the serpentine leaf miner is the larva of a fly , liriomyza brassicae , in the family agromyzidae , the leaf miner flies .

it mines wild and cultivated plants , such as cabbage , broccoli , cauliflower and chinese broccoli .

it is distributed in the pacific , africa , and the americas .

the life cycle of the fly is up to 21 days .

it lays eggs in the leaf epidermis of host plants .

larvae hatch within four days .

they are yellow or green and have three instars .

it emerges from the pupa as an adult , a gray fly with black and yellow spots .

the american serpentine leafminer ( liriomyza trifolii ) is a closely related species , and liriomyza huidobrensis is also known as the serpentine leafminer .

another member of the genus , liriomyza commelinae occurs widely in the neotropics and pupates within the mine .

it feeds mainly on plants within the genus commelina .

serpentine leaf miner

vegetable leaf miner damage to the leaves of the plant , source : dawr .
wolfenbarger do . 1954 . potato yields associated with control of aphids and the serpentine leaf miner . florida entomologist 37 : 7 - 12 .
serpentine leaf miner is an invasive pest that was accidentally introduced in to india from america . it is a highly polyphagous pest infesting pulses , oil seeds , vegetables , green manures , ornamentals , fodder and fibre crops .
be aware of any leaf miner biosecurity measures that may be in place for incoming goods and conveyances . industry advice notices are reviewed regularly and could change .
the larval stage of the leaf miner is not usually seen as they remain inside the leaf tissue . egg laying punctures can be seen as white speckles on leaves . the feeding track is white , often with an obvious trail of dark waste material inside . damage caused by the leaf miner reduces the growth and development of seedlings and young plants which can lead to death .
liriomyza sativae , the vegetable leaf miner , is native to the americas but has spread to most parts of the world . it has established in the torres strait region .
wolfenbarger da , wolfenbarger do . 1966 . tomato yields and leaf miner infestations and a sequential sampling plan for determining need for control treatments . journal of economic entomology 59 : 279 - 283 .
scientific names : vegetable leafminer : liriomyza sativa serpentine leafminer : liriomyza trifolii , and other liriomyza spp .
figure 1 . larva of the american serpentine leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) , in a leaf mine . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
figure 2 . larva of the american serpentine leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) , exposed from a leaf mine . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
emerging maggots mine into the leaf and feed on the tissues making serpentine mines . the pattern of mining is irregular and can greatly reduce the level of photosynthesis of the plant .
beri , s . k . 1974 . biology of a leaf miner liriomyza brassicae ( riley ) ( diptera : agromyzidae ) . j . nat . hist . 8 ( 2 ) : 143 - 151 .
the first larval stage of the serpentine leafminer burrows into the mesophyl tissue . the second stage also feeds in the mesophyl tissue . the third stage larva concentrates its feeding towards the upper leaf surface . when it is mature , it cuts a longitudinal slit in the leaf and leaves to pupate on the leaf surface or on the ground .
if you see a leaf miner or anything unusual , report it to the exotic plant pest hotline 1800 084 881 . this will put you in touch with the department of primary industries or agriculture in your state or territory .
parasites of the serpentine leafminer present in hawaii are cothonaspis pacifica yoshimoto , chrysachares parksi crawford , and halticoptera patellana ( dalman ) .
figure 4 . adult american serpentine leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
figure 5 . adult american serpentine leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
figure 3 . puparium of the american serpentine leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
leaf miners are tiny greyish black flies whose larvae cause damage by meandering a track under the surface of the leaf while feeding on leaf tissue . additional , though lesser damage , is caused through puncture wounds from the adult feeding and depositing eggs just under the surface of the leaves .
leaf miners can quickly establish into most crops and can affect them at any part of their growth stages .
if you work around imported goods you need to look for leaf miners or the damage they cause to leaves .
as major insect pests of many crop and ornamental plants , leaf miners tunnel their way through a wide range of plant species . with over 300 species of leaf miners worldwide , there are five considered to be serious horticultural pests :
figure 6 . mine in tomato leaf caused by liriomyza leafminer . photograph by j . castner , university of florida .
parrella mp , jones vp , youngman rr , lebeck lm . 1985 . effect of leaf mining and leaf stippling of liriomyza spp . on photosynthetic rates of chrysanthemum . annals of the entomological society of america 78 : 90 - 93 .
the average period of the life cycle of the serpentine leafminer is 21 days , but can be as short as 15 days . the length of the life cycle varies with host and temperature .
leaf miners can spread quite easily either by flying , wind dispersal or through the movement of infested plants soil or packaging .
a good summary of american serpentine leafminer biology was published by minkenberg and van lenteren ( 1986 ) . keys for the identification of agromyzid leafminers can be found in spencer and steyskal ( 1986 ) .
females insert the white , oval eggs into the leaf tissue by puncturing the leaf at the tip and along the edges . numerous punctures are made , but only a small percentage containeggs : the majority serve as feeding sites for the adults who lap up the exudate .
comments : controls serpentine leafminer , l . trifolii . apply by ground only . in heavy infestations , apply a second treatment 7–10 days following the first . under severe , continuous pressure , a second set of treatments may be needed 3 weeks following the first set . highly toxic to honey bees .
if parasitism approaches 50 % or more , the chances of the leafminer population being kept below economic levels are excellent . once larvae have entered the leaf , they are difficult to control with insecticides .
punctures caused by females during the feeding and oviposition processes can result in a stippled appearance on foliage , especially at the leaf tip and along the leaf margins ( parrella et al . 1985 ) . however , the major form of damage is the mining of leaves by larvae , which results in destruction of leaf mesophyll . the mine becomes noticeable about three to four days after oviposition and becomes larger in size as the larva matures . the pattern of mining is irregular ; although tending to be blotch - like near the end of the mine . the shape is influenced by the plant , so is not a reliable indicator of species . near the end of the mine the frass becomes more granular , which is not the case with liriomyza sativae . both leaf mining and stippling can greatly depress the level of photosynthesis in the plant . extensive mining also causes premature leaf drop , which can result in lack of shading and sun scalding of fruit . wounding of the foliage also allows entry of bacterial and fungal diseases .
although leaf mining can reduce plant growth , crops such as tomato are quite resilient , and capable of withstanding considerable leaf damage . it is often necessary to have an average of one to three mines per tomato leaf before yield reductions occur ( levins et al . 1975 , schuster et al . 1976 ) . in potatoes , wolfenbarger ( 1954 ) reported sizable yield increases with as little as 25 % reduction in leafminer numbers , but leafminers were considered to be less damaging than green peach aphid , myzus persicae ( sulzer ) . leafminers are most damaging when they affect floricultural crops due to the low tolerance of such crops for any insect damage .
several maggots mine on a single leaf and the infestation is usually seen on immature leaves . due to severe infestation drying and dropping of leaves occur . wounding of the foliage by maggots also make an avenue for the entry of bacterial and fungal pathogens .
