hypolycaena liara , the black-patch hairstreak , is a butterfly in the lycaenidae family .

it is found in guinea , liberia , ivory coast , ghana , togo , nigeria , cameroon , equatorial guinea , the democratic republic of the congo , sudan , uganda , somalia , kenya , tanzania and zambia .

the habitat consists of forests and secondary growth .

the larvae feed on vitex species .

hypolycaena liara

hypolycaena liara ; ypm ent 754877 ; africa ; uganda ; kampala ; norman p . mitton ; 1951 - 08
hypolycaena liara ; ypm ent 754875 ; africa ; rwanda ; keru ; a . g . cassart ; 1963 - 07 - 04
hypolycaena liara ; ypm ent 754878 ; africa ; kenya ; monianku , kisii ; joe w . waskevich ; 1977 - 07 - 02
hypolycaena liara ; ypm ent 754876 ; africa ; zambia ; chiwefwe , [ n . rhodesia ] ; norman p . mitton ; 1950 - 02 - 26
hypolycaena kadiskos ; ypm ent 754862 ; africa ; rwanda ; keru ; a . g . cassart ; 1963 - 07 - 04
hypolycaena kadiskos ; ypm ent 754868 ; africa ; rwanda ; akanyaru valley ; a . g . cassart ; 1962 - 04 - 27
insecta → subclass pterygota → infraclass neoptera → superorder holometabola → order lepidoptera → superfamily papilionoidea → family lycaenidae → subfamily theclinae → tribe theclini → subtribe hypolycaenina → genus hypolycaena c . & r . felder , 1862
if you know the species , please , click on the picture and write the species name in comments section . also , you can go to the gallery page with all photos of hypolycaena sp . ( large size ) .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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a widespread paleotropical genus , ranging from west africa to australia . there is some question ( e . g . , parsons 1999 ) regarding the monophyly of this genus : there are species groups with significant morphological and behavioral differences .
ackery , p . r . , smith , c . r . & vane - wright , r . i . ( ed . ) 1995 carcasson ' s african butterflies . canberra : csiro .
corbet , a . s . , pendlebury , h . m . & eliot , j . n . 1992 the butterflies of the malay peninsula . kuala lumpur : malayan nature society .
larsen , t . b . 2005 butterflies of west africa . stenstrup , denmark : apollo books .
parsons , m . 1999 the butterflies of papua new guinea : their systematics and biology . san diego : academic press .
vane - wright , r . i . & de jong , r . 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island fauna . zoologische verhandelingen 343 , 1 - 267 .
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the greenback cutthroat trout ( oncorhynchus clarkii stomias ) is the easternmost subspecies of cutthroat trout .

the greenback cutthroat , once widespread in the arkansas and south platte river drainages of eastern colorado and southeast wyoming , today occupies less than 1 % of its historical range .

it is currently listed as threatened under the endangered species act .

it was adopted as the state fish of colorado on march 15 , 1994 replacing the unofficial rainbow trout .

greenback cutthroat trout

, are similar to colorado river cutthroat in coloration , however greenback cutthroat trout have larger spots . rio grande cutthroat trout ,
federal , state and trout unlimited officials digesting the findings monday said cutthroat trout previously tagged as greenback likely will be renamed .
, are similar to greenback cutthroat in both coloration and spotting . rio grande cutthroat have , in addition , close spotting on the caudal peduncle . yellowfin cutthroat trout ,
throughout the range of the greenback cutthroat . brook trout quickly replaced the greenback in small tributary streams and brown trout replaced it in rivers . rainbow trout hybridized with the greenback and the purity of the species was lost in many populations .
greenback cutthroat trout were saved by accident more than 130 years ago . photo by kevin rogers – cpw
, closely resemble the lahontan cutthroat with a dull coloration , but unlike the lahontan , paiute cutthroat lack spots . bonneville cutthroat trout ,
but the first pure greenback cutthroat trout dropped into chilly streams monday morning simply quivered at edges of eddies .
, have the same coloration and spotting as yellowstone cutthroat with one exception , the spots are larger on bonneville cutthroat . colorado river cutthroat trout ,
young , m . k . 2009 . greenback cutthroat trout ( oncorhynchus clarkii stomias ) : a technical conservation assessment .
the greenback cutthroat trout ( oncorhynchus clarki somias ) was designated the official state fish of colorado in 1994 . all state fish
these undated photos provided by the colorado division of wildlife show the endangered greenback cutthroat trout and the colorado river cutthroat trout . federal and state biologists have stocked the wrong fish for more than two decades .
a novel genetic study led by the university of colorado boulder has helped to clarify the native diversity and distribution of cutthroat trout in colorado , including the past and present haunts of the federally endangered greenback cutthroat trout .
new genetic research led by university of colorado scientists has produced several fascinating discoveries  about colorado ' s native cutthroat trout - including the location of the last surviving wild population of the federally protected greenback cutthroat trout .
these undated photos provided by the colorado division of wildlife show the endangered greenback cutthroat trout and the colorado river cutthroat trout . federal and state biologists have stocked the wrong fish for more than two decades . ap hide caption
this is a photo of the greenback cutthroat trout from bear creek in the pike national forest . photo courtesy of colorado parks & wildlife .
udwr . 2000 . genetic considerations associated with cutthroat trout management : a position paper .
