults usually occur near the upper edge of reef slopes , often in aggregations feeding at midwater on zooplankton . they also feed on benthic algae and small invertebrates . juveniles are associated with drifting seaweed . the indo - pacific sergeant occurs in large numbers at spawning sites , timed with large tides that carry their pelagic offspring far offshore . the species is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding . eggs are demersal , adhere to the substrate and are guarded and aerated by the male .
perhaps the most aggressive of the damselfish is the sergeant major . normally docile , the males of the species becomes very defensive when tending eggs . to warn other fish ( and divers ) that he means business , an egg - tending male will darken his white body to blue or indigo . give blue sergeant majors space unless you want to be nibbled .
fish in the abudefduf genus , or sergeant major , are known to become very aggressive over time . they also grow relatively large in comparison to the other fish in this family .
locally common among hawaiian sergeants near reef outcrops and ledges exposed to current where they feed upon zooplankton . breeding population became established during the late 1990 ' s when juveniles among marine debris entered hawaiian waters . silver with a blue or green cast and a bright yellow streak above , five dark blue bars with the last completely crossing the caudal peduncle , tail dark blue , and rounded snout . nuptial males appear much darker overall . . nests are random patches of tiny brown eggs . hybrids have been observed between this species and the endemic hawaiian sergeant . attains 7 inches . indo - pacific .
some species of triggerfish are friendly , and others defend their territory against intruders . an example of a highly aggressive triggerfish is the titan triggerfish . titan triggerfish are found in the indo - pacific . they are quite large - - over a foot long - - and have specialized teeth and powerful jaws . titan triggerfish will defend their nests and territory violently , biting and butting at intruders .
rottnest island ( 32°s ) , rowley shoals ( 17°20 ' s ) and scott reef ( 14°03 ' s ) , wa , and ashmore reef , timor sea ( 12°15 ' s ) , to mallacoota , vic ( 149°45 ' s ) , also herald cay , coral sea ( 17°03 ` s ) , lord howe province , norfolk island , christmas island and cocos ( keeling ) islands ; tropical , indo - west - central pacific . inhabits inshore and offshore reefs .
vella a , vella n , agius darmanin s . ( 2016 b ) . the first record of the african sergeant , abudefduf hoefleri ( perciformes : pomacentridae ) , in the mediterranean sea . marine biodiversity records , 9 ( 1 ) , 1 - 5 .
lionfish boast an array of colorful , featherlike quills . their color and patterns help lionfish to camouflage with the reef , and they may be difficult to spot . most lionfish injuries in the indo - pacific are caused by inadvertent contact with a well - camouflaged fish . in the atlantic , increasing numbers of divers attempt to remove invasive lionfish from the reef because they are disrupting the food chain . a lionfish hunter may accidentally come into contact with the painful sting of the lionfish as he tries to remove it .
the blackspot damselfish , also known as a sergeant major , or kūpīpī in hawaiian , is a common tidepool inhabitant as a juvenile . this damselfish is active and aggressive , and will dominate other fishes in the pool . while living in the pools , the juveniles feed on algae and small organisms from the pool surfaces , as well as on plankton that is washed into the pool with the high tide . as they grow and mature , they move from the tidepools into deeper water of the surge channels , and eventually travel onto the reef face where they can reach sizes up to nine inches ( 23 cm ) .
for most species in the family delphinidae both sexes are sexually mature by about 15 years of age , with some species at less than 10 years ( perrin and reilly 1984 ) . bottlenose dolphins mature later than other delphinids , usually at ages up to 15 years ( wang and yang 2009 ; wells and scott 2009 ) . bottlenose dolphins follow the general delphinid pattern of males becoming sexually mature later than females ( perrin and reilly 1984 ) . studies on bottlenose dolphins that have examined the reproductive organs of carcasses and estimated age using teeth annuli concluded that males mature at 7 to 17 and females at 5 to 14 years of age ( sergeant et al . 1973 ; cockcroft and ross 1990 ; mead and potter 1990 ; kasuya et al . 1997 ) .
maximum testis weight of mature t . truncatus has been reported in a range of studies as 460 to 983 g ( harrison et al . 1972 ; sergeant et al . 1973 ; walker 1981 ; mead and potter 1990 ; kasuya et al . 1997 ; turner et al . 2006 ) . this falls below the maxima recorded for t . aduncus : 1 , 160 g ( cockcroft and ross 1990 ) and 1 , 025 g ( present study ) . yet , t . aduncus is a smaller species ( maximum body length = 2 . 7 m— wang and yang 2009 ) compared with t . truncatus ( 3 . 8 m— wells and scott 2009 ) . in reviewing mating strategies and sperm competition in odontocetes , conner et al . ( 2000 ) noted that compared with other delphinids , bottlenose dolphins have relatively small testes . since the evolution of testis size is thought to be related to mating system in mammals ( kenagy and trombulak 1986 ) , comparing t . aduncus and t . truncatus testis size in a larger sample may point to a difference in the breeding behavior of these species .
adults inhabit upper edge of outer reef slopes and inshore rocky reefs . juveniles associated with drifting seaweed ( ref . 12114 , 12115 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . feed on zooplankton , benthic algae , and small invertebrates ( ref . 1602 ) . often in aggregations ( ref . 9710 ) feeding at midwater or tending nests among rocks and coral ledges ( ref . 90102 ) . in large numbers at spawning sites that are timed with large tides that carry their pelagic offspring far offshore ( ref . 48636 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate ( ref . 205 ) . males guard and aerate the eggs ( ref . 205 ) .
jennifer hammock marked
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arabic , abu = father ; this fish is the leader of the reef against other species ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 1 - 15 m ( ref . 30874 ) . tropical ; 36°n - 39°s , 26°e - 143°w
maturity : l m 12 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4391 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 14 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 11 - 13 .
adults inhabit upper edge of outer reef slopes and inshore rocky reefs . juveniles associated with drifting seaweed ( ref . 12114 , 12115 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . feed on zooplankton , benthic algae , and small invertebrates ( ref . 1602 ) . often in aggregations ( ref . 9710 ) feeding at midwater or tending nests among rocks and coral ledges ( ref . 90102 ) . in large numbers at spawning sites that are timed with large tides that carry their pelagic offspring far offshore ( ref . 48636 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate ( ref . 205 ) . males guard and aerate the eggs ( ref . 205 ) .
oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate ( ref . 205 ) . males guard and aerate the eggs ( ref . 205 ) .
allen , g . r . , 1991 . damselfishes of the world . mergus publishers , melle , germany . 271 p . ( ref . 7247 )
) : 21 . 9 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 2 ( based on 3494 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02630 ( 0 . 01523 - 0 . 04541 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 15 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 6 ±0 . 4 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 85 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 16 of 100 ) .
in australia , it is known from the central coast of western australia , around the tropical north of the country and south on the east coast to bass strait .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
hutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .
kuiter , r . h . 2000 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . gary allen . pp . 437 .
randall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .
