caprella is a large genus of skeleton shrimps belonging to the subfamily caprellinae of the family caprellidae .

it includes approximately 170 species .

the genus was first established by jean-baptiste lamarck in his great work système des animaux sans vertèbres ( 1801 ) to describe cancer linearis ( now caprella linearis ) and squilla ventricosa ( now phtisica marina ) .

caprella acanthifera leach , 1814 caprella acanthogaster mayer , 1890 caprella acanthopoda guiler , 1954 caprella advena vassilenko , 1974 caprella aino utinomi , 1943 caprella alaskana mayer , 1903 caprella alaskensis holmes , 1904 caprella algaceus vassilenko , 1967 caprella andreae mayer , 1890 caprella angulosa mayer , 1903 caprella angusta mayer , 1903 caprella arimotoi takeuchi , 1993 caprella astericola jankowski & vassilenko , 1973 caprella bacillus mayer , 1903 caprella bathyalis vassilenko , 1972 caprella bathytatos martin & pettit , 1998 caprella bermudia kundel , 1910 caprella bidentata utinomi , 1947 caprella bispinosa mayer , 1903 caprella borealis mayer , 1903 caprella brachiata arimoto , 1978 caprella branchella arimoto , 1978 caprella brevirostris mayer , 1903 caprella californica stimpson , 1856 caprella carina mayer , 1903 caprella carinata arimoto , 1934 caprella caulerpensis guerra-garcía et al. , 2002 caprella cavediniae krapp-schickel & vader , 1998 caprella centrota vassilenko , 1972 caprella ceutae guerra-garcía & takeuchi , 2002 caprella chelimana mayer , 1903 caprella ciliata sars , 1883 caprella cilluroantennata arimoto , 1934 caprella circur mayer , 1903 caprella clavigera vassilenko , 1972 caprella concinna mateus & mateus , 1991 caprella constantina mayer , 1903 caprella corallina arimoto , 1980 caprella corvina mayer , 1903 caprella cristibrachium mayer , 1903 caprella danilevskii czerniavskii , 1868 caprella decipiens mayer , 1890 caprella dilatata krøyer , 1843 caprella dissona arimoto , 1979 caprella drepanochir mayer , 1890 caprella dubia hansen , 1887 caprella edgari guerra-garcía & takeuchi , 2004 caprella equilibra say , 1818 caprella equina arimoto , 1978 caprella erethizon mayer , 1901 caprella eurydactyla vassilenko , 1974 caprella excelsa vassilenko , 1974 caprella eximia mayer , 1890 caprella extensimana laubitz , 1995 caprella falsa mayer , 1903 caprella ferrea mayer , 1903 caprella fimbriata vassilenko , 1994 caprella fretensis stebbing , 1878 caprella generosa arimoto , 1977 caprella gigantea haller , 1880 caprella gigantochir mayer , 1903 caprella glabra aoki , 1991 caprella globiceps dana , 1853 caprella gorgonia laubitz & lewbel , 1974 caprella gracilior mayer , 1890 caprella gracilipes grube , 1864 caprella gracillima mayer , 1890 caprella grahami wigley & shave , 1966 caprella grandimana ( mayer , 1882 ) caprella greenleyi mccain , 1969 caprella hirayamai guerra-garcía & takeuchi , 2003 caprella hirsuta mayer , 1890 caprella imaii utinomi , 1943 caprella incisa mayer , 1903 caprella indeterminata vassilenko , 1994 caprella inermis grube , 1864 caprella iniqua arimoto , 1980 caprella iniquilibra mayer , 1903 caprella innocens mayer , 1903 caprella insularis laubitz , 1995 caprella irregularis mayer , 1890 caprella japonica ( schurin , 1935 ) caprella kincaidi holmes , 1904 caprella kominatoensis takeuchi , 1986 caprella kroyeri de haan , 1849 caprella kuroshio mori , 1999 caprella laevipes mayer , 1903 caprella laeviuscula mayer , 1903 caprella liliata arimoto , 1979 caprella lilliput krapp-schickel & ruffo , 1987 caprella linearis ( linnaeus , 1767 ) caprella liparotensis haller , 1879 caprella litoralis vassilenko , 1972 caprella longicirrata vassilenko , 1974 caprella longidentata arimoto , 1934 caprella longimanus stimpson , 1853 caprella luctator stimpsom , 1855 caprella lukini vassilenko , 1974 caprella madrasana giles , 1890 caprella manneringi mccain , 1979 caprella mantis latreille , 1816 caprella media vassilenko , 1974 caprella mendax mayer , 1903 caprella microtuberculata g.o. sars , 1879 caprella minima arimoto , 1980 caprella minuscula arimoto , 1980 caprella mitis mayer , 1890 caprella mixta mayer , 1903 caprella modesta herklots , 1861 caprella monai guerra-garcía et al. , 2001 caprella monoceros mayer , 1890 caprella multituberculum lee & lee , 1996 caprella mutica schurin , 1935 caprella nagaoi arimoto , 1970 caprella natalensis mayer , 1903 caprella nichtensis brandt , 1851 caprella obtusifrons utinomi , 1943 caprella okadai arimoto , 1930 caprella oxyarthra vassilenko , 1974 caprella pacifica vassilenko , 1972 caprella palkii giles , 1890 caprella paramitisguerra-garcía et al. , 2001 caprella parapaulina vassilenko , 1974 caprella paulina mayer , 1903 caprella penantis leach , 1814 caprella pilidigitata laubitz , 1970 caprella pilipalma dougherty & steinberg , 1953 caprella pinnigera arimoto , 1980 caprella polyacantha utinomi , 1947 caprella pseudorapax guerra-garcía et al. , 2001 caprella pustulata laubitz , 1970 caprella rapax mayer , 1890 caprella rhinoceros mayer , 1903 caprella rhopalochir mayer , 1903 caprella rinki stephensen , 1916 caprella rotundidentata vassilenko , 1972 caprella rudiscula laubitz , 1970 caprella sabineae guerra-garcía & garcía-gómez , 2003 caprella sabulensis guerra-garcía et al. , 2001 caprella sanguinea gould , 1841 caprella santosrosai sanchez-moyano et al. , 1995 caprella sarsi