larvae feed as leaf - miners on the mesophyll , or middle tissue layer , of the leaf . mines are linear and irregular , whitish or greenish in color , with occasional thread - like black frass . individual mines are of little significance , however , entire leaves may be mined when larval populations are large . injury to mature cabbage plants is usually confined to outer leaves and has no influence on the growth of the plant . in contrast , seedlings may be killed or severely weakened by high larval densities .
adult leaf miners are small , greyish black flies . they have a yellow and black body and are 1 . 3 - 2 . 3mm in length . the different species vary in colour which makes them identifiable . adult females are larger than males and more robust .
the serpentine leafminer is the most cosmopolitan species known in the agromyzidae . although it is not found in britain and parts of northern europe , it has a wide distribution in the pacific area including australia , hawaii , the orient and ethiopian regions . in north america it can be found locally in canada and is abundant in california , florida and other southern states . it was first recorded on oahu in 1952 and is now widespread throughout the state .
eggs are laid singly in punctures in the leaf epidermis . there is no preference for upper or lower surface . the freshly laid eggs are creamy white and shaped like an elongated oval . the eggs are small , 1 / 100 inch in length , and hatch 2 - 4 days .
larvae mine between upper and lower leaf surfaces , creating winding , whitish tunnels that are initially narrow , but then widen as the larvae grow . they may cause leaves to dry , resulting in sunburning of fruit and reduction in yield and fruit quality . in severe infestations , the leafmining may reduce yields or cause plant death . the most serious infestations usually appear late in the season .
if you receive or work around goods imported from overseas , including mail , you need to be vigilant to leaf miners and other exotic pests . if you see an unusual pest , secure the goods to limit the movement of the pest and immediately report it to the department of agriculture and water resource’s see . secure . report . hotline on 1800 798 636 or by using the online form .
egg : eggs tend to be deposited in the middle of the plant ; the adult seems to avoid immature leaves . the female deposits the eggs on the lower surface of the leaf , but they are inserted just below the epidermis . eggs are oval in shape and small in size , measuring about 1 . 0 mm long and 0 . 2 mm wide . initially they are clear but soon become creamy white in color .
puparium : the larva normally leaves the leaf mine and drops to the soil to pupate ( or more technically , pupariate ) . the puparium is initially yellowish , then golden brown , but turns darker brown with time . this is oval and slightly flattened ventrally . it measures about 1 . 3 to 2 . 3 mm long and 0 . 5 to 0 . 75 mm wide . the puparium has posterior spiracles on a pronounced conical projection , each with three distinct bulbs , two of which are elongate .
adult : adults are small , measuring less than 2 mm in length , with a wing length of 1 . 25 to 1 . 9 mm . the head is yellow with red eyes . the thorax and abdomen are mostly gray and black although the ventral surface and legs are yellow . the wings are transparent . key characters that serve to differentiate this species from the vegetable leafminer , liriomyza sativae blanchard , are the matte , grayish black mesonotum and the ( mostly to entirely ) yellow hind margins of the eyes . in vegetable leafminer the mesonotum is shining black and the hind margin of the eyes is darker . the small size of this species serves to distinguish it from pea leafminer , liriomyza huidobrensis ( blanchard ) , which has a wing length of 1 . 7 to 2 . 25 mm . also , the yellow femora of american serpentine leafminer help to separate it from pea leafminer , which has darker femora .
biological control . because parasitoids often provide effective suppression of leafminers in the field when disruptive insecticides are not used , there has been interest in release of parasitoids into crops . this occurs principally in greenhouse - grown crops , but is also applicable to field conditions . parrella et al . ( 1989 ) published information on mass rearing diglyphus begini for inoculative release . steinernema nematodes have also been evaluated for suppression of leaf mining activity . one of the most complete studies , by hara et al . ( 1993 ) , showed that high levels of relative humidity ( at least 92 % ) were needed to attain even moderately high ( greater than 65 % ) levels of parasitism . adjuvants that enhance nematode survival increase levels of leafminer mortality ( broadbent and olthof 1995 ) , but thus far nematodes are not considered to be a practical solution to leafminer infestations .
adults live about 13 to 18 days . leibee ( 1984 ) , working with celery as a host plant , estimated that oviposition occurred at a rate of 35 to 39 eggs per day , for a total fecundity of 200 to 400 eggs . parrella et al . ( 1983 ) reported similar egg production rates on tomato , but lower total fecundity , because tomato is a less suitable larval host . the female makes numerous punctures of the leaf mesophyll with her ovipositor , and uses these punctures for feeding and egg laying . the proportion of punctures receiving an egg is about 25 % in chrysanthemum and celery , both favored hosts , but only about 10 % in tomato , which is less suitable for larval survival and adult longevity . although the female apparently feeds on the exuding sap at all wounds , she spends less time feeding on unfavorable hosts . the males live only two to three days , possibly because they cannot puncture foliage and therefore feed less than females , whereas females usually survive for about a week . typically they feed and oviposit during much of the daylight hours , but especially near mid - day .
food hosts comprise of cultivated and wild plants in the family cruciferae . in hawaii it is considered a serious pest on broccoli , cabbage , cauliflower , chinese broccoli , flowering white cabbage and other cruciferous crops ( spencer , 1973 ) .
the maggots are bright yellow to yellow green in color , measuring 1 / 6 inch in length and 1 / 50 inch in breadth . there are three larval stages . each larval instar is completed in 2 - 3 days .
the pupal stage is yellow - brown in color and distinctly segmented . pupae are rectangular oval shaped narrowing at the ends . this stage does no feeding damage and development is completed in 5 to 12 days .
this adult is a small fly of mat gray with black and yellow splotches and about 1 / 12 inch of length . adults live for 10 - 20 days depending on environmental conditions .
adult emergence generally occurs in the early morning hours before 9 : 00 a . m .
in florida , california , venezuela and hawaii l . brassicae usually occurs with l . sativae blanchard ( spencer , 1973 ) .
cyromazine ( trigard ) and abamectin ( avid ) are effective against this leafminer pest . both of the insecticide products have limited crop registrations and must not be used on unregistered crops .
the pest is highly resistant to most other insecticides . application of ineffective insecticides to control the celery leafminer is futile . it usually results in a larger leafminer problem in the pesticide reduces field densities of leafminer parasites .
hardy , d . e . and m . d . delfinado . 1980 . genus liriomyza mik . pp . 208 - 211 . in insects of hawaii . a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands , including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . volume 13 . diptera : cyclorrhapha iii , series schizophora , section acalypterae , exclusive of family diptera . university of hawaii press , honolulu . 451 pages .
spencer , k . a . 1973 . liriomyza brassicae ( riley , 1884 ) - cosmopolitan . pp . 151 - 157 . in agromyzidae ( diptera ) of economic importance . dr . w . junk b . v . , publishers , the hague .
waterhouse , d . f . and k . r . norris . 1987 . liriomyza species , diptera : agromyzidae , leafminers . pp . 159 - 176 . in biological control pacific prospects ( ed d . f . waterhouse & k . r . norris ) . inkata press , melbourne . 454 pages .
