the common redstart ( phoenicurus phoenicurus ) , or often simply redstart , is a small passerine bird in the redstart genus phoenicurus .

like its relatives , it was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family , ( turdidae ) , but is now known to be an old world flycatcher ( family muscicapidae ) .

common redstart

call of common redstart ( phoenicurus phoenicurus ) 15 sept . 2010 aarsdale , bornholm , denmark
the common redstart is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
flight : common redstart performs agile flight among the trees , and flutters to catch insects from the vegetation .
rutila j , jokimäki j , avilés jm , kaisanlahti - jokimäki ml . responses of parasitized and unparasitized common redstart (
the common redstart is distributed across the western palearctic , where it is generally widespread in europe , becoming less common throughout asia , where it is found as far as northwest china ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .
voice : common redstart calls include the typical “twick - twick” or “hwii - tik - tik” , a plaintive “hwiiit” and a sharp “tchak” .
although the common redstart is not currently considered at risk of extinction , it appears to be declining in some parts of its range ( 1 ) . in central europe , the common redstart is declining in agricultural areas , primarily due to the destruction of traditionally managed orchards ( 9 ) .
description : common redstart is a beautiful passerine , summer visitor in europe . its typical call “twiit - twiit” announces their return in our backyards !
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range : common redstart breeds in europe . it winters in sub - saharan africa , from senegal to ethiopia and kenya , and eastwards to yemen .
common redstart is migratory . the birds leave the breeding territories in autumn , moving from mid - august to early november , and return between late february and early march or april .
the common redstart ( p . phoenicurus ) breeds across temperate eurasia ; the male is gray , with a black face and throat , reddish breast , and red - brown tail .
zuur af , ieno en , elphick c . a protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems .
moksnes a , røskaft e , hagen lg , honza m , mørk c , olsen ph . common cuckoo
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the common redstart preferentially forages in areas of low , sparse vegetation where prey is more accessible , such as under trees at the edges of woodland and in freshly mown meadows ( 9 ) .
the common redstart is a migratory species , leaving the breeding grounds towards the end of august to move to its wintering range in either africa or the arabian peninsula ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
figure 3 . annual cycle of molt , breeding , and migration of the american redstart .
grim t , samaš p , procházka p , rutila j . are tits really unsuitable hosts for the common cuckoo ?
the common redstart is one of our most splendid songbirds and generally easy to observe . since the 1960s it has suffered a great loss of territory , especially in the swiss lowlands north of the alps . in remaining fruit - growing regions often only individual males can be encountered with their melancholy song . the common redstart is a long - distance migrant and passes half the year in the neighbourhood of exotic species in the sahel .
diet : common redstart feeds on invertebrates such as larval beetles of several families , flies , ants , bees , wasps , damselflies , spiders , molluscs and earthworms . they also consume berries and fruits from various plants .
kleven o , moksnes a , røskaft e , rudolfsen g , stokke bg , honza m . breeding success of common cuckoos
rutila j , latja r , koskela k . the common cuckoo cuculus canorus and its cavity nesting host , the redstart phoenicurus phoenicurus : a peculiar cuckoo - host system ? j avian biol . 2002 ; 33 : 414–9 .
pokert , j . and zajíc , j . ( 2005 ) the breeding biology of the common redstart , phoenicurus phoenicurus , in the central european pine forest . folia zoologica , 54 ( 1 - 2 ) : 111 - 122 .
we tested for potential temporal trends in cuckoo and redstart egg laying . first , we conducted exploratory analyses of temporal trends in redstart laying from 2006–2016 because cuckoos are limited in their egg laying by available host nests . potential parameters of host egg laying that could affect the timing of cuckoo egg laying included : median , mean , lower quartile , upper quartile , minimum and maximum of redstart’s first egg - laying dates . we revealed that only the upper quartile ( 75th percentile ) of redstart’s first egg layings ( hereafter : redstart feg upper quartile ) showed a significant trend during 2006–2016 . specifically , redstart nests progressed later in the breeding season with the ongoing years ( see fig .
studies in central europe have identified that areas of high , dense vegetation are unsuited to ground - foraging birds , such as the common redstart . several conservation measures have been proposed to benefit populations of the common redstart in these areas , including preserving patches of sparse vegetation and creating new patches close to potential breeding sites , as well as integrating such practices into agri - environment schemes . an additional suggested management measure is to mow small patches of dense meadow throughout the breeding season to maintain access to suitable foraging areas ( 9 ) .
martinez , n . , jenni , l . , wyss , e . and zbinden , n . ( 2010 ) habitat structure versus food abundance : the importance of sparse vegetation for the common redstart phoenicurus phoenicurus . journal of ornithology , 151 : 297 - 307 .
across 11 breeding seasons , 32 . 5 % of redstart nests were parasitised by at least one cuckoo egg ( table
= 0 . 88 ) . in total 17 redstart nests were parasitised multiple times ( twice in all cases ) .
the common redstart is listed as a uk species of conservation concern ( 11 ) , and is included on appendix ii of the bern convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats , which aims to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitat ( 12 ) .
figure 4 . relative abundance of the american redstart in u . s . and s . canada , 2007 - 2013 .
grim t , rutila j , cassey p , hauber me . experimentally constrained virulence is costly for common cuckoo chicks . ethology . 2009b ; 115 : 14–22 .
a slim , striking bird , the common redstart ( phoenicurus phoenicurus ) has a distinctive bright orange - rufous rump and tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , which are particularly conspicuous in flight and during this species’ characteristic tail - quivering displays ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the male common redstart has bluish - grey upperparts , a black throat , and a black face except for a white forehead and a white stripe extending back from above the eyes . the common redstart is usually orange - rufous on the underparts , shading to buff or white on the belly ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the undertail and wings are brownish ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 6 ) , and the two central tail feathers are blackish - brown . the bill and legs are black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
) . specifically , when more redstart nests were available later in the breeding season , cuckoos on average parasitised later too ( fig .
baker , b . w . 1944a . nesting of the american redstart . wilson bull . no . 56 : 83 - 90 . close
the female common redstart generally lays a clutch of 5 to 7 eggs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 10 ) , which are incubated for 12 to 14 days . the chicks remain in the nest for around 12 to 15 days before they fledge , and are dependant on the adults for a further 10 to 14 days after leaving the nest ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . northern and southern populations of the common redstart exhibit different breeding strategies , with populations at more northerly latitudes raising a single clutch per breeding season , compared with two clutches in the more southern parts of this species’ range ( 2 ) ( 10 ) .
adults and larvae of a wide variety of invertebrates make up the majority of the common redstart’s diet , although it will also feed on berries , fruits and seeds ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . it typically forages from bushes or the lower branches of trees , flying out to pick prey items from the ground and returning to the perch to feed . it very rarely probes or searches in the leaf - litter . the common redstart also makes short sallies after flying insects , and will also pick prey from trunks , branches and leaves , sometimes hovering briefly near vegetation to seek out prey ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
the black redstart is 13–14 . 5 cm ( 5 . 1–5 . 7 in ) in length and 12–20 g ( 0 . 42–0 . 71 oz ) in weight , similar to the common redstart . the adult male is overall dark grey to black on the upperparts and with a black breast ; the lower rump and tail are orange - red , with the two central tail feathers dark red - brown . the belly and undertail are either blackish - grey ( western subspecies ; see taxonomy and systematics , above ) or orange - red ( eastern subspecies ) ; the wings are blackish - grey with pale fringes on the secondaries forming a whitish panel ( western subspecies ) or all blackish ( eastern subspecies ) . the female is grey ( western subspecies ) to grey - brown ( eastern subspecies ) overall except for the orange - red lower rump and tail , greyer than the common redstart ; at any age the grey axillaries and underwing coverts are also distinctive ( in the common redstart these are buff to orange - red ) . one - year - old males are similar to females but blacker ; the whitish wing panel of the western subspecies does not develop until the second year .
small insects and other invertebrates make up most of the american redstart ' s diet . in late summer , they may supplement this diet with berries and seeds .
the following habitats are found across the redstart distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .
we suggest that the redstart is an ideal model system to study the flexibility and limits of brood parasite - host co - evolution in an extreme ecological setting .
annual cycle of molt , breeding , and migration of american redstart in ne . u . s . thick lines show peak activity , thin lines off - peak .
our study recorded a total of 213 cuckoo eggs laid in our finnish redstart population . from these , only every third egg was laid into the nest cup ( table
grim t , samaš p , moskát c , kleven o , honza m , moksnes a , røskaft e , stokke bg . constraints on host choice : why do parasitic birds rarely exploit some common potential hosts ?
howe , h . f . 1974a . a case of age - related territory usurpation in the american redstart . jack - pine warbler no . 52 : 92 . close
habitat : common redstart breeds in various habitats , from open forests with clearings , woodlands and urban parks , to subarctic mountain forests in northern parts of the range . but the species is also found in several types of habitats such as heaths with scattered mature trees , wooded areas along streams , open hilly country with stone walls or monuments for nesting , old gardens , cemeteries and suburban areas .
distribution of the american redstart in north and central america and the caribbean . this species also winters east to the lesser antilles and south to northern south america . see text for details .
