the pelagic cormorant ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) , also known as baird 's cormorant , is a small member of the cormorant family phalacrocoracidae .

analogous to other smallish cormorants , it is also called the pelagic shag occasionally .

this seabird lives along the coasts of the northern pacific ; during winter it can also be found in the open ocean .

pelagic cormorants have relatively short wings due to their need for economical movement underwater , and consequently have the highest flight costs of any bird .

many authors favor splitting up the " wastebin genus " phalacrocorax .

in this case , the pelagic cormorant would probably be placed in compsohalieus .

pelagic cormorant

figure 1 . distribution of the pelagic cormorant in north america and adjacent siberia .
pelagic cormorant - channel islands national park ( u . s . national park service )
cormorant : small cormorant with glossy black body and bold white patches on flanks . red
cormorant information . . . listing of species . . . cormorant / shag species photos
phalacrocorax pelagicus [ excl . kenyoni ] ( pelagic cormorant [ excl . amchitka ] ) - avibase
the pelagic cormorant lives in both offshore and inshore waters . it nests on sea cliffs and rocky islands .
the pelagic cormorant uses its own guano to solidify its nest materials and to cement its nest to the cliff face .
the oldest recorded pelagic cormorant was at least 17 years , 10 months old when it was found in british columbia .
pelagic cormorant [ excl . amchitka ] phalacrocorax pelagicus [ excl . kenyoni ] ( = phalacrocorax pelagicus ) pallas , 1811
the pelagic cormorant eats fish and crustaceans . it can dive to depths of over 100 feet to catch its prey .
the pelagic cormorant uses its own guano to solidify its nest materials and to cement its nest to the cliff face .
is commonly called the ' great cormorant ' . it is appropriate as it is the largest of all living cormorant species . in europe there are two other cormorant species - the shag
the pelagic cormorants ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) are also known as baird ' s cormorants , pelagic shags or violet - green cormorant - due to the violet - green iridescence ( sheen ) to their otherwise dark plumage .
the pelagic cormorant is a small , slender cormorant of the pacific coast . although it is exclusively marine in habits , its name is misleading , since it prefers inshore areas rather than the open ocean .
the pelagic cormorant can spring straight up out of the water and into the air . it often perches with its wings spread to dry them .
the pelagic cormorant breeds from the bering sea south to northern baja california . it winters south from southern alaska . it is also found in northeastern asia .
the smallest cormorant in washington , the pelagic cormorant is slender , with an especially slender neck and beak . both males and females are solid black , except during the breeding season when adults have white rump patches that show in flight .
cormorant species are not endangered with the double - crested cormorant actually dramatically increasing in number . members of this family , however , are potentially threatened by oil spills .
the pelagic cormorant is among the least gregarious or social of the cormorants , nesting on steep cliffs along rocky and exposed shorelines , either in loose colonies or far from nearest neighbors .
the pelagic cormorant is among the least gregrious or social of the cormorants , nesting on steep cliffs along rocky and exposed shorelines , either in loose colonies or far from nearest neighbors .
cannon , d . m . 1990 . behvioral correlates of nesting success of the pelagic cormorant , phalacrocorax pelagicus . master ' s thesis , univ . of vermont , burlington . close
protection / threats / status : the pelagic cormorant is vulnerable to oil pollution and other contaminants . they may drown in gill - nets around fisheries close to their feeding areas . they are affected by disturbance at nesting sites through increasing recreational activities . the population size is currently unknown , but the overall trend is decreasing , although some populations are probably stable . the pelagic cormorant is currently evaluated as least concern .
range of the pelagic cormorant : breeds from the bering sea to japan and south to near san diego , usa . winters in the aleutian islands and along the coast from british columbia to baja , california .
the pelagic is a type of bird whose habitat is on the open ocean rather than in a coastal region or on inland bodies of water ( lakes , rivers ) . an example of a pelagic bird is the blacklegged kittiwake .
pelagic cormorants are distinctive in breeding plumage , only confused with the range - restricted red - faced cormorant in alaska . pelagic is smaller and slimmer than red - faced , with blackish glossy upperparts and wings , and a blackish - gray bill ( yellow - based in red - faced ) . pelagic shares red facial skin with red - faced , but lacks the blue skin also shown by that species . the following is a link to this photographer ' s website : urltoken .
behaviour in the wild : the pelagic cormorant feeds on fish , crustaceans and other invertebrates on the bottom . fish includes sculpin , herrings , greenlings and sand lances . it also consumes crabs and shrimps , marine worms , amphipods and algae .
pelagic cormorant appear to have declined between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a population of less than 69 , 000 breeding birds , lists it as a species of high concern , and rates it a 14 out of 20 on the continental concern score . pelagic cormorant is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . populations were reduced by human and natural disturbances from 1850 to 1900s . back to top
hobson , keith a . 2013 . pelagic cormorant ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
q : the cormorant breeding population has shown a substantial increase since the early 1970s . how have the numbers changed ?
introduction : the pelagic cormorant is usually less gregarious than other cormorant species . it feeds solitary and its nesting colonies are smaller . it is a small member of the family phalacrocoracidae , and the smallest of the north american cormorants . it breeds on both coasts of north pacific ( ne siberia and sw alaska ) , and winters s to japan and e china , and baja california . it nests on cliff ledges and hollows on steep rock faces , sometimes with other cormorant species . the name of the pelagic cormorant is misleading , because this species frequents nearshore waters year - round . this species is threatened by oil pollution and interaction of nearshore fisheries , and disturbance at nesting sites with the increase of recreational activities . but currently , the population is suggested to be stable .
other synonyms catalan : corb marí pelàgic czech : kormorán morský , kormorán mořský danish : stillehavsskarv german : meerscharbe english : baird ' s cormorant , pelagic cormorant , pelagic cormorant ( excl . amchitka ) , pelagic cormorant [ excl . amchitka ] , pelagic shag , sea cormorant , violet - green cormorant spanish : cormorán pelágico spanish ( mexico ) : cormorán pelágico estonian : ulgukormoran ( ulgukarbas ) finnish : ulappamerimetso french : cormoran de béring , cormoran pélagique , cormoran pélagique ( excl . c . de kenyon ) , cormoran pélagique [ excl . kenyoni ] hungarian : alaszkai kárókatona italian : cormorano pelagico japanese : himeu , hime - u japanese : ヒメウ japanese ( kanji ) : 姫鵜 korean : 쇠가마우지 korean ( transliteration ) : soe - gamauji latin : leucocarbo pelagicus , phalacrocorax pelagicus , phalacrocorax pelagicus [ excl . kenyoni ] , phalacrocorax pelagicus pelagicus , phalacrocorax pelegicus , stictocarbo pelagicus lithuanian : pelaginis kormoranas dutch : pelagische aalscholver norwegian : beringskarv polish : kormoran krasnolicy pinyin : hǎi lúcí , wū - tí portuguese : biguá - pelágico russian : баклан берингов , берингийский баклан , берингов баклан slovak : kormorán morský swedish : pelagisk skarv , pelagskarv chinese : 乌鹈 , 海鸕 ( 茲鳥 ) , 海鸕鷀 , 海鸬鹚 chinese ( traditional ) : 海鸕鶿 , 烏鵜 chinese ( taiwan , traditional ) : 海鸕鶿 chinese ( taiwan ) : 海鸬鹚
pelagic cormorants reach reproductive age when they are about two years old , and have been recorded to breed until they were nearly 18 years old .
following are pictures taken in the nesting season by g . fletcher in the 1980s and 1990’s when there were pelagic cormorants nesting at race rocks :
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the pelagic cormorant produces groaning and hissing calls around the colonies . perched birds may give low - pitched moan and clicking sounds . the male produces a high - pitched trumpeting honk when arriving at nest or flying off .
q : some fish can be wounded by but escape from a cormorant ' s beak . how often does this occur ?
non - breeding birds are very similar to the red - faced cormorant with whom they share the range only in alaska . in the breeding season , the red - faced cormorant has a red forehead and a larger , slightly yellowish bill . their bare skin extends above the bill . immature birds look identical except the red - faced cormorant can be identified by the thicker , paler bill . the pelagic cormorants usually call out before taking off - particularly during the breeding season ( the red - faced remain silent ) .