there are roughly ten subspecies of cutthroat trout described by behnke ( 1992 ) . they have the same morphology , but their coloration and spotting vary . coastal cutthroat trout ,
breeding interval breeding can occur once or twice in the lifetime of a cutthroat trout .
greenback cutthroat trout .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
currently , cutthroat trout are not on the iucn red list . there are some factors that may put these fish on the list soon . through stocking streams , rivers , and ponds with rainbow trout throughout the west we may be putting native cutthroat trout in harms way . cutthroat trout and rainbow trout readily mate , creating hybrids that are themselves able to mate ( behnke , 1992 ) . cutthroat trout are also poor competitors , out - competed by all other trout species ( trotter , 1987 ) . if we continue to introduce non - native trout to cutthroat streams and rivers , cutthroat trout may be eliminated . another factor affecting cutthroat trout is habitat loss . logging and excessive agriculture cause sedimentation in trout streams , making them inhabitable and unsuitable for reproduction ( behnke , 1992 ) . three subspecies of
stuart andrews of arkanglers in buena vista hooks into a fish in hancock lake in july 2012 . the greenback cutthroat trout he pulled in is one of the hybrids prevalent statewide that has researchers questioning the various subspecies of cutthroat trout in colorado .
cpw biologist boyd wright releases native greenback cutthroat trout into zimmerman lake on august 8th , 2014 after implementing a successful reclamation project the previous summer .
bear creek — some slippery , spotted greenback cutthroat trout — colorado’s long - lost and imperiled state fish — took a hit for their species tuesday morning .
native ranges of colorado ' s six distinct lineages of cutthroat trout follow major drainage basins .
originating from the pacific ocean , cutthroat trout are considered one of the most diverse fish species in north america and evolved into 14 recognized subspecies in western u . s . drainages over thousands of years . in colorado , four lineages of cutthroats were previously identified : the greenback cutthroat , the colorado river cutthroat , the rio grande cutthroat and the extinct yellowfin cutthroat .
, are silvery to brassy in coloration with yellowish and irregular shaped spots . west slope cutthroat trout ,
yearling greenback cutthroat trout , just released into herman gulch , look for cover in their new environment on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
, are strong red in coloration along the lateral line and their lower sides are colored yellow . they have spots but they vary by individual . greenback cutthroat trout ,
greenback cutthroat trout .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
greenback declines were the result of mining pollution ( sediment and toxic runoff exterminated numerous populations [ 3 ] ) , dewatering of streams for agriculture , and the harvest of greenbacks for commercial sale [ 2 ] . by the early 1900s , the greenback cutthroat was extirpated from most of its native range [ 1 ] . in addition , during the early 1900s nonnative trout were widely introduced into greenback habitat , likely eliminating greenback cutthroat from nearly all of their remaining habitat ( cutthroat trout are often replaced by brook and brown trout and readily hybridize with rainbow trout and nonindigenous subspecies of cutthroat ) [ 2 , 3 ] . by the 1930s , the greenback cutthroat was thought to be extinct [ 1 ] . in 1973 , however , two small populations ( about 2 , 000 fish total ) were confirmed in about 4 . 6 km of stream and the greenback cutthroat was listed as endangered [ 1 ] .
gagnon , j . g . 1973 .
the greenback .
trout : quarterly publication of trout unlimited 144 : 12 , 13 - 28 , 30 .
in head - to - head competition with the brook trout , the greenback cutthroat is invariably the loser . although adults rarely interact , brook trout juveniles are more aggressive and drive greenback juveniles out of shallow , protective streams into larger creeks and rivers , where they are devoured by predators .
cutthroat trout ( salmo clarki ) illustration by robert w . hines / usfws ( public domain image ) .
, are dull in coloration with large round spots evenly distributed over the entire body . paiute cutthroat trout ,
funding for the study was provided by agencies of the greenback cutthroat trout recovery team , including the usfws , the u . s . forest service , the bureau of land management , the national park service and trout unlimited .
we ' ve known for some time that the trout in bear creek were unique ,
said doug krieger , senior aquatic biologist for colorado parks and wildlife and the greenback cutthroat trout recovery team leader .
but we didn ' t realize they were the only surviving greenback population .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1977 , 1983 revision .
greenback cutthroat trout recovery plan .
u . s . fish and wildlife service , denver .
volunteer keith greenwell , with trout unlimited , releases 18 yearling greenback cutthroat into a small pool in herman gulch trail on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
volunteers with trout unlimited carry backpacks full of 18 yearling greenback cutthroat in each bag , up the herman gulch trail on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
colorado parks and wildlife aquatics biologist andrew reed holds a genetically pure greenback cutthroat trout that was temporarily pulled out of bear creek for a conservation project june 10 , 2017 in denver .
rogers , k . b . 2007 . a suggested protocol for collecting cutthroat trout tissues for subsequent genetic analysis .
efforts to conserve the greenback began as early as 1959 , when fingerlings from the forest canyon headwaters of the big thompson river were stocked in fay lake after non - native trout were removed . unable to survive in fay lake , the trout managed to establish a self - sustaining population in caddis lake , immediately downstream . in 1967 , a brook trout population was eliminated from black hollow creek , and the greenback cutthroat was reintroduced , using stock from como creek . a barrier was constructed to prevent the return of brook trout , and the stream was designated a sanctuary for greenback cutthroat trout .
cutthroat trout are not an exceptionally long lived fish . depending on the subspecies a mature trout may live anywhere from 6 - 8 years ( behnke , 1992 ) .
volunteer karl granrath , with trout unlimited , carries a backpack full of 18 yearling greenback cutthroat up the herman gulch trail on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
volunteers with trout unlimited carry backpacks , full of 18 yearling greenback cutthroat in each bag , up the herman gulch trail on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
colorado parks and wildlife senior aquatics biologist josh nehring squeezes a genetically pure greenback cutthroat trout for it’s milt or sperm for conservation project along bear creek june 10 , 2017 near colorado springs .