honeyman , 1889 caprella scabra holmes , 1904 caprella scaura templeton , 1836 caprella scitula arimoto & hirayama , 1979 caprella sedovi gurjanova , 1933 caprella septentrionalis krøyer , 1838 caprella simia mayer , 1903 caprella simplex mayer , 1890 caprella singularis mayer , 1903 caprella soyo arimoto , 1934 caprella stella krapp-schickel & vader , 1998 caprella striata mayer , 1903 caprella subinermis mayer , 1890 caprella subtilis mayer , 1903 caprella takeuchi guerra-garcía et al. , 2001 caprella tasmaniensis guiler , 1954 caprella telarpax mayer , 1890 caprella temperativa arimoto , 1982 caprella tenella ( dana , 1853 ) caprella tenuis haswell , 1880 caprella traudlae guerra-garcia , 2004 caprella triodos stebbing , 1910 caprella trispinishoneyman , 1889 caprella tsugarensis utinomi , 1947 caprella tuberculata guérin , 1836 caprella ungulina mayer , 1903 caprella unica mayer , 1903 caprella uniforma la follette , 1915 caprella vana mayer , 1903 caprella venusta utinomi , 1943 caprella verrucosa boeck , 1871 caprella vidua mayer , 1903 caprella vitjazi vassilenko , 1992 caprella wirtzi krapp-schickel & takeuchi , 2005 caprella zygodonta vassilenko , 1974

caprella

scientific synonyms and common names squilla lobata [ not müller ] o . fabricius , 1780 caprella cercopoides white , 1852 caprella robusta stimpson , 1854 caprella punctata [ not risso ] boeck , 1861 caprella stimpsoni bate , 1862 caprella hystrix [ not krřyer ] bate and westwood , 1868 caprella longicornis boeck , 1871 caprella lovéni boeck , 1871 caprella hystryx bate , 1878 caprella septentrionalis f . typica mayer , 1890 caprella septentrionalis f . longicornis mayer , 1890 caprella septentrionalis f . nodigera mayer , 1890 caprella septentrionalis f . polyceros mayer , 1890 caprella septentrionalis f . parva mayer , 1890 caprella monocera g . sars , 1895 caprella septentrionalis f . spinigera hansen , 1895 caprella septentrionalis longicornis m . rathbun , 1905 caprella septentrionalis stimpsoni m . rathbun , 1905 caprella septentrionalis polyceros m . rathbun , 1905 caprella septentrionalis lovéni stephensen , 1929 caprella septentrionalis monocera stephensen , 1929 caprella septentrionalis punctata stephensen , 1929 caprella septentrionalis f . monocera oldevig , 1933 caprella septentrionalis f . punctata oldevig , 1933 caprella septentrionalis f . lovéni oldevig , 1933 caprella lovéni stephensen , 1940
species caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) accepted as caprella septentrionalis krøyer , 1838 ( junior subjective synonym )
keith de , 1969 . aspects of feeding in caprella californica stimpson and caprella equilibra say ( amphipoda ) . crustaceana , 16 : 119 - 124 .
caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) ( junior subjective synonym )
experimental frame deployed west of zeebrugge , belgium in 2007 showing dense aggregations of caprella mutica .
the caprellid amphipod caprella penantis , male in side - view . modified from diaz et al . 2005 .
aoki m and t kikuchi . 1991 . two types of maternal care for juveniles observed in caprella monoceros mayer , 1890 and caprella decipiens mayer , 1890 ( amphipoda : caprellidae ) . hydrobiologia 223 : 229 - 237 .
caprella mutica ; male ( larger ) and female ( smaller ) . ( original image by t . nickell . )
widespread distribution in coastal ocean habitats as well as inshore estuarine habitats demonstrates that caprella penantis can persist within a relatively broad salinity range .
species caprella horrida g . o . sars , 1877 accepted as metacaprella horrida ( sars g . o . , 1877 ) ( basionym )
to barcode of life ( 55 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym caprella loveni boeck , 1871 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 10 publications ) ( from synonym caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 20 publications ) ( from synonym caprella punctata ( boeck , 1861 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 91 publications ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 12 nucleotides ; 12 proteins ) to marine species identification portal to pesi to pesi ( from synonym caprella punctata ( boeck , 1861 ) ) to pesi ( from synonym caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) ) to pesi ( from synonym caprella loveni boeck , 1871 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 15 records ) to itis
platvoet d ; bruyne rhde ; gmelig meyling aw , 1995 . description of a new caprella - species from the netherlands : caprella macho nov . spec . ( crustacea , amphipoda , caprellidae ) . bulletin of the zoological museum , university of amsterdam , 15 : 1 - 4 .
what made you want to look up caprella ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
caprella penantis is a cosmopolitan species , widespread in tropical , subtropical , and temperate waters of the world ' s oceans ( vassilenko 1991 ) . along the east coast of the us , caprella penantis occurs from florida ( both coasts ) northward to north of cape cod , ma ( fox and bynum 1975 ) .
caine ea . 1983 . community interactions of caprella penantis leach ( crustacea : amphipoda ) on sea whips . journal of crustacean biology 3 : 497 - 504 .
fedotov pa , 1991 . population and production biology of amphipod caprella mutica in posyet bay , sea of japan . biologiya morya , 4 : 53 - 60 .