) . peak migration rate in american redstart estimated at 44 . 4 and 32 . 5 km / d , respectively , in spring and fall , based on ebird data from 2007–2011 (
cuckoo chicks evict host eggs or chicks by pushing them onto the rim of the nest [ 16 , 21 ] . however , not all cuckoo chicks evicted all host young . in 16 of 81 ( 19 . 8 % ) nests , the cuckoo chick was unable to evict all host young and shared the nest with them . these 16 nests with mixed broods ( cuckoo and redstart chicks cohabiting ) fledged on average 2 . 4 redstart chicks ( range 1–4 ) . in comparison , non - parasitised ( and non - predated ) redstart nests fledged on average 5 . 7 redstart chicks ( range 0–8 ) . twelve out of 16 cuckoo chicks that shared the nest cup with redstart nestlings fledged and 55 out of 65 cuckoo chicks that did not share the nest with redstart chicks fledged ( fisher’s exact test , p = 0 . 46 , cohen’s d = 0 . 33 [ 95 % ci = −0 . 40 to 1 . 07 ] ) . fledging success also did not differ significantly between solitary cuckoos and cuckoos from mixed broods when controlling for other potential predictors of rainfall , daily temperatures and year ( additional file 1 ) .
collar , n . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . common redstart ( phoenicurus phoenicurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
reproduction : breeding season varies according to the range , but occurs in spring . usually , the common redstart’s nest is made in various cavities , holes in trees or in stone walls , roofs… between one and six metres above the ground . the cup is made with grass , roots and moss , and the interior is lined with hair and feathers . the female builds the nest alone while the male sings loudly at close proximity .
lambert , r . , r . k . watson and k . w . winfield . 1985 . american redstart in lincolnshire . br . birds no . 78 : 245 - 246 . close
) , similar to proportions of males found in jamaica wet limestone forest . thus , it is not clear that redstart sexes segregate geographically as opposed to occupying different habitats—a topic for future study .
thomson rl , tolvanen j , forsman jt . cuckoo parasitism in a cavity nesting host : near absent egg - rejection in a northern redstart population under heavy apparent ( but low effective ) brood parasitism .
behaviour : common redstart feeds on invertebrates and berries . it forages in bushes and lower branches in trees . it flies out from a perch to catch some prey on the ground , and returns to the perch to eat it . it often performs short sallies and pursues insects in flight . it also flutters in front of trunks , branches and vegetation , in order to catch invertebrates . usually , the female gleans in foliage whereas the male performs more aerial sallies .
the redstart suffered during the droughts on the 1960s and 1970s in its african wintering grounds , but then changes in woodland management and a reduction in mature woodlands in its breeding areas have reduced the population further .
hunt , p . d . 1998c . evidence from a landscape population model of the importance of early successional habitat to the american redstart . conservation biology no . 12 ( 6 ) : 1377 - 1389 . close
ficken , m . s . and r . w . ficken . 1967 . age - specific differences in the breeding behavior and ecology of the american redstart . wilson bull . no . 79 : 188 - 199 . close
the common redstart usually inhabits areas of open forest and woodland , particularly old oak woodland , as well as parks , large gardens and cemeteries in urban areas ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . it has also adapted to breed in intermediate habitats , such as heaths and commons , along streams and ditches , and in open , hilly country with old stone walls and buildings ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . traditionally managed orchards are an important breeding habitat in central europe ( 9 ) .
the female common redstart is generally duller , mid - brown to grey - brown on the upperparts , and buff - white on the underparts , which are tinged and streaked with orange ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the rump and tail are orange - red , less bright than the male , and the tail has dark central tail feathers ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the female also has a narrow , pale whitish ring around the eyes , a thin , pointed , dark bill and blackish legs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . the juvenile redstart is brownish all over the body , with buff spotting . like the adults , the tail of the juvenile is orange - red ( 2 ) .
sallabanks , r . 1993e . setophaga ruticilla ( american redstart ) . arlington , va : element stewardship abstract report . the nature conservancy , conservation science division , in association with the network of natural heritage programs and conservation data centers . close
the redstart can be found in a number of locations including : africa , asia , china , europe , mediterranean , united kingdom , wales , ynys - hir nature reserve . find out more about these places and what else lives there .
co - evolutionary arms - races result in spatio - temporally dynamic relationships between interacting species , e . g . , brood parasites and their avian hosts . however , majority of avian co - evolutionary studies are limited to “snap - shots” of a single breeding season in an open - nesting host . in a long - term study ( 11 breeding seasons ) , we explored a unique system between the brood parasitic common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) and its host , the common redstart ( phoenicurus phoenicurus ) which is exceptional among all cuckoo hosts due to being a cavity nester . conditions in cavities are different from open nests , e . g . , lower risks of predation , more favourable microclimate , increased risks of unsuccessful eviction of host offspring by the cuckoo nestling . different conditions in cavities thus can be expected to shape parasite - host coevolution differently from what is typically studied in open nesting hosts .
relative abundance of american redstart in u . s . and southern canada , 2007–2013 , based solely on data from breeding bird survey . numbers shown are average number of individuals detected per route per year . see sauer et al . ( 2014 ) for details .
) . nails were inserted after the laying period had finished ; nails allowed free movement of redstart parents but prevented predator access . within parasitised nests , we removed the nails shortly before the estimated fledging time of cuckoos . we cleaned every box after each nesting attempt had finished .
we studied the cuckoo - redstart population nearby ruokolahti ( 61°24 ' n , 28°37 ' e ) in south - eastern finland during 11 breeding seasons ( 2006–2016 ) . this study site is ca . 400 km south from the oulu site studied by thomson et al . [ 24 ] and ca . 160 km south from joensuu sites studied by rutila et al . [ 16 ] . additionally , we conducted egg experiments in a non - parasitised redstart population in bzenec ( 48°56 ' n , 17°15 ' e ) in the czech republic during 2016 . we intentionally created the bzenec study site as a geographical meta - replicate of our finnish site ( i . e . , using identical nest box design and placement in the same habitat , see below ) . we used the czech republic site only for analyses of geographical variation of redstart responses to foreign eggs ( see below ) .
= 137 , including eggs cross - fostered by us ) . the desertion rate of naturally parasitised nests ( 18 . 6 % ) was significantly higher than in control non - parasitised redstart nests followed over the same standard exposure period of six days ( 5 . 6 % ; fisher’s exact test ,
the american redstart is a unique warbler . the male is black with orange patches on each wing , on the sides of its breast , and at the base of its tail on either side . the male ' s throat is black , but its breast and belly are white . the female is gray where the male is black , and yellow where the male is orange . the female also has a white eye - ring . juveniles and first - year males look like females , although first - year males generally have some black on the upper breast or head . the american redstart has a relatively short , wide bill .
presence of the redstart female during experimental parasitism did not significantly influence responses to experimental eggs when desertions were included ( χ 2 = 0 . 66 , p = 0 . 42 ) or excluded ( only ejection as a host ' s response : χ 2 = 0 . 51 , p = 0 . 47 ) .
similar to parasitism rates ( above ) , host egg rejection rates also show remarkably low variation across redstart populations ( considered for each experimental egg treatment separately , to avoid confusing the effect of host - parasite egg similarity ) . naturally - laid cuckoo eggs were never ejected by redstarts in any population studied so far ( table
sherry , thomas w . , richard t . holmes , peter pyle and michael a . patten . 2016 . american redstart ( setophaga ruticilla ) , version 3 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
) . we did not always check for cuckoo eggs on the ground below redstart nests for logistic reasons ( it is often time - consuming to find such mislaid eggs in the dense herbaceous layer around boxes ) , and thus the number of these eggs could be underestimated . predators may also remove eggs on the ground prior to our nest box visits . however , even a thorough search for ‘ground’ eggs might not provide reliable estimates because of the complexity of herb vegetation cover and presence of ground cavities . taking into account multiple parasitism events in some nests , only 12 . 8 % of redstart nests were successfully parasitised from the female cuckoo’s point of view ( table
the redstart will breed almost anywhere : woodland , parks , orchards , heath , gardens , stone walls and quarries . the nest is usually in a hole , either in a tree , wall or rocks , and is cup - shaped and made from dead grass , moss , wool , hair and feathers . the female builds the nest .