“the only greenback cutthroat trout population that we have now is the one in bear creek , ” said jessica metcalf , a university of colorado post - doctoral researcher who conducted the study .
a combination of habitat loss , pollution , and hybridization caused a rapid decline in the greenback population throughout the late 1800s and into the next century . by 1937 , the native greenback cutthroat was declared extinct .
a study unraveling the genetics of colorado’s state fish , the greenback cutthroat trout , has found that pure greenbacks exist only on a 4 - mile stretch of a creek southwest of colorado springs .
the greenback cutthroat trout is the only trout endemic to the rocky mountain sources of the south platte and arkansas river systems of north - central and central colorado . its range extended from the headwaters of both rivers to the foothills along the front range .
“with the insight afforded by the historical data , we now know with a great deal of certainty what cutthroat trout strains were here in colorado before greenbacks declined in the early 20th century , ” said martin of cu’s ecology and evolutionary biology department . “and we finally know what a greenback cutthroat trout really is . ”
colorado parks & wildlife hatchery technician kevin schmidt , transfers yearling greenback cutthroat trout from a truck into buckets at the herman gulch trailhead on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
colorado parks & wildlife aquatic biologist boyd wright shows on a map the 5 locations to release the greenback cutthroat trout along herman gulch on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
“with the insight afforded by the historical data , we now know with a great deal of certainty what cutthroat trout strains were here in colorado before greenbacks declined in the early 20th century , ” said andrew martin of cu’s ecology and evolutionary biology department . “and we finally know what a greenback cutthroat trout really is . ”
the greenback is one of 14 subspecies of cutthroat trout . the cutthroats originally populated waters from southern alaska to central new mexico . they were the only native trout in the western us and were remarked upon in journals of explorers such as lewis and clark .
rogers , k . b . 2010 . cutthroat trout taxonomy : exploring the heritage of colorado ' s state fish .
diverted stream flows . physical damage was inflicted on the watershed by highway construction , ski resort development , and housing projects . most threatening to the greenback cutthroat was the widespread introduction of non - native trout
cutthroat trout are visual predators . they depend on a keen sense of sight to locate and consume their prey . male cutthroat trout use body signals when trying to court females for spawning ( elliott , 2005 ) . it has been demonstrated that trout use chemical cues to re - locate natal streams for spawning .
[ 1 ] u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1998 . greenback cutthroat trout recovery plan . denver , colorado . [ 2 ] young , m . k . and a . l . harig . 2001 . a critique of the recovery of greenback cutthroat trout . conservation biology 15 ( 6 ) : 1574 - 1584 . [ 3 ] young , m . k . , a . l . harig , b . rosenlund , and c . kennedy . 2002 . recovery history of greenback cutthroat trout : population characteristics , hatchery involvement , and bibliography . general technical report rmrs - gtr - 88www . usda forest service , rocky mountain research station . [ 4 ] colorado division of wildlife . 2005 . greenback cutthroat trout species profile . website < urltoken > updated 12 / 2 / 2005 accessed april , 2006
, are yellowish brown , silver , or brass in coloration with round spots evenly distributed over the body . lahontan cutthroat trout ,
stuart andrews of arkanglers in buena vista admires a cutthroat he caught in hancock lake in july 2012 . biologists now say that some fish previously believed to be the state fish — greenback cutthroat — are a different species .
the average length for a cutthroat trout is between 20 and 40 cm while the average weight is between 2 and 4 kg . surprisingly , the environment a cutthroat trout occupies may be the limiting factor on how big a cutthroat can get , with genetic control only being a factor in an optimal environment ( behnke , 1993 ) .
cu - boulder scientists , with support from a state - federal greenback cutthroat trout recovery team , based their findings on historical fish - stocking data and on repeated sequencing of fish dna — trying to clarify the lineage .
determining that bear creek holds the last remaining population of the greenback cutthroat trout “makes the protection of habitat in bear creek even more important , and adds urgency to our efforts to get trail impacts addressed and trails relocated , ” said david nickum , executive director of colorado trout unlimited .
the rare greenback cutthroat trout , for years on the receiving end of a well - meaning , but taxonomically misguided attempt to save it , now seems to be back on track ( though not out of the woods ) .
bestgen , k . r . et al . 2013 . phenotype predicts genotype for lineages of native cutthroat trout in the southern rocky mountains .
cutthroat trout are prey for larger fish as fry or fingerlings . as adults they become predators . when sea run cutthroat die in their natal streams , they release nutrients they acquired in the ocean as they decompose .