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leafminers have a relatively short life cycle . the time required for a complete life cycle in warm environments such as florida is often 21 to 28 days , so numerous generations can occur annually in warm climates . leibee ( 1984 ) determined growth at a constant 25°c , and reported that about 19 days were required from egg deposition to emergence of the adult . development rates increase with temperature up to about 30°c ; temperatures above 30°c are usually unfavorable and larvae experience high mortality . minkenberg ( 1988 ) indicated that at 25°c the egg stage required 2 . 7 days for development ; the three active larval instars required 1 . 4 , 1 . 4 , and 1 . 8 days , respectively ; and the time spent in the puparium was 9 . 3 days . also , there was an adult preovipostion period that averaged 1 . 3 days . the temperature threshold for development of the various stages is 6 to 10°c except that egg laying requires about 12°c .
larva : the larva is legless . initially the larva is colorless , but becomes yellowish as it matures . unlike in many flies , the larva of this insect does not taper strongly toward the head end . it also bears a pair of spiracles at the posterior end . the lengths of the body and mouthparts ( cephalopharyngeal skeleton ) can be used to differentiate instars ; the latter is particularly useful . for the first instar the mean and range of body and mouthpart lengths are 0 . 39 ( 0 . 33 to 0 . 53 ) mm and 0 . 10 ( 0 . 08 to 0 . 11 ) mm , respectively . for the second instar the body and mouth parts measurements are 1 . 00 ( 0 . 55 to 1 . 21 ) mm and 0 . 17 ( 0 . 15 to 0 . 18 ) mm , respectively . for the third instar the body and mouth parts measurements are 1 . 99 ( 1 . 26 to 2 . 62 ) mm and 0 . 25 ( 0 . 22 to 0 . 31 ) mm , respectively . a fourth instar occurs between puparium formation and pupation , but this is a nonfeeding stage and is usually ignored by authors .
liriomyza trifolii is perhaps best known as a pest of chrysanthemums and celery , but it has a wide host range . for example , stegmaier ( 1966 ) reported 55 hosts from florida , including bean , beet , carrot , celery , cucumber , eggplant , lettuce , melon , onion , pea , pepper , potato , squash , and tomato . flower crops that are readily infested and which are known to facilitate spread of this pest include chrysanthemum , gerbera , gypsophila , and marigold , but there are likely many other hosts , especially among the compositae . numerous broad - leaved weed species support larval growth . schuster et al . ( 1991 ) found that the nightshade solanum americanum ; spanish needles , bidens alba ; and pilewort , erechtites hieracifolia ; were suitable weed hosts in florida .
parasitic wasps ( parasitoids ) of the families braconidae , eulophidae , and pteromalidae are important in natural control , and in the absence of insecticides usually keep this insect at low levels of abundance . at least 14 parasitoid species are known from florida alone . species of eulophidae such as diglyphus begina ( ashmead ) , diglyphus intermedius ( girault ) , diglyphus pulchripes , and chrysocharis parksi crawford are generally found to be most important in studies conducted in north america , although their relative importance varies geographically and temporally ( minkenberg and van lenteren 1986 ) . predators and diseases are not considered to be important , relative to parasitoids . however , both larvae and adults are susceptible to predation by a wide variety of general predators , particularly ants .
sampling . there are many methods of assessing leafminer abundance . counting mines in leaves is a good index of past activity , but many mines may be vacant . counting live larvae in mines is time consuming , but more indicative of future damage . puparia can be collected by placing trays beneath foliage to capture larvae as they evacuate mines , and the captures are highly correlated with the number of active miners . adults can be captured by using adhesive applied to yellow cards or stakes . sequential sampling plans for determining the need for treatment , based on the number of mined leaves , were developed by wolfenbarger and wolfenbarger ( 1966 ) . similar plans based on counts of puparia and flies were developed by zehnder and trumble ( 1985 ) .
insecticides . chemical insecticides are commonly used to protect foliage from injury , but insecticide resistance is a major problem . insecticide susceptibility varies widely among populations , and level of susceptibility is directly related to frequency of insecticide application . in florida , longevity of insecticide effectiveness is often only two to four years , and then is usually followed by severe resistance among the treated populations . rotation among classes of insecticides is recommended to delay development of resistance . reduction in dose level and frequency of insecticide application , as well as preservation of susceptible populations through nontreatment of some areas , are suggested as means to preserve insecticide susceptibility among leafminer populations ( mason et al . 1989 ) . insect growth regulators have been more stable , but are not immune from the resistance problem .
insecticides also are highly disruptive to naturally occurring biological control agents , particularly parasitoids ( murphy and lasalle 1999 ) . use of many chemical insecticides exacerbates leafminer problems by killing parasitoids of leafminers . this usually results when insecticides are applied for lepidopterous insects , and use of more selective pest control materials such as bacillus thuringiensis is recommended as it allows survival of the leafminer parasitoids .
cultural practices . because broadleaf weeds and senescent crops may serve as sources of inoculum , destruction of weeds and deep plowing of crop residues are recommended . adults experience difficulty in emerging if they are buried deeply in soil .
cultural practices such as mulching and staking of vegetables may influence both leafminers and their natural enemies . price and poe ( 1976 ) reported that leafminer numbers were higher when tomatoes were grown with plastic mulch or tied to stakes . at least part of the reason seems to be due to lower parasitoid activity in plots where tomatoes were staked .
broadbent ab , olthof tha . 1995 . foliar application of steinernema carpocapsae ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) to control liriomyza trifolii ( diptera : agromyzidae ) larvae in chrysanthemums . environmental entomology 24 : 431 - 435 .
hara ah , kaya hk , gaugler r , lebeck lm , mello cl . 1993 . entomopathogenic nematodes for biological control of the leafminer , liriomyza trifolii ( dipt . : agromyzidae ) . entomophaga 38 : 359 - 369 .
leibee gl . 1984 . influence of temperature on development and fecundity of liriomyza trifolii ( burgess ) ( diptera : agromyzidae ) on celery . environmental entomology 13 : 497 - 501
levins ra , poe sl , littell rc , jones jp . 1975 . effectiveness of a leafminer control program for florida tomato production . journal of economic entomology 68 : 772 - 774 .
mason ga , tabashnik be , johnson mw . 1989 . effects of biological and operational factors on evolution of insecticide resistance in liriomyza ( diptera : agromyzidae ) . journal of economic entomology 82 : 369 - 373 .
minkenberg opjm . 1988 . life history of the agromyzid fly liriomyza trifolii on tomato at different temperatures . entomologica experimentalis et appliciata 48 : 73 - 84 .
minkenberg opjm , van lenteren jc . 1986 . the leafminers liriomyza bryoniae and l . trifolii ( diptera : agromyzidae ) , their parasites and host plants : a review . wageningen agric . univ . papers 86 - 2 . 50 pp .
murphy st , lasalle j . 1999 . balancing biological control strategies in the ipm of new world invasive liriomyza leafminers in field vegetable crops . biocontrol news and information 20 : 91n–104n .
parrella mp , robb kl , bethke j . 1983 . influence of selected host plants on the biology of liriomyza trifolii ( diptera : agromyzidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 76 : 112 - 115 .
parrella mp , yost jt , heinz km , ferrentino gw . 1989 . mass rearing of diglyphus begini ( hymenoptera : eulophidae ) for biological control of liriomyza trifolii ( diptera : agromyzidae ) . journal of economic entomology 82 : 420 - 425 .
price jf , poe sl . 1976 . response of liriomyza ( diptera : agromyzidae ) and its parasites to stake and mulch culture of tomatoes . florida entomologist 59 : 85 - 87 .
schuster dj , jones jp , everett ph . 1976 . effect of leafminer control on tomato yield . proceedings of the florida state horticultural society 89 : 154 - 156 .