= 51 ; cases with estimated periods excluded ) , cuckoo eggs hatched earlier ( 52 . 9 % ; mean = 1 . 3 days , range 1–3 days ) , on the same day ( 33 . 3 % ) or later than redstart host eggs ( 13 . 7 % ; mean = 1 . 3 , range 1–2 ) .
norris , d . r . , p . p . marra , g . j . bowen , l . m . ratcliffe , j . a . royle and t . k . kyser . 2006b . migratory connectivity of a widely distributed songbird , the american redstart ( setophaga ruticilla ) . ornithological monographs no . 61 : 14 - 28 . close
the male shows the female potential nest sites during the early stages of courtship . she tests out many sites by settling into them and moving around , and finally chooses one . the nest is usually supported by the main trunk of a tree or shrub and a few other vertical stems , and well camouflaged by foliage . common nest trees include maple , birch , ash , hawthorn , alder , eastern white cedar , cherry , balsam poplar , and willow .
breeding occurs between april and july ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the male common redstart arrives at the breeding sites first and sets up a territory , followed by the female several days later ( 4 ) . the male performs various courtship displays to attract a female , including crouching and facing a potential mate with its wings raised and the tail fanned , displaying the bright orange - red colouration . it will also show off potential nest sites to the female by perching on or near possible nest holes ( 8 ) . the nest is typically placed one to six metres above the ground , in a hole in a tree , an old stump , among rocks , or in the wall of a building or a nest box . the nest is usually a loose cup of grass , roots , moss and other vegetation , lined with hair and feathers ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
males defend their territory boundaries with songs , posturing , and aerial displays , including one display in which they fly in circles near each other . female sometimes defend the territory against other females . two birds may strike at each other or even grapple with their bills and feet , though they rarely hurt each other . both the male and the female bring food for the nestlings . though normally monogamous , the male may start singing to attract another mate once his first mate has finished laying eggs . he spends more effort providing food for his first nest than for his second . once the chicks leave the nest , the parents divide up the chicks for feeding duty : the female feeds certain chicks while the male feeds the others . foraging adults may be preyed on by raptors such as sharp - shinned hawks , while eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to climbing mammals , snakes , and birds such as blue jays , common ravens , gray jays , common grackles , northern saw - whet owls , cooper’s hawks , and red - bellied woodpeckers . back to top
why do redstarts not eject natural parasite eggs ? cuckoo eggs show perfect mimicry [ 17 ] thus pre - empting egg ejection as a viable host defence strategy [ 24 ] . this may explain why redstarts only desert some parasitised nests , most likely those where they witnessed the cuckoo female laying . discrimination of the cuckoo female as a specific threat is also indirectly supported by observation of higher foreign - egg rejection rates in redstart populations that have higher parasitism rates ( see results ) . further , we found that while redstarts deserted naturally - parasitised nests , they did not desert nests with cuckoo eggs introduced by an experimenter . interestingly , witnessing an experimenter during experimental parasitism by the redstart female did not influence her response which supports the pattern that observing an experimenter by a host female affects host responses only in some host species [ 36 ] .
although american redstarts are still widespread and common throughout their range , they have experienced declines in many regions . some of these declines may be from habitat loss due to natural maturation of forests , but others may be directly or indirectly related to habitat degradation from fragmentation . fragmentation creates more edges , which initially attract more american redstarts because of the increased brush in these areas . later , however , predators and nest parasites are also attracted to edges , resulting in reduced productivity at forest edges . in a study in british columbia , over 63 % of american redstart nests were parasitized by brown - headed cowbirds . in the west , many streamside forests have been eliminated or degraded , which may account for significant declines seen in western populations . habitat destruction on the wintering grounds is also a conservation concern . in addition to natural forests , american redstarts use shade - coffee plantations during the winter ; supporting shade - grown coffee may help protect some of their winter habitat .
british trust for ornithology ( bto ) data collected by volunteers shows that many migrant species appear to be arriving significantly earlier and some are departing for their wintering grounds significantly later # r . spring arrival dates for 11 of 14 common migrants during 2002–2014 averaged ten days earlier than in the mid - 1960s . there was a concurrent tendency towards later departure , although this was only significant for four of 14 species . the median departure date was 4·6 days later in the 2000s than in the 1960s . as suggested by many other studies , these changes are likely to be a response to recent climate warming .
we checked empty nest boxes weekly or bi - weekly . boxes with active redstart nests were checked several times per week ( with the exception of 2011 : therefore we did not include 2011 data into some analyses to avoid biases , see below ) . around hatching time and when cuckoo nestlings were present in the nest , the boxes were visited daily or every second day . during each nest visit we recorded the presence of parents , their activity ( calling , mobbing ) and nest content .
although american redstarts breed primarily in northeast washington , there are a number of western washington records . they are most common from mid - may to mid - august in the far northeastern corner of the state : eastern okanogan , ferry , stevens , and pend oreille counties . they are found ( rarely ) in a few spots on the east slope of the cascades , and in southeastern washington at the base of the blue mountains . migrants , summer residents , and possibly some breeders are also found infrequently in northwestern washington . western washington american redstarts are most commonly seen along the skagit river at the skagit / whatcom county line .
overall , our results on many aspects of cuckoo - redstart biology are quantitatively very similar to those from two other study sites where detailed and similarly designed studies were done [ 16 , 24 ] . thus , our meta - replication approach suggests that results from any of these populations might be reasonably generalised to other sites ( for a similar case see [ 7 ] ) . our study also provides a necessary baseline in natural history data for future more detailed observational and experimental studies of this unusual host - parasite system .
) in cuckoo laying could be explained by this increased host nest availability and also by other potential effects of rain and temperature ( both continuous ; recorded at the day of the parasitism event ) , or yearly parasitism rate ( continuous ) . we detected high collinearity between the predictors of ‘year’ and ‘redstart feg upper quartile’ ( r = 0 . 90 , variance inflation factor ~ 9 ) and therefore included the predictor ‘year’ as a random effect ( conservatively modelled as categorical random effect ) to control for potential temporal between - year variation .
brood parasitic birds and their hosts provide suitable model systems to study co - evolutionary interactions [ 1 ] . parasites diminish their hosts breeding success and hosts defend against such detrimental effects which causes long - term oscillations of adaptations and counter - adaptations [ 2 , 3 ] . the common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) and its hosts have been thoroughly studied under this scenario [ 4 ] . however , the vast majority of cuckoo studies have been done in open nesting hosts [ 5 – 7 ] , and mainly those breeding in reed beds [ 8 – 14 ] . additionally , theoretical models , their assumptions and predictions have been explicitly based on studies of open nesting hosts [ 3 , 15 ] .
the duration of the incubation period of cuckoo eggs ( mean ± sd , 13 . 2 ± 1 . 2 , n = 51 ) was significantly shorter than that of redstart eggs in parasitised clutches ( 13 . 7 ± 1 . 2 ; paired t - test : t 50 = 3 . 47 , p = 0 . 001 ) but was similar to the incubation period in non - parasitised clutches ( 13 . 5 ± 1 . 0 , n = 68 ; welch’s t - test : t 110 . 6 = 1 . 64 , p = 0 . 10 ) .
we detected 11 cases where a cuckoo egg was dumped on an incomplete redstart nest containing no eggs . these 11 nests were deserted by redstarts before nest completion and were not included into the overall parasitism rates , or analyses of egg experiments ( following the approach of [ 24 ] ) but were included in an analysis of cuckoo laying dates . we documented six cases when the cuckoo laid her egg after clutch incubation was initiated ( one day after host clutch completion in four cases and about middle of incubation period in two cases ) . the great majority of cuckoo eggs were thus laid during the egg - laying period .
