echinoderm is the common name given to any member of the phylum echinodermata ( from ancient greek , ἐχῖνος , echinos – " hedgehog " and δέρμα , derma – " skin " ) of marine animals .

the adults are recognizable by their ( usually five-point ) radial symmetry , and include such well-known animals as sea stars , sea urchins , sand dollars , and sea cucumbers , as well as the sea lilies or " stone lilies " .

echinoderms are found at every ocean depth , from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone .

the phylum contains about 7000 living species , making it the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes ( a superphylum ) , after the chordates ( which include the vertebrates , such as birds , fishes , mammals , and reptiles ) .

echinoderms are also the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial ( land-based ) representatives .

aside from the hard-to-classify arkarua ( a precambrian animal with echinoderm-like pentamerous radial symmetry ) , the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the cambrian .

one group of cambrian echinoderms , the cinctans ( homalozoa ) , which are close to the base of the echinoderm origin , have been found to possess external gills used for filter feeding , like chordata and hemichordata .

the echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically .

ecologically , there are few other groupings so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea , as well as shallower oceans .

most echinoderms are able to regenerate tissue , organs , limbs , and reproduce asexually ; in some cases , they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb .

geologically , the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons , which are major contributors to many limestone formations , and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment .

they were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries .

further , it is held by some scientists that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the mesozoic marine revolution .