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yearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,
codes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases
, pp . 15 pp . + appendices
whitley , g . p . 1964 ,
a survey of australian ichthyology
, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 89 , no . 1 , pp . 11 - 127
mcculloch , a . r . 1929 ,
a check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part ii
, memoirs of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 145–329
quoy , j . r . c . & gaimard , j . p . 1825 ,
chapter 9 . poissons
, ed . freycinet , l . c . d . de ( ed . ) , voyage autour du monde , entrepris par orde du roi , sous le ministère et conformément aux instructions de s . exc . m . le vicomte de boucharge , secrétaire d ' état au département de la marine exécuté sur les corvettes de s . m . l ' uranie et la physicienne , pendent les années 1817 , 1818 , 1819 et 1820 ; publié sous les auspices de s . e . m . le conte corbière , secrétaire d ' état de l ' intérieur , pour la partie historique et les sciences naturelles , et de s . e . m . le marquis de clermont - tonnerre , secrétaire d ' état de la marine et des colonies , pour la partie nautique ; par m . louis freycinet , etc , pp . 329 - 401 pls 43 - 65 , pillet aîné vol . 1 + atlas iv , paris
compiled by roberts , c . d . ; paulin , c . d . ; stewart , a . l . ; mcphee , r . p . ; mcdowall , r . m . , king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicol , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , r . ; macadie , i . 24 : phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , checklist of new zealand chordata . living lancelets , jawless fishes , cartilaginous fishes , and bony fishes . in : new zealand inventory of biodiversity volume 1 .
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e497da68 - 6903 - 4b9e - 9f64 - d4bc6ff2cfda
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 268b9721 - ffc9 - 41f1 - a58c - f30fde3241dd
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 372490
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description inhabits upper edge of outer reef slopes and inshore rocky reefs . feeds on zooplankton , benthic algae , and small . . .
description inhabits upper edge of outer reef slopes and inshore rocky reefs . feeds on zooplankton , benthic algae , and small invertebrates ( ref . 1602 ) . [ details ]
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicoll , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , s . ; macadie , i . ( 2009 ) . phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 431 - 554 . [ details ]
occhipinti - ambrogi , a . ; marchini , a . ; cantone , g . ; castelli , a . ; chimenz , c . ; cormaci , m . ; froglia , c . ; furnari , g . ; gambi , m . c . ; giaccone , g . ; giangrande , a . ; gravili , c . ; mastrototaro , f . ; mazziotti , c . ; orsi - relini , l . ; piraino , s . ( 2010 ) . alien species along the italian coasts : an overview . biological invasions . 13 ( 1 ) : 215 - 237 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
galil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ben rais lasram , f . ; mouillot , d . ( 2008 ) . increasing southern invasion enhances congruence between endemic and exotic mediterranean fish fauna . biological invasions . 11 ( 3 ) : 697 - 711 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of glyphisodon rahti cuvier , 1830 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of glyphisodon rahti cuvier , 1830 ) randall , j . e . ( 1992 ) . red sea reef fishes . immel publishing . [ details ]
( of glyphisodon rahti cuvier , 1830 ) smith , j . l . b . ( 1960 ) . coral fishes of the family pomacentridae from the western indian ocean and the red sea . ichthyological bulletin no . 19 : 317 - 349 [ details ]
( of chaetodon tyrwhitti bennett , 1830 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf caudobimaculatus okada & ikeda , 1939 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of glyphisodon quadrifasciatus bleeker , 1847 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of glyphisodon vaigiensis quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf vaigensis ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf vargensis ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefdus vaigiensis ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf quinquelineatus von bonde , 1934 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf quinquilineatus von bonde , 1934 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of abudefduf quinquilineatus von bonde , 1934 ) smith , j . l . b . ( 1960 ) . coral fishes of the family pomacentridae from the western indian ocean and the red sea . ichthyological bulletin no . 19 : 317 - 349 [ details ]
hong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
a whitish damselfish with five relatively broad dark bars on the sides , and a yellowish hue often on the upper head and sides .
glyphisodon vaigiensis quoy & gaimard , 1825 , voyage autour du monde 1 : 391 . type locality : waigeo , indonesia ; rauwak ( as iles des papous ) .
allen , g . r . 1986 . family 219 : pomacentridae . pp . 670 - 682 in smith , m . m . & heemstra , p . c . ( eds ) .
allen , g . r . 2001 . family pomacentridae . pp . in carpenter , k . e . & niem , t . h . ( eds ) .
. christmas island : christmas island natural history association 2 edn , 284 pp .
allen , g . r . & smith - vaniz , w . f . 1994 . fishes of cocos ( keeling ) islands .
the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers .
perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .
choat , j . h . , van herwerden , l . , robbins , w . d . , hobbs , j . p . & ayling , a . m . 2006 .
. report by james cook university to the department of the environment and heritage . 65 pp .
hobbs , j - p . a . , newman , s . j . , mitsopoulos , g . e . a . , travers , m . j . , skepper , c . l . , gilligan , j . j . , allen , g . r . , choat , h . j . & ayling , a . m . 2014 . checklist and new records of christmas island fishes : the influence of isolation , biogeography and habitat availability on species abundance and community composition .
hobbs , j - p . a . , newman , s . j . , mitsopoulos , g . e . a . , travers , m . j . , skepper , c . l . , gilligan , j . j . , allen , g . r . , choat , h . j . & ayling , a . m . 2014 . fishes of the cocos ( keeling ) islands : new records , community composition and biogeographic significance .
hutchins , j . b . 2001 . biodiversity of shallow reef fish assemblages in western australia using a rapid censusing technique .
johnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .
guide to sea fishes of australia . a comprehensive reference for divers and fishermen .
quoy , j . r . c . & gaimard , j . p . 1825 . chapter 9 . poissons . 329 - 401 pls 43 - 65 in freycinet , l . c . d . de ( ed . )
voyage autour du monde , entrepris par orde du roi , sous le ministère et conformément aux instructions de s . exc . m . le vicomte de boucharge , secrétaire d ' état au département de la marine exécuté sur les corvettes de s . m . l ' uranie et la physicienne , pendent les années 1817 , 1818 , 1819 et 1820 ; publié sous les auspices de s . e . m . le conte corbière , secrétaire d ' état de l ' intérieur , pour la partie historique et les sciences naturelles , et de s . e . m . le marquis de clermont - tonnerre , secrétaire d ' état de la marine et des colonies , pour la partie nautique ; par m . louis freycinet
, etc . paris : pillet aîné vol . 1 + atlas iv 712 pp .
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it has not yet been assessed globally by the iucn red list of threatened species . in a recent regional assessment for the arabian gulf it was classified as vulnerable ( vu ) . the species is important for the aquarium trade .
the body is moderately deep and compressed ; the mouth small and terminal . the caudal fin is forked . the background color of the body is greenish grey often suffused with yellow dorsally , and grading to greenish white ventrally . edges of scales are darker than their centers . there are five deep blue to black bars on the body , narrowing ventrally . fins are mainly blue - green and translucent .
pukapuka : specimen + photo , 2 / 2004 , g . mccormack with id as abudefduf vaigiensis , to bpbm , id confirmed j . randall , 5 / 2004 .
rarotonga : photo d . simms , id confirmed j . e . randall ( sims88 ) .
voucher information : to view , move mouse over displayed island names on the map .