) . we used ca . 350 nest boxes in finland and 100 nest boxes in the czech republic . all nest boxes were specifically designed for the study of cuckoo - redstart interactions . nest box inner dimensions were 10–16 x 9–13 cm x 25–32 cm ( depth , width and height ) with the entrance hole 6–8 cm wide , placed about 1 . 4–1 . 7 m above the ground and attached to the tree trunk by wire . nest boxes were between 50 and 350 m apart , with average distance ca . 100 m . to maximise the data collection we used nails inserted into the nest entrance to prevent predation ( fig .
the redstart gets its name from the constantly flickering , fiery - red tail which the male fans out during courtship displays . he also sings and shows off a potential new nest to win a female‚äôs affection . these attractive cousins of the robin and nightingale , once thought to belong to the thrush family , are now considered to be old world flycatchers . redstarts forage from bushes and low branches , darting out to pick insects out of the air or off the ground . they ' re widespread in europe in a range of woody habitats but they prefer to spend winter in the warmer climes of northwest africa and the arabian peninsula . wales is the best place to see redstarts in the uk .
because of cumulative effects of mislaying , hatching failures and cohabitation with hosts chicks the overall cuckoos’ breeding success ( number of young fledged per egg laid ) was 16 % . this value is similar to 18 % found by [ 16 ] , 14 % reported by [ 24 ] , and 11 % published by [ 48 ] . still , cuckoo fitness may be much lower in regular cuckoo hosts ( e . g . only 4 % in the marsh warbler acrocephalus palustris , [ 8 ] ) . based on this estimate of breeding success and assuming that a cuckoo lays 10–20 eggs per season [ 49 ] , the fitness of one adult redstart - cuckoo female represents only 1–3 successful cuckoo chicks per season .
in our highly parasitised nest - box population ( 32 . 5 % , n = 569 nests ) only 35 . 7 % of cuckoo eggs were laid into the nest cup and incubated by redstarts . host nests shifted availability to later into the breeding season from 2006 to 2016 and cuckoos followed this trend by also shifting their timing of parasitism . although previous studies revealed that redstarts selectively eject experimental non - mimetic eggs ( desertion was not a specific response to foreign eggs ) , the hosts never ejected naturally - laid cuckoo eggs or cuckoo eggs cross - fostered into naturally non - parasitised nests . we solve the long - standing debate about the origin of cuckoo eggs found on the nest rim : we gained the first direct video - recording evidence that eggs found on the nest rim were mislaid by parasites and not ejected by hosts . naturally - parasitised nests were deserted more often ( 18 . 6 % ) than control non - parasitized nests ( 5 . 6 % ) or nests artificially parasitised by us ( 1 . 4 % ) . this suggests that the sight of the laying cuckoo female is the primary cue that triggers egg rejection ( by desertion ) in this host . review of data from this and other study sites ( 10 populations , n = 853 experiments ) demonstrates high variability in rejection rates and shows that populations facing higher parasitism rates reject parasitic eggs with higher frequencies . surprisingly , cuckoo chicks either growing solitarily or with redstart chicks did not differ in their fledging success .
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cramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
in europe , the breeding population is estimated to number 9 , 630 , 000 - 15 , 000 , 000 pairs , which equates to 19 , 300 , 000 - 29 , 900 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms c . 60 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 32 , 100 , 000 - 49 , 800 , 000 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . trend justification : in europe , trends between 1980 and 2013 show that populations have undergone a moderate increase ( ebcc 2015 ) .
severe declines in central europe have been attributed to rainfall patterns in the sahel combined with intensified modern forestry practices ( reducing availability of nest holes ) and interspecific nest - site competition . however the evidence for these is not strong and a partial recovery in britain can not be explained by changes in these factors ( collar and christie 2015 ) . the species may be subject to habitat degradation from pollution effects on forests in this region ( hagemeijer and blair 1997 ) . there is also evidence that in north - west europe the species is subject to deliberate killing ( collar and christie 2015 ) .
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caroli linnaei . . . systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis .
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phoenicurus phoenicurus phoenicurus breeds in europe and northwest africa , east to central siberia and northern mongolia . it typically winters in africa . phoenicurus phoenicurus samamiscus breeds from the south balkans and greece , east to turkmenistan , southern uzbekistan and iran , and generally winters in northeast africa and across the arabian peninsula ( 2 ) .
changes in woodland management throughout its range , such as reducing grazing and tree felling , may potentially allow regeneration of under - storey plants , thereby reducing the suitability of current foraging and breeding habitats ( 11 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . ( 2005 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 10 : cuckoo - shrikes to thrushes . lynx edicions , barcelona .
mobilereference ( 2008 ) the illustrated encyclopedia of european birds . mobilereference , boston .
brazil , m . ( 2009 ) birds of east asia . a & c black publishers ltd , london .
dempsey , e . and o’clery , m . ( 2002 ) the complete guide to ireland’s birds . 2 nd edition . gill & macmillan ltd , dublin .
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singing from high up on oak branches in woodland . no filtering . olympus ls - 12 and sennheiser me66 .
in a sparse pinewood around 100 meters from the baltic sea , that is heard in the background . time not exact but it was completely dark .
recorded using a telinga pro v with stereo dat microphone . a very gentle filtering has been used . for an unfiltered recording later the same night , cf xc391868 .
alarming with youngster very close to me , less than one meter , the begging call of the youngster is audible among alarming calls . due to the distance between me and the birds i guess this is a
panic
call rather than a simply
alarm
call .
song close to a birdhouse in a tree close to a farm . some phrases while hovering in front of the birdhouse .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
13–14·5 cm ; 11–23 g . male nominate race is bluish - grey from mid - crown to back and wings , with black face and throat , white band above forehead extending as . . .
song , by male on breeding grounds ( occasionally in winter quarters ) , commonly from within foliage . . .
open forest and woodland , including old parkland and park - like gardens , forest clearings and . . .
invertebrates and berries . animal food includes adult and larval beetles of at least 13 families , adult flies of at least ten families , . . .
end apr to mid - jul in w europe , up to 2 weeks earlier in s europe ; late may to late jun in n finland ; may–jul in morocco ; usually . . .
migratory . in autumn , populations from w , c & n europe move through iberia over extended period . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . in mid 1990s , european population estimated at 1 , 962 , 293–3 , 369 , 902 pairs ( most in finland , france , germany and romania ) , while . . .
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often subdivided into three genera , with recognition of rhyacornis ( for p . fuliginosus and p . bicolor ) and chaimarrornis ( for p . leucocephalus ) , but recent molecular studies # r # r # r # r # r show that arrangement to be paraphyletic . one option is to recognize a further genus , adelura ( for p . frontalis , p . schisticeps , p . coeruleocephala and p . erythronotus ) , which name has priority over phoenicuropsis for this clade # r # r . here , a more conservative course is taken , whereby all relevant species are treated in phoenicurus .
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : phoenicurus phoenicurus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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adult male has dark blue - grey back and wings . rump and outer rectrices are orange - rufous , whereas central rectrices are blackish . on the underparts , breast and flanks are orange - rufous . belly and undertail coverts are buffy - white . on the head , face , chin and throat are black . nape is dark blue - grey . forecrown is white above the forehead , extending above the eyes and melting into the nape . bill is black . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are blackish .
female has brown upperparts with orange - rufous rump . tail is as in male . underparts are dull orange tinged creamy - white . head is brown and lacks the white patch on the crown . she is duller overall .
juvenile is brown with buffy - white spotting overall . tail is as in adults . flight feathers are dark brown with buffy edges .
we find two subspecies , “ phoenicurus ” and “ samamisicus ” . the latter shows white edges on secondary and tertial flight feathers , forming an indistinct wing - patch .
the song by the male is a sweet melancholy series of two phrases , the first with clear whistled notes , and the other with mix of squeaks , hard and buzzy notes . it may utter several phrases per minute , or a single continuous song . female rarely sings . aggressive call against intruders is a harsh warbler . after mating , the male gives its sweet song in flight .
it winters in semi - arid thorny steppes , thickets , dry open woodlands and riverine gardens , up to 2000 metres of elevation . during the migrations , it may be seen in more scrubby areas , in palm groves and tamarisks .
male is conspicuous by its plumage , but also by the shivering tail following all the body movements . the tail moves up and down and very quickly .
at the beginning of the breeding season , the male sings much more and performs short flights . the female adopts an upright stance , while the male approaches with quivering and raised wings , fanned tail dropped against the ground or the branch where they perch , in order to display the bright colours of the rump and outer rectrices , and of the breast . in the same way , the pure white head patch is displayed too .
the male chooses the nest - site and then , it has to attract a female . it stays in the cavity with only the head and the breast outside or on the contrary with the fanned tail outside . it also performs zigzag flights among the trees and at the end , sometimes copulation occurs . these displays may last until the beginning of the incubation .
female lays 5 - 7 pale blue eggs , sometimes speckled dark reddish . incubation lasts about 12 - 14 days . chicks have dark grey down on head and back . they are fed by both parents .
young fledge about 15 - 18 days after hatching , and adults feed them for three weeks more . the female may start a second brood while the male feeds the first young which are independent at one month . they remain in small groups of 2 - 3 birds and disperse in gardens .


maids causeway ( foaled 11 march 2002 ) is an irish-bred , british-trained thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .

as a two-year-old in 2004 she won three of her seven races including the sweet solera stakes and rockfel stakes as well as being placed in both the may hill stakes and the fillies ' mile .

as a three-year-old she finished second in the classic 1000 guineas and then recorded her biggest win in the coronation stakes .

at the end of the year he was bought by sheikh mohammed and retired from racing to become a broodmare .

her name has always been rendered without an apostrophe .

maids causeway

maids causeway also won the g3 sweet solera stakes and g2 rockfel stakes , both at newmarket .
sorry , we don ' t have any sale or race data for maids causeway ( ire ) .
she is . . . just like her father . maids causeway is by giant ' s causeway , who was nicknamed the iron horse for his resilience .
* outstanding filly maids causeway has been sold and will be retired to sheikh mohammed ' s dalham hall stud in england .
nor was hills concerned that maids causeway had sweated up before the race . there is nothing wrong with that , which is normal for her , ” he said .
giant’s causeway’s first crop included 15 stakes winners who earned more than $ 15 million during their careers , highlighted by the aforementioned trio but also including such graded and group stakes luminaries as aragorn , maids causeway , and naissance royale .
, my typhoon , and maids causeway ; and english - bred classic winner footstepsinthesand , ensuring his continued popularity . most of his early runners excelled on turf , but grade i winners
maids causeway was the first to win the race once its status had been raised to group three and she certainly justified the raceplanners decision by finishing second in the guineas and winning the coronation stakes .
giant ' s causeway is a chestnut horse bred in kentucky by orpendale & michael tabor .
giant ' s causeway - courtly queen , by mr . prospector cover sire : cherokee run
yorgunnabelucky ( c giant’s causeway ) 5 wins ( 10f - 14f ) at 3 and 4 .
red giant ( c . by giant ' s causeway ) . 6 wins . see below .
on saturday ' s card barry also trained the ultra - consistent maids causeway , ridden by his other jockey - son michael , to take the seven - furlong owen brown rockfel stakes . having backed her , i thought i had done my money when she
velikiy zevs ( c giant’s causeway ) 2 wins ( 6f - 7f ) at 2 and 4 .
guess we ' ll never know the answer . but at york racecourse on friday a three - year - old filly called maids causeway demonstrated just how tough and resilient the modern day equine athlete is when she won the featured coronation despite losing a horseshoe just before the finish .
maids causeway got home by only a short head after a tremendous battle through the final furlong , encouraging her trainer to say : “she is tough , really tough and brave and i would not mind trying a mile and a quarter with her . ” hills mentioned the champion stakes in that context .
maids causeway ( ire ) ch . f , 2002 { 19 - b } dp = 7 - 1 - 34 - 4 - 0 ( 46 ) di = 1 . 19 cd = 0 . 24 - 11 starts , 4 wins , 4 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 647 , 260
while storm cat never quite reached the heights of northern dancer or mr prospector as a sire of sires , his sons have still consistently done well at stud . his greatest sire son is giant’s causeway , a triple champion sire in the usa . to date , giant’s causeway has sired over 117 stakes winners , including such gr1 winners as frost giant , footstepsinthesand , shamardal , maids causeway , heatseeker , eskendreya and aragorn . he is also establishing himself as a successful sire of sires ( shamardal , first samurai etc ) , and top broodmare sire . already giant’s causeway daughters have produced such gr1 winners as beauty parlour , soft falling rain , verrazano and planteur .
1 . mtr : jordan - a 2 . mtr : causeway bay - f 3 . mtr : jordan - b1
maids causeway , runner - up in the 1 , 000 guineas and fifth in the irish equivalent , gained a well deserved first success of the season in a tremendous finish with karen’s caper , who had been fourth at newmarket , in the coronation stakes to give barry and michael hills their second successes of the meeting .
giant ' s causeway is named after the giant ' s causeway , a natural formation in county antrim , ireland . it consists of some 40 , 000 interlocking basalt columns and has been designated as a unesco world heritage site . in irish legend , the causeway was built by the irish giant fionn mac cuimhaill so that he could meet the scottish giant benandonner in combat .
giant ' s causeway ( born february 14 , 1997 ) is a kentucky - bred thoroughbred racehorse who competed primarily in europe .
while nureyev’s male line may be faltering , there is no danger of the great stallion disappearing from pedigrees anytime soon – in fact , there are an increasing number of top horses inbred to nureyev . this number includes kzn fillies guineas winner amanee , australian classic winners gondokoro and zabeelionaire , coronation stakes heroine maids causeway , and champion sprinter lankan rupee .
the giant ' s causeway filly was sold in a private deal prior to the tattersalls december sale where she was catalogued for sale .
storm cat’s european g1 winners included aljabr , denebola , giant’s causeway , hold that tiger , mistle cat , one cool cat and sophisticat .
maid ' s causeway won the g1 coronation stakes at york in june but was injured in the race and was subsequently listed for the newmarket sale .
giant ' s causeway is the sire of first samurai , 2000 guineas winner footstepsinthesand , 1000 guineas and coronation stakes winner ghanaati , maids causeway , oonagh maccool , my typhoon , aragorn , rite of passage , heatseeker , and noble causeway among others . in 2007 , his son mike fox won canada ' s most prestigious horse race , the gi queen ' s plate and red giant won the $ 1 million virginia derby . his best offspring so far was from his first crop in 2004 . shamardal was the european champion two - year - old colt that year and returned the following year to claim the poule d ' essai des poulains , the prix du jockey club and the st . james ' s palace stakes .
* chile ' s horse of the year in 2003 - 04 isola piu bella has been retired and will be served by giant ' s causeway in 2006 .
and as he has a mare who is in foal ( with a colt ) to this filly’s sire giant’s causeway , he thinks his luck could not be better .
was headed by penkenna princess inside the east furlong but the chestnut filly is a true daughter of her sire , giant ' s causeway , who always relished a fight she came again and stuck her head out on the line to win by a short head . there may be others more obviously qualified for the 1 , 000 guineas next may , but she has already proved she stays a mile and she has that precious capacity to battle . michael hills reminded us that the last time he won the rockfel , on hula dancer in 1999 , the filly went oil to win the irish 1 , 000 . whatever maids causeway does now in her racing career , you would want to have one like her afterwards . sharnardal , too , is by giant ' s causeway .
in the spring of 2000 , giant ' s causeway won the gladness stakes at the curragh and then finished second in both the 2000 guineas and the irish 2000 guineas .
nor was that of john gosden ' s playful act in the fillies ' mile . however , she put up a pleasing effort to make all in a time only fractionally slower than perfect performance ' s . in beating maids causeway a length , she did not have to do any more than when taking the may hill last time but she looks game and her pedigree makes her look an oaks candidate . her brother percussionist was fourth in the derby .
in 2005 , when his first ashford stud - bred runners began their racing careers , giant’s causeway’s son shamardal had already received the cartier award as europe’s champion 2 - year - old male the year before ( shamardal’s dam , the machiavellian mare helsinki , was bred to giant’s causeway in ireland before returning to kentucky and foaling shamardal in 2002 ) .
giant ' s causeway ( usa ) ( chestnut 1997 - stud 2001 ) . 9 wins - 3 at 2 , royal ascot st james ' s palace s . , gr . 1 . champion japan sire ( aei ) , 2009 - 10 . sire of 1127 rnrs , 729 wnrs , 106 sw , inc . shamardal ( chantilly prix du jockey club , gr . 1 ) , rite of passage , aragorn , our giant , giant oak , first samurai , ghanaati , my typhoon , swift temper , creative cause , eishin apollon , eskendereya , red giant , frost giant , heatseeker , maids causeway , carriage trail , etc .