( of caprella acanthifera ferox sensu carausu & carausu , 1959 ) carausu , a . ; carausu , s . ( 1959 ) . contribution a l ' etude des caprellidae ( crustaces amphipodes ) de la mer noire . i . caprella acanthifera leach . luerarile sesiunii stiintifice agigea . 23 : 353 - 420 . [ details ]
lim sta and cg alexander . 1986 . reproductive behavior of the caprellid amphipod , caprella scaura typical mayer , 1890 . marine behaviour and physiology 12 : 217 - 230 .
bynum kh . 1980 . multivariate assessment of morphological variation in caprella penantis leach , 1814 ( amphipoda : caprellidae ) . estuarine and coastal marine science 10 : 225 - 237 .
bynum kh . 1978 . reproductive biology of caprella penantis leach , 1814 ( amphipoda : caprellidae ) in north carolina , u . s . a . estuarine and coastal marine science 7 : 473 - 485 .
marelli dc , 1981 . new records for caprellidae in california , and notes on a morphological variant of caprella verrucosa boeck , 1871 . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 94 : 654 - 662 .
minchin d ; holmes jmc , 2006 . the first record of caprella mutica schurin 1935 ( crustacea : amphipoda ) from the east coast of ireland . irish naturalists ' journal , 28 : 321 - 323 .
this species was initially described and recorded in european waters as caprella macho by platvoet et al . ( 1995 ) , but was later confirmed to be c . mutica ( willis et al . , 2004 ) .
caprella penantis is a common , cosmopolitan caprellid amphipod . members of the genus caprella , commonly referred to as skeleton shrimps , typically have a slender , cylindrical body and three rear pairs of morphologically specialized periopods ( walking legs ) that allow them to cling to various substrata such as algae , hydroids , and seagrasses ( aoki 1997 ) . the animal possesses large hooked gnathopods and setose antennae , and their abdominal segments are greatly reduced .
ashton gv ; willis k ; burrows m ; cook ej , 2007 . environmental tolerance of caprella mutica : implications for its distribution as a non - native species . marine environmental research , 64 : 305 - 312 .
cook ej ; willis kj ; lozano - fernandez m , 2007 . survivorship , growth and reproduction of the non - native caprella mutica schurin , 1935 ( crustacea : amphipoda ) . hydrobiologia , 590 : 55 - 64 . urltoken
( of caprella loveni boeck , 1871 ) boeck , a . ( 1871 ) . crustacea amphipoda borealia et arctica . forhandlinger i videnskabs - selskabet i christiania . 1870 : 83 - 280 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intraspecific competition between male caprella penantis for mates has been described . males aggressively defend grasped females from competing males and often may employ a poison tooth on the second gnathopods to inflict mortal injury on competitors ( bynum 1978 , caine 1991 ) .
it is relatively easy to mistakenly identify c . mutica as the closely related asian species caprella acanthogaster . detailed descriptions of the morphology of c . acanthogaster can be found in arimoto ( 1976 ) and guerra - garcia and takeuchi ( 2004 ) .
( of caprella esmarckii boeck , 1861 ) boeck , a . ( 1861 ) . bemaerkninger angaaende de ved de norske kyster forekommende amphipoder . forhandl . skand . naturf . ott . mode i kjopenhavn . 8 : 631 - 677 . [ details ]
bynum ( 1978 ) studied aspects of the reproduction of caprella penantis in north carolina . males grasp females with the posterior periopods , in contrast to male gammaridean amphipods which employ the first gnathopods for this purpose . males defend grasped females from competing males .
cook ej ; jahnke m ; kerckhof f ; minchin d ; faasse m ; boos k ; ashton g , 2007 . european expansion of the introduced amphipod caprella mutica schurin 1935 . aquatic invasions , 2 ( 4 ) : 411 - 421 . urltoken
sconfietti r ; mangili f ; savini d ; occhipinti - ambrogi a , 2005 . diffusion of the alien species caprella scaura templeton , 1836 ( amphipoda : caprellidae ) in the northern adriatic sea . biologia marina mediterranea , 12 : 335 - 337 .
ashton gv ; willis kj ; cook ej , 2007 . global distribution of the japanese skeleton shrimp , caprella mutica ( crustacea , amphipoda , caprellidae ) with a detailed account of the distribution in scotland , uk . hydrobiologia , 590 : 31 - 41 .
willis kj ; cook ej ; lozano - fernandez m ; takeuchi i , 2004 . first record of the alien caprellid amphipod , caprella mutica , for the uk . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 84 : 1027 - 1028 .
( of caprella hystrix krøyer , 1843 ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella punctata ( boeck , 1861 ) ) boeck , a . ( 1861 ) . bemaerkninger angaaende de ved de norske kyster forekommende amphipoder . forhandl . skand . naturf . ott . mode i kjopenhavn . 8 : 631 - 677 . [ details ]
( of caprella loveni boeck , 1871 ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella esmarckii boeck , 1861 ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
the caprellid amphipod caprella mutica was first described by schurin ( 1935 ) in peter the great bay , vladivostok , russia and was subsequently identified in the neighbouring possjet bay , japan ( vassilenko , 1967 ) and akkeshi bay , japan ( arimoto , 1976 ) .
( of caprella punctata ( boeck , 1861 ) ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella aequilibra ( say , 1818 ) ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella acutifrons f . porcellio mayer , 1903 ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella aequilibra ( say , 1818 ) ) bate , c . s . ( 1862 ) . catalogue of the specimens of amphipodous crustacea in the collection of the british museum . taylor & francis , london . 399 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of caprella acanthifera ferox sensu carausu & carausu , 1959 ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) ) mccain , j . c . ; steinberg , j . e . ( 1970 ) . caprellidae i . family caprellidae . crustaceorum catalogus . 2 : 1 - 78 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
caprella penantis can be encountered in abundance . bartholomew ( 2002 ) lists it as the fourth most abundant mobile invertebrate colonizing artificial seagrass plots in experiments conducted in york river , va , zostera beds . more than 5 , 000 individuals were collected from the plots during two one - week sampling periods .
caprella penantis is strongly associated with a variety of macrophyte substrata including seagrasses and macroalgae . the conspicuous presence of c . penentis within the florida gulf leptogorgia virgulata epibiont community has been noted previously . frick et al ( 2004 ) list c . penantis as one of 12 new records of species encountered as epibionts on loggerhead sea turtles ( caretta caretta ) .
caprella equilibra , the most common congener in the southeastern us , is typically larger than c . penantis ( around 2 cm , versus 1 . 3 cm ) and has no rostrum . paracaprella tenuis , another common caprellid , typically reaches only 1 cm and lacks a rostrum as well as regularly arrayed setae on the antennae ( rupert and fox 1988 ) .
caprella penantis is described by boesch et al ( 1976 ) as an opportunistic species with demonstrated capacity to quickly colonize habitats after a disturbance in response to relaxed biotic pressure . it is a common inhabitant of seagrass habitats , and in particular has been observed as the primary epibiont of the sea whip leptogorgia virgulata within northwest florida thalassia testudinum beds ( caine 1983 ) .