cook islands islands : rr = rarotonga , mg = mangaia , at = ‘ātiu , mk = ma‘uke , mt = miti‘āro , ak = aitutaki , pl = palmerston , pn = penrhyn , mn = manuae , tk = takūtea , tn = tongareva ( ts = tongaleva spoken , tw = tongareva written , they say
el
but write
r
) , mh = manihiki , rk = rakahanga , pk = pukapuka , ns = nassau , sw = suwarrow . after a polynesian name : ^ = orthography query . countries and other : fij = fiji , wt = wallis & futuna , sam = samoa , ton = tonga , niu = niue , ck = cook islands , ckm = cook islands māori , fp = french polynesia , aus = australs , soc = societies , tah = tahiti , tua = tuamotus , mqs = marquesas , mng = mangareva , pit = pitcain group , eas = easter island , haw = hawai‘i , nz = new zealand , nzm = new zealand māori
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vouchers : rarotonga : photo d . simms , id confirmed j . e . randall ( sims88 ) . pukapuka : specimen + photo , 2 / 2004 , g . mccormack with id as abudefduf vaigiensis , to bpbm , id confirmed j . randall , 5 / 2004 .
references : text p . 168 myers ( 1991 2nd ed . ) fishes of micronesia plate 79c myers ( 1991 2nd ed . ) fishes of micronesia p . 249 randall et al . ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef . . . . p . 380 burgess et al . ( 1988 ) atlas of marine aquarium fishes ( tfh ) plate 74 - 01 lieske & myers ( 1996 ) coral reef fishes plate 61 - 03 allen ( 1997 ) marine fishes of tropical australia . . . .
mccormack , gerald ( 2007 ) cook islands biodiversity database , version 2007 . 2 . cook islands natural heritage trust , rarotonga . online at http : / / cookislands . bishopmuseum . org .
copyright © 2007 ( july ) the cook islands natural heritage trust , all rights reserved . copyright & use policy
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created to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .
natural environment : inhabits lagoon patch reefs , back reefs , reef channels and reef slopes at depths between 3 to about 40 feet ( 1 – 12 m ) and feeds on algae , zooplankton , and benthic invertebrates .
general husbandry : rarely collected for the trade . has a light blue - green body with five vertical black bands .
as to diet , similar to other species in this genus - a meaty diet , e . g . , live fortified brine shrimp and / or finely chopped various frozen or fresh meaty foods such as mysis , squid , fish flesh , shrimp , clam , etc . , and plant material , e . g . , flake foods , especially those containing spirulina and be offered several times daily .
the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of bob goemans .
the damselfish family contains a great number of species found in warm seas worldwide . they have a variety of specialized roles as territorial algal farmers , planktivores , or partners living commensally with sea anemones . the sexes are indistinguishable but males are responsible for nest - making and defending the eggs from hungry wrasses and butterflyfishes . at this time they might display a nuptial color pattern . avoid getting too close to a nest since it distracts the male allowing predators to start a feeding frenzy that consumes the entire clutch in seconds .
by bedo ( thailand ) ( own work ) [ cc by - sa 4 . 0 (
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vulnerable fresh water habitats may be under increasing threat by an invasive alien fresh water species , the red swamp crayfish , procambarus clarkii . the species has been introduced in the maltese fresh water habitat by some careless human action which may affect local natural fresh water communities of species that are already vulnerable due to pollution and climate change impacts .
the species has been identified morphologically and genetically by members of the conservation biology research group of the university of malta ( cbrg - uom ) who are reporting the presence of this alien species in chadwick lakes . observations of this species confirmed its opportunistic feeding of tadpoles and other species found in the fresh water environment pointing toward impacts on this habitat and its biodiversity . the publication of this scientific investigation has been published in the international peer reviewed journal nesciences . the finding has been shared with the environment protection authority in order to recommend action toward removing the new man - made environmental threat in this very fragile local freshwater ecosystem .
it is clear that more care in the importation and sale of exotic species should be in place where most habitats are already suffering from various anthropogenic problems .
anyone wishing to assist ongoing conservation research of endemic , vulnerable or endangered species by reporting sightings of these species and the impacts these are suffering in their habitats is most welcome to contact this research group .
as exotic or alien species increasingly threaten local species in terrestrial , freshwater and marine environments , these non - native species may be sighted , photographed or collected and forwarded by any interested citizen to this research group so it may continue with its work to promote effective conservation of species and habitats needing urgent care .
the cbrg - uom is thankful for the various reports and sightings it receives which complement its own dedicated research efforts in the field and research labs . various stakeholders including fishermen , scuba divers , farmers , nature enthusiasts and bicref ngo members have been assisting these local efforts toward conservation .
© university of malta . all rights reserved . reproduction / copying in whole or part is strictly prohibited .
be careful when keeping these fish together with peaceful or docile species . regular feeding , plenty of hiding places and a lot of space can alleviate aggressive behavior to some degree .
this species thrives best if it is kept in a group of five or more individuals .
clown - / damselfish ( pomacentridae ) can be divided into three groups as described below .
clown - / anemonefish ( amphiprioninae ) are characterised in that they spend most of their time in an anemone . they can be kept outside of one and sometimes will find another coral to hide in . this can be hammercoral , xenia or similar . clownfish exhibit fascinating social behaviour , especially when carrying eggs . this is even more interesting when kept with an anemone or a substitute .
they go normally in pairs and most are easy to keep in aquaria . clownfish can easily be kept in small tanks , as they do not swim around a lot .
it is important to have a male and female or two males to one female , as two females do not tolerate each other . when one acquires two fish of very different size or two small individuals , it is likely they will become a pair .
when setting up a reef aquarium , clownfish are the obvious choice . they can be aggressive towards other kinds of fish , but mainly when these get too close to their hiding place . they do tend to get more aggressive when they have an anemone or when carrying eggs .
most of clownfish are of the amphiprion genus , but there is a single species in the premnas genus .
chromis ( chrominae ) encompass the genera , acanthochromis , altrichthys , chromis , azurina and dascyllus , but when talking about chromis it is normally understood to mean the fish of the chromis genus specifically .
fish in the chromis genus are not as hardy as the clown or damselfish , but are very attractive with their shiny blue and green colour nuances . overall the fish in this group are less aggressive than many others in this family and are often seen in shoals . they do become more aggressive when pairing or laying eggs .
fish in this group live mainly on zooplankton and must be fed frequently , if possible several times a day .
some in this group are often seen hiding in stony corals e . g . acropora , but some species may look for shelter in anemones .
damselfish ( pomacentrinae and lepidozyginae ) are typically hardy , very attractive , but very territorial . some species are very coulorful when young , but become dull over time .
they live typically of a mixture of zooplankton and algae , some live more on algae and some on zooplankton . some damselfish even cultivate their preferred algae in a small
garden
, so they have their own foodsource . this does explain their aggression towards other fish and invertebrates , which want to eat their algae .
because of their territorial behaviour it is best to keep only one damselfish per aquarium , unless it is a very large tank . one should consider
acquiring damselfish , if at a later stage very peaceful or docile fish will be kept , as it is almost impossible to catch them , without removing rocks from the tank . sometimes it is possible to entice them to hide somewhere , where they can be caught , i . e . a hollow stone . in a large aquarium where a damselfish has its own territorium , this is a much smaller problem .
damsels are placed in the genera ; abudefduf , amblyglyphidodon , amblypomacentrus , cheiloprion , chrysiptera , dischistodus , hemiglyphidodon , hypsypops , lepidozygus , mecaenichthys , microspathodon , neoglyphidodon , neopomacentrus , nexilosus , parma , plectroglyphidodon , pomacentrus , pomachromis , pristotis , similiparma , stegastes and teixeirichthys .