a : no , in the last 30 years the increase has occurred in virtually all european countries as well as countries such as japan . similar increases have also occurred with other cormorant species , such as the double - crested cormorant in north america .
pelagic cormorants will use one nest for several years , piling up seaweed , grass and ocean debris until the mound is five to six feet high .
despite the name , this is not a pelagic species . it occurs and feeds in inshore waters , capturing mainly non - schooling fish caught over . . .
pelagic cormorants are not naturally water - proof and must spend time preening and grooming their feathers with oil collected from a gland at the base of the tail .
they are generally less social than other species of cormorant . feeding is a solitary activity . pelagic cormorants , like other cormorants , catch most of their prey underwater . nesting colonies are in hard - to - reach places , as cormorants are more successful at excluding predators than in actively defending against them .
pelagic cormorants live along open , windswept coasts . they nest along with other cormorants and other seabirds on steep , remote cliffs where they ' re safer from predators .
the pelagic cormorant , the smallest and most widely distributed of six cormorant species inhabiting the north pacific , ranges from the arctic waters of the chukchi and bering seas south through temperate waters along the north american pacific coast to baja california and along the asian coast to southern china . it is among the least gregarious or social of the cormorants , nesting on steep cliffs along rocky and exposed shorelines , either in loose colonies or far from nearest neighbors .
pelagic cormorants usually forage alone in sheltered inlets and bays in the vicinity of kelp beds or among rocks , and outside the breeding season venture out to fish at sea .
double - crested cormorant is larger , with a thicker bill , and has conspicuous pale facial skin , usually orange . juvenile has uniformly pale upper breast .
( in south africa ) . members of the cormorant family can be found all over the world , on all continents , including one species in antarctica .
the pelagic cormorant is often sedentary , but some populations perform short post breeding dispersal . the northernmost populations of ne siberia and nw alaska are migratory and reach se alaska and n british columbia . it is a wintering visitor to korea and china , and further s to baja california . the flight is graceful and direct , with rapid wingbeats .
introduction this seabird is a small member of the cormorant family and is also known as baird ' s cormorant . analogous to other smallish cormorants , it is also occasionally called the pelagic shag . being one of the least social or gregarious cormorants , channel island national park , due to its isolation from the mainland , provides an ideal environment for its breeding on all five channel islands . this seabird lives year round along the coasts of the pacific ; during winter it can also be found in the open ocean .
although the pelagic cormorant is exclusively marine in habits , its name is misleading , since it prefers inshore areas . this species is a component of littoral communities and feeds primarily on solitary fish and invertebrates on the bottom . these and other aspects of its morphology and behavior qualify it as a member of the shag subfamily leucocarboninae , according to siegel - causey (
according to the iucn red list , the great cormorant is considered to be of ' least concern ' due to its extremely large distribution and apparent increasing population trend .
q : i have read that cormorants are also regularly counted in january of each year . how are these counts done and do the numbers cover the total cormorant population ?
the pelagic cormorant is very similar to the red - faced cormorant in appearance . the plumage is black with purplish and greenish highlights . during the breeding season , the purple - glossed nape and upperneck show scattered white filoplumes , also visible on back and rump . we can see a conspicuous white patch extending from rump sides to rear flanks . mantle and scapulars show olivaceous to golden iridescence . on the wings , the flight - feathers are duller blackish with some gloss on outer webs of secondaries . the underwing and the tail are dull blackish .
although the pelagic cormorant is exclusively marine in habits , its name is misleading , since it prefers inshore areas . this species is a component of littoral communities and feeds primarily on solitary fish and inverebrates on the bottom . these and other aspects of its morphology and behavior qualify it as a member of the shag subfamily leucocarboninae , according to siegel - causey ( 1988 ) .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . the most widespread cormorant species in the n pacific . total global population unknown . some colonies are stable or fluctuate in . . .
most other north pacific cormorants and shags are larger . also , it is the only cormorant within its natural range with conspicuous white patches on its flanks during the breeding season .
hobson , k . a . and s . g . sealy . 1985a . diving rhythms and diurnal roosting times of pelagic cormorants . wilson bull . no . 97 ( 1 ) : 116 - 119 . close
hobson , k . a . and s . g . sealy . 1986 . use of diurnal roosting sites by pelagic cormorants in barkley sound , british columbia . murrelet no . 67 : 65 - 74 . close
the pelagic cormorant is smaller than other cormorants . it is about 25 - 30 inches in length and has glossy black feathers and a dark , curved bill and a long , slender neck . it holds its neck straight out when in flight . breeding adults have a red face patch and a white patch on their flanks . males and females look alike , although the male is slightly larger .
and red - faced cormorants of the pacific . the neotropic cormorant is mostly found in subtropical waters of southern texas while the double - crested ranges in both fresh and salt water .
subspecies and range : the pelagic cormorant has two subspecies . p . p . pelagicus ( described above ) , breeds in n pacific coasts , from ne siberia ( chukotskiy peninsula ) s to kuril islands , n japan and ne china , and e through commander islands , aleutian islands and alaska to w canada ( queen charlotte islands ) . the w populations winter s to japan and e china .
habitat : the pelagic cormorant is found on coasts and in bays where it feeds . when at sea , it usually remains close to the shore , but it may sometimes go out to sea . it frequents rocky bays , and especially deep waters close to the base of cliffs . it nests both on islands and mainland coasts , often in inaccessible sites , narrow ledges on cliffs or steep slopes .
siegel - causey , d . and jr . hunt , g . l . 1986 . breeding - site selection and colony formation in double crested and pelagic cormorants . auk no . 103 : 230 - 234 . close
pelagic cormorants nest at race rocks and live there year - round . they prefer the cliff to the west of the camera 5 , and can often be seen perched there along the cliff edge ( picture above left )
63–76 cm ; male 1814–2440 g , female 1214–2041 g ; wingspan c . 101 cm . slim cormorant with thin bill . breeding adult has erectile crest of upcurved feathers on . . .
the six species of cormorants found in north america are all placed in the same genus . representatives of this family include the widespread double - crested cormorant , and the red - faced and
, belongs to a larger family , the phalacrocoracidae , which is closely related to pelicans . overall , there are 36 species worldwide , and all of them are fish eaters , living at sea or on large inland waters . they all nest in colonies , which in some species can be extremely large . other cormorant species include , for examples , the double - crested cormorant
the pelagic cormorant feeds mainly on fish , which it pursues both close to shore and far out at sea . it also takes crabs and other crustaceans . to catch this prey it dives deeply ; birds have been taken in fishing nets at depths of 210 feet ( 70 m ) . their small size enables them to spring directly from the water , rather than paddling along the surface as other cormorants do .
exclusively marine , pelagic cormorants can be found in bays and sounds and on the coast ( although usually fairly close to shore ) . they breed on small , offshore islands and rocky cliffs with deep water at the base .
robertson , i . 1974 . the food of nesting double - crested and pelagic cormorants at mandarte island , british columbia , with notes on feeding ecology . condor no . 76 ( 3 ) : 346 - 348 . close
during the breeding season , the pelagic cormorant male tries to attract females by fluttering the black wings , in order to create a strong contrast with the conspicuous white rump patches . the strongly iridescent plumage , the thick crest and the red skin of the face are enhanced by adapted postures . the bill is pointed upwards and the tail is lowered , while the wings are raised and lowered . the displays take place at nest - site .
cormorants are most well known for their piscivorous ( fish - eating ) diet , the double - crested cormorant so much so that it has been persecuted in some areas for supposedly being a competitor with fisherman .
adult plumages of north american cormorant species are mostly black , juvenile plumages being brown and white . white is also found in the adult plumages of some species in the form of patches near the tail and wispy
the pelagic cormorant , the smallest and most widely distributed of six cormor - ant species inhabiting the north pacific , ranges from the arctic waters of the chukchi and bering seas south through temperate waters along the north american pacific coast to baja california and along the asian coast to southern china . it is among the least gregarious or social of the cormorants , nesting on steep cliffs along rocky and exposed shorelines , either in loose colonies or far from nearest neighbors .