( of caprella acutifrons f . porcellio mayer , 1903 ) mayer , p . ( 1903 ) . die caprellidae der siboga - expedition . siboga - expeditie . uitkomsten op zoologisch , botanisch , oceanographisch en geologisch gebied verzameld in nederlandsch oost - indie 1899 - 1900 aan boord h . m . siboga , 34 , 160 pp . ; 10 pls . [ details ]
( of caprella monocera ( g . o . sars , 1894 ) ) sars , g . o . ( 1894 ) . amphipoda . parts xxix & xxx . dulichiidae , caprellidae , cyamidae . an account of the crustacea of norway , with short descriptions and figures of all the species . i : 629 - 672 , pls 225 - 240 . cammermeyer , christiania ( oslo ) . [ details ]
( of caprella acutifrons latreille , 1816 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
caprella penantis is relatively robust - bodied and has a small , sharp rostrum on the front of the head that is useful for distinguishing it from other caprellids ( rupert and fox 1988 ) , although identification to species is generally difficult . bynum ( 1900 ) and caine ( 1989 ) report morphological variation between c . penantis collected from exposed versus protected habitats , with animals from exposed sites being relatively more robust than those from protected sites .
sagasti et al . ( 2000 ) indicate that caprella penantis persists in the face of frequent summer hypoxic stress ( o 2 concentrations as low as 0 . 5 ppm ) in the shallow epifaunal community of the york river , va . vassilenko ( 1991 ) calculated weight - based oxygen consumption rates for several japan sea caprellids ( including c . penantis ) and demonstrated that the metabolic rate of caprellids is 1 . 5 times lower than that of gamarideans .
fox and bynum ( 1975 ) list c . penantis as common and widespread in nc estuaries , and very abundant on pilings and exposed open beaches . marsh ( 1973 ) noted that caprella penantis was common in the york river , va , zostera beds only during the colder months of the season . williams and bynum ( 1972 ) indicate that c . penantis was present in north carolina samples from all months except october , and was most abundant in may - june .
the species has no direct economic value , but it is an ecologically important community component , both as a prey resource to other species and as a potential mediator of the health of phytal substrata . duffy ( 1990 ) states that the species composition of a phytal amphipod community determines whether the amphipods increase or decrease the fitness of the phytal habitat components . whereas the amphipod ampithoe marcuzii consumed host sargassum caprella penantis significantly reduced algel epiphytes without negatively affecting the sargassum macroalgal substratum .
( of caprella acutifrons latreille , 1816 ) bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of caprella hystrix krøyer , 1843 ) bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of caprella loveni boeck , 1871 ) bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of caprella laticornis ( boeck ) ) bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
shipping has been identified as an important pathway for the transoceanic introduction of non - native species ( drake and lodge , 2004 ) . many of the areas where c . mutica has been introduced are close to busy ports suggesting that ballast water transport and / or hull fouling could be involved ( cook et al . , 2007a ) . living caprella spp . have been found in ships’ ballast tanks ( carlton , 1985 ) and in sea - chests in a study in new zealand ( coutts et al . , 2003 ) . within its native environment , c . mutica may be found attached to the macroalgae ulva spp . and the filamentous cladophora spp . and these are regularly found attached to ships hulls ( mineur et al . , 2007 ) . it has also been seen associated with other algae at high densities on recreational boat hulls ( minchin and holmes , 2006 ; g ashton , smithsonian environmental research centre , usa and r shucksmith , the scottish association for marine science , uk , personal communication , 2008 ) and in the adriatic sea the non - native caprella scaura is thought to have been spread on the hulls of leisure craft ( sconfietti et al . , 2005 ) .
c . mutica is an aggressive species and it is highly likely , that this species will displace other native amphipod species and potentially compete with sessile suspension feeders for food . experiments have shown that c . mutica and a common uk native species of caprellid , caprella linearis share the same preference for fine filamentous branching structures and as a result , competition for space has been observed in both laboratory and in the field . c . mutica has been observed displacing native c . linearis at low structural diversity due to its aggressive behaviour . at higher structural diversity , however , increased availability of refuges provided shelter for the native caprellid and thus enabled the two species to co - occur .
horton , t . ; lowry , j . ; de broyer , c . ; bellan - santini , d . ; coleman , c . o . ; corbari , l . ; daneliya , m . ; dauvin , j - c . ; fišer , c . ; gasca , r . ; grabowski , m . ; guerra - garcía , j . m . ; hendrycks , e . ; hughes , l . ; jaume , d . ; jazdzewski , k . ; kim , y . - h . ; king , r . ; krapp - schickel , t . ; lecroy , s . ; lörz , a . - n . ; mamos , t . ; senna , a . r . ; serejo , c . ; sket , b . ; souza - filho , j . f . ; tandberg , a . h . ; thomas , j . ; thurston , m . ; vader , w . ; väinölä , r . ; vonk , r . ; white , k . ; zeidler , w . ( 2018 ) . world amphipoda database .
bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
costello , m . j . ; emblow , c . ; white , r . ( ed . ) . ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 . muséum national d ' histoire naturelle : paris , france . isbn 2 - 85653 - 538 - 0 . 463 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
distribution southern gaspe waters ( baie des chaleurs , gaspe bay to american , orphan and bradelle banks ; eastern boundary : eastern . . .