echinoderm

the evolution of echinoderm development is driven by several distinct factors . - pubmed - ncbi
echinoderm regeneration : an in vitro approach using the crinoid antedon mediterranea . - pubmed - ncbi
larval stages of a living sea lily ( stalked crinoid echinoderm ) . - pubmed - ncbi
though many echinoderm species undergo sexual reproduction , a few species reproduce asexually . the bulk of echinoderm species are diecious , meaning that there are male and female individuals . the type of reproduction that an echinoderm goes through depends on the species and the environment ( mulcrone , 2005 ) .
the diversity and abundance of echinoderm fossils is reflected in the museum ' s world - class collection .
telford et . al . 2014 . phylogenomic analysis of echinoderm class relationships supports asterozoa . retrieved from urltoken
a . a . eaves and a . r . palmer , “widespread cloning in echinoderm larvae , ”
the first characterization of gene structure and biological function for echinoderm translationally controlled tumor protein ( tctp ) .
] . the functional role of myc in echinoderm regeneration is a subject of ongoing research in our group .
the echinoderm coelom has many subdivisions but only the perivisceral coelom and water vascular system will be studied in this exercise .
. each skeletal element of an echinoderm is actually a single crystal of calcium carbonate , very finely branched and structured .
competing hypotheses for the relationships of extant echinoderm classes : a ) asterozoa - echinozoa hypothesis and b ) cryptosyringida hypothesis .
( 1987 ) . echinoderm larval ecology viewed from the egg . in : jangoux m , lawrence jm ( eds )
the first characterization of gene structure and biological function for echinoderm translationally controlled tumor protein ( tctp ) . - pubmed - ncbi
gehling , j . g . 1987 . earliest known echinoderm  a new ediacaran fossil from the pound subgroup of south australia .
are small , snapper - like skeletal elements that are used by the echinoderm to keep small organisms from settling on its body .
littlewood , d . t . j . 1995 . echinoderm class relationships revisited . pages 19 - 28 in echinoderm research 1995 ( r . h . emson , a . b . smith , and a . c . campbell , eds . ) . balkema , rotterdam .
the variety of life histories combined with dependence on an echinoderm host makes myzostomida an interesting lineage in which to explore the evolutionary effects of obligate symbiosis and relationships with their echinoderm hosts . signs of suspected myzostomid infestations have been found on fossilized stalked crinoids from the early jurassic [
echinoderm larvae have the coelom divided into three regions , as is typical of the early coelomates , and these regions have important adult derivatives .
. a data base at the university of bristol containing results of tests to compare cladograms with stratigraphy . several echinoderm data sets are included .
t . motokawa , e . sato , and k . umeyama , “energy expenditure associated with softening and stiffening of echinoderm connective tissue , ”
1 - round echinoderm , with no arms and long spines covering skin 2 - sea urchins or urchins , archaically called sea hedgehogs , are small , spiny , globular animals that , with their close kin , such as sand dollars , constitute the class echinoidea of the echinoderm phylum .
have multiple gonads . echinoderm reproductive strategies vary from free spawning and indirect development to brooding and direct development . spawning is probably a noctural event .
echinoderm envenomations . detail of the crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) . photo courtesy of scott a . gallagher , md .
different types of echinoderm . left to right : starfish , sea cucumber , brittle star , feather star , and top part of a crinoid .
] , the echinoderm species whose genome has been most thoroughly characterized so far . there were 23 , 637 one - way blastx matches between the
papers from the echinoderm conference . 4 . sexual and asexual reproduction of holothuria atra jaeger at heron island reef , great barrier reef - australian museum
d . vaughn and r . r . strathmann , “predators induce cloning in echinoderm larvae . plastic reproductive strategies in a clonal marine invertebrate , ”
the phylum echinoderm ata comprises the starfishes , sea urchins , and their relatives . their internal skeletons are made of porous blocks of calcium carbonate , and they have muscles to work their skeleton . echinoderm s also have a hydraulic system , the water - vascular system , with movable projections from the…
smith , a . b . 1988a . fossil evidence for the relationship of extant echinoderm classes and their times of divergence . pages 85 - 97 in echinoderm phylogeny and evolutionary biology ( c . r . c . paul and a . b . smith , eds . ) . clarendon press , oxford .
eschscholtz at the marshall islands in 1825 , balanoglossus was described as a worm - like animal belonging to the echinoderm order of holothurians or sea - cucumbers .
1 - echinoderm having many feathery arms , usually atop a jointed stalk 2 - crinoids are marine animals that make up the class crinoidea of the echinoderms .
echinoderm distribution and habitat dataset current as of 2009 . aquatic invasive species ( ais ) animal distribution in wisconsin - chinese / japanese / banded mystery snails .
1 - solitary , nocturnal echinoderm , with long , skinny arms for moving 2 - brittle stars or ophiuroids are echinoderms in the class ophiuroidea closely related to starfish .
strathmann rr ( 1971 ) the feeding behavior of planktotrophic echinoderm larvae : mechanisms , regulation , and rates of suspension feeding . j exp mar biol ecol 6 : 109–160
favorable response to crizotinib in three patients with echinoderm microtubule - associated protein - like 4 - anaplastic lymphoma kinase fusion - type onc . . . - pubmed - ncbi
gehling , j . g . 1987 . earliest known echinoderm - - a new ediacaran fossil from the pound subgroup of south australia . alcheringa 11 : 337 - 345 .
an important echinoderm apomorphy is the water vascular system that in most groups functions in support of locomotory tube feet but is also important in gas exchange , excretion , and feeding .
mucronalia , foot reduced , but still operculate , eyes present , animal fixed by its very long proboscis which is deeply buried in the tissues of an echinoderm , no pseudopallium .