numerous in northern puget sound , pelagic cormorants nest on a number of islands throughout the sound . historically , large colonies have been found on protection island in jefferson county , smith / minor island in island county , and jagged island in clallam county .
q : regarding the size of the cormorant population in ' core ' europe , there are highly different numbers quoted , ranging from 500 , 000 to 2 . 4 million . why are the estimates so different ?
reproduction of this species : the laying occurs between may and july . the pelagic cormorant nests in small colonies and as isolated pairs . it nests on inaccessible sites such as narrow ledges or hollows on tall , steep rocks and cliffs . the nest is made with sticks , algae , grass , moss and debris , cemented together with guano . the nest is reused in several following years . both adults share the nest - building , and add new material every year .
cormorants fish in most aquatic habitats in north america , especially in larger bodies of water such as lakes , rivers and coastal habitats . the coasts harbor such species as the great cormorant of the north atlantic , and the brandt’s ,
carter , h . r . , k . a . hobson and s . g . sealy . 1984 . colony - site selection by pelagic cormorants ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) in barkley sound , british columbia . colon . waterbirds no . 7 : 25 - 34 . close
a : the geographical range of ' our ' cormorant is very large , from the east coast of north america , over the whole of europe and asia to australia , and from greenland down to south africa . the only continents where
cormorant . experts are able to distinguish the two sub - species based on close examination of certain minor morphological differences , but this is rarely practical in the field . one of the genetic studies of cormorants in europe suggests that a third subspecies
migration birds that breed from washington southward are permanent residents , but birds breeding farther north migrate to winter in northern washington waters . breeding colonies disperse but pelagic cormorants south of the monterey bay area do not migrate but continue to forage along the rocky coastal areas following the most abundant prey .
orta , j . , garcia , e . f . j . , jutglar , f . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . pelagic cormorant ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
habitat the pelagic cormorant in central and southern california breeds on the rocky shores and cliffs along the coast , but substantial colonies breed on san miguel , santa barbara , anacapa , santa rosa and santa cruz islands from march to august . it is rarely seen farther than a few kilometers from land . as with all cormorants , due to their vestigal preen gland , their plumage is not waterproof . thus , the birds return to a safe roost after foraging to preen and dry their feathers , typically adopting a spread - winged posture .
feeding cormorants have high energy needs for swimming and flying , and they cannot fast for long periods or store much body fat . the pelagic cormorants energy needs are further exacerbated due to its small size , which demands that its roosting and nesting sites are in close proximity to its foraging sites . the pelagic cormorant feeds mainly on nonschooling medium sized fish , but also consumes invertebrates , maine worms and crustaceans . it forages near shore along rocky substrate , and in california it is frequently seen along the fringes of kelp forests . it feeds only during the day and for short periods of time . to catch prey it dives deeply ; birds have been taken in fishing nets at depths of 180 feet . this species ' small size enables it to spring directly from the water , rather than paddling along the surface as other cormorants are required .
because its numbers were low , but as a consequence of the phenomenal population growth it was released from annex i in 1997 . cormorant conservation is also covered in the bern convention and in aewa ( african eurasian waterbird agreement ) under the bonn convention .
unlike brandt ' s cormorants , which sometimes hunt cooperatively , pelagic cormorants hunt alone , often diving into heavy surf for crabs , worms and small fishes . though they often dive in shallow water along the shores , they also can make very deep dives—sometimes to 180 feet ( 55 m ) or more .
cormorant : resident in much of its range . breeds along the pacific coast of north america from the western alaska and the aleutian archipelago south to extreme southern california . spends winters from southern alaska south to baja california . preferred habitats include offshore and inshore waters .
special cormorant counts at sleeping roosts ( night roosts ) : in their wintering regions the cormorants spend the night in communal sleeping roosts . when counts are conducted simultaneously at all roosts in a given area , it is possible to derive reliable estimates of all the birds present in the region . in some regions , it is , however , difficult to ensure that all sleeping roosts are covered . in january 2003 , such simultaneous counts were organised by iucn / wetlands international cormorant research group in ( almost ) all countries of europe .
in the following decades cormorants received basic legal protection in some countries and breeding cormorants were protected in a few reserves , but numbers were kept at modest levels . however , in the mid 20th century ( 1950 - 1965 ) there was a further decline in cormorant numbers of
range the pelagic cormorant ' s range extends from the chukchi and bering seas south along the north american pacific coast to baja california , and along the asian coast to southern china . the breeding range extends from north alaska to the aleutian islands and south along the north american pacific coast to baja california , as well as , from the bering sea to kurki island and north honshu , japan . its wintering range is from the pribilof islands to the aleutian islands and south along the north american pacific coast to baja california , as well as from the south bering sea along the eastern shores of kamchatka and south to hong kong .
have been conducted virtually every year , providing an almost gapless time series of the population development . in eastern europe monitoring was less frequent in the past . however , the cormorant research group pan - european census in 2006 and other recent national counts have also provided a reasonably reliable picture of present breeding numbers .
a : there is a record from lake constance where a drowned cormorant had been found in a net which had been set 75 metres deep . however , such diving behaviour is exceptional since diving to this depth uses up a lot of energy . more typically , cormorants dive to depths of up to 10 metres .
cormorants as a group have been killed and harassed by people who believe that the birds damage the commercial fishing industry . ( pelagic cormorants , however , feed on fish that aren ' t fished by commercial fisheries . ) oil spills , gill - net entanglement , and toxic contamination of prey also affect the population . in washington , significant increases in the population were recorded between 1976 and 1992 .
a : the great cormorant is probably now more frequent and widespread in europe than at any time in the last 150 years at least . the current population trend in europe is considered as ' increasing ' ( wetlands international 2006 ) . in addition almost all national trends of breeding numbers are stable or increasing ( birdlife international 2004 ) .
reproduction about 25 , 000 , pelagic cormorants breed along the pacific coast of north america , excluding alaska and the aleutian islands . about 60 % of these are found in california . the initiation of pair formation and nest building varies geographically and relies heavily upon food supply . the southern range usually experiences earlier inititation dates , but on average breeding plumage is usually seen in february and nest building commences shortly thereafter .
colonies would cross over inland regions on their flyway south , resting and feeding on inland waters . since the recent large increase in cormorant numbers across europe , many more birds of this sub - species now occur at inland sites during as well as outside the breeding season . ' surplus birds ' from breeding colonies have emigrated and founded new colonies at inland waters .
appearance the pelagic cormorant is the smallest and most delicate of the north pacific cormorants . it is slender in appearance , with a long tail , a slim dark bill , and a head that is no wider than its neck . when in flight , the head and neck are held out in a straight profile parallel to the water . basic plumage is black with a glossy iridescent green and violet - bronze on the body , and violet - purple on the neck . breeding plumage is similar to basic plumage but also includes white flank patches , red facial skin at the base of bill , double head crests , and white plumes along the neck and upper - back region . immature birds are dark brown , with the same proportions as adults . other coastal cormorants are bulkier , with slower wingbeats .
between 2000 and 2006 , the total cormorant population in europe increased further , and possibly total numbers have continued to increase but only at a very low rate . in the last years there have been signs that numbers are in decline in several of the core breeding areas . these declines are partly explained by extra cold winters affecting survival and individual body condition prior to breeding .
the north american population totals about 130 , 000 birds , the majority of which occur in alaska . local populations often fluctuate considerably because of movement among breeding sites . during breeding , pelagic cormorants show a rich repertoire of behavioral displays . the species is also conspicuous on diurnal roosts , where it may spend considerable time drying its plumage . like all other cormorants , it is sensitive to disturbance at colonies and vulnerable to oil spills , gill - net entanglement , and contamination of marine food webs .
nest : the nest is a mass of seaweed and grass on a cliff . pelagic cormorants nest in colonies and like ledges so narrow they must land and take off facing the cliff . during the years between 1980 and 1995 numbers of nests ranged above 20 . in the years 2000 , 2001 , 2002 there was complete nest failure due to the lack of herring feed in the surrounding waters . during 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 only two or three nests have been established with successful hatches .