distribution southern gaspe waters ( baie des chaleurs , gaspe bay to american , orphan and bradelle banks ; eastern boundary : eastern bradelle valley ) , magdalen islands ( from eastern bradelle valley to the west , as far as cape north , including the cape breton channel ) , prince edward island ( from the northern tip of miscou island , n . b . to cape breton island south of cheticamp , including the northumberland strait and georges bay to the canso strait causeway ) ; cobscook bay [ details ]
distribution cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate seas ( griffiths , 1974 ) . [ details ]
brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
bachelet , g . ; dauvin , j . - c . ; sorbe , j . c . ( 2003 ) . an updated checklist of marine and brackish water amphipoda ( crustacea : peracarida ) of the southern bay of biscay ( ne atlantic ) . cah . biol . mar . 44 ( 2 ) : 121 - 151 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
lecroy , s . e . ; gasca , r . ; winfield , i . ; ortiz , m . ; escobar - briones , e . ( 2009 ) . amphipoda ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college . pp . 941–972 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
griffiths , c . l . ( 1974 ) . the amphipoda of southern africa . 4 . the gammaridea and caprellidea of the cape province east of cape agulhas . annals of the south african museum . 65 : 251 - 336 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
lee , k . - s . ; hong , s . - s . ( 2011 ) . lnvertebrate fauna of korea , arthropoda : crustacea : malacostraca : amphipoda : caprellidea : caprellidae , skeleton shrimps . national lnstitute of biological resources , 21 ( 7 ) . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
trott , t . j . ( 2004 ) . cobscook bay inventory : a historical checklist of marine invertebrates spanning 162 years . northeastern naturalist . 11 , 261 - 324 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
huang zg . & lin s . ( 1993 ) . biofouling of deep bay buoys . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first internationl conference on the marine biology of hong kong and the south china sea . the marine biology of the south china sea . hong kong university press , hong kong . 1 : pp 153 - 165 . [ details ]
hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
habitat found from the intertidal zone to 915 m depth , prefers hard and algae covered substrate . [ details ]
distribution cosmopolitan , 0 - 300 m ( griffiths , 1973 ) . [ details ]
webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
mccain ( 1968 ) describes morphological adaptations suiting the species to gorgonian host substrata , namely , a reduction in periopod setae and a reduction in the size and number of grasping spines . typically drab in coloration , c . penantis may gain color camouflage by incorporating the pigments of the biotic substrata on which it feeds ( caine 1998 ) .
a number of other caprellid amphipods belonging to genus caprell a and paracaprella co - occur in the irl with c . penantis . differentiation of these animals is generally beyond the scope of amateur naturalists and typically involves morphometric analysis of a number of body parts . caine ( 1989 ) has demonstrated a high degree of environment - mediated morphological plasticity ( e . g . , body and appendage robustness ) , and questions the reliability of using body and appendage proportions for taxonomic purposes .
bynum ( 1978 ) suggests that female c . penantis from north carolina live for approximately one year .
marsh ( 1973 ) reported c . penantis as the 12th most abundant epifaunal species in the york river . in the zostera beds he examined , c . penantis occurred in 37 of 48 collected samples and represented more than 2 % of the total fauna collected .
breeding occurred year - round with a peak in the spring and a lesser peak in the late summer and early fall . females probably live for one year and produce several broods during their life ( bynum 1978 ) .
vassilenko ( 1991 ) reports that female c . penantis in his studies from japan had broods of approximately 16 - 21 eggs and that they ranged between 0 . 25 - 0 . 30 mm in diameter . egg - bearing females ranged between approximately 15 - 30 mg in weight .
embryology is typical of peracarid crustaceans , with fertilized eggs carried in the brood pouch of the female and direct - developing young emerging as crawl - away juveniles with no free - living planktonic larval stage ( aoki 1997 ) .
although prolonged co - habitation of mother and young emerged from the brood pouch has been observed in some caprellid amphipods ( lim and alexander 1986 , aoki and kikuchi 1991 ) , aoki ( 1997 ) reports that c . penantis shows no such interaction between mother and emerged young in experimental trials . instead , newly emerged juveniles immediately dispersed onto the experimental substratum ( algal thalli or hydroid branches ) .
broad distribution along the east coast of the us from florida to north of cape cod indicates a broad thermal tolerance for this species .
feeding is accomplished both by scraping and by filter feeding ( caine 1974 ) . gnathopods are used to scrape encrusting diatoms , epiphytes , and detritus from the surfaces of the host substratum , while entrapment of suspended particles occurs via the setose antennae ( caine 1978 ) . luczkovich et al . ( 2002 ) confirmed epiphyte - grazing as the primary feeding strategy .
duffy ( 1990 ) reports that c . penantis significantly reduced the growth of epiphytes ( primarily diatoms and the filamentous brown alga ectocarpus siliculosus ) on the brown macroalga sargassum filipendula in experimental mesocosms , but left the macroalgal substratum unaffected .
caine ( 1979 , 1983 ) notes a particular instance in which the efficiency of c . penantis particle capture by direct interception was modified by the use of an adherent substance on the filtering structures . the adherent substance was mucus from the associated sea whip leptogorgia virgulat a . its presence on the filtering antennae of c . penantis resulted in improved filtering efficiency and retention of materials finer than the setal spacing . laboratory studies by morgan ( 1989 ) indicate that c . penantis is also at least capable of facultatively feeding on planktonic crab zoeae .
the dual ability to scrape food from host substrata and to filter food from the water column likely minimizes the need to compete for dietary resources .
phytal amphipods are an important component in the diet of several fish species associated with macrophytes . orth and heck ( 1980 ) observed c . penantis remains in the guts of juvenile ( 140 - 165 mm ) black sea bass , centropristis striata . teixeira and musick ( 1995 ) record that c . penantis was among the top three amphipod species consumed by northern pipefish , syngnathus fuscus , in zostera beds of the lower york river , va . caine ( 1983 ) lists a number of fish species , including pinfish , blennies , gobies , and pipefish , observed feeding on the c . penantis - dominated leptogorgia virgulata epibiont community in the thallassia seagrass beds of northwest florida . analysis of pinfish gut contents revealed that c . penantis was the only leptogorgia epibiont consumed .
predatory invertebrates such as nemertean worms are also capable of preying on c . penantis ( mcdermott 1976 ) . thiel and kruse ( 2001 ) also list c . penantis as among the amphipod prey of the nemertean tetrastemma elegans .