echinoderm envenomations . detail of the crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) spines , which may grow to 6 cm in length . photo courtesy of dee scarr .
mashanov vs , zueva or , garcía - arrarás je : radial glial cells play a key role in echinoderm neural regeneration . bmc biol . 2013 , 11 : 49 - [
favorable response to crizotinib in three patients with echinoderm microtubule - associated protein - like 4 - anaplastic lymphoma kinase fusion - type oncogene - positive non - small cell lung cancer .
in most echinoderms calcareous spines of various sizes and shapes arise from the dermis and extend from the body surface and are alluded to by the name echinoderm ( = spiny skin ) .
nakano h , hibino t , oji t , hara y , amemiya s ( 2003 ) larval stages of a living sea lily ( stalked crinoid echinoderm ) . nature 421 : 158–160
echinoderm faunas consisting of many individuals and many species are found in all marine waters of the world except the arctic , where few species occur . echinoids , including globular spiny urchins and flattened
the museum ' s earth science echinoderm research focuses on the diversification and evolution of various groups during the palaeozoic and mesozoic , particularly starfish , brittle stars , crinoids and the extinct edrioasteroids .
1 - round echinoderm , with no arms and short spines covering skin 2 - the term sand dollar refers to species of extremely flattened , burrowing sea urchins belonging to the order clypeasteroida .
1 - spiny - skinned animals with radial symmetry , internal skeleton , but no body segments 2 - echinoderm is the common name given to any member of the phylum echinodermata of marine animals .
aside from the hard - to - classify arkarua ( a precambrian animal with echinoderm - like pentamerous radial symmetry ) , the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the cambrian .
zamora , s . , rahman , i . , & smith , a . ( 2012 ) . plated cambrian bilaterians reveal the earliest stages of echinoderm evolution . plos one , 7 ( 6 ) .
echinoderm envenomations . long - spined sea urchins , such as this diadema species , inflict an acutely painful penetrating injury that may be accompanied by systemic symptoms and chronic wound sequelae . photo courtesy of dee scarr .
daniel a . janies , janet r . voight , marymegan daly ; echinoderm phylogeny including xyloplax , a progenetic asteroid , systematic biology , volume 60 , issue 4 , 1 july 2011 , pages 420–438 , urltoken
1 - sessile crinoids with feathery arms ; live attached by a stalk to seafloor 2 - a sedentary marine echinoderm that has a small body on a long jointed stalk , with featherlike arms to trap food .
this picture represents the bilateral symmetry of the echinoderm larvae . the red line dissects down the middle and divides the larvae into two equal halves . throughout development the bilateral symmetry is lost and becomes radial symmetry .
between the skeletal plates , a number of special structures protrude , with which the echinoderm breathes , moves , and defends itself . typically , these are tube feet , pedicellaria , and gills . all echinoderms have a
after an egg is fertilized , the development of the resulting embryo into a juvenile echinoderm may proceed in a variety of ways . small eggs without much yolk develop into free - swimming larvae that become part of the
if an arm breaks off some echinoderms , a new arm or even a new echinoderm can regrow . some sea stars and brittle stars have the ability to reproduce asexually by dividing in two halves while they are small juveniles .
heinzeller t , welsch u : the echinoderm nervous system and its phylogenetic interpretation . brain evolution and cognition . edited by : roth g , wullimann m . 2001 , new york : wiley - spektrum , 41 - 75 .
ophiuroidea ( brittle stars and basket stars ) : the physically largest of echinoderms ; about 1 , 500 species , the largest echinoderm class . primarily bottom feeders , and have long , narrow arms that allow relatively fast movement .
the fossil under study is a ' primitive ' relative of starfish and sea urchins and belongs to a group of marine animals known as echinoderms . it is thought to lie close to the base of the echinoderm tree of life .
fossil echinoderms were much more diverse in form than living ones . many paleozoic forms , now extinct , had very unusual morphologies . there is still debate over how they fit into the scheme of echinoderm phylogeny ; in fact , some
, or tube feet , which are sucker - like appendages that the echinoderm can use to move , grip the substrate , or manipulate objects . these tube feet are extended and retracted by hydraulic pressure in the water - vascular system .
smith , m . j . , a . arndt , s . gorski , and e . fajber . 1993 . the phylogeny of echinoderm classes based on mitochondrial gene rearrangements . j . mol . evol . 36 : 545 - 554 .
echinoderm envenomations . unlike most starfish that are typically pentamerous , the crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) may have as many as 23 arms and a body disc up to 60 cm in diameter . photo courtesy of dee scarr .
it is estimated that there are up to 13 , 000 extinct species of echinoderms and that the very first echinoderm was alive in the lower cambrian period . this period of time would range from 490 - 540 million years ago . the oldest fossil available is called arkarua . this species was small , round and disc - like with five grooves extending from the center ( echinoderm fossils ) . the first echinoderm was thought to be very simple ( knott , 2004 ) . the organism was motile and bilateral in symmetry . bilateral symmetry means the organism can be cut right down the middle and be split into two equal halves . the echinoderm ancestry later developed radial symmetry as it was thought to be more advantageous to the species . the bilateral symmetry can still be seen in the larvae of echinoderms but once they reach adulthood , they develop radial symmetry . the first picture below shows an echinoderm larvae and the bilateral symmetry is clearly shown . the concept of radial symmetry is clearly illustrated in starfish including the horned starfish ( protoreaster nodosus ) , shown below . species of starfish , like the common starfish , have five radially symmetrical projections projecting from a central disk . these feet have symmetrical outer and inner structures ( zubi , 2013 ) .