scott w . michael . 2008 . damselfishes & anemonefishes ( reef fishes ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) james w . fatherree . 2011 . aquarium fish : damselfishes and chromises : the good and the bad - advanced aquarist - ( english ) bob fenner . the damsel and anemonefishes , family pomacentridae - wet web media - ( english )
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .
minimum volume
indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .
this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .
hardiness
indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .
in this case , a
normal
aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .
special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .
always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .
often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .
reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .
reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .
not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .
marine ; reef - associated ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 1 - 15 m ( ref . 30874 ) . tropical , preferred ? ; 36°n - 39°s , 26°e - 143°w
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; marino associati a barriera corallina ; oceanodromo ( ref . 51243 ) ; distribuzione batimetrica 1 - 15 m ( ref . 30874 ) . tropical ; 36°n - 39°s , 26°e - 143°w
maturity : l m 12 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm tl maschio / sesso non determinato ; ( ref . 4391 )
spine dorsali ( totale ) : 13 ; raggi dorsali molli ( totale ) : 11 - 14 ; spine anali 2 ; raggi anali molli : 11 - 13 .
resilienza ( ref . 69278 ) : alto , tempo minimo di raddoppiamento della popolazione meno di 15 mesi ( k = 0 . 85 ) .
the colouration of the fish is not typical . tony gill stated that the fish
looks to be showing stress coloration .
.
the adult kūpīpī , less frequently seen than the young , are among the largest hawaiian damselfishes . they are generally solitary and highly territorial , living just outside the reef edge where they feed on algae and small bottom - dwelling marine life . they are active during daylight and are seen close to boulders and among rocky crevices . at night , they shelter under cover , alert but inactive . adults are brownish - gray with a lighter belly , five to six vertical bands on the sides , and a prominent dark spot at the base of the tail fin . males establish a nest site on a rock surface to which they attract females using a dramatic black & white color pattern and vigorous displays . the male remains by the nest to guard and care for the eggs .
sea animals and fish are frequently the victims of negative publicity . more often than not , browsing through wildlife documentary channels on television will reveal a disappointing trend . many of the documentaries have names such as
killer squid
and
the deadliest octopus
. no wonder some new divers are frightened by aquatic life !
marine animal behavior can appear threatening to divers who do not understand the purpose behind the behavior . many sea animals are completely docile but just
look scary ,
and some animals that appear friendly can actually be quite aggressive .
almost all aquatic life injuries are caused by defensive behavior on the part of the animal . as i tell new divers , don ' t try to pull eels out of their holes , poke the lobsters , or attempt to ride the stingrays , and you should be just fine . don ' t bother the fish and they won ' t bother you .
learn about some of the animals that divers commonly fear and to discover which are dangerous and which are not .
moray eels are large , marine eels that are commonly found sheltering under ledges or inside holes in the reef . new divers may find eels frightening because they have visible sharp teeth and because they hang around with their mouths open as if they are about to bite . this behavior , which may look like an eel is threatening divers , is really just a way for the eel to pump water across its gills to breathe . the only danger from eels is that they have terrible eyesight , and may mistake a prodding finger or dangling piece of gear for a fish . give moray eels space and they pose no threat .


philodryas baroni , common name baron 's green racer , is a species of colubrid snake .

the latin name baroni honors manuel barón morlat , who collected the first specimens .

philodryas baroni

philodryas baroni berg 1895 rhinodryas königi werner 1903 philodryas baroni var . fusco - flavescens serié 1915 chlorosoma baroni amaral 1929 philodryas baroni — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 philodryas baroni — freiberg 1982 philodryas baroni — cei 1993 philodryas baroni — leynaud & bucher 1999 : 4 , 29 philodryas baroni — grazziotin et al . 2012 philodryas baroni — wallach et al . 2014 : 549
file : philodryas baroni , baron ' s green racer . ( 9072741542 ) . jpg
baron ' s green racers ( philodryas baroni ) , also known as the argentine long nose snake .
philodryas baroni berg 1895
( on - line ) . accessed may 02 , 2016 at urltoken .
2016 .
baron ' s green racer philodryas baroni
( on - line ) . accessed may 04 , 2016 at urltoken .
biochemical and biological analysis of philodryas baroni ( baron ' s green racer ; dipsadidae ) venom : relevance to the findings of human risk assessment .
de lisle , h . 1991 . captive reproduction and biology of the argentine snake philodryas baroni . nchs captive prop . husb . conf . - get paper here
baroni ( unlike olfersii ) are very reluctant to bite , and olfersii ( unlike baroni ) have got really big heads and not surprising they can do a bit of damage .
biochemical and biological analysis of philodryas baroni ( baron ' s green racer ; dipsadidae ) venom : relevance to the findings of human risk assessment . - pubmed - ncbi
to cite this page : schoen , t . 2017 .
philodryas baroni
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
cobra verde ( philodryas olfersii ) por : cassio j . s . b .
martínez , m . d . & ibargüengoytía , n . r . 2004 . care and breeding of baron’s green racer , philodryas baroni . reptilia ( gb ) ( 32 ) : 35 - 38 .
they have a relatively interesting diurnal behavior , showing intense activity during the day and clearly preferring the higher parts of their enclosure . contrary to other philodryas species , p . baroni shows very little signs of aggressiveness .
martínez , m . d . & ibargüengoytía , n . r . 2004 . care and breeding of baron’s green racer , philodryas baroni . reptilia ( gb ) ( 32 ) : 35 - 38 - get paper here
awesome ! we ' re at 32 likes and best of all , i have not promoted this page , so that means we ' re all here because we found it ourselves . . . so we all love philodryas baroni !
the philodryas olfersii is what caused the fatality . philodryas baroni on the other hand , has caused some
unpleasent ones
i just wouldnt let it near enouth to little children , and when handling , take precautions . you can tell thier mood a little bit . they are also quite mellow snakes ( the majority ) some being nasty .
bites by c . clelia and philodryas sp leading to local inflammation , and hemorrhage have also been reported . ~ it has been reported that bites by species of philodryas , as p . baroni and p . patagonensis , presented some symptoms similar to bothropik envenomations .
~ reference , medical institute of tropical medicine , sao paulo , october 2000 .
there are no accounts of death for philodryas baroni . yes they are rear fanged but they are practically harmless . my girl is as placid as they come however i remember at all times she is rear fanged . the one account of death is due to a philodryas olfersii which was put on dwa in october . and it was a child who was bitten not an adult . . .
sanchez , m . , a . timoniuk , s . marunak , p . tiebler , o . acosta , m . peichoto . 2014 . biochemical and biological analysis of philodryas baroni ( baron’s green racer ; dipsadidae ) venom : relevance to the findings of human risk assessment .
hartmann , p . , o . marques . 2005 . diet and habitat use of two sympatric species of philodryas ( colubridae ) , in south brazil .
breeding interval the breeding interval of baron ' s green racers is undocumented in the wild , however , other members of philodryas breed in the warmer months of the year .
justification : philodryas psammophidea has been assessed as least concern because it has a large distribution and is not being impacted by any major threats , and is not undergoing population declines .
kuch , u . and u . jesberger . 1993 . human envenomation from the bite of the south american colubrid snake species philodrayas baroni berg , 1895 . the snake 25 ( 1 ) : 63 - 65 . report localized pain , edema , petachiae , ecchymosis ,
red lymphatic line
extending to axilla ; review literature ( 1916 - ) snakebite philodryas ; recommend extreme caution .