colorado parks & wildlife hatchery technicians dave karr , right , and kevin schmidt , transfer yearling greenback cutthroat trout from a truck into buckets at the herman gulch trailhead on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
young , michael k . 2009 . greenback cutthroat trout ( oncorhynchus clarkii stomias ) : a technical conservation assessment . golden , co : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain region . online : urltoken
cu scientists focused on six cutthroat trout lineages native to colorado . two are considered extinct — the yellowfin from the arkansas and a lineage from the san juan river basin . the others are the colorado river cutthroat , rio grande cutthroat and a species referred to as “the colorado / gunnison lineage . ”
in 2005 , colorado division of wildlife reported that greenback cutthroat occur in 58 streams and lakes with 23 populations meeting the population criteria required by recovery goals [ 4 ] .
colorado parks & wildlife hatchery technicians transferred yearling greenback cutthroat trout from a truck into buckets at the herman gulch trailhead on july 17 , 2017 , in clear creek county near silver plume . the technicians then placed the fish in plastic bags with oxygen to be transported by backpackers to herman gulch where they were released . cpw aquatic biologists and volunteers from trout unlimited released 960 pure bred greenback cutthroat trout into herman gulch . efforts to establish new populations have grown and cpw hopes the introduction of these fish into herman gulch will successfully increase their wild numbers .
trappers lake historically was home to colorado’s premier wild colorado river cutthroat trout fishery . unfortunately , a variety of factors have served to suppress the current population as well as marginalize the value of the fishery due to introgression with yellowstone cutthroat trout . recent genetic surveys have revealed that the remaining cutthroat trout are a hybrid swarm . reduced cutthroat trout numbers have been attributed to a burgeoning brook trout population that is now being thinned by fall trapping efforts . in addition , whirling disease invaded the population in the late 1990s , and has now firmly established itself suppressing recruitment of cutthroat trout further . in an effort to control the spread of the disease , anglers are reminded to decontaminate their gear after fishing at trappers lake particularly before heading into the higher elevation lakes such as little trappers lake that remain free of the parasite .
roberts , j . j . , and k . d . fausch . 2015 . consequences of climate change for mountain lakes and native cutthroat trout .
colorado parks & wildlife hatchery technician dave karr , middle , carefully places 18 yearling greenback cutthroat trout in a large plastic bag into a backpack for transport at the herman gulch trailhead on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
a whole lot of people really want the greenback cutthroats to make it in their ancestral home .
cpw crews already have transplanted some greenback cutthroats successfully into zimmerman lake , west of fort collins .
, have the coloration of the greenback but have a silvery tint and their spots are irregular .
the decline of native cutthroats in colorado occurred because of a combination of pollution , overfishing and stocking of native and non - native species of trout , said metcalf . “it’s ironic that stocking nearly drove the greenback cutthroat trout to extinction , and a particularly early stocking event actually saved it from extinction , ” she said .
a key element of cutthroat trout conservation involves the ability to take fertilized eggs from wild populations . progeny from these operations are used for founding new populations in waters that have been cleared of nonnative fish that otherwise replace cutthroat trout or hybridize with them . where habitats home to pure cutthroat trout have been invaded by nonnative salmonids , it important to replicate those populations before they wink out . improving methods for obtaining fertilized eggs in the wild will facilitate those efforts .
cutthroat trout are an important sport fish throughout northwestern north america ( trotter , 1987 ; coad , 1995 ) . they are also indicative of healthy ecosystems .
, are silver in coloration with a yellowish tint , but can sometimes be bright yellow , orange , or red . their spots are similar to those of coastal cutthroat except they do not extend below the lateral line . yellowstone cutthroat trout ,
the greenback cutthroat trout ( oncorhynchus clarki stomias ) is endemic to the headwaters of the south platte and arkansas river drainages on the eastern slope of the rocky mountains ( primarily in colorado ) [ 1 ] . it is estimated that the greenback cutthroat historically occupied up to 13 , 231 km of habitat ( 6 , 276 km in the arkansas river basin and 6 , 955 km in the south platte river basin ) [ 2 ] . although once abundant , the greenback cutthroat declined rapidly after the arrival of large numbers of immigrants to the front range of colorado in the mid - to late 1800s [ 2 ] .
colorado parks and wildlife senior aquatics biologist josh nehring , left , and aquatic biologist cory noble use a electrofishing device to mildly stun genetically pure greenback cutthroat trout to then temporarily capture for a conservation project along bear creek cañon june 10 , 2017 in denver .
“to improve their genetics . it is very important . this is our only known reproducing population of greenback cutthroat trout , ” nehring said , leading this mission in a three - week blitz that has collected up to 5 , 400 eggs in a day .
colorado parks and wildlife senior aquatics biologist josh nehring , left , and aquatic biologist cory noble use a electrofishing device to mildly stun genetically pure greenback cutthroat trout to then temporarily capture for a conservation project along bear creek june 10 , 2017 near colorado springs .
state wildlife managers declared greenback cutthroats extinct in the 1930s . but they rediscovered them in 1953 and celebrated them in 1994 as colorado’s official state fish . however , the fish that colorado wildlife officials touted as the state fish was a different species of cutthroat trout .