this amphipod can be found in association with several species of macroalgae ( e . g . , sanchez - moyano and garcia - gomez 1998 ) in exposed and protected sites , and has also been recorded as a minor component of the sand - beach amphipod assemblage on the east coast of florida ( charvat et al 1990 ) . the stout , short segmented body and periopods of c . penantis are well - suited for clinging to macroalgae in exposed environments ( hirayama and kikuchi 1980 ) .
aoki m . 1997 . comparative study of mother - young association in caprellid amphipods : is maternal care effective ? journal of crustacean biology 17 : 447 - 458 .
bartholomew a . 2002 . faunal colonization of artificial seagrass plots : the importance of surface area versus space size relative to body size . estuaries 1045 - 1052 .
boesch df , diaz rj , and rw virnstein . 1976 . effects of tropical storm agnes on soft - bottom macrobenthic communities of the james and york estuaries and the lower chesapeake bay . chesapeake science 17 : 246 - 259 .
caine ae . 1974 . comparative functional morphology of feeding in three species of caprellids ( crustacea , amphipoda ) from the northwestern florida gulf coast . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 15 : 81 - 96 .
caine ea . 1978 . habitat adaptations of north american caprellid amphipoda ( crustacea ) . biological bulletin 155 : 288 - 296 .
caine ea . 1979 . functions of swimming setae within caprellid amphipods ( crustacea ) . biological bulletin 156 : 169 - 178 .
caine ea . 1989 . relationship between wave activity and robustness of caprellid amphipods . journal of crustacean biology 9 : 425 - 431 .
caine ea . 1998 . first case of caprellid amphipod - hydrozoan mutualism . journal of crustacean biology 18 : 317 - 320 .
charvat dl , nelson wg , and ta allenbaugh . 1990 . composition and seasonality of sand - beach amphipod assemblages of the east coast of florida . journal of crustacean biology 10 : 446 - 454 .
diaz yj , guerra - garcia jm , and a martin . caprellids ( crustacea : amphipoda : caprellidae ) from shallow waters of the caribbean coast of venezuela . organisms , diversity and evolution 5 : 249 - 251 .
duffy je . 1990 . amphipods on seaweeds : partners or pests ? oecologia 83 : 267 - 276 .
frick mg , williams kl , markesteyn ej , pfaller jb , and re frick . 2004 . new records and observations of epibionts from sea turtles . southeastern naturalist 3 : 613 - 620 .
fox rs and kh bynum . 1975 . the amphipod crustaceans of north carolina estuarine waters . chesapeake science 16 : 223 - 237 .
hirayama , a . , and t . kikuchi . 1980 . caprellid fauna associated with subtidal algal beds along the coast of the oshika peninsula , tohoku district . - publications from the amakusa marine bio - logical laboratory 5 : 171 - 188 .
luczkovich jj , ward gp , johnson jc , baird d , neckles h , and wm rizzo . 2002 . determining the trophic guilds of fishes and macroinvertebrates . estuaries 25 : 1143 - 1163 .
marsh ga . 1973 . the zostera epifaunal community in the york river , virginia . chesapeake science 14 : 87 - 97 .
mccain jc . 1968 . the caprellidae ( crustacea : amphipoda ) of the western north atlantic . united states national museum bulletin 278 : 1 - 147 .
mcdermott jj . 1976 . observations on the food and feeding behavior of estuarine nemertean worms belonging to the order hoplonemertea . biological bulletin 150 : 57 - 68 .
morgan sg . 1989 . adaptive significance of spination in estuarine crab zoeae . ecology 70 : 464 - 482 .
orth rj and kl heck , jr . 1980 . structural components of eelgrass ( zostera marina ) meadows in the lower chesapeake bay : fishes . estuaries 3 : 278 - 288 .
rupert ee and rs fox . 1988 . seashore animals of the southeast . a guide to common shallow - water invertebrates of the southeastern atlantic coast . university of south carolina press . 429 p .
sagasti a , schaffner lc , and je duffy . 2000 . epifaunal communities thrive in an estuary with hypoxic episodes . estuaries 23 : 474 - 487 .
sanchez - moyano je and jc garcia - gomez . 1998 . the arthropod community , especially crustacea , as a bioindicator in algeciras bay ( southern spain ) based on a spatial distribution . journal of coastal research 14 : 1119 - 1133 .
teixeira rl and ja musick . 1995 . trophic ecology of two congeneric pipefishes ( syngnathidae ) of the lower york river , virginia . environmental biology of fishes 43 : 295 - 309 .
thiel m and i kruse . 2001 . status of the nemertea as predators in marine ecosystems . hydrobiologia 456 : 21 - 32 .
vassilenko sv . 1991 . eco - physiological characteristic of some common caprellid species in the possjet bay ( the japan sea ) . hydrobiologia 223 : 181 - 187 .
williams ab and kh bynum . 1972 . a ten - year study of meroplankton in north carolina estuaries : amphipods . chesapeake science 13 : 175 - 192 .
report by : j . masterson , smithsonian marine station submit additional information , photos or comments to : irl _ webmaster @ urltoken page last updated : october 1 , 2008
leach , 1814 description : head smooth , domed and skull - shaped . body stout , with varying numbers of small , paired dorsal tubercles on all segments except on 1 ; tubercles may be elongate in large specimens . posterior regions of segments 2 , 3 and 4 often with a single tubercle behind the pair . maximum length 13 mm in male and 8 mm in female . antenna 1 about two - thirds of the body - length , sparsely covered with short setae , which are not arranged in parallel rows ; flagellum of two articles . mandible without palp . propodus of gnathopod 1 with a proximal spine . gnathopod 2 inserted in the posterior third of the segment , often massive in large males ; palm of propodus concave , with a proximal spine and a median tooth . in old and large males and females , segment 2 and gnathopod 2 may be covered in dense , fine setae . gills club - shaped , on segments 3 and 4 only . pereiopods 3 and 4 absent . pereiopods 5 , 6 and 7 with a pair of grasping spines on the propodus , and two to four accessory spines proximal to the grasping spines . female gnathopod 2 inserted in the anterior half of the segment ; anterior incubatory lamellae setose . abdomen with a pair of lobes and a pair of biarticulate appendages in male , in female without either . habitat : midshore level to sublittoral . frequent in rock pools and gullies , on algae , hydroids and bryozoans . distribution : widely distributed in the north sea , possibly more frequent in north .
isaac , m . j . & j . moyse , 1990 . crustacea i : entomostraca . in : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe ( eds . hayward and ryland , 1990 ) . clarendon press , oxford .