. such performances combined with impeccable bloodlines and conformation naturally led to great expectations at stud , which giant ' s causeway fulfilled by leading the american general sire list three times .
in the 2000 breeders ' cup classic ( gr . i ) in his first try on dirt . that effort gave coolmore reason to think that giant ' s causeway would appeal to american breeders as well as to european horsemen , and so giant ' s causeway moved to coolmore ' s kentucky facility , ashford stud , for his second northern hemisphere breeding season .
coolmore ' s judgment proved well founded , as giant ' s causeway sired 149 named foals in his first northern hemisphere crop—15 of them stakes winners . that crop contained european champion juvenile male
the giant ' s causeway stakes is a listed race at keeneland for fillies and mares aged 4 and up . as of 2018 , it is carded at 5 . 5 furlongs on turf .
supremo ; sendawar ; keeneland january ; maid ' s causeway ; rock hard ten ; isola piu bella ; shadeed ; kitten ' s joy ; high yield ; wildcat heir ; borrego ; singletary .
dubbed the “iron horse” by his european fans after winning six group 1 races and earning more than $ 3 million , giant’s causeway has lived up to that nickname and then some as a sire .
despite his 3 - year - old son winning cause’s win april 20 at keeneland in the coolmore lexington stakes , it is probable that giant’s causeway will not be represented in the kentucky derby on saturday .
giant’s causeway’s best chance for a classic win this spring may come in europe with coolmore’s tableaux , who broke his maiden in the group 2 prix noailles at longchamp two days after winning cause won the lexington .
foaled in kentucky , giant ' s causeway was bred by orpendale and michael tabor . he raced for susan magnier and michael tabor . he was trained by aidan o ' brien . he entered stud at coolmore stud in county tipperary , ireland , before moving to ashford stud in kentucky . he shuttled to australia and argentina as well . giant ' s causeway died at ashford in april 2018 after a brief illness .
for her permission to use her portrait of giant ' s causeway . please do not copy or distribute this photo without her permission . if you would like to contact her , send me an e - mail at
the niarchos family ' s amazing performer , trained in france by pascal bary , continued to thrive in 2005 , landing two french classics , the poule d ' essai des pouliches ( french 1 , 000 guineas ) and the prix de diane ( french oaks ) , as well as the group one prix d ' astarte at deauville before her career came to a premature end when she sustain ed a tendon injury in the prix jacques le marois . her rivals in the cartier three - year - old filly award were eswarah , maids causeway , shawanda and virginia waters .
as a two - year - old in 1999 , giant ' s causeway was unbeaten in three races : a maiden race at naas , the futurity stakes at the curragh and the prix de la salamandre at longchamp .
, a successful regional sire in new york ; and to pearling , dam of multiple group i winner decorated knight ( by galileo ) . in addition , giant ' s causeway is a half brother to love me only ( by
when giant’s causeway was retired to coolmore’s irish division for the 2001 breeding season , he immediately became one of the most sought - after young sires of his era due to his excellent pedigree and his even - better ability as a racehorse .
shipped once again to kentucky to stand the 2002 northern hemisphere season at ashford stud in versailles after one season in ireland , giant’s causeway rose to the upper echelon of the north american general - sire list by the mid - 2000s and has remained there ever since .
a chestnut horse , giant ' s causeway stood 16 . 1 hands . he was an attractive , muscular horse with a strong body and an excellent hind leg . he was a thoroughly game and genuine competitor on the race course although he tended to sweat up before his races .
internallyflawless ( giant ' s causeway ) . 2 wins - 1 at 2 - at 1m , 9f , us $ 275 , 598 , del mar oaks , gr . 1 , 2d hollywood miesque s . , gr . 3 , 4th del mar san clemente h . , gr . 2 .
to date , giant ' s causeway has sired 108 stakes winners worldwide and amassed progeny earnings of $ 81 . 7 million , making him the leading sire in both categories among storm cat ' s sons . indirectly , he is also partly responsible for the success of his stakes - placed full brother
shamardal’s performance was merely the beginning , however , as by midsummer , giant’s causeway’s footstepsinthesand had captured the english 2000 guineas and the regally bred my typhoon , a future grade 1 - winning millionaire out of urban sea and foaled in ireland , picked up her first two stakes wins on the mid - atlantic circuit .
giant ' s causeway is the first coolmore stallion based at ashford stud to be honored by a statue , although other stallions have had statues erected in their honor at coolmore ' s irish and australian facilities . the life - sized bronze is the work of english artist charlie langford and was unveiled at ashford in april 2016 .
giant ' s causeway and freud are both out of multiple grade ii winner mariah ' s storm , a daughter of the late rahy from the grade iii - winning roberto mare immense . the family descends from harry isaacs ' foundation mare itsabet , also the ancestress of champions or highweights dearly precious , banks hill , intercontinental , dansili ,
giant’s causeway’s stature is such that a full brother with a modest race record ( freud ) can receive enough support to become one of the most productive regional sires in the united states ( at sequel stallions in new york ) , and lightly raced progeny such as stonesider also can gain a foothold in the u . s . market as stallions .
although winning cause may skip the kentucky derby , his genetic foundation suggests that he could perform very well over any surface as he continues to develop . in this , he is but the latest member of a versatile cohort of giant’s causeway runners destined to maintain their sire’s position at or near the top of the north american rankings for the foreseeable future .
in 2001 , giant ' s causeway entered stud at coolmore stud in ireland , then the following year was sent to stand at coolmore ' s australia branch . his success led to the stallion going to coolmore ' s u . s . unit , ashford stud in versailles , kentucky . in 2006 , he stood for a fee of $ 300 , 000 . .
named after the tudor royal residence , the inaugural running of the st james’s palace stakes in 1834 was a walkover for the derby winner plenipotentiary . this race features the best milers from the classic generation , often attracting horses that have run in the english , french and irish 2 , 000 guineas , with a succession of famous winners from brigadier gerard to giant’s causeway .
bred in kentucky by galleria bloodstock , the 3 - year - old colt was purchased by demi o’byrne for $ 330 , 000 at the 2011 keeneland september yearling sale and is out of the multiple stakes - winning hansel mare golden antigua , whose 2004 foal by giant’s causeway , giant gizmo , won two grade 3 stakes and earned more than $ 500 , 000 .
color : dk ch ( usa ) 13 - 9 - 4 - 0 , $ 3 , 078 , 989 . nick - named the iron horse for his toughness . loves a battle and led an active 3yo campaign , winning 5 consecutive group i races , and was just held in the breeders cup classic when rider mick kinane lost hold of the reins and got the whip caught in the reins . won : sussex s . ( gr . 1 ) , eclipse s . ( gr . 1 ) , champion s . ( gr . 1 ) , juddmonte int . s . ( gr . 1 ) , prix de la salamandre ( gr . 1 ) , st jamess palace s . ( gr . 1 ) . haras en 2001 . sire of aragorn , first samurai , footstepsinthesand , maids causeway , shamardal , naissance royale , oonagh maccool , diamond omi , my typhoon , primary , and many more champions to come . breeder : orpendale & michael tabor . foaled february 14 , 1997 ( ky ) ( close )
more auspiciously in 2005 , giant’s causeway’s emerging juveniles proved that shamardal’s juvenile success in 2004 was no fluke . in late summer and into the fall , first samurai captured grade 1 stakes at saratoga and belmont , while frost giant shipped to ireland to win a group 3 stakes . both are now young sires at claiborne farm and at new york’s keane stud , respectively , and have gotten off to promising starts .
the “iron horse” of european racing in 2000 , giant ' s causeway ran in eight consecutive english or irish group i races that year , winning five and running second in the other three . he then came across the atlantic to turn in a brilliant performance in the breeders ' cup classic ( usa - i ) , losing by only a neck to 2000 american horse of the year tiznow in a thrilling stretch duel
in 2011 , giant’s causeway ranked fourth on the general - sire list , but he recaptured the top spot in 2012 , as his overall progeny earnings passed the $ 100 million mark . as of april 23 , he sat right behind war front in sixth on the general - sire list with more than $ 2 . 86 million in progeny earnings , but he takes a backseat to no stallion in terms of contemporary influence .
no one could have predicted it at the time , but giant’s causeway’s final start – in which he returned to kentucky and finished a valiant second to tiznow in the 1 1 / 4 - mile breeders’ cup classic at churchill downs , his only career start on dirt – would prove to be a harbinger of his ultimate success at stud , with his name coming to represent bedrock bloodstock traits such as durability , versatility , and stamina .
he has produced superior runners over all surfaces and distances but , as befits his nickname , has done especially well as a sire of horses who welcome a route of ground . that makes it all the more notable that giant’s causeway has not yet sired a u . s . classic winner , although bad luck certainly played a role in 2010 , when likely kentucky derby favorite eskendereya missed the race due to injury and was subsequently retired .
storm cat would eventual sire no fewer than 27 gr / gp1 winners , including five breeders cup winners . his progeny performed well in both north america and europe , and included official champions giant’s causeway , storm flag flying and sweet catomine . while storm cat never sired a kentucky derby winner , his son tabasco cat won the 1994 gr1 preakness stakes and gr1 belmont stakes , and sons bluegrass cat and cat thief were second and third in the kentucky derby respectively .
giant ' s causeway and his siblings are out of multiple grade ii winner mariah ' s storm , a half sister to french group ii winner panoramic ( by rainbow quest ) and japanese stakes winner air zion ( by groom dancer ) . mariah ' s storm is also a half sister to sun blush ( by ogygian ) , dam of restricted stakes winner relinquish ( by rahy ) and third dam of grade ii winner guys reward , and to tinaca ( by manila ) , dam of multiple grade ii winner quest star ( by broad brush ) .