the smallest cormorant of the pacific coast . may be solitary in its feeding but gregarious at other times , with groups perching together on rocks near water , holding wings out to dry . during the nesting season , even non - breeding individuals come to roost at night around the edges of nesting colonies , but colonies are often smaller than those of its relatives . often more shy and harder to approach than other cormorants .
pelagic cormorants nest in colonies , which are smaller than those of other cormorants . colonies are situated on islands , narrow cliff ledges , steep slopes , and other relatively inaccessible locations . the male displays at a nest site by flashing his white patches . together the male and female construct a nest of seaweed , grass , moss , and occasionally sticks . this nest may be reused from year to year . the female lays a clutch of 3 - 4 eggs . both parents incubate and feed the young .
we tested the biomechanical hypothesis for the evolution of flightlessness in seabirds by measuring the energy costs of flight and diving in two species of free - living , diving seabirds that are also able to fly : wing - propelled thick - billed murres ( uria lomvia ) and foot - propelled pelagic cormorants ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) . we predicted that murres would have elevated flight costs compared with nondiving birds , but would have low costs of swimming , although not as low as penguins , which have lost the ability to fly .
a : a number of theories have been advanced for this common behaviour , but it has been concluded that the birds are merely drying their plumage . after diving for food , a cormorant ' s feathers have absorbed water , and the bird will adopt an outstretched wings posture – usually at a convenient perch ( e . g a tree , pole , rock or the ground ) close to the feeding areas – until its wings have dried .
in this attached file , i have summarized the results of several papers on research on cormorant populations in the southern gulf islands and georgia strait . vermeer and rankin , 1984 , did their research when the populations were on the incline , however since the 1900s , this trend has not persisted as has been reflected in the paper by chatwin et al . the summary of their paper and the possible reasons for decline are listed near the end of this review .
conservation status despite the fact that the population trend for the pelagic cormorant appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable status . this numerous and widespread species has a very large range and is not considered threatened by the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) . the bulk of its population is found in the relatively inaccessible waters of the bering sea region ; about 50 , 000 each breed in the kuril islands , the bering sea islands , and the u . s . state of alaska and its offshore islands ( including the aleuts ) . regardless , local populations may be all but wiped out temporarily by oil spills , and on a larger scale competition with gillnet fisheries and drowning in such nets is putting a limit to its stocks . the impact of el nino on weather and food may also affect the local populations as previously evidenced by historical records . intrusion in nesting areas by fishermen , kayakers and divers can also be disruptive . fortunately , most breeding sites in southern california , including channel islands national park are protected areas for this bird .
. it appears black at a distance , but closer inspection reveals that the individual feathers have a green - blue sheen bordered with black , which produces a scale - like effect . the cormorant has broad , webbed feet , a rather long neck and a large , strong bill with a sharp hook at its end . in summer , adults show white patches on the face and a neat circular patch on the flanks . immature birds are more brownish - black and most have a whitish belly in particular in their first year of life .
cormorant has a large range estimated to be between 100 , 000 to 1 , 000 , 000 square kilometers . this bird can be found in the united states , canada , mexico , japan , the russian federations , korea , china and taiwan . its chosen habitat is a marine environment , including freshwater lakes . the global population of this species has not been quantified , and it is not believed that the population trends for this species will soon approach the minimum levels that could suggest a potential decline in population . due to this , population trends for the
we have seen a marked decline in nesting of one of the four species of seabirds which has nested traditionally at race rocks , pelagic cormorants ( phalacrocorax pelagicus ) . by 2007 , the nesting population had been reduced to one or two nests , and from 2008 to the last season ( 2009 ) there were no nests at all . this population crash has been common across the gulf islands . , and the lower end of vancouver island and strait of juan de fuca . according to the canadian wildlife service , the population of this species is estimated to be at 9000 individuals , and the pelagicus subspecies is red - listed by bc – other subspecies are stable .
a : on average , a female cormorant lays 3 - 5 eggs and , under extremely good conditions , survival to the fledgling stage may be as high as 90 % . however , it is usually far less ( 2 . 0 - 2 . 5 birds / nest is common ) , and under unfavourable conditions - food shortage , long distance to foraging sites , bad weather , etc . - chick survival may decrease to a colony average of 0 . 5 birds per nest . strong , experienced parents appear are able to rear more young than less experienced younger birds , even in the same nesting colony .
a : yes , in eu member states all wild bird species are protected by the eu birds directive . but the cormorant has no special protection status ; it is not more and not less protected than most other bird species . however , the directive provides member state governments with the opportunity to ' derogate ' ( be excused under certain circumstances ) from the provisions of articles 5 and 8 . specifically , in article 9 ( 1 ) , it is possible to apply for permission for various measures , including licenses to kill cormorants when the danger of ' serious damage ' can be demonstrated or when it is necessary for the protection of flora and fauna .
a : there are no predators that regularly hunt cormorants for food . white - tailed eagles will sometimes kill young and more rarely adult cormorants . they can lower breeding success in a cormorant colony through disturbance and predation . regular presence of white - tailed eagles can also provoke adults to completely abandon a colony . consequently , eagles can locally affect population development . another impact that white - tailed eagles have is the theft of fish from cormorants . cormorants can also be affected by nest robbers like gulls and crows and in ground colonies by foxes . lately , there have been records that in some german colonies non - native raccoons have severely reduced the breeding success of cormorants .
a : the figure which is usually cited for the daily food intake ( dfi ) is about 500g of fish . however , dfi varies , depending on the size and body mass of the bird , its activity level ( time spent for flying and diving , which needs much more energy than the basic metabolism ) and the fat content of the prey fish . moreover , on some days a cormorant may eat more than it actually needs , and sometimes it will consume less . birds also take substantially more fish during the breeding season when they are feeding their young . for more detail about how to estimate cormorants ' food consumption in a certain situation see
how much do cormorants eat ?
both counting methods deliver very valuable insights into the regional distribution and numbers of wintering birds in the surveyed areas . some areas like the coast of north africa are not easily surveyed and the percentage of the european population spending the winter here is at present unknown but thought to be less than it used to be in the recent past . although the winter counts do not give an absolute accurate measure of the total size of the european cormorant population they provide a good general estimate of the numbers involved and highly valuable information about how cormorants are distributed throughout europe in winter . in the well - covered countries , especially where counts are made once or twice a month roost counts are delivering very reliable estimates of trends and numbers .
a : a clutch of cormorant eggs will have hatched about 30 days after the first egg was laid . the chicks usually remain in the nest for almost two months . great cormorants normally begin breeding at the age of 2 - 4 years . one study estimated that 44 % of the 2 - year - old and 70 % of the 3 - year - old females were breeding . for males the proportions were 25 % for the 2 - year - olds and 53 % for the 3 - year - olds . at the age of 8 years almost all individuals were breeding . generally , when food availability near a colony is optimal , cormorants tend to start breeding at earlier ages , but it seems that in ' old ' saturated colonies the average age of first breeding often increases . this may be linked to a localised decline in the availability of suitable prey fish .
between july 15 and august 10 , 2006 , we captured 41 thick - billed murres at the coats island west colony , nunavut , canada , and equipped those birds with time - depth temperature recorders ( tdrs ) . between july 25 and august 14 , 2012 , we captured 22 pelagic cormorants at middleton island , alaska , and equipped those birds with temperature - depth accelerometers . we simultaneously measured energy expenditure in the same birds using doubly labeled water and recorded weather . when murres injected with doubly labeled water and equipped with tdrs were compared with paired control murres equipped at the same time and breeding stage only with tdrs , there was no difference in maximum dive depth ( t 24 = 0 . 40 , p = 0 . 69 ) , average dive depth ( t 24 = 0 . 99 , p = 0 . 33 ) , time spent submerged ( t 24 = 0 . 71 , p = 0 . 48 ) , time spent flying ( t 24 = 0 . 32 , p = 0 . 75 ) , time spent at the colony ( t 24 = 0 . 35 , p = 0 . 96 ) , or time to switch - over ( t 24 = 1 . 83 , p = 0 . 08 ) . we concluded that the doubly labeled water injections had little impact on behavior .