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krøyer , 1838 description : body usually with numerous spines and tubercles , spination variable . usually the cephalon is furnished with at least a single spine . length of largest male 20 mm , largest female 20 mm , smallest ovigerous female 9 mm . peduncle of antenna 1 occasionally with dense setules , but often without . length of antenna 2 longer or shorter than peduncle of antenna 1 . mouthparts typical of genus , right lacinia mobilis 5 - toothed . propodus of gnathopod 1 with 2 proximal grasping spines , grasping margin of dactylus and propodus serrate . palm of propodus of gnathopod 2 with proximal a poison tooth and a small tooth on the inner surface , distally with a small tooth , a notch and a rectangular projection , anterodistal margin occasionally with a projection ; basis short and robust . ratio of total length to the length of the basis of gnathopod 2 usually greater than 13 . 0 . gills usually elliptical , occasionally oval and inflated . propodus of pereiopods 5 - 7 with a pair of proximal grasping spines . abdomen of male and female typical of genus . habitat : c . septentrionalis does not appear to be specific in its habitat , having been collected from brown , green and red algae , sea grass , sponges , hydroids , alcyonarians and tunicates . it ranges in depth from the surface to 1026 metres . distribution : murman coast ; novaya zemlya ; white sea ; n . russia ; norway to france and british islands ; faeroe islands ; jan mayen ; iceland ; east and west greenland ; baffin bay and davis straits ; coast of north america from hudson bay to maine .
laubitz , d . r . , 1972 . the caprellidae ( crustacea , amphipoda ) of atlantic and arctic canada . national museum of natural sciences , publications in biological oceanography , 4 .
mccain , j . c . , 1968 . the caprellidae ( crustacea : amphipoda ) of the western north atlantic . smithsonian institution , bulletin , 278 .
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c . mutica was first described from sub - boreal areas of north - east asia in 1935 ( schurin , 1935 ) . the first reports of . . .
c . mutica was first described from sub - boreal areas of north - east asia in 1935 ( schurin , 1935 ) . the first reports of c . mutica outside its native habitat were from the pacific and atlantic coasts of north america in the 1970s ( carlton , 1979 ) and 1980s ( marelli , 1981 ; cohen and carlton , 1995 ) and it has since spread to both northern and southern hemispheres ( ashton et al . , 2007a ) . c . mutica is one of the largest caprellid amphipods , mature males attain body lengths of up to 50 mm ( nishimura , 1995 ) and populations can attain densities > 300 , 000 individuals / m 2 ( ashton , 2006 ) . c . mutica is an aggressive species , out - competing native caprellid amphipods for space , even at low densities ( shucksmith , 2008 ) . c . mutica is frequently associated with man - made structures and is found in abundance on boat hulls , navigation / offshore buoys , floating pontoons and aquaculture infrastructure . it is highly likely that its dispersal is associated with vessel movements whilst attached to hull fouling . whilst the wider environmental implications of c . mutica have not yet been confirmed , it is likely that it has an important impact on benthic and plankton communities ( cook et al . , 2007b ) . this species is currently not present on an alert list ( e . g . iucn , issg ) or listed as a regulated pest etc .
typically range in body length from 0 . 81 to 7 . 95 mm (
are pale brown to dark red in colour , and the brood pouch of the female is covered with dark red spots . the first two pereonites are elongated in the male and are densely covered with setae . the second pereonite is the longest of the seven pereonites . on the male , gnathopod 2 arises from the distal end of pereonite 2 and is also densely setose . there is no setation on the first and second pereonites in the females , which are greatly shortened compared with the male . gnathopod two is located anteriorly on the second pereonite of the female . the third to seventh pereonites have dorsal and lateral spines and there are three spines around the base of each gill . the gills are located on pereonites 3 and 4 . the antennule of the male is slightly greater than half the body length and has a flagellum of 22 (
can be definitively identified by the relative size of the three projections on the grasping margin of the propodus of gnathopod 2 . in large males , the middle projection is the most prominent (
c . mutica was first described from sub - boreal areas of north - east asia and direct sequencing of mitochondrial dna ( cytochrome c oxidase subunit i gene ) has confirmed that this region is the likely origin of this species ( ashton , 2006 ) . c . mutica has been recorded in over 130 locations globally outside its native habitat ( ashton et al . , 2007a ; cook et al . , 2007a ) . the majority of sightings are from the northern hemisphere . on the pacific coast of north america the total number of records is nine , including a record of this species on an off - shore oil platform in california . these records include sightings in latitudes from 37 o 30’ to 48°30’n . there is a total of five records from the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from connecticut to quebec . these records include sightings from latitudes of 41 . 5 to 47 . 9°n ( ashton et al . , 2007a ) . a total of 117 records have been collated for europe and include sightings in the north sea , english channel , irish sea , the west coast of scotland and ireland and range from 49 o 29’n to 62 o 22’n and 10 o 4’w to 8 o 26’e ( cook et al . , 2007a ) . the region with the greatest number of records was the south - western north sea . there are presently no records for the baltic sea , the iberian peninsula or the mediterranean sea . the only positive sighting from the southern hemisphere is from timaru , new zealand ( ashton et al . , 2007a ) .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
first recorded in area 21 in 2003 . found in marinas , harbours and on mussel lines
first recorded in area 77 , pre - 1979 from a harbour in puget sound . has since spread throughout northern part of this area
the first reports of c . mutica outside its native habitat were from the pacific and atlantic coasts of north america in the 1970s ( carlton , 1979 ) and 1980s ( marelli , 1981 ; cohen and carlton , 1995 ) . it is unknown whether these records are the result of several independent cross - oceanic introductions with oyster spat ( carlton , 1979 ) , or the result of local small - scale transport following the first introduction ( carlton , 1996 ) . the next series of records are from europe , with c . mutica first identified in 1994 in a harbour at neeltje jans in the netherlands ( m faasse , national museum of natural history naturalis , the netherlands , personal communication , 2008 ) . direct sequencing of mitochondrial dna indicates that c . mutica was introduced to europe either directly from asia or from the atlantic coast of north america ( ashton , 2006 ) . the exact mode of introduction is unknown , although it is highly likely that ballast water transport and / or hull fouling could be involved rather than stock movements of cultured species ( cook et al . , 2007b ) .