mesquita , p . , g . sa - polidoro , s . cechin . 2013 . reproductive biology of philodryas olfersii ( serpentes , dipsadidae ) in a subtropical region of brazil .
hohmeister , a . 1999 . bemerkungen zur biologie und pflege südamerikanischer strauchnattern der gattung philodryas wagler , 1830 im terrarium . sauria 21 ( 2 ) : 9 - 21 - get paper here
philodryas are rear fanged , as you may know . but what you may not know is that they have human death attributed to them . a look around for references yields this information .
philodryas aestiva ( a . m . c . duméril , bibron & a . h . a . duméril , 1854 ) - n argentina , bolivia , se brazil , paraguay , uruguay
freiberg , m . 1982 . snakes of south america t . f . h . publications . hong kong . 189 pp . isbn 0 - 87666 - 912 - 7 . ( genus philodryas , pp . 106 - 107 . )
at least two species of the genus philodryas ( p . olfersii latirostris & p . chamissonis ) are known to have caused serious envenomations with a quick defensive bites . unlike other rear - fanged species , these snakes do not need to hold and chew .
wagler , j . g . 1830 . natürliches system der amphibien , mit vorangehender classification des säugthiere und vögel . ein beitrag zur vergleichenden zoologie . j . g . cotta . munich , stuttgart , and tübingen . vi + 354 pp . ( genus philodryas , p . 185 . )
care video on the philodryas baroni . normal temps about 75 - 85 f , winter drops can be into the 50s . they dont require uvb and are more active in light . humidity in the 30s with the occasional spray is ok , although they should shed pretty good on thier own . generally have a pretty good appetite and feed great on frozen thawd . plenty of climbing is needed as they well use it all . i have been working with theese for awhile now and have never been attacked , even though they are considered
mildly
venomous . . . theres little to be afraid of as they would much rather run that bite
treatment summary bites by philodryas species commonly cause moderate to severe local & regional pain & swelling , sometimes with bruising , a clinical picture similar to bites by some major venomous snakes found in the same region . this may cause diagnostic confusion and has resulted in inappropriate use of antivenom . treatment is symptomatic , mostly pain relief , but beware massive local swelling causing fluid shifts , resulting in secondary hypovolaemic shock .
boulenger , g . a . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) . volume iii . , containing the colubridæ ( opisthoglyphæ and proteroglyphæ ) . . . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers . ) london . xxiv + 727 pp . + plates i . - xxv . ( genus philodryas , p . 127 . )
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
syntypes : mnba , an 1180 mm male , a 1280 mm female and a 1430 mm female ( m . barón - morlat amd a . schncke ) . holotype : zsm 2080 / 0 , male , “rosario in argen - tinien” ( original description ) , “rosario da st . fé , argentinien” ( jar label ) , collected by könig , 1903 [ königi ]
named after d . manuel baron moriat , from whom berg received specimens of this snake from tucuman , argentina .
akeret , b . 2010 . kräuter , gräser , zimmerpflanzen , was schön ist , soll im becken ranken - ausgewählte beispiele bepflanzter terrarien . draco 11 ( 41 ) : 69 - 76 - get paper here
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
berg , c . 1895 . dos reptiles neuvos descritos . anales del museo nacional de buenos aires , 4 : 189 - 194 . - get paper here
cacciali , pier ; norman j . scott , aida luz aquino ortíz , lee a . fitzgerald , and paul smith 2016 . the reptiles of paraguay : literature , distribution , and an annotated taxonomic checklist special publication of the museum of southwestern biology , number 11 : 1–373 - get paper here
cei , j . m . 1993 . reptiles del noroeste , nordeste y este de la argentina . museo regionale sci . naturale torino , monografie 14 : 1 - 949
freiberg , m . a . 1982 . snakes of south america . t . f . h . publications , neptune city , nj , 189 pp .
grazziotin , felipe g . ; hussam zaher , robert w . murphy , gustavo scrocchi , marco a . benavides , ya - ping zhang and sandro l . bonatto 2012 . molecular phylogeny of the new world dipsadidae ( serpentes : colubroidea ) : a reappraisal . cladistics doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 0031 . 2012 . 00393 . x - get paper here
guedes , thaís b . ; < br / > ricardo j . sawaya , < br / > alexander zizka , < br / > shawn laffan , < br / > søren faurby , < br / > r . alexander pyron , < br / > renato s . bérnils , < br / > martin jansen , < br / > paulo passos , < br / > ana l . c . prudente , < br / > diego f . cisneros - heredia , < br 2017 . patterns , biases and prospects in the distribution and diversity of neotropical snakes . global ecol biogeogr 00 : 1–8 - get paper here
kacoliris f . p . ; berkunsky i . & williams j . 2006 . herpetofauna of impenetrable , argentinean great chaco . phyllomedusa 5 ( 2 ) : 149 - 158 - get paper here
leynaud , gerardo c . and enrique h . bucher 1999 . la fauna de serpientes del chaco sudamericano : diversidad , distribución geografica y estado de conservación . academia nacional de ciencias miscelanea ( 98 ) : 1 - 46
scrocchi , g . j . ; moreta , j . c . & kretzschmar , s . 2006 . serpientes del noroeste argento [ jujuy , salta , tucumán , catamarca , la rioja , santiago del estero ] . fundación miguel lillo , tucumán , 178 pp .
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
weinstein , scott a . 2017 . non - front - fanged colubroid snakes . in : j . brent et al . ( eds . ) , critical care toxicology . springer verlag , pp . 2453 - 2492 - get paper here
werning , h . 2009 . das serpentarium des snakeparadise in eschlikon in der schweiz . reptilia ( münster ) 14 ( 79 ) : 76 - 82 - get paper here
williams , j . d . & francini , f . 1991 . a checklist of the argentine snakes . boll . mus . reg . sci . nat . torino 9 ( 1 ) : 55 - 90
winchell , s . 2010 . die reptilien argentiniens . reptilia ( münster ) 15 ( 83 ) : 20 - 27 - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
baron ' s green racers are found in south america and have been collected from northern argentina , paraguay and bolivia . the gran chaco region of argentina , a semi - arid , sparsely populated lowland , has been reported as the center of their range .
baron ' s green racers are a strictly arboreal species and inhabit savannas , tropical and subtropical forests .