schuster dj , gilreath jp , wharton ra , seymour pr . 1991 . agromyzidae ( diptera ) leafminers and their parasitoids in weeds associated with tomato in florida . environmental entomology 20 : 720 - 723 .
spencer ka , steyskal gc . 1986 . manual of the agromyzidae ( diptera ) of the united states . usda , ars agricultural handbook 638 . 478 pp .
stegmaier ce . 1966 . host plants and parasites of liriomyza trifolii in florida ( diptera : agromyzidae ) . florida entomologist 49 : 75 - 80 .
zehnder gw , trumble jt . 1984 . spatial and diel activity of liriomyza species ( diptera : agromyzidae ) in fresh market tomatoes . environmental entomology 13 : 1411 - 1416 .
zehnder gw , trumble jt . 1985 . sequential sampling plans with fixed levels of precision for liriomyza species ( diptera : agromyzidae ) in fresh market tomatoes . journal of economic entomology 78 : 138 - 142 .
publication date : december 2001 . reviewed : february 2014 . latest revision : june 2017 .
the adult insects are small in size and pale yellow in colour . the female fly thrusts its eggs on the lower surface of the leaves just below the epidermis which hatch in 2 - 3 days .
the maggot becomes full grown in 7 - 18 days and full grown maggots are long , orange - yellow in colour . the maggots come out of the mine and pupate in the soil for 5 - 10 days . indiscriminate use of insecticides are highly detrimental to naturally occurring biological control agents and also leads to development of resistance to the pest .
collect and destroy the infested leaves crop residues may serve as sources of inoculums , so destruction of weeds and deep ploughing are recommended .
parasitoids like chrysonotomyia often provide effective suppression of this pest in the fields . hence use of disruptive insecticides is not advisable .
placement of yellow coloured sticky trap at 100 numbers per acre will attract and kill adult flies .
spray botanicals like neem oil emulsion , neem seed kernel extract . insecticides like dimethoate 30 ec ( 0 . 05 per cent ) or chloropyriphos 20ec ( o . 05 per cent ) or fipronil 0 . 3g ( 75gm / hectare ) are recommended .
( m . t . ranjith , phd scholar and dr . mani chellappan , associate professor , department of agricultural entomology , college of horticulture , vellanikkara , kerala agricultural university , thrissur , email : ranjith . mt16 @ gmail . com , mobile : 09400681441 and 09447463522 . )
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plant health australia is the national coordinator of the government - industry partnership for plant biosecurity in australia .
please note that this site in no longer active . you can browse through the contents .
spray imidacloprid 17 . 8 sl @ 0 . 5ml / l or acitamiprid 20 sp @ 0 . 2g / l or thiomethaxam 25 wg @ 0 . 2g / l
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biological control , unless destroyed by treatment for other pests , is often adequate to control leafminers . good field sanitation can also greatly reduce the numbers of this pest . evaluate levels of parasitism before making treatment decisions . also , avoid summer plantings , if possible , in the san joaquin valley where leafminers usually do not reach damaging levels until mid - july to early august .
because of numerous parasites , leafminers are generally not serious pests , but can be sporadic in their attacks . the destruction of beneficials by frequent applications of organophosphates , carbamates , and pyrethroids applied to control other pests can result in leafminer outbreaks . of the numerous parasites that attack the leafminer in california , the most abundant is the parasitic eulophid wasp , solenotus intermedius , but diglyphus spp . and chrysocharis spp . are probably the most important for controlling leafminers .
cutting forage crops and deep plowing after harvesting crops aid greatly in reducing leafminer numbers .
in desert production areas , exclude leafminers by applying row covers ( plastic and spun - bonded materials ) at planting and gradually removing them at first bloom or earlier if needed . row covers are not recommended for the san joaquin valley .
do not remove the entire plastic row cover at one time because a drastic reduction in humidity will shock plants and can lead to collapse . instead vent the covers and remove them gradually . covers made of spun - bonded materials do not need venting because hot air is able to escape .
plants that are not stressed for moisture can better tolerate this pest . in the san joaquin valley , plant in early spring and avoid summer plantings because leafminers often occur in damaging numbers beginning in mid - july .
start monitoring leaves for mines during the vegetative growth stage . early season infestations are common , but in most cases are controlled by natural enemies . however , if leafminer populations build to high levels and parasitism is low , an insecticide application may be necessary when seedlings have four to five leaves . in desert areas treatment may be required 2 to 4 weeks after planting and then repeated as needed . use 3 - by - 5 - inch yellow sticky cards to monitor adults moving into the fields from surrounding crops being harvested . plastic trays can be used to monitor pupating larvae emerging from the leaves by placing the trays under the plant to catch the larvae as they drop to the ground . no economic threshold values are available yet , however .
the following are ranked with the pesticides having the greatest ipm value listed first—the most effective and least harmful to natural enemies , honey bees , and the environment are at the top of the table . when choosing a pesticide , consider information relating to air and water quality , resistance management , and the pesticide ' s properties and application timing . not all registered pesticides are listed . always read the label of the product being used .
comments : apply as a foliar spray when leafminers first appear . do not make more than six applications per growing season .
caution : be aware that the following chemicals are harsh on predators and parasites , especially at high label rates and should not be used if natural enemies are present .
comments : repeat as necessary to maintain control . do not exceed 0 . 25 lb a . i . / acre per season . provides only sporadic control of l . trifolii . highly toxic to honey bees .
comments : labeled for use on cucumber , cantaloupe , honeydew melon , watermelon , squash , and pumpkin only . apply low rate for light infestations . not effective on l . trifolii . highly toxic to honey bees .
comments : labeled for use on melons and watermelons only . pest has developed tolerance to this material in some areas ; not effective on l . trifolii . highly toxic to honey bees .
comments : labeled for use on melons and watermelons only . may not be as effective as other materials because pest has developed tolerance in some areas . highly toxic to honey bees .
restricted entry interval ( rei ) is the number of hours ( unless otherwise noted ) from treatment until the treated area can be safely entered without protective clothing . preharvest interval ( phi ) is the number of days from treatment to harvest . in some cases the rei exceeds the phi . the longer of two intervals is the minimum time that must elapse before harvest .
rotate chemicals with a different mode - of - action group number , and do not use products with the same mode - of - action group number more than twice per season to help prevent the development of resistance . for example , the organophosphates have a group number of 1b ; chemicals with a 1b group number should be alternated with chemicals that have a group number other than 1b . mode - of - action group numbers are assigned by
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life form : insect origin : south america distribution : north , central america and caribbean , south america , africa , asia , oceania and australia ( torres strait ) features : larva to 3mm long , transparent to yellow in later stages , adult to 2 . 3mm long , greyish and yellowish , pale orange to brown likely pathway of entry : hitchhiking on goods , aircraft , vehicles , plant trade , clothes , shoes , personal effects at risk : wide variety of ornamental , grain and vegetable crops
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the grey-fronted dove , ( leptotila rufaxilla ) is a large new world tropical dove .