in all , six lineages of cutthroat appear to have evolved in colorado , with native ranges that roughly correspond to major drainage basins in the state . the greenback cutthroat trout , colorado ' s state fish , was native to the drainages of the south platte , while the long extinct yellowfin cutthroat trout of twin lakes actually appears to have been the native trout of the arkansas river basin . rio grande cutthroat trout still can be found in streams that drain into the san luis valley , while a lineage that used to call the san juan basin home appears to be extinct as well . more research will be required to resolve whether the remaining two lineages that can be found across colorado’s western slope are indeed two distinct subspecies – that work is ongoing .
researchers analyzed dna extracted from wild trout and from museum specimens collected from sites around colorado and new mexico as far back as 1856 , then used that genetic data as a baseline for understanding the current distribution of colorado ' s native cutthroat trout .
range and species history according to the latest thinking , the original range of the greenback cutthroat trout was limited to the south platte basin of eastern colorado . previously , it was believed that the species also lived in the arkansas river drainage , but the new genetic evidence suggests otherwise . writing in 1891 , david starr jordan was the first to use the name “greenback” to describe the species , which he also referred to as the “trout of the platte . ”
there are no recent estimates , but the greenback population has increased because of successful rein - troduction efforts .
the greenback cutthroat rescue ramped up in 2012 when sleuthing by a university of colorado team verified that the one true population of greenback cutthroat trout lives along a 3 . 5 - mile stretch of bear creek southwest of colorado springs . while greenback cutthroats originated in the south platte river basin , they vanished as humans settled the region . however , aspiring hotel resort operator joseph jones , owning property along bear creek in the 1870s , captured a few greenbacks and plopped them into bear creek hoping to draw tourists to his mountain retreat . and because of his actions , the species survived .
rogers , k . b . et al . 2010 . development of an amplified fragment length polymorphism ( aflp ) test to distinguish colorado river from rio grande cutthroat trout .
the greenback cutthroat trout , oncorhynchus clarki stomias , typically ranges from 10 - 15 in ( 25 - 38 cm ) in length . the largest individuals may weigh up to 4 lbs ( 1 . 5 kg ) . the body and head are elon - gated . of all cutthroat trout subspecies , the green - back generally has the largest spots and the most numerous scales . it displays a dark
cutthroat
mark under each side of the jaw . the belly of the mature male is often a vivid , blood - red color .
in addition to identifying the bear creek cutthroat trout , metcalf and her colleagues discovered a previously unknown cutthroat strain native to the san juan basin in southwestern colorado that has since gone extinct . the study also confirmed that the yellowfin cutthroat , a subspecies from the arkansas river headwaters that grew to prodigious size in twin lakes near leadville , also had gone extinct .
this overhaul of what is defined as a greenback cutthroat may come as a blow to anglers who fished such high - country sweet spots as rocky mountain national park and thought they caught the real thing .
young cutthroat trout emerge from their eggs after two months ( elliot , 2005 ) . once they hatch they mature , spawn , then die . cutthroat trout that migrate to the sea develop for up to four years in their natal stream , then migrate into the ocean only to return 2 to 3 months later to spawn ( behnke , 1992 ) .
cpw officials now are working intensely , gathering genetic material from bear creek fish and breeding tens of thousands of greenback cutthroats in hatcheries created to stock colorado streams with trout that compete with native species .
cpw biologists on tuesday said the bear creek habitat seems to be improving . their latest greenback cutthroat population survey estimated 750 fish live along the 3 . 5 - mile stretch , and they’re anticipating a new survey this fall will show a healthy increase . greenback cutthroats are left to reproduce naturally along upper curves of the creek .
“we thought one way to get to the question of which cutthroat trout strains are native to particular drainages was to go back to historical samples and use their dna as a baseline of information , ” said metcalf of the chemistry and biochemistry department and a former postdoctoral researcher at the australian centre for ancient dna . “our study indicates the descendants of the fish that were stocked into bear creek in the late 1800s are the last remaining representatives of the federally protected greenback cutthroat trout . ”
in addition to identifying the one remaining
true
greenback population , researchers identified two distinct genetic lineages within the range of colorado river cutthroat trout , one in northwest colorado and the other centered around the gunnison river basin . further research will be needed to understand the relationship between these two lineages .
in 1937 , the greenback cutthroats were thought to have gone the way of the passenger pigeon ,
victims of mining pollution , fishing pressure and competition from other trout species ,
science daily reports .
indiginous to many small streams and rivers throughout most of colorado , this beautiful fish was on the verge of extinction as the result of pollution and competition from species of trout introduced to colorado waters by humans . the colorado division of wildlife and national parks has taken steps to prevent this through protection and propagation ( the greenback cutthroat trout is listed as threatened under the endangered species act ) .
the listing problem currently , greenback cutthroat trout are still listed as “threatened , ” and pretty much everyone involved in colorado would like to see them stay that way . if the species were to be declared “endangered , ” many different kinds of outdoor recreation would be affected . a change in status for the greenback would set limits on state management and restrictions on angling . to avoid that , the greenback recovery team aims to show that populations are on an upward trajectory , so “endangered” status is unnecessary . until greenback populations have been established in more waters , protection of the bear creek population , from siltation and runoff from trails , is in everyone’s best interest .
the subspecies all share the following characteristics : red slash marks just below their gill covers on the lower jaws ( trotter , 1987 ) and a scale count above the lateral line of more than 150 ( willers , 1991 ) . where cutthroat and rainbow trout ranges overlap , the two species can be distinguished by the presence of basibranchial teeth , or teeth on the base of the tongue ( trotter , 1987 ) . cutthroat trout posses them , while rainbow trout do not .