his winning sequence was broken in the queen elizabeth ii stakes at ascot on 23 september , when he was beaten half a length by observatory . on his final racecourse appearance , giant ' s causeway was sent to the united states to contest the breeders ' cup classic at churchill downs in which he raced on dirt for the first time . starting at odds of 7 . 6 / 1 he was beaten a neck into second place by the american colt tiznow , with the other beaten horses including captain steve , lemon drop kid , fusaichi pegasus and cat thief .
barnwell priory was founded in 1092 , originally on castle hill , but later moved to area now known as riverside , by the elizabeth way bridge . there is little left now apart from a church , st andrews the less , and a building known as the cellarer ' s checker ( see right ) . there were many other religious houses founded in cambridge , including st rhadegund ' s nunnery , which gave its name to maid ' s causeway , and later became jesus college . king john granted a charter to cambridge in 1201 . the city council still own the charter of 1207 .
in 1614 , cambridge needed a new water supply . thomas hobson built a causeway bringing water from springs at nine wells near shelford outside cambridge into the city centre . the channels still run along trumpington street ( see right ) , although the conduit fountain has been moved from the market place to the corner of lensfield road ( see left ) . thomas hobson hired out horses , but hirers had to take the horse closest to the door . this led to the expression
hobson ' s choice
meaning
no choice
! there is a hobson street in the centre of cambridge .
cambridge is most famous for its historic university . however , cambridge is far older than the university .
the original settlement was north of the river , on castle hill . there is evidence for pre - roman activity in the area , but the romans built the first town . it was a convenient crossing point of the river cam , on the edge of the marshy fen land . the town was a port , since it was the head of the navigation of what was then known as the river granta . the area by magdalene bridge is still known as quayside ( see right ) , although now it only has punts . st peter ' s church , halfway up castle hill , has pieces of roman tiles in its walls .
in anglo saxon times , there was a settlement on castle hill , since it could be defended , and another close to st benedict ' s church , or st bene ' t ' s as it ' s known in cambridge . the tower of st bene ' t ' s is saxon ( see left ) , which makes it the oldest building in cambridge . the city at the time was called grantabrycge . at one time it came under danish rule . st clement ' s church is near quayside , and this dedication is common in danish settlements . the great bridge ( later replaced by magdalene bridge ) may have built by king offa ( 756 - 793ad ) . it was the last river crossing until king ' s lynn . cambridge had good trading links to the continent and a market , and became prosperous .
the normans built a castle on castle hill in 1068 . it was particularly important to fortify cambridge , since hereward the wake was defying norman rule nearby in ely . all that is left of the castle is castle mound ( see right ) and a few stones in the grounds of shire hall , off castle hill , belonging to cambridgeshire county council . if you climb to the top of the mound , you get a good view of cambridge . it is the highest point of cambridge , and allegedly , if you go north in a straight line , there is no higher ground until you reach the north pole !
the church of the holy sepulchre ( usually known in cambridge as the round church ) is one of only four round norman church in england ( see left ) . they were built by the knights templar . the round arches are typical of norman church architecture . the leper chapel on newmarket road is another norman chapel .
by now , the town was known as grentebrige or cantebrigge . eventually the name became cambridge . however , the river was still called the granta . someone thought
cambridge must be the bridge over the cam , so the river should be called the cam instead of the granta
, and so the river ' s name was changed ! upstream , where it flows through grantchester , the river is still called the granta . the latin name for cambridge is cantabrigia , which is why degrees are called cantab . this was not the roman name for the town . the roman settlement was called duroliponte .
the first recorded date connected with cambridge university was 1209 , when some oxford students moved to cambridge . peterhouse , the first college , was founded in 1284 . from this point , various colleges were founded . some amalgamated previous colleges , or took over from priories , such as st rhadegund . corpus christi was founded by the guilds of cambridge . as the university grew , trouble broke out between town , the people who lived in cambridge , and gown , the students . the centre of the town was now definitely within the loop of the river , although you can still see older houses on the lower parts of castle hill , such as the cambridge folk museum or museum of cambridge , as it is now called ( see left ) .
another old building is the school of pythagoras in st john ' s college , the oldest university building in cambridge still in active use , but originally a town house .
henry viii removed control of the university colleges from the religious bodies which had previously controlled them . there was a lot building at this time , including most of the splendid gatehouses ( see left ) , and kings college chapel was finished ( see right ) .
oliver cromwell was educated at sidney sussex college , and was elected member of parliament for cambridge in 1640 . previously he had been mp for huntingdon . he became lord protector of england , and beheaded king charles i . after cromwell died , charles ii became king , and cromwell ' s head was displayed as the head of a traitor . the head is now buried in sidney sussex college , but they won ' t say where ! cromwell now has a statue outside the house of commons in london .
william harvey ( 1578–1657 ) discovered the circulation of the blood . he studied at gonville & caius college .
isaac newton ( 1643 - 1727 ) made fundamental discoveries about gravity and light , and invented calculus . he was at trinity college .
charles darwin was at christ ' s college . his book
the origin of the species
described how different animal species could evolve by natural selection .
there were no colleges founded from 1594 to 1800 , and this was a time of decline , both in the university and the town . however , in late victorian times , there were several colleges founded , including the first women ' s colleges ( although degrees were not awarded to women until 1948 ) . the university was developed as a centre of scientific research , based at the cavendish labs and the downing site ( see right ) .
to the south and east . cambridge became a city in 1951 . twentieth century development was mostly to the north , east and south . the size of the city did not grow for some time , because of planning restrictions . there is some striking modern architecture in cambridge , such as the judges institute ( see left ) .
is under consideration , and the university is expanding to the west . for an account of modern cambridge , see
gwydir street - a typical cambridge terrace - its history and what it looks like now .
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when philip robinson dismounted from rakti after winning the 10 - furlong champion stakes at newmarket last october , he said : ' this horse is the best miler in the world ' . in winning the queen elizabeth ii stakes on his first attempt at a mile since his two - year - old days , the big son of polish precedent looks like justifying his jockey ' s lofty opinion of him .
the trouble with rakti is his volatile temperament and an aversion to the starting stalls , which has been partly cured by horse whisperer steve ' yarmy ' dyble , who still accompanies him to the start .
robinson ' s pre - race planning with trainer michael jarvis placed the emphasis on getting a good start . rakti had broken badly on his two outings since winning the prince of wales stakes so impressively at the royal meeting here in june and he was quickly into his stride behind blatant , running as a pacemaker for godolphin ' s refuse to bend . rakti was pulling , though not quite so hard as usual , and robinson used his mount ' s tactical speed to steal a march on his rivals in the home straight .
lucky story came out of the pack to be a half - length second but appeared flattered by the winning margin . his trainer mark johnston was understandably delighted . ' that shows that lucky story is what we always thought he was and that his bad run at longchamp last time was just a blip . ' refuse to bend stayed on to be placed for the first time in his career .
a fourth group one in a row was not to be for 5 - 2 favourite soviet song , who looked as though she might be feeling both the fast ground - it was extremely firm in the home straight - and the effects of a long season as she finished sixth .
as he contemplated future plans for his star , jarvis reiterated what a difficult horse rakti is , saying : ' he is a horse of moods but he has been in a good mood all day , went down to the start quietly and was able to get a good position early . '
there is a possibility that rakti will go for the breeders ' cup mile in texas next month , for which he will need to be supplemented . jarvis is also considering a race in tokyo in november before the hong kong cup at sha tin in which his horse was second to falbrav last year . the target is unsure but dyble had better have his suitcase ready .
after pivotal point had beaten airwave easily by three lengths in the gner diadem stakes , his trainer peter makin was also unsure of the next target saying : ' the prix de l ' abbaye is the race i would love to win before i die . ' he will have wait to see what the ground is like at longchamp on sunday . if it is soft he will not run .
frankie dettori , who was later to be presented with the first - place marker from the winners ' enclosure as a memento of his magnificent seven winners on the day eight years ago , gave the crowd a winner straight away in the royal lodge when driving perfectperformance to a length - and - a - half win from jamie spencer on scandinavia .
the consistent third wilko , who met trouble in running , makes the form looks solid though the fact that under eight lengths covered the field suggests that this was not an earth - shattering display .
gosden has already planned well ahead , saying : ' she will go straight to the 1 , 000 guineas before the oaks . '
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secretariat ( horse ) , michael kinane , st . james ' s palace stakes , eclipse stakes , sussex stakes , international stakes , sinndar , john magnier , dubai millennium , irish champion stakes
futurity stakes ( 1999 ) prix de la salamandre ( 1999 ) gladness stakes ( 2000 ) st . james ' s palace stakes ( 2000 ) eclipse stakes ( 2000 ) sussex stakes ( 2000 ) juddmonte international stakes ( 2000 ) irish champion stakes ( 2000 )
he then won five straight group one races : the st . james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot , the eclipse stakes at sandown park , the sussex stakes at goodwood , the juddmonte international stakes at york and the irish champion stakes at leopardstown .