it is a resident breeder in south america from colombia , venezuela and the guyanas south to northeast argentina and uruguay .

several subspecies exist , among them l. r. hellmayrii from trinidad and the paria peninsula in venezuela .

the grey-headed dove , leptotila plumbeiceps , of central america and the grenada dove , l. wellsi , of grenada were formerly considered conspecific with grey-fronted dove .

the grey-fronted dove inhabits humid forest and woodland .

the grey-fronted dove is very similar to the closely related white-tipped dove , leptotila verreauxi , which , in the area of overlap , prefers more open , drier , woodland .

it has an approximate length of 28 cm ( 11 in ) and a weight of 155 g ( 5 ¹ ⁄ ₂ oz ) .

adult have a blue-grey crown , a whitish forehead and a grey neck showing purple iridescence .

they have a whitish throat and the eye-ring is red .

the upperparts and wings are grey-brown , and the underparts are whitish shading to pinkish-buff on the chest .

the underwing coverts are rufous .

the white tip to the tail is narrower than in the white-tipped dove .

the bill is black , the legs red and the iris is yellow .

l. r. hellmayrii has a paler forehead and darker , more rufous , breast .

it is best distinguished from the white-tipped dove by the buffier lower face and the more contrasting , bluish-grey crown .

another feature is the red ( not blue ) eye-ring of the grey-fronted dove , but this is not reliable in all parts of brazil , argentina , bolivia , paraguay and uruguay , where it typically is red in both .

the grey-fronted dove is usually seen singly or in pairs , and is rather wary .

the call is a deep hollow ooo-wooooo-ou .