. they have a slender body , narrow head and relatively long tail . green is the most common coloration among baron’s green racers , however , blue and brown varieties may also be found . a brown variety inhabits the northern parts of argentina and is known as
. the eyes of baron’s green racers are less than one third the snout length and have a round pupil . the snout often comes to a prominent point made of extending rostral scales which are more developed in males than in females , but do occur in both sexes . there are 21 or 23 rows of smooth , single - pitted scales . some specimens display two longitudinal black lines which pass through the eyes laterally and extend from the rostrum through the anterior third of the body . the upper lip is white and the ventral body surface is often a greenish white . baron’s green racers are opisthoglyphous , with their fangs located in the rear of the mouth .
there are several morphological features of baron’s green racers which appear to be well - adapted to these snakes’ habitat choice and activity patterns . a long tail and slender body are common traits of arboreal snakes as these features allow for swift and balanced movement through an arboreal habitat . green racers are also well - camouflaged amongst tree branches . their green coloration is advantageous as it allows these diurnal snakes to remain cryptic to both predators and prey . there is little published data on sexual dimorphism in
tend to have a larger body length than males , possibly to increase reproductive potential while remaining slender enough to successfully navigate an arboreal habitat . similar patterns have been reported in
( boulenger , 1896 ; hartmann and marques , 2005 ; sanchez , et al . , 2014 )
the mating system of baron ' s green racers is not referenced in the literature , but studies on related species have indicated that multiple mating events may occur within one breeding season . whether or not these mating events are monogamous , polyandrous , polygynous or polygynandrous is unspecified .
baron’s green racers are oviparous . herpetoculturalists have reported that females will produce greater than 20 eggs per clutch , but the average clutch size is around 10 . unfortunately there are currently no published field studies which broach the topic of their reproductive cycle . perhaps inferences can be drawn from a more frequently studied arboreal relative that shares a home range with
have been reported to ovulate for roughly 3 months of the year between november - january , but reproductive individuals of both sexes have been collected year round . clutch size in this species varied between 4 and 11 eggs , however , there may be potential for multiple mating events and multiple clutches throughout the reproductive season . males experience a period of reproductive dormancy during the colder months of the year . baron ' s green racers return to communal nesting sites each year .
(
south american green snake
, 2015 ; mesquita , et al . , 2013 )
breeding season baron ' s green racers may breed year round , with a increase in reproductive frequency from november through january .
females invest in resources for their eggs , but little additional information on parental investment is available in the literature .
no information on longevity in baron ' s green racers is reported in the literature .
baron’s green racers are diurnal and peak activity has been reported in the warmer and wetter months , especially in autumn . they are reported to be less aggressive than other members of the genus
, but may still coil and strike repeatedly if threatened . if threatened , baron ' s green racers are also known to excrete a foul - smelling substance from the cloaca in defense .
(
south american green snake
, 2015 ; leynaud , et al . , 2008 )
like other lizards , baron ' s green racers have keen eyesight that they use to capture prey . they also sense chemicals in the air with their tongues . forms of communication are not reported in the literature for this species .
baron ' s green racers are carnivorous and their diet mainly consists of arboreal frogs , lizards , and small mammals . both constriction and envenomation are used to subdue prey items . cannibalism of immature individuals by larger members of the species has also been reported .
baron ' s green racers are cryptically colored as their green coloration provides camouflage in the foliage . there is no information available concerning the predators of
no information is available regarding the ecosystem role of baron ' s green racers , however , based on their diet it can be inferred that they are an important generalist predator .
baron ' s green racers have become popular in the exotic pet trade . they are owned and bred by people all over the world .
while reportedly non - aggressive , baron ' s green racers have bitten and envenomated humans . no human deaths as a result from a green racer bite have been recorded but bites should be considered medically significant and be treated by a medical professional . the bite symptoms include pain , swelling , hemorrhaging , and lesions on the affected area .
baron ' s green racers are considered least concern by the iucn and are not on any lists of endangered or threatened animals .
taylor schoen ( author ) , michigan state university , james harding ( editor ) , michigan state university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .
rainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound ( for example , scorpions , jellyfish , and rattlesnakes ) .
2015 .
south american green snake
( on - line ) . accessed may 04 , 2016 at urltoken .
leynaud , g . , g . reati , e . bucher . 2008 . annual activity patterns of snakes from central argentina ( córdoba province ) .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
general shape medium to large in length , medium to moderately robust bodied snake with a medium length , slender , gradually tapering tail . can grow to a maximum of about 1 . 92 metres . head is moderately long and slightly distinct from neck . canthus rostralis is distinct . snout is pointed when viewed from above and distinctly upturned when viewed from he side . eyes are moderately large in size with round pupils . dorsal scales are smooth with single apical pits . ventrals are rounded .
general : dangerousness unknown , but potentially lethal envenoming , though unlikely , cannot be excluded .
general : local effects local pain , swelling & bruising . pain & swelling can be severe .
description : first aid for bites by non - front - fanged colubroid snakes likely to cause either no effects or only mild local effects .
general approach to management it is possible that most cases will be minor , but some cases may be more severe , requiring admission and treatment , so assess carefully before discharge .
( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike
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copyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .
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warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
sánchez mn 1 , timoniuk a , maruñak s , teibler p , acosta o , peichoto me .
just a bit worried about the sudden influx of this species and the free handling of large specimens .
not because people are doing it , that is there choice and i have handled far more toxic animals , but because they seem oblivious to the potential consequences .
the venom contains post synaptic neurotoxins , myto toxins , heamotoxins , and enzymes that can cause oedema .
that in english means it damages nerves somewhat permanently , thins your blood ( possibly fatally ) and causes mass swelling not only at the bite site , but potentially internally also . it can also cause fluid build up in the lungs and after effects similar to pneumonia .
now i am not trying to scare monger , but there seriously is a large risk of hospitalisation from the bite of this species . we all know that death is unlikely in a healthy adult , near impossible . but in a child , its very likely . or an adult who is say haemophiliac , or has heart trouble , high cholesterol or is on medication such as warfren .
i wouldn ' t go that far , however there are less toxic species on the shedual . and these arn ' t mamba ' s don ' t get me wrong but they are worse than say mangroves or amazon false vipers ( that were added ) . dan
not in most cases , just numbness and possible paralasis of the local area . but a bad bite , or somone who is small , young or old then potentially yes . they have killed fairly healthy adults on occasion . dan
look on wch clinical toxinology resources thats the university of adilade aus , and states that have caused fatilities .
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just checked on charcoal this morning . . . she ' s just leaving her egg box with a surprise inside !
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snake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )
working manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
head distinct from neck , with distinct canthus rostralis . eye moderate or large . pupil round . body cylindrical or slightly laterally compressed . tail long .
dorsal scales arranged in 17 to 23 rows at midbody , more or less obliquely . subcaudals divided ( in two rows ) .
teeth smallest anteriorly , 12 - 15 , followed after a gap by two large grooved fangs located just behind the posterior border of the eye .
and can give a venomous bite . however , they have mild venom ; so a bite is unlikely to cause lasting damage to humans .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
listed as least concern because it is widespread and not thought to be subject to major threats .
this species is endemic to chile , where its range extends from paposo , antofagasta region ( j . mella pers . comm . 2015 ) ; south to valdivia , los ríos region ( greene and jaksic 1992 , sallaberry - pincheira et al . 2011 ) . it has an elevational range from from sea level to 2 , 300 m asl ( sallaberry - pincheira et al . 2011 ) .
this is an uncommon species , although compared with tachymenis chilensis , the only sympatric snake species , it is considered common ( n . sallaberry pers . comm . 2015 ) .
this versatile species inhabits a diverse set of habitats from the southern parts of the driest desert of the world to the very cold and humid valdivian temperate rain forest ( sallaberry - pincheira et al . 2011 ) , including disturbed areas such as tree plantations , pasture - lands , different fruit and vegetable groves ( n . sallaberry pers comm . 2014 ) . it is a diurnal predator principally of iguanas of the genus liolaemus ( greene and jaksic 1992 ) , but also feeds on amphibians , birds , and mammals ( greene and jaksic 1992 , muñoz - leal et al . 2011 ) . it is an oviparous species ( greene and jaksic 1992 )
it was exported to europe and usa for the pet trade during 1986 - 1991 ( iriarte 1994 ) , but at present is not utilized or traded to any significant degree .