the compromises inherent in the tradeoffs in form for function in water and air were evident in murres , which have the highest wing loading ( mass per unit area of the wing ) of any flying bird . our estimated flight cost for the 1 - kg murre , 141 ± 18 w ( 146 w / kg or 0 . 83 j / nm cost of transport ; fig . 1 a and figs . s1 and s2 ) surpassed the previous record of 135 w recorded in the 2 . 6 - kg bar - headed goose ( anser indicus ) . flight costs were also high for the 1 . 8 - kg cormorant , 158 ± 51 w ( 87 w / kg or 0 . 70 j / nm ) . the murre value is more than double that for a 980 - g bird predicted by the maximum output line proposed to represent maximum aerobic capacity in a flying bird ( 16 ) . presumably , the apparent limit to aerobic capacity simply reflects the narrow range of body plans of species measured to date ( fig . 1 a ) —specifically , the absence of measurements from species that also swim with their wings underwater ( 16 ) .
metabolic costs for murres freely diving in 5 . 9 ± 0 . 3 °c water declined with dive depth and duration , with the best explanatory model being an exponentially declining function similar to that obtained for free - diving penguins : ( 3 . 64 ± 1 . 33 ) σ [ 1 − e ( −duration / 1 . 23 ) ] kj ( 22 ) . on average , murre dive costs were 27 % lower than expected for a similarly sized foot - propelled diver , but 30 % higher than expected for a similar - sized penguin ( fig . 1 b ) . in contrast , foot - propelled cormorant dive costs were over threefold greater than expected for a similar - sized penguin ( fig . 1 b ) . in general , flightless wing - propelled divers ( penguins ) have lower underwater energy costs and higher underwater efficiency than flying divers , whether wing or foot propelled ( fig . 1 b ) . presumably , “flying” underwater with long wings ( murres ) creates extra drag , whereas greater body mass ( penguins ) allows for insulation via adipose tissue rather than via a thick air layer in the feathers , reducing buoyancy costs in shallow water ( 23 ) . in mammals , drag - based propulsion in semiaquatic animals is less efficient than lift - based propulsion in marine mammals ( 9 , 24 ) ; foot - propelled avian divers use drag - based propulsion whereas wing - propelled divers rely on lift - based propulsion .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
this seabird is found on the northern coasts of the pacific , from california ( usa ) in the east , round canada , alaska , the aleutian islands , russia and south kuril islands ( japan ) to the southern tip of japan . it can also be found north of the berings sea ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .
there is no global estimate , however , national population estimates include : < c . 100 breeding pairs and c . 50 - 1 , 000 wintering individuals in china ; c . 100 - 10 , 000 breeding pairs , c . 50 - 1 , 000 individuals on migration and c . 50 - 1 , 000 wintering individuals in korea ; c . 10 , 000 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs , c . 1 , 000 - 10 , 000 individuals on migration and c . 1 , 000 - 10 , 000 wintering individuals in japan and c . 10 , 000 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs and c . 1 , 000 - 10 , 000 individuals on migration in russia ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the overall population trend is decreasing , although some populations may be stable , and others have unknown trends ( wetlands international 2006 ) . this species has had stable population trends over the last 40 years in north america ( data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) .
this marine species feeds in sheltered coastal waters , including inlets and bays on a diet of non - schooling fish captures over rocky substrated or kelp beds . the specific species caught is variable depending on locality . laying occurs from may to july , with individuals normally forming small colonies although it is also sometimes solitary . nests are formed on narrow cliff edges and sometimes in caves ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .
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contributed by robert e . ricklefs , april 7 , 2013 ( sent for review november 19 , 2012 )
) . seabirds that dive and fly are excellent examples of animals facing tradeoffs in the optimization of locomotion for different media because they move between air , land , and water . unlike diving beetles ( family dytiscidae ) , dippers (
a comparison of flight costs and morphology across flying vertebrates , primarily birds . ( a ) a comparison of power output during flight across different bird species . the thick - billed murre value is indicated . the sustained maximum output limit proposed by videler ( 16 ) is shown by the solid line . ( b ) dive costs as a function of body mass for bird species . thick - billed murre diving costs averaged across dive times . average dive costs during deep diving of murres and emperor penguins also shown . values were corrected to 13 °c to remove variation associated with temperature ( 26 ) . trend line for foot - propelled divers is significantly different from the trend line for penguins ( analysis of covariance : f 1 , 12 = 20 . 85 , p = 0 . 0008 ) . ( c ) activity costs , as a multiple of basal metabolic rate , for sustained activity across bird and bat species . flying thick - billed murre is indicated . running metabolic rate represents maximal metabolic during sustained running , whereas swimming and flight metabolic rates represent levels that approximate minimal cost of transport . ( d ) discriminant analysis of avian locomotory traits . wing area is heavily loaded on the first axis ( rd1 ) , and body mass is heavily inversely loaded on the second axis ( rd2 ) . murres ( average of both uria species ) and the great auk are shown .
flight costs for murres were also 33 % higher than expected from biomechanical modeling based on the murre body plan ( fig . s1 ) , implying low muscle or mechanical efficiency . the high energy costs exhibited by murres in flight suggest why most animals use their wing locomotion in a single medium . in addition to having the highest absolute cost of sustained flight ( fig . 1 a ) , murres and cormorants also exhibit the highest flight costs in terms of multiples of basal metabolic rate ( bmr ; fig . 1 c ) . because murres spend up to 5 h per day flying during reproduction ( 15 ) , such a high level of sustained energy output ( 31× bmr ) is remarkable ; other vertebrates , except cormorants ( ∼28× bmr ) , do not exceed ∼25× bmr during intense activity ( fig . 1 c ) .


switak 's banded gecko ( coleonyx switaki ) , also commonly known as the barefoot banded gecko , the barefoot gecko , and switak 's barefoot gecko , is a species of gecko , a lizard in the family eublepharidae .

switak ' s banded gecko

described in 1973 . c . s . gypsicolus was treated as a distinct species , c . gypsicolus , by grismer ( 2002 ) . alternate and previous names ( synonyms ) coleonyx switaki - barefoot gecko ( switak ' s banded gecko ) ( stebbins 2003 ) coleonyx switaki - barefoot gecko ( stebbins 1985 ) anarbolys switaki 1974 barefoot gecko magic gecko
the switak ' s banded gecko is found on the desert slopes of northern san diego county to just north of santa rosalia in the municipality of mulegă© . this species is confined to the gulf versant in baja california and baja california sur .
named after karl h . switak , supervising herpetologist of the steinhart aquarium , san francisco , ca .
grismer l l . 1990 . coleonyx switaki ( murphy ) . barefoot banded gecko . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles no . 464 : 1 - 2 .
grismer l l 1990 . coleonyx switaki ( murphy ) . barefoot banded gecko . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 464 : 1 - 2 - get paper here
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
peninsula banded geckos , ( c . switaki ) left , have smooth skin with small granular scales interspersed with larger tubercles . this will help distinguish them from desert banded geckos , right , which have smooth skin with small granular scales but no larger tubercles .