grey - fronted dove

dove information . . . index of dove species . . . photos of the different dove species for identification
the grey - fronted dove is very similar to the closely related white - tipped dove , leptotila verreauxi , which prefers more open , drier , woodland . it is 28cm long and weigh 155g .
the grey - fronted dove is usually seen singly or in pairs , and is rather wary . its flight is fast and direct , with the regular beats and clattering of the wings which are characteristic of pigeons in general .
the grey - fronted dove leptotila rufaxilla is a large new world tropical dove . it is a resident breeder in eastern south america from colombia south to northeast argentina and uruguay . the form l . r . hellmayrii breeds in trinidad , although it has also been recorded on neighbouring areas of venezuela .
two species of leptotila doves possess very broad distributions ; this species and the even more widespread white - tipped dove ( leptotila verreauxi ) . unlike the latter species , the gray - fronted dove is found solely in mainland south america , with the exception of trinidad . it is also restricted to the lowlands and foothills east of the andes . compared to the white - tipped dove , with which the present species is most likely to be confused , observers should note the red ( rather than blue ) orbital ring , and gray ( rather than more whitish ) forehead . in some areas habitat differences can also serve to distinguish them , with white - tipped dove , preferring scrubbier and drier woodland , while voice ( gray - fronted dove has a single - note call , rather than double - noted ) is always distinctive . the gray - fronted dove is speculated to form a superspecies with the gray - headed dove ( leptotila plumbeiceps ) and the pallid dove ( leptotila pallida ) , which occur in middle america and western south america , respectively .
the best distinctions from white - tipped dove are the bluish forehead and crown , and the red eyering .
adult birds have a blue - grey crown and forehead and a grey neck showing purple iridescence . they have a whitish throat and the eye - ring is red . the upperparts and wings are grey - brown , and the underparts are whitish shading to pink on the belly . the tail is broadly tipped with white . the bill is black and the legs red . l . r . hellmayrii has a paler forehead and darker , more rufous , breast .
that a good look is often needed to be able to tell them apart . behaviourally they are very similar , but while the white - tipped has managed to adapt to a host of environments both humid and dry , the grey - fronted is loathe to leave the security of the atlantic forest undergrowth , making him that bit more difficult to see !
28 cm ; 115–183 g . forehead greyish to bluish white becoming bluish grey on crown ; nape and hindneck greyish purple with some iridescence ; throat and feathers bordering . . .
baptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . , bonan , a . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . grey - fronted dove ( leptotila rufaxilla ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
gallery 2 - leptotila rufaxilla nest a nest of this forest dove was located on 4 december 2012 at procosara , san rafael np , departamento itap˙a . the nest was situated at the end of a trunk that had fallen across a trail , with the platform at the end of the log a metre or so inside a dense bamboo stand at a height of approximately 170cm . the nest was a typical untidy platform of short sticks with the cup lined by sparse grass and odd downy feathers . the platform dimensions were 165x155mm and the cup 95x90mm . as is typical of columbids two white eggs were present . one egg was present in the nest at least 48 hours before the second was laid . eggs measured 28x22 . 1mm and 28 . 6x21 . 6mm respectively . the sitting bird flushed noisily from the nest when approached . all photos by paul smith . figure 2a - ( fpave3851ph ) nest . figure 2b - ( fpave3851ph ) nest with eggs . figure 2c - ( fpave3853ph ) nest location . figure 2d - ( fpave3854ph ) eggs .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
partners in flight estimate the total population to number 500 , 000 - 4 , 999 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 16 . 1 - 18 . 1 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 13 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to hunting and / or trapping , it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .
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there are many ways to contribute—we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !
) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
has been considered conspecific with l . plumbeiceps , l . battyi , l . wellsi and especially l . pallida . genetic data suggest race dubusi closer to l . cassinii than to nominate rufaxilla # r . race hypochroos proposed for birds of suriname . six subspecies recognized .
chapman , 1915 – e colombia ( s to r guaviare ) and probably w venezuela .
bonaparte , 1855 – se colombia to cs venezuela ( base of mt duida ) and s to e ecuador and ( probably this race ) e peru ; limits of range in brazil unknown .
( richard & bernard , 1792 ) – lower orinoco valley in e venezuela , the guianas and n brazil , s to r madeira and e to n maranhão .
pelzeln , 1870 – c & s brazil ( from mato grosso and espírito santo ) s to paraguay , ne argentina ( misiones ) and uruguay .
occupies forest , particularly humid forest , avoiding arid areas ; sometimes encountered on forest . . .
on trinidad , breeds in all months , except sept–oct ; nest recorded in jan in surinam ; most nests late nov to mid - feb in french guiana . . .
not globally threatened . few details available , but species reckoned to be common throughout much of its sizeable range , e . g . in colombia ; fairly common in iguazú . . .
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mismo ejemplar de grabación en dúo ( xc416016 ) y en solitario ( xc416017 ) ( ambas sin pb ) ; en esta grabación sí se utiliza pb aunque canto aparentemente igual que xc416017 ; sotobosque del bosque alto ; cielo cubierto , con llovizna muy fina .
in understory of motacú palm forest ( sw end of isla barba azul ) .
riparian shrubbery in humid forest . reference : b : 677 - 685 ( leprufx2 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
song from an unseen bird in dense understory . bret whitney was with me and couldn ' t rule out geotrygon violacea , but this song matches leptotila rufaxilla songs on xc from se brazil .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : leptotila rufaxilla . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
the food of this species is mainly seeds obtained by foraging on the ground , but it will also take insects .
it builds a large stick nest in a bush or on a stump and lays two white eggs .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
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leptotila rufaxilla rufaxilla : venezuela to guianas and n brazil ( r . madeira to n maranhão )
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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designed by paul smith 2006 . this website is copyrighted by law . material contained herewith may not be used without the prior written permission of fauna paraguay . material on this page was provided by paul smith , sylvia qu and alberto esquivel and is used with their permission .
figure 1 - ( fpave3843ph ) adult dorsal , procosara , pn san rafael ( sylvia qu june 2008 ) . figure 2 - ( fpave3844ph ) pair , procosara , pn san rafael ( paul smith september 2007 ) . figure 3 - ( fpave3845ph ) adult , procosara , pn san rafael ( paul smith february 2007 ) . figure 4 - ( fpave3846ph ) upperwing same individual ( paul smith february 2007 ) . figure 5 - ( fpave3847ph ) underwing same individual ( paul smith february 2007 ) . figure 6 - ( fpave3848ph ) adult , mbaracay˙ biosphere reserve , departamento canindey˙ ( alberto esquivel undated ) . figure 7 - ( fpave3849ph ) same individual as ( fpave3848ph ) taking flight ( alberto esquivel undated ) . video - ( fpave3850vi ) adult , procosara , pn san rafael ( paul smith april 2010 ) .


the burmese shrike ( lanius collurioides ) is a species of bird in the family laniidae .

burmese shrike

select an image : 1 . burmese shrike > > female 2 . burmese shrike > > adult male 3 . burmese shrike > > adult male 4 . burmese shrike > > adult male 5 . burmese shrike 6 . burmese shrike > > male 7 . burmese shrike > > pair 8 . burmese shrike > > adult / subadult 9 . burmese shrike > > adult 10 . burmese shrike > > adult 11 . burmese shrike > > adult male 12 . burmese shrike > > female 13 . burmese shrike > > female 14 . burmese shrike > > female and juvenile 15 . burmese shrike > > fledgling 16 . burmese shrike > > adult male 17 . burmese shrike > > female 18 . burmese shrike > > female 19 . burmese shrike > > juvenile 20 . burmese shrike > > adult male 21 . burmese shrike > > adult male 22 . burmese shrike > > adult 23 . burmese shrike > > male 24 . burmese shrike > > subadult 25 . burmese shrike > > adult 26 . burmese shrike > > subadult 27 . burmese shrike > > male with prey 28 . burmese shrike > > female 29 . burmese shrike > > adult male 30 . burmese shrike > > adult 31 . burmese shrike > > adult male 32 . burmese shrike > > adult male 33 . burmese shrike > > adult male 34 . burmese shrike > > juvenile 35 . burmese shrike 36 . burmese shrike > > immature 37 . burmese shrike > > adult female 38 . burmese shrike > > adult male 39 . burmese shrike > > adult male 40 . burmese shrike > > male 41 . burmese shrike > > adult female 42 . burmese shrike > > adult male 43 . burmese shrike > > adult male 44 . burmese shrike > > adult female
the burmese shrike ( lanius collurioides ) is a species of bird in the laniidae family .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as not uncommon ( harris and franklin 2000 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
recorded from the balcony of our hotel with black - headed sibia alarm in background .
only 90 % sure . not seen calling but present and singing a few minutes later ( e . g . xc88311 )
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : lanius collurioides . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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avibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 861 times since 24 june 2003 . © denis lepage | privacy policy
it is found in bangladesh , cambodia , china , india , laos , myanmar , thailand , and vietnam .
its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .
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acanthomyrmex glabfemoralis is a species of ant that belongs to the acanthomyrmex genus .