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. . . g building which served as the railway station of teignmouth . the fine bay
stood patiently enduring the attacks of hosts of winged foes , too we . . . . . . t a week old . ” “no one saw it happen , ” said fred ; “he went out riding , his
came home without him , and he was lying by the side of the road . ” “di . . . . . . in our gig , and i suppose fred and i had better go back with him . ” “is the
steady ? ” asked his aunt , anxiously . “dumple ? to be sure ! never does w . . . . . . is a beautiful bit of stick crusted over . ” “it is a perfect little giant’s
, ” said henrietta ; “do look at these lovely little columns , fred . ” . . .
! ”—that shout the vassal heard , a . . . . . . n that glorious day . joy sparkeled in the prancing courser’s eyes ; the
are a happy pair ; but , though sir walter like a falcon . . . . . . eft sir walter’s hall , that as they gallop’d made the echoes roar ; but
and man are vanish’d , one and all ; such race , i think , was never se . . . . . . . iv . a narrow girdle of rough stones and crags , a rude and natural
, interpos’d between the water and a winding slope of copse and . . .
be saddled at break of day and mine arms ready . for i would be movi . . . . . . great forest and looked in the way before him and saw the slot of the king’s
and followed the track a long space , until 16 the high history of . . . . . . lack and foul— favoured , and he was somewhat taller afoot than was himself a
. and he held a great sharp knife in his hand with two edges as . . . . . . not how the land lay nor the paths therein . he rode until he found a little
, and there was a path at the side that led to an orchard that wa . . .
hooves and the sobs died in her throat becau . . . . . . that she could not see or , she hoped , be seen . ‘well what have we here ? ’ the devil asked , for his
had stopped near her tree and he was untying . . . . . . or supper . here , wear my jacket , you are shivering , poor child . ’ gavin had lifted helen onto his
, one arm holding her tight around her waist , . . . . . . il to surprise me . am i marrying a little amazon ? ah , here we are . ’ the carriage turned into the
linking the palace to the city . on either . . . . . . anded the envelope to the servant . the next day , the residency phaeton conveyed helen across the
to another part of the palace . huge carved . . . . . . r beloved great granddaughter ? gavin held helen close , as their carriage made its way across the
might be un - touched , and convey his master to a place of safety . bu . . . . . . , at a place which is still called dalry , or the king’s field . many of the
were killed by the axes ; and james douglas and gilbert de la haye we . . . . . . him , up a narrow , steep path , and placed himself , with his armor and heavy
, full in the path , protecting the retreat with his single arm . it was . . . . . . stand by one another to the last . these gauls were probably not tall , bony
, like the pillagers of rome ; their appearance and character would be . . . . . . ening whether there were any sounds behind , until , on the broad hard - paved
. happily a bush was . . . . . . ent island , called isla verde , which they had connected with the city by a
. their forti - fications , always admirable , have existed ever since . . .
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the albany stakes is a group three race run at royal ascot over six furlongs for two - year - old filles and could well throw up a potential contender for the 1000 guineas the following season . established in 2002 , the race was originally run as a listed contest , but was then promoted to its current status in 2005 and is now one of the highlights on the fourth day of royal ascot .
mick channon is certainly a trainer to watch out for in this race and since its inception the former england international footballer has bagged three victories in the contest and trained his first winner in 2003 with silca’s gift . channon then teamed up with jamie spencer and the pair then racked up another brace of victories in the albany stakes with nijoom dubai bagging victory in 2007 before samitar completed the trilogy in 2011 to cement the duo’s name in the roll of honour .
arguably , the finest winner of the race came in 2010 when richard hannon’s memory stormed to victory at the royal meeting , but all didn’t go to plan for the filly afterwards , as she went on to flop in the 1000 guineas as she decided to stay put when the stalls opened and she finished last .
even though no classic winner has come out of the race in the first decade , it is sure to attract some top notch runners as it gains more prestige and it shouldn’t be long before potential guineas fillies will be utilising this contest as a springboard to bigger and better things .
the wolferton rated stakes handicap is a listed race run at royal ascot over one mile , two furlongs for horses aged four years or older . taking place on the fourth day of the five - day meeting , this contest allows the horses that drop just below group level to try and bag a royal victory and it is fiercely competitive with double - figured fields lining up for what is another tricky conundrum for punters in the horse racing calendar .
attracting the older horses in training this race can sometimes be used as a springboard to group races , but a lot of the competitors could well be gradually dropping down the ratings and are dropped into handicap company to try and notch up a victory and grab the coveted prize .
sir michael stoute has a decent record in the race and the legendary trainer has saddled two winners in the last decade as he first sent out imperial stride to victory in the 2005 renewal , before perfect stride regained the title for him in the 2009 running , as he fended off the well - fancied godolphin runner moonquake .
michael jarvis’ rainbow peak was sent off a short - priced favourite for the 2010 renewal and the 13 / 8 shot disappoint favourite backers as he stormed to an impressive victory over kings gambit and that pair both went on to bigger and better things to highlight this race’s ability to unearth a star .
other notable winners in the last few renewals include mick channon’s championship point who bagged the prize in 2007 and john gosden’s beachfire who was a gallant winner in 2011 .
the king edward vii stakes is a group two race run at royal ascot over one miles , four furlongs and is open to three - year - old horses . established in 1834 , this contest is one of the highlights on day four of the royal meeting and can sometimes attract runners who have taken part in the epsom derby a few weeks before .
often this contest will be targeted by trainers who want to try their horses out at the longer trips and it is often used as a springboard to group ones later in the season and some notable winners of the king edward vii stakes have gone on to bag much greater achievements .
john gosden’s nathaniel was a classy winner of the 2011 running and he went on to bag more ascot glory by producing a sublime effort to win the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes and cement his place as one of the star three - year - olds .
the top class winners of this race have often been sent over to longchamp at te end of the season and try and grab victory in the prix de l’arc de triomphe to highlight that this is a top class contest .
other notable winners in the past include , monterosso , who won the 2010 running before going on to win the 2012 dubai world cup , whilst royal anthem and mutafaweq are another brace of cracking winners in what is one of the most eagerly - anticipated races of hte five - day royal ascot extravaganza .
the coronation stakes i s a group one race run at royal ascot over one mile and is open to three - year - old fillies . established in 1840 , the race was run to commemorate the coronation of queen victoria and eventually gained group one status in 1988 and is now one of the leading fixtures for fillies throughout the whole season .
taking place on the fourth day of royal ascot the coronation stakes usually attracts many runners who have contested the 1000 guineas earlier in the season and many have managed to bag both events .
one name that stands out in the early decades of the race is pretty polly , who won the 1000 guineas before bagging glory in the coronation stakes and also the epsom oaks and nassau stakes all in the same season .
more recently ridgewood pearl won the irish 1000 guineas en route to royal ascot and breezed to coronation stakes success for trainer john oxx . at the turn of the century russian rhythm won the 2003 renewal after winning the epsom classic before venturing on to glorious goodwood to win the nassau stakes and more group one glory .
attracting more and more european runners it was robert collet’s french raider immortal verse who won the 2011 coronation stakes to show that the race now has a strong international look to it .
the queen’s vase is a group three race run at royal ascot over two miles for three - year - old horses and is one of the highlights on the fourth day of the five - day extravaganza . established in 1838 , the queen’s vase has had various names over the last two centuries , but it has been kept with its current name since 1960 and was eventually handed group three status in 1991 and attracts some of the leading stayers of the classic generation .
trainers will often use the race as a springboard to staying glory later on in their career and it is often seen that contenders in this race will return to royal ascot and the top class horses will take part in the ascot gold cup .
sir henry cecil has a phenomenal record in the contest and the warren place handler saddled his first victory in 1972 when falkland notched up victory in the race , whilst 1999 winner endoresement handed the legendary trainer his eighth winner in the race .
recent notable winners of the race include saeed bin suroor’s mamool , who used his victory in 2002 as a stepping stone to cup races and he managed to bag success in the 2003 yorkshire cup at the ebor festival . mark johnston gained a brace of successes in 2009 and 2011 as holberg and namibian stormed to victory and they went on to be names to follow in the staying division . in 2014 he did it again with hartnell .