“a ripe male , ” a hopeful nehring said as he snatched up a tiny trout .
competition with non - native trout , habitat degradation from mining and logging , water diversion .
even if the greenback cutthroats don’t survive in their native habitat , the fish - saving effort is valuable , riegelman said .
colorado parks & wildlife aquatic biologist intern dylan brown , left , and dennis wiles , in front , and kim bunnin , middle , volunteers with trout unlimited , carry backpacks full of 18 yearling greenback cutthroat in each bag , up the herman gulch trail on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
today many stable populations of greenbacks have been established . the division of wildlife and other groups have listed the greenback as being present in 52 locations and 19 stable populations . and , the greenback was named the official state fish of colorado in 1994 .
“we’ve known for some time that the trout in bear creek were unique , ” said doug krieger , senior aquatic biologist for colorado parks and wildlife . “but we didn’t realize they were the only surviving greenback population . ”
in this video from 2012 , krieger explains that the trout species isn ' t native to bear creek but was introduced in the 1870s or 1880s by a businessman hoping to cash in on the cutthroat .
a second , key set of data was all of the colorado cutthroat trout stocking records over the past 150 years , a task spearheaded by study co - author and fish biologist chris kennedy of the u . s . fish and wildlife service . between 1889 and 1925 , for example , the study showed that more than 50 million cutthroat trout from the gunnison and yampa river basins were stocked in tributaries of all major drainages in the state , jumbling the picture of native cutthroat strains in colorado through time and space .
greenback cutthroats were declared extinct in the 1930s , then rediscovered in 1953 and celebrated in 1994 as colorado’s official state fish . for years , colorado wildlife officials touting the state fish inadvertently pointed to other types of cutthroat trout . but the cu researchers determined that only the bear creek population carried the true genes — based on dna analysis of cutthroats caught around colorado compared with dna from greenback cutthroat specimens preserved in east coast museums . this revelation rankled some anglers who fished such colorado high - country sweet spots as rocky mountain national park and thought they caught the real thing .
the greenback cutthroat trout feeds on aquatic insects in streams and zooplankton , benthic crustaceans , and insects in lakes . larger individuals may feed on larval tiger salamanders and darters . if food supplies are adequate and suitable spawning gravel is available near the female ' s home range , there is no migration . because trout are an opportunistic feeder , the quantity and quality of food are not a serious limiting factor to the species ' survival .
and the captive - bred greenback cutthroats released into the south platte basin face threats from invasive nonnative fish competitors . those creeks now are full of brook and rainbow trout introduced for sport fishing . in order to re - establish greenback cutthroats in the wild , cpw crews plan to clear creeks manually and by injecting rotenone poison to wipe out the nonnative fish .
after brook trout were eliminated from hidden valley creek in 1973 and barriers were constructed to prevent the return of competitive species , the greenback population in the stream recovered . in 1975 , state and federal biologists successfully transplanted greenbacks to bear lake after removing brook trout . because of these successes , the green - back cutthroat trout was
downlisted
from endangered to threatened in 1978 . recovery efforts continue under the direction of the u . s . fish and wildlife service and the park service with cooperation of researchers at colorado state university .
rogers , k . b . , and c . m . kennedy . 2008 . seven lakes and the pike ' s peak native ( ppn ) : history and current disposition of a critical cutthroat trout brood stock .
the greenback cutthroat trout is found in the headwater streams above barriers that prevent non - native trout from invading the habitat . the species occurs in the south platte river , including the east slope drainage of the rocky mountain national park ( cow , hidden valley , pear reservoir , west and fern creeks , fern , bear , caddis and odessa lakes , and the big thompson river ) . it is known from como creek in the north boulder creek watershed ( boulder county ) , south boxelder creek ( douglas county ) , and the south fork of cache la poudre river in roosevelt national forest and black hollow creek ( larimer county ) . the head - waters of the arkansas river , including south huerfano and cascade creeks in san isabel national forest , and hourglass creek , also support populations of the greenback cutthroat trout .
juvenile cutthroat establish their home ranges when they are about two years old ( behnke , 1992 ) . these home ranges are relatively small . sea run cutthroat rarely travel more than 60 km from their natal streams ( behnke , 1992 ) .
before the biologists trudged up bear creek , the greenback cutthroats hung out placidly in pools , occasionally darting into faster currents to snap up flies .
not that the trout , lolling in a shady mountain creek southwest of colorado springs , had a choice .
by 1937 , the greenback was thought to be extinct . but two populations were discovered , and in 1959 efforts by many agencies were started to recover the greenback to colorado waters . in 1967 , the greenback was listed as an endangered species . further successful efforts led to the downgrading from endangered to threatened in 1978 . recovery efforts included re - populating greenbacks to streams and lakes with favorable habitat ; removing other species from these habitats so that the greenbacks wouldn ' t have to compete with other trout for food ; harvesting semen and eggs for hatchery raising .
the study , led by cu - boulder postdoctoral researcher jessica metcalf , was based largely on dna samples taken from cutthroat trout specimens preserved in ethanol in several u . s . museums around the country that were collected from around the state as far back as 150 years ago . the new study , in which metcalf and her colleagues extracted mitochondrial dna from fish to sequence genes of the individual specimens and compared them with modern - day cutthroat trout strains , produced some startling results .