it was described by moffett in 1986 , and is abundant in vietnam and china .

acanthomyrmex glabfemoralis

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see acanthomyrmex glabfemoralis for further details
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colonies of a . glabfemoralis contain a single dealate normal queen , or instead contain single or multiple dwarf queens , while colonies of acanthomyrmex humilis contain ergatoids only ( eguchi et al . 2008 ) , acanthomyrmex glabfemoralis and a . humilis gather seeds ( eguchi et al . 2004 , eguchi pers . observ . ) .
bionomics . acanthomyrmex species nest in dead twigs and wood fragments , and under or between stones . colonies of a . glabfemoralis contain a single dealate normal queen , or instead contain single or multiple dwarf queens , while colonies of a . humilis contain ergatoids only ( eguchi et al . 2008 ) . acanthomyrmex glabfemoralis and a . humilis gather seeds ( eguchi et al . 2004 , eguchi pers . observ . ) .
species nest in dead twigs and wood fragments , and under or between stones . colonies of a . glabfemoralis
eguchi k . , tuan viet bui and seiki yamanae . 2008 . vietnamese species of the genus acanthomyrmex emery , 1893 – a . humilis sp . n . and a . glabfemoralis zhou & zheng , 1997 ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae ) myrmecological news 11 : 231 - 241 . pdf
moffett , m . w . ( 1986 ) .
revision of the myrmicine genus acanthomyrmex ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) .
. bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 151 : 55–89 .
vietnamese species . one species described from vietnam : humilis eguchi , bui & yamane ( type locality : nam cat tien ) and a second species recognized by us from vietnam : glabfemoralis zhou & zheng ( chua yen tu , cuc phuong , ky thuong , pu mat , tay yen tu , van ban ) .
the minor worker of acanthomyrmex is similar to the worker of pristomyrmex , but in the latter the antenna is 11 - segmented , the masticatory margin of the mandible is almost vertical to the basal margin and 3 - , 4 - or 5 - toothed , and the suture between first gastral tergite and sternite is not in the form of a rounded m - shape .
eguchi , bui and yamane ( 2008 ) - holotype ( minor ) : china : guangxi : huaping natural conservation , 8 . vii . 1995 , leg . shanyi zhou . we were unable to borrow the type material , but we examined two majors and two minors [ da yao shan n . r . , guangxi , china , 18 . ix . 1998 , leg . s . zhou ] determined as a . glabfemoralis by s . zhou who is the first author of the original description of the species .
an opportunistic cavity nesting species that includes seeds in its diet , some of which are stored in their nest .
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
zhou & zheng , 1997a : 47 , figs . 1 , 2 ( w . ) china . eguchi , bui & yamane , 2008 : 232 ( s . q . dwarf q .  m . ) .
unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .
eguchi , bui and yamane ( 2008 ) - major ( 5 nontypes ) . hl 2 . 60 - 3 . 00 mm ; hw 2 . 25 - 2 . 56 mm ; sl 1 . 10 - 1 . 28 mm ; hfl 1 . 33 - 1 . 40 mm ; ci 84 - 88 ; si 48 - 50 ; hfi 55 - 59 .
minor ( 5 nontypes ) . hl 0 . 92 - 1 . 08 mm ; hw 1 . 04 - 1 . 18 mm ; sl 0 . 95 - 1 . 10 mm ; hfl 0 . 99 - 1 . 19 mm ; ci 108 - 113 ; si 92 - 97 ; fi 96 - 102 .
eguchi , bui and yamane ( 2008 ) - normal queen ( 5 nontypes ) . hl 1 . 80 - 2 . 08 mm ; hw 2 . 00 - 2 . 33 mm ; sl 1 . 08 - 1 . 23 mm ; mnh 1 . 60 - 1 . 95 mm ; msw 1 . 38 - 1 . 61 mm ; hfl 1 . 40 - 1 . 56 mm ; ci 108 - 112 ; si 52 - 55 ; mni 83 - 87 ; msi 69 - 73 ; fi 67 - 71 .
dwarf queen type a ( 1 nontype ) . hl 2 . 14 mm ; hw 2 . 24 mm ; sl 1 . 18 mm ; mnh 1 . 28 mm ; msw 1 . 08 mm ; hfl 1 . 48 mm ; ci 105 ; si 53 ; mni 84 ; msi 48 ; fi 66 .
dwarf queen type b ( 3 nontypes ) . hl 1 . 68 - 1 . 73 mm ; hw 1 . 76 - 1 . 83 mm ; sl 1 . 06 - 1 . 11 mm ; mnh 1 . 05 - 1 . 13 mm ; msw 0 . 81 - 0 . 86 mm ; hfl 1 . 29 - 1 . 30 mm ; ci 103 - 108 ; si 58 - 62 ; mni 73 - 80 ; msi 44 - 48 ; fi 71 - 73 .
dwarf queen type a
( based on a single specimen collected in yen tu ) . head and mesosoma reddish brown to dark reddish brown ; antennae , legs and apical part of gaster paler . body sculpture as in figs . 11 - 13 . head as in the normal queen ( see figs . 7 and 8 ) . mesosoma , though having main sclerites as in figs . 11 and 13 , reduced in volume as compared to that of the normal queen ( especially so concerning mesonotum ) ; wings absent . waist segments and gaster as in the normal queen .
dwarf queen type b
( based on specimens from colonies collected in van ban ) . head and mesosoma reddish brown to dark reddish brown ; antennae , legs and apical part of gaster paler . body sculpture basically as in figs . 14 - 16 . head basically as in the normal queen , but with the following distinct differences : dorsal and lateral faces of head covered with many standing hairs ; sculpture more similar to the minor worker than to the normal queen ; median part of clypeus often with a median and / or lateral seta ( e ) ; median ocellus often located in front of level of posterior margins of compound eyes . mesosoma , though having main sclerites as in figs . 14 and 16 , reduced in volume as compared to that of the normal queen ( especially so concerning mesonotum ) ; wings absent . waist segments and gaster basically as in the normal queen , but with denser standing hairs ( figs . 14 and 16 ) .
eguchi , bui and yamane ( 2008 ) - male ( 3 nontypes ) . hl 0 . 71 - 0 . 80 mm ; hw 0 . 93 - 1 . 15 mm ; sl 0 . 17 - 0 . 22 mm ; mnh 0 . 88 - 1 . 09 mm ; msw 0 . 88 - 0 . 93 mm ; hfl 0 . 99 - 1 . 13 mm ; ci 130 - 144 ; si 18 - 19 ; mni 83 - 100 ; msi 80 - 95 ; fi 98 - 108 .