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada , draft ( 2004 )
coleonyx - greek koleos sheath and onyx nail , talon or claw - refers to sheathed claws switaki - honors switak , karl h . from scientific and common names of the reptiles and amphibians of north america - explained © ellin beltz
2 - 3 . 5 inches long ( 5 . 1 - 8 . 6 cm ) from snout to vent . the largest native gecko species in california .
hatchlings are born with bright yellow or orange coloring and a distinctly black and white banded tail . the bright coloring and banding on the tail begin to fade as they reach one year of age .
murphy , r . w . 1974 . a new genus and species of eublepharine gecko ( sauria : gekkonidae ) from baja california , mexico . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 40 : 87 - 92
murphy , r . w . 1974 . a new genus and species of eublepharine gecko ( sauria : gekkonidae ) from baja california , mexico . proc . cal . acad . sci . 40 : 87 - 92 .
critically imperiled in the state because of extreme rarity ( often 5 or fewer populations ) orbecause of factor ( s ) such as very steep declines making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the state .
murphy , r . w . 1974 . a new genus and species of eublepharine gecko ( sauria : gekkonidae ) from baja california , mexico . proc . cal . acad . sci . 40 : 87 - 92 - get paper here
the natural history of this gecko is not well - known . secretive , noctural , hides by day in deep crevices . active in fairly cool ambient temperatures during periods of increased humidity , typically spring through fall . hibernates through the winter . curls the tail up and waves it back and forth off the ground when stalking prey . when grasped , this gecko may emit a short squeak . when threatened , it may drop its tail to distract a predator . the tail will grow back .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1994 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal candidate review for listing as endangered or threatened species . federal register , vol . 59 , no . 219 . 58982 - 59028
banded geckos help keep down scorpion populations in urban areas by eating lots of baby scorpions . they also mimic scorpions by running with their tails arched over their backs , fooling potential predators into thinking they are dangerous to approach . they also sometimes squeak when they feel threatened .
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner . 1987 . checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada . resource publication , no . 166 . 79
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes . 2004 . checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada , draft ( 2004 )
coleonyx is a genus of terrestrial geckos commonly referred to as banded geckos . they are found throughout the southwestern united states , mexico and south into central america . they are relatively small lizards , measuring about 5–6 in ( 13–15 cm ) inches in length . they are nocturnal and are found primarily in dry , rocky habitats .
grismer ( 1999 ) elevated gypsicolus to full species status based on scale counts : it has 42 - 48 eyelid fringe scales versus 32 - 40 in coleonyx switaki switaki . variation : c . switaki is a highly variable species . see grismer 2001 for a series of photos that show the many color patterns rnaging from spotted to banded .
ken foose produced his first captive - bred snakes at age 11 . with a master’s degree in zoology , he has been both zookeeper and curator . he opened exotic pets , which specializes in reptiles and amphibians , in las vegas in 1991 , and he is currently president of the international herpetological symposium .
because of their small size and tendency of sticking to the ground , they are easy to house . start with a 10 - gallon terrarium with a secure top . bedding of an inch deep can consist of organic top soil , ground coconut core , coarse gravel , terrarium carpet or even sani chips . under one end of the tank , place a heating pad , which should provide a hotspot of about 85 to 90 degrees fahrenheit . if needed , add a heat lamp or heat emitter over this to help achieve this hotspot temperature . make sure the heat lamp is one of the red - or black - light varieties , as banded geckos are most active in the dark . at the cool end , place a shallow water bowl large enough for the gecko to drink from . place one hide at the cool end and one at the warm end of the enclosure . you can’t have too many hiding places for these guys . i place damp moss under some of the hides . these geckos enjoy the humidity , and it helps them to shed their skin . dampen the moss once per week , and change it out about once a month . here in vegas , wild urban banded geckos are found mostly in sprinkler control boxes , and in and around underground water meter boxes . it’s damp there , and they love it . banded geckos are nocturnal and can be found scampering across roads at night . they also scamper about their enclosure in captivity . males don’t tend to like each other , so make sure you only have one male per tank . a 10 - gallon terrarium can hold one male and up to five females . they breed readily , and the damp moss hides are a great place for them to lay their eggs .
in the wild , banded geckos eat a large variety of insects and arachnids . in captivity , they do the same thing . crickets , mealworms , waxworms , small roaches and other insects that are easy to obtain are readily accepted . add a calcium supplement on prey items every other feeding . feed them as much as they like about three times a week .
courtship is initiated by the male approaching the female , usually from behind with his body held close to the ground and tail waving . he makes an initial bite on the female’s tail , flank , or neck . if the female is receptive and remains motionless , he advances forward with jerking movements , eventually mounting and shifting his bite to the neck or shoulder . the female responds by raising her tail , and the male entwines and brings his cloaca beneath hers . the cloacal spurof the male ( figs . 4 - 5 ) appears to serve to draw back the female’s posterior cloacal lip on the side where the hemipenis is inserted ( greenberg 1943 ) .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
most areas where western banded geckos are found prohibit their collection and sale . however , geckos are still being collected for the pet trade in nevada , and this is where most of the legally collected banded geckos come from . an interesting side note : because my store is located where they are native , i’m not allowed to sell them , even though they are commercially collected here . but they can be , and are , exported out of state to be sold in other areas . there is some captive breeding going on , and hopefully it will increase over time . these are as easy to breed as leopard geckos . the babies are just a lot smaller . i have not seen any morphs , but i would not doubt that they will pop up sooner or later as more are captive produced .
the following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists .
this gecko occurs along the eastern fringe of the peninsular ranges from at least borrego springs and yaqui pass , northern san diego county , california ( united states ) , south into north - central and eastern baja california ( mexico ) to san ignacio and the santa rosalia area ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . see grismer and ottley ( 1988 ) and grismer ( 1990 ) for a listing of specific localities . there are unconfirmed reports of c . switaki occurring north to the palms to pines highway , riverside county , california . the elevational range extends from near sea level to around 700 m ( 2 , 300 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) .
boundy , j . , f . burbrink , j . campbell , b . crother , k . de quiroz , d . frost , r . highton , j . iverson , f . kraus , r . mcdiarmid , j . mendelson iii , p . meylen , r . pyron , t . reeder , m . seidel , s . tilley and d . wake ( crother , b . , ed . ) . scientific and standard english names of amphibians and reptiles of north america north of mexico , with comments regarding confidence in our understanding . edition 6 . 1 , last updated : 24 may 2011 . available at urltoken
vector datasets of cwhr range maps are one component of california wildlife habitat relationships ( cwhr ) , a comprehensive information system and predictive model for california ' s wildlife . the cwhr system was developed to support habitat conservation and management , land use planning , impact assessment , education , and research involving terrestrial vertebrates in california . cwhr contains information on life history , management status , geographic distribution , and habitat relationships for wildlife species known to occur regularly in california . range maps represent the maximum , current geographic extent of each species within california . they were originally delineated at a scale of 1 : 5 , 000 , 000 by species - level experts and have gradually been revised at a scale of 1 : 1 , 000 , 000 . for more information about cwhr , visit the cwhr webpage ( urltoken ) . the webpage provides links to download cwhr data and user documents such as a look up table of available range maps including species code , species name , and range map revision history ; a full set of cwhr gis data ; . pdf files of each range map or species life history accounts ; and a user guide .
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an isolated population of c . switaki occurs in the coyote mountains of imperial county , seen above .
a small lizard with a triangular head , distinctly wider than the neck . movable eyelids , vertical pupils . skin is soft with fine granular scales and tubercles on the upper sides , back , neck , and the upper base of the tail . toes are slender . tail is constricted at the base . males can be identified by prominent spurs on both sides of the base of the tail .
color pattern is variable , depending on habitat - from light gray , beige , yellowish , reddish brown to dark brown . numerous round brown spots , and sometimes pale crossbands made up of round pale spots . during breeding season , males develop yellow coloring on body . tail has light and dark rings .
not well known . small invertebrates probably make up the bulk of the diet . captive adults have also eaten neonate geckos . º
( all summarized from grismer , 2002 ) most likely , the breeding season lasts from spring to summer , mid - may through late july . males develop a bright yellow coloring during the reproductive season . females lay a clutch of one or two eggs , and may lay up to three clutches from a single mating within 20 days of the first oviposition . eggs hatch after around two months , in late summer to early fall .
found in arid rocky areas on flatlands , canyons , thornscrub , especially where there are large boulders and rock outcrops , and where vegetation is sparse . according to grismer , 2002 , describing the habitat in baja california , the species
is most common on the talus slopes of volcanic hillsides and terraces where the mean rock size is slightly less than 1 m [ 3 . 3 feet ] and the vegetation is not too dense .
. . .