this species is susceptible to persecution due to general fears to snakes and also there is mortality of individuals due to road kill and predation by domestic species such as dogs and cats . it was exported to europe and usa for the pet trade during 1986 - 1991 ( iriarte 1994 ) . none of these are considered major threats .
there are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . in chile is regionally assessed as vulnerable and rare by the reglamento de la ley de caza of the ministerio de agricultura ( mma 2014 ) . education is recommended to change the negative perception on the species .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
you just said what i did , i thought that they didnt cause a death . . . and was only olfersii
unless they got thier study wrong . as everywhere i have read doesnt say anything about fatalitys , except that one link
no one seems to have proof either way but im afraid im going with the university of adelaide on this one , for now anyway , unless proof is posted otherwise , because not being rude to any of you guys , but alot of stuff gets said on forums with no backing or little knowledge on the subject , and at least i know that site is a university site with venom research facilities .
in argentina , a specimen 90cm in tl , bit a 22 - year - old male herpetologist on the thumb but withdrew immediately . there was immediate slight burning pain with minimal local bleeding . swelling was evident after five minutes ; after one hour the whole hand was swollen and there were petechial hemorrhages in the skin . swelling progressed to mid - forearm level , and there were ecchymoses along the line of lymphatics up to the axilla . ( kuch and jesberger , 1993 ) .
quoted from venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) :
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
behaviors involved in courtship and male - male combat have been recorded in a taxonomically broad sample ( 76 species in five families ) of snakes in the clade boidae + colubroidea , but before now no one has attempted to find phylogenetic patterns in such behaviors . here , we present a study of phylogenetic patterns in such behaviors in snakes .
from the literature on courtship and male - male combat in snakes we chose 33 behaviors to analyze . we plotted the 33 behaviors onto a phylogenetic tree to determine whether phylogenetic patterns were discernible . we found that phylogenetic patterns are discernible for some behaviors but not for others . for behaviors with discernible phylogenetic patterns , we used the fossil record to determine minimum ages for the addition of each behavior to the courtship and combat behavioral repertoire of each snake clade .
citation : senter p , harris sm , kent dl ( 2014 ) phylogeny of courtship and male - male combat behavior in snakes . plos one 9 ( 9 ) : e107528 . urltoken
copyright : © 2014 senter et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper .
many reptilian behaviors are hardwired and stereotyped and therefore heritable [ 1 ] . they can therefore be treated as evolutionary characters and mapped onto cladograms to find phylogenetic patterns in behavior , so as to reconstruct the evolution of behavior in a clade . this method has been applied to feeding behavior and defensive displays in snakes [ 2 ] , but before now it has not been applied to snake courtship or combat behavior .
courtship and male - male combat in snakes tend to follow ritualistic patterns , and a few reviews of such behavior patterns in snakes have been published [ 3 ] – [ 6 ] . until recently , phylogenetic relationships among many snake genera were unknown , so phylogenetic patterns of these behaviors could not be analyzed . now , however , recent phylogenetic studies of snake genes [ 7 ] – [ 9 ] have sufficiently clarified relationships to enable such analysis .
previous authors have recorded data on courtship and male - male combat in 76 species of snakes , all within the clade boidae + colubroidea ( table 1 ) . although the sample includes less than 4 % of the species in this very speciose clade , the sample ' s taxonomic coverage is sufficiently broad to elucidate phylogenetic trends in courtship and combat behaviors . we therefore undertook to identify any such trends .
from the literature on courtship and male - male combat behavior in snakes ( table 1 ) we chose 33 behavioral characters ( hereafter abbreviated bc ) to analyze . these are described in table 2 . for the “courtship” category we included some bcs that occur simultaneously with copulation , but we ignored postcopulatory bcs .
from recent phylogenetic studies on snakes we created a consensus cladogram of the species in our sample . onto the consensus cladogram we then mapped each bc ( fig . 1 , 2 ) . for colubroidea we used a recently - published phylogeny [ 9 ] . it is missing some of the crotaline species in our sample , so for crotalinae we used a recently - published phylogeny of crotalinae [ 10 ] . for boidae we used two recently - published phylogenies [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] .
phylogenetic distributions of behaviors used in male - male combat in snakes , with black boxes representing the recorded presence of a behavior and white boxes representing the absence of a record of the behavior .
see table 1 for references . on the chart on the right , the heavy horizontal lines separate families and subfamilies . on the cladogram , white circles represent families , gray oblongs represent subfamilies , and the gray square is a tribe . suprageneric taxonomy follows reference [ 9 ] . taxonomic abbreviations : b = boidae . b = boinae . c = colubridae . c = colubrinae . cr = crotalinae . d = dipsadinae . e = elapidae . l = lamprophiidae . l = lamprophiinae . la = lampropeltini . n = natricinae . p = pythoninae . ps = psammophiinae . px = pseudoxyrhophiinae . v = viperidae . v = viperinae . for abbreviations of behavioral characters , see table 2 .
phylogenetic distributions of behaviors used during courtship and copulation in snakes , with black boxes representing the recorded presence of a behavior in males , gray boxes representing the recorded presence of a behavior only in females , and white boxes representing the absence of a record of the behavior .
see table 1 for references . see the caption to figure 1 for abbreviations .
we used outgroup comparison to determine which bcs arose within serpentes ( snakes ) and which might have been inherited from a squamate ancestor outside serpentes and are therefore behavioral symplesiomorphies ( ancestral bcs ) of boidae + colubroidea . outgroup comparison reveals that many of the behaviors listed above arose within serpentes , because they are unrecorded in male - male combat and courtship of non - snake squamate ( lizard ) taxa [ 1 ] , [ 11 ] . bcs that are recorded in lizards include the bite , chin - rub , downward push , head bob , head raise ( type 1 ) , jerk ( types 1 and 3 ) , mouth gape , tail raise , tail quiver , tail wave , and tail whip [ 1 ] . to determine which of these bcs are plausible candidates for behavioral symplesiomorphies of boidae + colubroidea , we evaluated the phylogenetic distribution of these behaviors across squamata , using three previously - published molecular phylogenies of squamata [ 12 ] – [ 14 ] . all three phylogenies agree that the successive outgroups to serpentes are : iguania + anguimorpha , teiidae + ( lacertidae + amphisbaenia ) , scincidae + ( xantusiidae + cordylidae ) , and gekkota .
of the above bcs , the bite and the mouth gape and are widespread through all four lizard outgroups [ 1 ] and are therefore plausible candidates for behavioral symplesiomorphies of boidae + colubroidea . the other bcs are too limited or unclear in phylogenetic distribution to be plausible candidates . the head bob is common in iguania , lacertidae , and scincidae [ 1 ] , [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , but shows no clear phylogenetic pattern across squamata . the head raise is known only in a few iguanians and gekkotans [ 1 ] . the chin - rub and downward push are found mainly in varanidae , the jerk ( type 1 ) in chamaeleonidae and varanidae , the jerk ( type 3 ) in chamaeleonidae and scincidae , the tail raise in iguania , the tail quiver in iguania and scincidae , the tail wave in iguania and scincidae , and the tail whip in iguania and varanidae [ 1 ] , [ 17 ] – [ 24 ] .
it should be noted that the parameters that define each bc in the eye of an observer may be different from the parameters established by the genes governing each bc . it is therefore possible that bcs that are genetically different in different species may accidentally have been lumped together as one bc in our study . this caveat should therefore be understood to be present within the definition of each bc in table 2 .