zhou , s . ; zheng , z . 1997a . three new species of formicidae ( hymenoptera ) from guangxi . entomotaxonomia 19 ( 1 ) : 47 - 51 ( page 47 , figs . 1 , 2 worker described )
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zhou & zheng , 1997a pdf : 47 , figs . 1 , 2 ( w . )
eguchi , bui & yamane , 2008 pdf : 232 ( s . q .
dwarf q .
m . ) .
4 times found in secondary rain forest , 3 times found in rain forest .
4 times nest series , 2 times random coll . winkler sifting , 1 times m2 winkler sifting .
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type locality - china ( zhou et zheng , 1997 ) . vietnam - vinh phuc ( tam dao n . p . ) [ written by k . eguchi , 23 . sept . 2005 ]
zhou , s . & zheng , z . three new species of formicidae ( hymenoptera ) from guangxi . [ in chinese . ] entomotaxonomia , 19 : 47 - 51 . eguchi , k . , bui , t . v . , yamane , sk . , okido , h . & ogata , k . 2005 . ant faunas of ba vi and tam dao , north vietnam ( insecta : hymenoptera : formicidae ) . bulletin of the institute of tropical agriculture , kyushu university , 27 : 77 - 98 .
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[ 188 ] bolton , b . 2014 . an online catalog of the ants of the world . available from urltoken
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sujeevan ratnasingham , paul d . n . hebert , barcode of life data systems ( bold )
, with major workers in some genera having heads twice the length ( and ten times the volume ) than that of the minor workers . they live in small colonies and are rarely collected in the field .
( bolton 2003 ) . workers of vietnamese species have the following features ( see also moffett 1986 ; eguchi et al . 2008 ) .
, but in the latter the antenna is 11 - segmented , the masticatory margin of the mandible is almost vertical to the basal margin and 3 - , 4 - or 5 - toothed , and the suture between first gastral tergite and sternite is not in the form of a rounded m - shape .
( chua yen tu , cuc phuong , ky thuong , pu mat , tay yen tu , van ban ) .
contain a single dealate normal queen , or instead contain single or multiple dwarf queens , while colonies of a . humilis
gather seeds ( eguchi et al . 2004 , eguchi pers . observ . ) .
eguchi , k . , viet , b . t . , yamane , s . ( 2011 ) : generic synopsis of the formicidae of vietnam ( insecta : hymenoptera ) , part i - myrmicinae and pseudomyrmicinae . zootaxa 2878 , 1 - 61 : 11 - 11 , urltoken
no known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .
operaria : clypeus convexus , inter antennarum insertiones productus , margine antico recto , denticulis paucis , minutis instructo , ab area frontali limite obsoleto separatus . mandibulae trigonae , latae , minute denticulatae . antennae ori proxime insertae , 12 - articulatae , clava 3 - articulata , parum incrassata . laminae frontales distantes , humiles , ultra oculos prolongatae , sulcum antennalem limitantes . thorax superne sine suluris , pronoto metanotoque longe bispinosis . petioli segmentum 1 . postice cum nodo bispinoso seu bidentato ; 2 . globosum . calcaria posteriora simplicia .
miles : caput permagnum , pagina inferiore cum thorace articulatum . clypeus antice medio sinuatus , caeterum ut in operaria . mandibulae superne convexae , inferius excavatae , margine masticatorio duplice , scilicet superiore recto , cultrato , inferiore dente valido armata . laminae frontales magis prominentes ; sulcus antennalis totum scapum accipiens , inde angulatum flexus et usque ad oculum descendens pro receptione baseos flagelli . antennae breviores quam in operaria . thorax superne sine suturis , pronoto inermi , melanoto spinis - longis erectis . pedunculus ut in operaria , nodi 1 . dentibus brevioribus .
j ' etablis ce genre remarquable sur trois especes , dont une seule a ete decrite par f . smith , sous le nom de pheidole notabilis
; elle provient de l ' ile de batjan . les deux autres sont inedites . - a premiere vue , il semble se rapprocher de pheidole
, dont il est bien distinct par la structure du thorax et le mode d ' insertion de la tete sur le corselet , chez le soldat . l ' insertion des antennes , tres rapprochee de la bouche , reduit l ' epistome a ne former a cet endroit qu ' un simple lisere a bord posterieur tranchant , entourant la fossette antennaire , comme chez pristomyrmex
. c ' est avec ces derniers que le nouveau genre me parait offrir les affinites les plus importantes . '
des mandibules sans dents , chez l ' ouvriere , comme chez le soldat . il n ' a probablement pas su voir les petites dents espacees que je trouve aux mandibules de l ' ouvriere , chez mes deux especes nouvelles .
j ' etablis ce genre remarquable sur trois especes , dont une seule a ete decrite par f . smith , sous le nom de pheidole notabilis ; elle provient de l ' ile de batjan . les deux autres sont inedites . - a premiere vue , il semble se rapprocher de pheidole , dont il est bien distinct par la structure du thorax et le mode d ' insertion de la tete sur le corselet , chez le soldat . l ' insertion des antennes , tres rapprochee de la bouche , reduit l ' epistome a ne former a cet endroit qu ' un simple lisere a bord posterieur tranchant , entourant la fossette antennaire , comme chez pristomyrmex . le thorax sans suture ni impression , ainsi que le systeme ' de sculpture , constitue par de grosses fossettes piligeres , rappelle egalement les pristomyrmex . c ' est avec ces derniers que le nouveau genre me parait offrir les affinites les plus importantes . '
f . smith attribue a son p . notabilis des mandibules sans dents , chez l ' ouvriere , comme chez le soldat . il n ' a probablement pas su voir les petites dents espacees que je trouve aux mandibules de l ' ouvriere , chez mes deux especes nouvelles .
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