. . . occasionally found under cap rocks and in deep cracks . it is less common in areas with large granitic outcroppings .
not discovered in california until the early 1980s . in california , inhabits the arid desert slopes of the eastern side of the peninsular ranges from near borrego springs south to the baja california border . an isoloated population occurs in the coyote mountains of imperial county . ranges farther south in baja california along the eastern edge of the mountains to near santa rosalia , and on isla san marcos .
from near sea level to over 2 , 000 ft . ( 700 m ) .
listed as threatened under the california endangered species act due to its limited range . protected from collection and possession without a permit .
lemm , jeffrey . field guide to amphibians and reptiles of the san diego region ( california natural history guides ) . university of california press , 2006 . stebbins , robert c . , and mcginnis , samuel m . field guide to amphibians and reptiles of california : revised edition ( california natural history guides ) university of california press , 2012 . stebbins , robert c . california amphibians and reptiles . the university of california press , 1972 . stebbins , robert c . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , 2003 . behler , john l . , and f . wayne king . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . alfred a . knopf , 1992 . powell , robert . , joseph t . collins , and errol d . hooper jr . a key to amphibians and reptiles of the continental united states and canada . the university press of kansas , 1998 .
apparently secure—uncommon but not rare ; some cause for long - term concern due to declines or other factors .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
this species formerly was placed in the genus anarbylus . for many years coleonyx geckos were included in the family gekkonidae . in a cladistic analysis of the gekkonoidea , kluge ( 1987 ) placed the genus coleonyx in the family eublepharidae ( subfamily eublepharinae ) , recognized as distinct from the gekkonidae . bartlett and bartlett ( 1999 ) , grismer ( 2002 ) , and stebbins ( 2003 ) likewise placed coleonyx in the eublepharidae , whereas dixon ( 2000 ) retained coleonyx in the gekkonidae . see grismer and ottley ( 1988 ) for an analysis of geographic variation .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
it is a secretive species that is not often encountered . approximately 25 occurrences were known as of the late 1980s ( see grismer and ottley 1988 , grismer 1990 ) ; undoubtedly there are many others not yet documented . the total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand . the extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and abundance are probably stable ; sightings per year actually have been increasing ( l . grismer pers . comm . 1995 ) .
this lizard inhabits rocky desert foothills , volcanic talus and terraces , and canyons ; it is less common in areas with large granitic outcroppings ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . it appears to prefer areas with large rocks and sparse vegetation ( grismer 2002 ) . the species has been found on flatlands up to about 100 m from rock outcrops , and it also has been found in arroyos and dump sites at or near the bottoms of steep washes ( grismer and ottley 1988 ) . refuges include deep crevices among rocks and subterranean chambers .
overall , this species is not significantly threatened ( l . grismer pers . comm . 1995 ) . however , mining and highway construction are localized potential threats , and the species is on the state threatened list for california . in the 1980s there was a concern about collecting this species for the national and international pet trade . however , the current level of harvest is probably lower , and in any case the effect of harvesting on populations is unknown .
in view of its wide range , the species presumably occurs in many protected areas . the impact of harvesting should be monitored .
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anarbylus switaki murphy 1974 coleonyx swaitaki [ sic ] — stebbins 1985 : 112 coleonyx switaki — kluge 1993 coleonyx switaki — rösler 2000 : 63 coleonyx switaki— pianka & vitt 2003 : 39 coleonyx switaki — seufer et al . 2005
type locality : “5 . 5 miles west of san ignacio ( 27 ' n , 112 51 ' w ) along mexican highway 1 , baja california sur , mexico , 500 feet elevation . ”
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
crother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92
fritts , t . h . ; snell , h . l . ; martin , r . l . 1982 . anarbylus switaki murphy : an addition to the herpetofauna of the united states with comments on relationships with coleonyx . journal of herpetology 16 ( 1 ) : 39 - 52 - get paper here
grismer , l . l . , and j . r . ottley . 1988 . a preliminary analysis of geographic variation in coleonyx switaki ( squamata : eublepharidae ) with a description of an insular subspecies . herpetologica 44 : 143—154 - get paper here
grismer , l . lee 2001 . geographic variation of color pattern in peninsular populations of coleonyx switaki ( squamata : eublepharidae ) from baja california , mexico and southern california . gekko 2 ( 1 ) : 14 - 19
grismer , l . lee . 1999 . an evolutionary classification of reptiles on islands in the gulf of california , méxico . herpetologica 55 ( 4 ) : 446 - 469 - get paper here
jones , l . l . & lovich , r . e . 2009 . lizards of the american southwest . a photographic field guide . rio nuevo publishers , tucson , az , 568 pp . [ review in reptilia 86 : 84 ] - get paper here
pianka , e . r . & vitt , l . j . 2003 . lizards - windows to the evolution of diversity . university of california press , berkeley , 347 pp . [ review in copeia 2004 : 955 ] - get paper here
rösler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153
seufer , h . ; y . kaverkin & a . kirschner ( eds . ) 2005 . die lidgeckos . kirschner und seufer verlag , 238 pp .
stebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
the following bibliography has been generated by bringing together all references provided by our content partners . there may be duplication .
flores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed . 1993 . herpetofauna mexicana : lista anotada de las especies de anfibios y reptiles de méxico , cambios taxonómicos recientes , y nuevas especies . carnegie museum of natural history special publication , no . 17 . iv + 73
fritts , t . h . ; snell , h . l . ; martin , r . l . 1982 . anarbylus switaki murphy : an addition to the herpetofauna of the united states with comments on relationships with coleonyx . journal of herpetology 16 ( 1 ) : 39 - 52 .
grismer , l . l . , and j . r . ottley . 1988 . a preliminary analysis of geographic variation in coleonyx switaki ( squamata : eublepharidae ) with a description of an insular subspecies . herpetologica 44 : 143—154 .
grismer , l . lee . 1999 . an evolutionary classification of reptiles on islands in the gulf of california , méxico . herpetologica 55 ( 4 ) : 446 - 469 .
pianka , e . r . & vitt , l . j . 2003 . lizards - windows to the evolution of diversity . university of california press , berkeley , 347 pp . [ review in copeia 2004 : 955 ] .
rösler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153 .
seufer , h . ; y . kaverkin & a . kirschner ( eds . ) . 2005 . die lidgeckos . kirschner und seufer verlag , 238 pp .
stebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston .
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scientific and standard english names of amphibians . . . , ed . 6 . 1 , website ( version 6 . 1 )
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
flores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .
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shape . starea ( ) ( type : esrifieldtypedouble , alias : shape . starea ( ) )
shape . stlength ( ) ( type : esrifieldtypedouble , alias : shape . stlength ( ) )
southwestern united states and northern mexico in the sonoran and mojave deserts , as well as islands off the coast of baja california , mexico and in the gulf of mexico .
rocky areas with sparse vegetation , creosote - covered deserts and arid areas of the southwest . also found around human dwellings , even in densely populated urban areas .
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bishop 's slender opossum ( marmosops bishopi ) is a small , arboreal marsupial opossum native to brazil , peru , and bolivia .

it somewhat resembles a placental rat or shrew .

bishop ' s slender opossum

the neblina slender opossum ( marmosops neblina ) is an opossum species from south america . it is found in brazil , ecuador , venezuela , and perhaps peru .
national opossum society ( nos 2006 ) . opossum facts . national opossum society . retrieved october 2 , 2007 .
opossum society of the united states ( osus ) . 2003 . frequently asked questions : opossum problems and solutions . opossum society of the united states . retrieved october 2 , 2007 .
wildlife rescue league ( wrl ) . 2007 . the opossum : our marvelous marsupial , the social loner . wildlife rescue league ' s rescue report . retrieved october 2 , 2007 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
264 km n ( by road ) xavantina ( locality is at 12°51 ' s , 51°46 ' w ) , serra do roncador , mato grosso , brazil .
opossum oil ( possum grease ) is high in essential fatty acids and has been used as a chest rub and a carrier for arthritis remedies given as topical salves .
langworthy , o . r . 1931 . the panniculus carnosus and pouch musculature of the opossum , a marsupial . journal of mammalogy 13 ( 3 ) : 241 - 251 .
grzimek , b . , d . g . kleiman , v . geist , and m . c . mcdade . 2004 . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . detroit : thomson - gale , isbn 0307394913 .