for male - male combat in snakes , some bcs are recorded only in one species ( chin - rub , head - raise type 1 , mounting [ all types ] , mouth gape , spur rub , tail quiver , tail whip ) . some other bcs show no clear phylogenetic trend , because they are recorded only in two or a few species that are phylogenetically disparate ( bite , jerk type 3 , mount type 2 ) ( fig . 1 , 2 ) . the bite and mouth gape are rare and phylogenetically erratic . there is therefore no support for the hypothesis that either is a behavioral symplesiomorphy of male - male combat for boidae + colubroidea .
for the other bcs , phylogenetic trends are discernible in at least some snake clades . the results for those bc are as follows .
this behavior is ubiquitous in lampropeltini and is therefore ancestral for the clade . it also occurs in boiga irregularis . it was not observed in the other colubrine in our combat sample , masticophis taeniatus , but the m . taeniatus combatants fell down a hill during combat [ 25 ] ; it is possible that a body bridge would have occurred if the combat had not thus been disrupted . it is therefore possible that the body bridge is ancestral for colubrinae .
the coil ( without simultaneous downward push ) is rare outside colubrinae but present in four of the five sampled colubrine genera . it is more parsimonious to infer that it is ancestral for colubrinae and has possibly been lost in lampropeltis ( a two - step scenario ) than to infer that it arose independently in masticophis , boiga , and pantherophis + pituophis ( a three - step scenario ) .
this bc is present in the closely - related species bitis gabonica and b . caudalis , which therefore may have inherited it from a common ancestor ( a one - step scenario ) rather than having acquired it independently ( a two - step scenario ) .
this behavior is almost universal outside colubrinae and is absent within lampropeltini . it is therefore most likely ancestral for boidae + colubroidea and lost in lampropeltini . even if it is truly absent in the non - lampropeltine species in our sample for which it has not been observed , it is more parsimonious to infer that it was ancestral for boidae + colubroidea and lost multiple times ( a four - step scenario ) than to infer that the downward push was independently acquired in each clade for which all members in our sample exhibit it ( a seven - step scenario ) .
this bc is documented in boas and one python , and may be ancestral for boidae . it has not been reported in the other python in the sample ( morelia spilota ) , but for one observer the view of the posterior ends of the combatant pythons was obscured by water [ 26 ] , and for the other observer the view of the posterior ends of the combatant pythons may have been obscured by coils [ 27 ] . if the spur poke is truly absent in m . spilota , it is equally parsimonious to infer that it is ancestral for boidae and lost in m . spilota or that it was independently acquired in the other two boids in the sample . both scenarios are two - step scenarios .
this bc is recorded in three crotalines , a viperine , and one colubrine . no clear phylogenetic pattern is present , but its presence in several members of viperidae raises the possibility that it is characteristic of viperidae but has not been explicitly described in other vipers . more research is necessary to determine this . if it is truly absent in the viper species for which it is unrecorded , then it is more parsimonious to infer that it was independently acquired multiple times ( a four - step scenario ) than to infer that it was independently lost multiple times ( an eight - step scenario ) .
for snake courtship , some bcs are recorded only in one species ( breeding ball , body bridge , bounce , closed - mouth strike , head shake , tail raise , tail wave , tail whip ) . some other bcs show no clear phylogenetic trend because they are recorded only in two or a few species that are phylogenetically disparate ( breeding mass , head bob , lateral head rub , mouth gape , mounting type 1b , sway ) ( fig . 1 , 2 ) . the bite and mouth gape are rare and phylogenetically erratic ; there is therefore no support for the hypothesis that either is a behavioral symplesiomorphy for courtship in boidae + colubroidea .
this behavior is undocumented in boidae but is widespread enough in colubroidea to infer that it is ancestral for colubroidea . it usually occurs early in courtship , and its lack of documentation in some species may be due to some observers ' having arrived after courtship had already begun . even if the chin - rub is truly absent in the species in our sample for which it is undocumented , it is more parsimonious to infer that it is ancestral for colubroidea and was lost multiple times ( a 17 - step scenario ) than to infer that it was independently gained in each clade in which it is documented in all members ( a 21 - step scenario ) .
this behavior is documented in every family examined here except elapidae . it may be ancestral for boidae + colubroidea , but its documented phylogenetic distribution is too sparse to be certain . if it is truly absent in the species for which it is undocumented , then it is more parsimonious to infer that it arose independently multiple times ( a 13 - step scenario ) than to infer that it was present in the common ancestor of boidae + colubroidea and was lost multiple times ( 24 - step scenario ) .
this behavior is present in females of both sampled species of lachesis and may have been inherited from a common ancestor ( a one - step scenario ) instead of independently acquired ( a two - step scenario ) . its known phylogenetic distribution outside lachesis is too sparse to draw further phylogenetic inferences .
head raising , of which the two types can be considered to differ mainly in magnitude , is present mainly in colubrinae . its recorded distribution is too erratic to determine whether it is ancestral for the subfamily and has been lost in species in which it is unrecorded ( a nine - step scenario ) or has appeared convergently several times ( a six - step scenario ) . the latter scenario is more parsimonious , but it is also possible that is some species it occurs but has not been observed .
this bc is recorded in both sampled species of lachesis and is therefore more likely inherited from a common ancestor ( a one - step scenario ) than independently acquired ( a two - step scenario ) .
this bc is recorded only in the sister genera eunectes and epicrates , which therefore more likely inherited it from a common ancestor ( one step ) than independently acquired it ( two steps ) .
this bc is widespread enough in boidae to infer that it is ancestral for the family . if it is truly absent in the species for which it is unrecorded , then it is more parsimonious to infer that it was lost in those species ( three steps ) than that it was independently acquired in the boid clades that exhibit it ( five steps ) .
this bc is ubiquitous in pantherophis , for which it is therefore probably ancestral . outside pantherophis its phylogenetic distribution is too sparse to infer a pattern .
often , behaviors that occur in nature are unrecorded . an observer may miss the beginning or end of courtship or combat , a report may omit a behavior that an observer deems too obvious to explicitly state , and captive snake behavior may differ from behavior in the wild . because of this uncertainty , an inference that a behavior is absent in a clade must be treated with caution . the scenarios presented above are therefore subject to modification pending further data .
even so , this study shows that available data are sufficient to reveal interesting and important phylogenetic trends in some behavioral characters of combat and courtship in snakes . the results of the study also identify several behavioral characters that need more attention from future research , to help fill current gaps in our ability to reconstruct behavioral evolution in snakes .
this study is an important first step in elucidating the evolutionary history of courtship and combat behavior in snakes . using available data we have filled in a few important parts of the picture of snake behavioral evolution . to fill in the rest of the evolutionary picture it will be necessary to record observations on combat and courtship behavior in many more snake species . we therefore look forward to further elucidation that future studies will provide .
the following people provided assistance . tiara rankins compiled the list of articles that we used for the study . christine giannoni ( field museum library ) provided three of the articles . sherrice allen served as coordinator for biol 430 , the undergraduate student research course under which this study began . alex pyron and five anonymous reviewers provided useful input that improved this paper .
conceived and designed the experiments : ps . performed the experiments : ps . analyzed the data : ps smh dlk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ps smh dlk . contributed to the writing of the manuscript : ps . smh dlk .
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