in 2012 , university of colorado genetics scientists determined that only a few greenback cutthroats survived in the wild , by a fluke , southwest of colorado springs , in the arkansas river basin . back in the 1870s , aspiring hotel resort operator joseph jones had captured some greenbacks from south platte headwaters and plopped them into bear creek near his property . cu scientists verified that only the descendants of those fish carried the true greenback cutthroat genes .
young cutthroat trout are preyed on by larger fish and large , wading birds . adult trout are preyed on by large predators , such as bears . there are several life history adaptations they posses that increases their chances of survival . cutthroat often select spawning grounds that are isolated from spawning grounds used by other fish ( elliott , 2005 ) . juveniles are also sit and wait predators darting out to capture food , minimizing the time during feeding that they are susceptible to predation ( elliott , 2005 ) . fry and fingerling cutthroat have parmarks on their sides , which camouflage them from possible predators ( behnke , 1992 ) .
there ' s no longer a doubt about this cutthroat trout : the two - way after learning that they ' d spent decades restocking colorado ' s lakes and streams with the wrong fish , biologists are now ready to release the right one .
cpw biologist lori martin takes spawn from cutthroat trout in roan creek . this population has been invaded by nonnative rainbow trout , and many of its residents are now hybridized . families are raised separately at cpw ' s research hatchery in fort collins while dna from the parents are tested . only progeny from pure parents will be used to replicate this population in other waters .
special thanks to doug krieger of colorado parks and wildlife for his help with this article . click here to see joe tomelleri’s beautiful illustration of a bear creek greenback .
we ' ve known for some time that the trout in bear creek were unique ,
doug krieger , senior aquatic biologist for colorado parks and wildlife , was quoted by the denver post as saying .
but we didn ' t realize they were the only surviving greenback population .
since the late - 19th century , fish - stocking programs designed to restore depleted fisheries clouded the distribution of native cutthroat populations . for example , more than 50 million cutthroat from the gunnison and white river basins were stocked across the state , including front range locations between 1889 and 1925 .
prior to fertilizationm female cutthroat trout dig a redd , a nest in gravel ( vinyard , 2004 ) . once eggs are deposited and become fertilized , the female covers them and may defend the redd for some time ( vinyard , 2004 ) . after a short period of guarding , the female departs , leaving the eggs to hatch on their own . once hatched , the parent cutthroat shows no type of parental investment .
evidence of climate - induced range contractions in bull trout salvelinus confluentus in a rocky mountain watershed , u . s . a .
cpw crews haul the harvested pink eggs and milky - white milt to the u . s . fish and wildlife service’s national fish hatchery , atop the arkansas river basin at leadville . there , federal biologists running a captive - breeding program , using wild milt , artificially fertilized 73 , 000 greenback cutthroat eggs last year .
fishing for greenback cutthroats is illegal . federal wildlife authorities have designated them officially “threatened” on the list of species protected under the endangered species act , the nation’s system for preventing extinctions .
the bear creek trout strain is now being propagated in the colorado parks and wildlife hatchery system and at the usfws leadville national fish hatchery .
in the late nineteenth century , the greenback cutthroat ' s numbers were dramatically reduced by toxic mine pollution and water diversion for agricultural irrigation , so that by 1937 the species was thought to be extinct . the agricultural practices resulted in water diversion , reduced water levels , altered water temperature , siltation , and erosion . logging activities altered the vegetation and
much has been written about the affect of a changing climate on native cutthroat trout in streams ( see dan isaak ' s climate blog ) , but lake systems have been largely ignored . researchers at the usgs and colorado state university have now focused attention on this important topic in a new report .
sea run cutthroat trout migrate from their marine environments to their natal streams to spawn from february to early june ( elliott , 2005 ) . likewise freshwater cutthroat migrate from larger rivers and lakes to smaller streams to spawn ( behnke , 1992 ) . females and males reach sexual maturity at around 6 years of age . both river and sea run cutthroat can spawn several times ; however , the probability of dieing during a spawning event increases with age ( behnke , 1992 ) . a single spawning event produces 1000 - 2000 eggs , which , if fertilized , hatch just after 2 months of gestation ( elliott , 2005 ) .
this trout inhabits undisturbed headwaters at elevations of 7 , 000 - 11 , 000 ft ( 2 , 100 - 3 , 200 m ) in the rocky mountain national park and in one spring - fed pond at fort carson . it prefers clear , swiftflowing mountain streams but the greenback cutthroat can survive in any habitat and tolerate any water conditions that support other species of trout . young and juvenile fish occupy shallow , more open habitat , while older fish prefer deeper water with more cover , particularly overhanging banks and vegetation . riffle areas are used for spawning . juveniles tend to shelter in shallow backwaters until large enough to fend for themselves in the mainstream .
the university of colorado study using dna analysis and historical specimens also is triggering a federal re - evaluation of the biological status of greenback cutthroats , which are listed as “threatened” rather than “endangered . ”
speaking of crossings , trout creek pass would hardly seem like much of a barrier to prevent mingling of the arkansas river “cutthroats” and the pure greenbacks of the south platte . i assume that there are preserved specimens of greenback cutthroats taken from other locations in the south platte drainage and that these specimens are genetically matched to the cutthroats of bear creek .