it is highly likely that c . mutica may be accidentally introduced to south america , southern australia , and south africa ( ashton et al . , 2007a ) . all these regions are within the temperature boundaries for c . mutica and they are also key areas of shipping activity . south america and australia are particularly well linked to south - east asia as dispersal routes for introduced species ( carlton , 1987 ) . within europe , this species is likely to continue to extend its current range , but is unlikely to survive in the central and eastern baltic sea due to low salinities ( fimr , 2006 ) , and based on current knowledge it is not expected to become established in the mediterranean sea on account of the high summer seawater temperatures ( cook et al . , 2006a ) . long - range distribution will most probably depend on the movement of floating artificial structures , such as commercial and recreational vessels , whilst attachment to floating marine algae may account for more localised movements ( cook et al . , 2007b ) . it is unlikely that c . mutica will be deliberately introduced to a region .
drifting macroalgae , including sargassum spp . or aquaculture structures , such as the ropes used for the culture of the macroalga undaria spp . in otsuchi bay ( kawashima et al . , 1999 ) . in regions outside its native range , it has been found associated with areas of anthropogenic activity , such as harbours , marinas , navigation buoys , oil rigs and aquaculture sites ( willis et al . , 2004 ; ashton , 2006 ; kerckhof et al . , 2007 ) .
direct sequencing of mitochondrial dna ( cytochrome c oxidase subunit i gene ) has been used to investigate genetic variation between native and non - native populations of c . mutica . three hundred individuals were pcr - amplified , which included 51 from the native area in japan and 249 from non - native populations . overall , base frequencies were biased towards a and t ( a = 26 % , t = 36 % , c = 20 % , g = 18 % ) . all unique genetic sequences for c . mutica have been deposited with genbank ( accession numbers : dq466220 - 466523 ) . the genetic divergence between non - native populations of c . mutica in the northern hemisphere indicated significant differentiation between populations in different oceanic provinces and among populations in geographic regions . a total of seven haplotypes were found in the non - native populations , indicating considerably reduced genetic diversity relative to the native populations in japan , where 31 unique haplotypes were observed . collectively , the atlantic populations were shown to have a comparatively high genetic diversity and most of the populations from this oceanic province share haplotypes . the unique haplotypes present on the pacific coast of north america indicate strong genetic differentiation and no gene flow between the atlantic and pacific populations ( ashton , 2006 ) .
showed an increase in spring to a peak abundance in late summer ( august – september ) , followed by a decline in population abundance during the winter in coastal waters on the west coast of scotland . this cycle typically follows annual seawater temperatures for the region and is similar to that observed in the native habitat in the sea of japan (
were present throughout the year on the west coast of scotland in fish farm cages , which may indicate either continuous reproduction in this species or delayed growth of over - wintering juveniles . females tend to dominate the population and this is most marked in autumn and winter (
) . the number of eggs per female is highly variable ( min = 3 , max = 363 , average = 74 , sd = 47 . 7 ) (
) . females produce their first brood approximately 53 days post - hatching at an average body length of 8 . 5mm and at a seawater temperature of 13–14
) . each female has an average of two sequential broods released at approximately 20 day intervals . the maximum number of recorded hatchlings produced by a single female at a seawater temperature of 13 . 0
c is 82 . juveniles typically emerge from the brood pouch at a body length of approximately 1 . 3 mm (
c . mutica is able to survive for up to 20 days without additional food under laboratory conditions ( cook et al . , 2007b ) andis tolerant of a broad range of temperature and salinity conditions , with 100 % mortality at 30°c ( 48 h lt50 , 28 . 3 ± 0 . 41°c ) , and salinities lower than 16‰ ( 48 h lc50 , 18 . 7 ± 0 . 24‰ ) over a short ( 48 h ) exposure period ( ashton et al . , 2007b ) . although lethargic at low temperatures ( 2°c ) , no mortality was observed , and the species is known to survive at temperatures as low as - 1 . 8°c . the upper lc 50 was greater than the highest salinity tested ( 40‰ ) , thus it is unlikely that salinity will limit the distribution of c . mutica in open coastal waters . however , the species will be excluded from brackish water environments such as the heads of sea lochs and estuaries . the physiological tolerances of c . mutica are beyond the physical conditions experienced in its native or introduced range and are thus unlikely to be the primary factors limiting its present distribution and future spread ( ashton et al . , 2007a ) . nutrition
l . they have also been observed actively filtering particles out of the water column using their second pair of setose antennae as filtering structures . feeding trials with
/ hour for females . feeding rates remain constant over a period of 24 hours indicating continuous feeding throughout the day and night . low temperatures led to a significant decline ( about 60 and 50 % for males and females , respectively ) in feeding rates . when offered high food quantities , the average feeding rates were higher compared to when smaller quantities of food were offered ( k boos ,
biologische anstalt helgoland , alfred wegener institut for polar - and marine research , germany , personal communication , 2008 ) .
fatty acid analysis of the body tissue of c . mutica collected from a salmon farm , a mussel farm and mooring lines on the west coast of scotland and reared on either the microalga , dunaliella tertiolecta or the diatom , phaeodactylum tricornutum in aquaria indicated that c . mutica exhibited a predominantly predatory lifestyle in the field . however , differences in fatty acid composition between treatments suggested that c . mutica is also a highly opportunistic species , consuming both non - living fish farm derived particulate material , bacteria and phytoplankton ( cook et al . , 2006b ) .