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
opossum is the common name for various small - to medium - sized marsupials comprising the mammalian order didelphimorphia and found in the western hemisphere . opossums , of which there are more than 60 species , are characterized by a long , naked tail ; a long , pointed snout ; opposable thumbs in the hands and feet ; and ears that are naked ( grzimek et al . 2004 ) . most are arboreal and nocturnal . they are found from southern canada in north america to argentina and chile in south america . the virginia opossum ( didelphis virginiana ) , the original animal named opossum , is the only marsupial native to north america north of mexico .
lipps , b . v . 1999 . anti - lethal factor from opossum serum is a potent antidote for animal , plant , and bacterial toxins . journal of venomous animals and toxins 5 ( 1 ) . retrieved october 2 , 2007 .
besides the opossum , well - known marsupials include kangaroos , bandicoots , and wombats . marsupials are native to australia , new guinea , tasmania , and the americas . of the over 330 species of marsupials , most ( over 200 species ) are native to australia and nearby islands to the north . indeed , they are the dominant mammals in australia , which have almost no native placental mammals . however , there also are many extant ( living ) marsupial species in south america , including the opossum .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
cowper , w . , and e . tyson . 1704 . number 290 : carigueya , seu marsupiale americanum masculum . or , the anatomy of a male opossum : in a letter to dr edward tyson , from mr william cowper , chirurgeon , and fellow of the royal society , london . to which are premised some further observations on the opossum ; and a new division of terrestrial brute animals , particularly of those that have their feet formed like hands . where an account is given of some animals not yet described ] . philosophical transactions 2 : 1565 - 1575 .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
a similar group of marsupial mammals belonging to the order diprotodontia and suborder phalangeriformes , and native to australia , new guinea , sulawesi and introduced to new zealand , are known by the common name of possum . the term possum also is used in north america as a diminutive for the virginia opossum .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
the order didelphimorphia , the opossums , include one extant family , didelphidae . opossums probably diverged from the basic south american marsupials in the late cretaceous or early paleocene . a sister group is paucituberculata ( shrew opossums ) . they are commonly also called
possums ,
though that term is also applied to australian fauna of the suborder phalangeriformes . colloquially , the virginia opossum is frequently called simply possum .
opossums have a remarkably robust immune system , and show partial or total immunity to the venom of rattlesnakes , cottonmouths , and other pit vipers ( wrl 2007 ; lipps 1999 ) . thanks to their lower blood temperature , rabies is almost unknown in opossums ( osus 2003 ) . the opossum lifespan is unusually short for a mammal of its size , usually only two to four years . senescence is rapid ( nos 2006 ) .
adult opossums do not hang from trees by their tails , though babies may dangle temporarily . their prehensile tails are not strong enough to support a mature adult ' s weight , though they often serve as a brace and a fifth limb when climbing . there are also confirmed accounts of the tail being used as a grip to carry bunches of leaves or bedding materials to the nest . a mother will sometimes carry her young upon her back , where they will cling tightly even when she is running across the ground or climbing .
when threatened or harmed , they will
play possum ,
mimicking the appearance and smell of a sick or dead animal . the lips are drawn back , teeth are bared , saliva foams around the mouth , and a foul - smelling fluid is secreted from the anal glands . the physiological response is involuntary , rather than a conscious act . their stiff , curled form can be prodded , turned over , and even carried away . many injured opossums have been killed by well - meaning people who find a catatonic animal and assume the worst . the best thing to do upon finding an injured or apparently dead opossum is to leave it in a quiet place with a clear exit path . in minutes or hours , the animal will regain consciousness and escape quietly on its own .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
this species is found on the eastern slopes of the andes in bolivia ( voss et al . 2004 ) and perú ( pacheco and vivar 1996 , solari and rodriguez 1997 , astúa 2015 ) , with two isolated records in the lowlands , one from santa cruz department , bolivia and from the type locality in matto grasso state , brazil ( pine 1981 , gardner 2005 ) . the disjunct range in perú and bolivia is likely a sampling artifact .
the species seems to be common from the known localities in peru ( pacheco and vivar 1996 , solari and rodriguez 1997 ) .
specimens of this species have been taken from a diversity of landscapes , including : primary lowland forest , lowland dry forest , seasonally flooded evergreen gallery forest , and cloud forest ( voss et al . 2004 ) .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
mammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *
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described as a subspecies of m . parvidens ; treated as a species by voss et al . ( 2001 : 48 ) .
. in review ) , with two isolated records in the lowlands , one from santa cruz department , bolivia and from the type locality in matto grasso state , brazil ( pine , 1981 ) ( gardner , 2005 ) . the disjunct range in peru and bolivia is likely a sampling artefact .
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data and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .
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disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
is quite soft , and was once commonly used in the bathtub as a sponge .
opossums offer values to the ecosystem and humans . ecologically , they are part of the terrestrial food chain , consuming insects , fruits , small animals and other foods , while being preyed upon by coyotes , foxes , snakes , and birds of prey . for humans , opossums not only add to the wonder of nature—such as their act of playing dead (
play possum
) when threatened , or the mothers carrying their young on their backs—but also have been a traditional source of food .
marsupials also differ from placental mammals in their reproductive traits . the female has two vaginas ( the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body ) . both of the vaginas open externally through one orifice , but lead to different compartments within the uterus . males usually have a two - pronged penis , which corresponds to the females ' two vaginas . the penis only passes sperm . marsupials have a cloaca ( posterior opening that serves as the only such opening for the intestinal and urinary tracts ) that is connected to a urogenital sac in both sexes . waste is stored there before expulsion .
didelphimorphs are small to medium - sized marsupials , with the larger ones about the size of a large house cat . they range from 8 to 55 centimeters ( 3 - 22 inches ) in length , and 25 to 5000 grams ( 0 . 9 ounces to 11 pounds ) ( grzimek et al . 2004 ) . most members of this taxon have long snouts , a narrow braincase , and a prominent sagittal crest . the dental formula ( one side of one jaw ) includes five incisors ( four on the lower jaw ) , one canine , three premolars , and four tricuspid molars . by mammal standards , this is a very full jaw . the incisors are very small , the canines large .
opossums have colors that vary from nearly pure white to blackish , with some species one color and others with distinct light and dark bands ( grzimek et al . 2004 ) .
opossums are usually nomadic , staying in one area as long as food and water are easily available . though they will temporarily occupy abandoned burrows , they do not dig or put much effort into building their own . they favor dark , secure areas , below ground or above .
historically , hunters in the caribbean would place a barrel with fresh or rotten fruit to attract opossums who would feed on the fruit or insects attracted to the fruit . cubans growing up in the mid - twentieth century tell of brushing the maggots out of the mouths of
manicou
caught in this manner to prepare them for consumption .
in mexico , opossums are known as
tlacuache
or
tlaquatzin .
their tails are eaten as a folk remedy to improve fertility ( most likely because they have many babies that they store in their pouch ) .
grzimek et al . recognize 15 genera and 61 species . the following classification by gardner ( 2005 ) recognizes 19 genera and 91 species .
↑ 1 . 0 1 . 1 a . gardner ,
order * ,
pages 3 - 18 in d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder , eds . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd edition . ( baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 2005 ) . isbn 0801882214 .
davidson , a . 1999 . oxford companion to food . oxford : oxford university press . isbn 0192115790 .
gardner , a . 2005 . page 3 - 18 in d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder ( eds ) . mammal species of the world , 3rd edition . johns hopkins university press . isbn 0801882214 .
geddes , b . 2001 . world food . caribbean . footscray , vic : lonely planet . isbn 1864503483 .
lew , d . , r . pérez - hernández , and j . ventura . 2006 . two new species of philander ( didelphimorphia , didelphidae ) from northern south america . journal of mammalogy 87 ( 2 ) : 224–237 .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
comments : described as a subspecies of m . parvidens ; treated as a species by voss et al . ( 2001 : 48 )