greenback cutthroats originated in the south platte river basin headwaters . they disappeared as humans settled the region , mining for gold that turned water toxic , stocking streams with nonnative fish in hopes of promoting tourism .
although the greenback cutthroat trout has been the focus of conservation efforts for more than half a century—starting when the once - lost species was “rediscovered” in a remote part of rocky mountain national park—genetic research over the last decade has produced some blockbuster findings that threw all previous work into question . it turns out that many of the fish that both state biologists and anglers had considered greenbacks were , in fact , not greenbacks at all . as a result , many fishermen who had added the species to their life lists had to cross it off , and it looks to be some time before any of us will be able to catch a wild , pure greenback again . luckily both public and private efforts to restore the species to its native range are gaining momentum .
cutthroat trout are solitary and sedentary , rarely moving or interacting unless it is to acquire food or to mate . when they do move , they propel themselves through the water by moving the latter half of their bodies ( subcarangiforms ) . some populations migrate from their natal streams to the ocean , while others migrate to lakes and ponds .
the original range of the greenback subspecies is difficult to determine , in part because it so closely related to the colorado river cutt , in fact it is descended from the cr cutt . however , now the greenback is that cutt considered native to drainages of the south platte and arkansas river systems . as exploration of the west continued , so did growth . and as people moved in , they wanted some of their favorite fish to angle for . browns were introduced to colorado in 1890 , brookies in 1872 , and rainbows in the 1880 ' s . the cutthroats were not bred to compete with the larger and / or more aggressive trout . other factors that added to the greenback ' s demise were over - fishing ( no catch and release in early colorado ) and loss of native habitat .
volunteers with trout unlimited wait to pick up fish to carry in backpacks at the herman gulch trailhead on july 17 , 2017 in clear creek county near silver plume .
most understood this is something of an ecological longshot because greenback cutthroats — listed as threatened on the nation’s endangered species roster — have all but disappeared . after all , evolution is all about change , and species come and go .
the early explorers and native americans had names for the cutthroats , but did not necessarily distinguish them from other trout . it was not until the 1880 ' s that the trout got their name . a writer for american angler , charles hallock , commented in an 1884 article about montana fishing that ,
its distinctive feature , however , was a slash of intense carmine across each gill cover . . . . . for lack of better description we called them cut - throat trout .
the name stuck .
the discovery of last survivors in bear creek , combined with flooding in 2013 , led colorado springs and u . s . forest service officials to close the popular , one - lane high drive along the creek in an effort to restore greenback cutthroat habitat . decades of degradation by hikers , motorcyclists , homeless campers and partying had hammered the fish , forcing heaps of gravel off fragile slopes into the creek , snuffing stoneflies and other invertebrate food .
is such a widespread species it occupies many different habitats . cutthroat trout habitats range from coastal marine to freshwater rivers and streams with gravel substrates ( behnke , 1992 ) . the diversity in habitat also leads to a diversity in the elevations in which the species can be found . they occur from mountainous streams in the cascade , rocky , and sierra nevada mountain ranges to the ocean .
but it turns out they were using close relatives of the greenback , not the state fish itself . the only authentic population of greenbacks still in existence was found in bear creek , a tiny tributary of the arkansas river west of colorado springs .
the state and federal biologists face challenges . deformities are appearing in captive - bred greenbacks — distortions of the jaw and the gills that fish use to breathe underwater . more than 100 years of isolation in bear creek has rendered greenback cutthroats extra susceptible to sickness .
rumors of the greenback ' s demise ultimately proved to be exaggerated — small populations were discovered in the arkansas river and south platte river drainages in the 1950s , and biologists set about using them as breeding stock to boost the fortunes of the state fish elsewhere .
the greenback cutthroat trout reaches sexual maturity at 2 - 3 years of age . spawning occurs annually in the spring and early summer until death , at 4 - 5 years in streams and 8 - 10 years in lakes . females construct nests in gravel substrates while the males observe her progress . the dominant male constantly drives away subordinate males , and he fertilizes the eggs during spawning . other males may fertilize the eggs as well . females construct nests in suitable gravel and spawn several times over a 2 - 3 day period . after the eggs are spawned and fertilized , the female covers the eggs with gravel and abandons the nest . spawning peaks when daily water temperature exceeds 45
a cutthroat trout ' s diet changes as they progress through the life stages . as fry they feed on small crustaceans and algae . as they progress into fingerlings they feed on small insects , and crustaceans . juveniles and adults become opportunistic feeders , eating almost any prey item in their environment ( behnke , 1992 ) . they are known to eat other fishes , crustaceans , and insects ( morrow , 1980 ) .
the museum specimens used in the study came from the california academy of sciences , the smithsonian museum of natural history in washington , d . c . , the academy of natural sciences in philadelphia and the harvard university museum of comparative zoology . colorado cutthroat trout specimens were collected by a number of early naturalists , including swiss scientist and former harvard professor louis agassiz and internationally known fish expert and founding stanford university president david starr jordan .
it was a popular trail up to pike ' s peak at the time and he wanted to have an inn for the people who were on that two - day journey ,
krieger says .
in doing so , he also created some fish ponds and brought in some fish most likely from trout creek , which [ was ] one of the closest trout streams to colorado springs at the time .