the problem of the interrelations of the classes will thus be reduced to its simplest terms , and even questions as to the nature of the primitive echinoderm and its affinity to the ancestors of other phyla may become more than exercises for the ingenuity of youth .
edrioasteroids are extinct , small , pentaradiate echinoderms which lived permanently attached to hard substrates . in collaboration with amateur collectors a new species of edrioasteroid ( primitive echinoderm ) is being described from the silurian of canada , along with an appraisal of its phylogenetic position .
echinoderm regeneration ( sting ) by jingle punks is part of the youtube audio library ( urltoken ) . ──── do you like this video ? subscribe ( urltoken ) and discover new free songs every day ! ──── discover more free music for your intros : urltoken
selenka , 1867 ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) , an established model organism in echinoderm regenerative biology . we injured the radial nerve cord and the surrounding tissues , including the body wall connective tissue , water - vascular canal , and the longitudinal muscle band ( figure
echinoderm envenomations do not represent a significant public health problem , although little epidemiologic data are available . venomous echinoderms are encountered principally in tropical seas . nonvenomous traumatic injuries from echinoderms are not uncommon in the united states , especially in coastal communities where sea urchins live .
mashanov , v . , zueva , o . , & garcia - arraras , j . ( 2014 ) . transcriptomic changes during regeneration of the central nervous system in an echinoderm . bmc genomics , 15 ( 1 ) , 1 - 38 . retrieved from urltoken
source : echinoderm distribution and habitat , aquatic invasive species ( ais ) animal distribution in wisconsin - chinese / japanese / banded mystery snails , published in 2009 , 1 : 24000 ( 1in = 2000ft ) scale , wisconsin department of natural resources ( dnr ) .
echinoderm envenomations . the common and toxic sea cucumber , bohadschia argus , with extruded cuvierian tubules . contact with these sticky white tentaclelike organs or their free - floating fragments may result in intense skin or ocular irritation . photo courtesy of paul s . auerbach , md .
sea stars , also known as “starfish” , are probably the most well known echinoderm of the sea . the common name ‘starfish’ is quickly being replaced by the more accurate term ‘sea star’ . since starfish have no relation to fish , the term ‘sea star’ is preferable .
approximately 13 , 000 echinoderm species are known from the fossil record . all mesozoic and cenozoic forms clearly fall into the five extant clades , but the paleozoic record contains numerous distinct and often bizarre forms that have been placed into approximately 15 additional classes . phylogenetic relationships , and in some cases status as monophyletic groups , remains unclear for the extinct classes . unquestionable echinoderms first appear in the fossil record during the mid - cambrian . arkarua , a possible echinoderm , has been described from the vendian ( latest proterozoic ) ( gehling 1987 ) .
, actively feeding on small organisms until they transform , or metamorphose , into juvenile echinoderms and begin life on the seafloor . larger eggs with greater amounts of yolk may develop into a larval form that is planktonic but subsists upon its own yolk material , rather than feeding upon small organisms , before eventually transforming into a juvenile echinoderm . development involving an egg , planktonic larval stages , and a juvenile form is termed indirect development . echinoderm development in which large eggs with abundant yolk transform into juvenile echinoderms without passing through a larval stage is termed
lacalli tc , kelly sj : anterior neural centres in echinoderm bipinnaria and auricularia larvae : cell types and organization . acta zoologica ( stockholm ) . 2002 , 83 : 99 - 110 . 10 . 1046 / j . 1463 - 6395 . 2002 . 00103 . x .
, many echinoderms have these structures covering their body , the central image is a section through one showing three tooth - like fangs with poison glands below , the one to the left is more forcep - like . the largest of these structures are about 1mm across . it is thought that their main function is to nip at algae and animal larvae of encrusting organisms that might try to settle on the outside of the echinoderm . in some starfish however they can aid in food capture by grasping small fish and shrimps that rest on the echinoderm .
this creature displays an almost unexampled frequency and extent of distribution in the whole north sea , in the western parts of the baltic , near the faroe islands , iceland , greenland and the english coasts , so that it may be regarded as a characteristic north sea echinoderm form .
unlike in most mammals , which require physical contact for the exchange of reproductive materials and undergo internal fertilization , echinoderm species typically release their sperm and eggs right out into the water to make their own way . millions of individual sperm and eggs may be released at one time .
echinoderm distribution and habitat , aquatic invasive species ( ais ) animal distribution in wisconsin - chinese / japanese / banded mystery snails , published in 2009 , 1 : 24000 ( 1in = 2000ft ) scale , wisconsin department of natural resources ( dnr ) . - web page - urltoken
arkarua is a small disc - like fossil , and was described as an echinoderm . if this is correct , then arkarua is the oldest known echinoderm . the fossils preserve what appears to be a five - lobed central region that is interpreted as five ambulacral grooves , which are characteristic of echinoderms . unfortunately , the fossils found in sandstone thus far do not preserve any details of the internal organs . no evidence of a stereom or water vascular system is known for arkarua , and these are considered the diagnostic features for echinoderms , so the identification is still inconclusive .
] for a general review ) . specificity in this system may be promoted through a number of mechanisms . myzostomids may only be capable of infesting certain echinoderm groups , but little is currently known about recruitment and subsequent development of myzostomid larvae . in experimental studies , eeckhaut and jangoux [
1 - echinoderm with soft , oblong body and tube feet arranged in five rows ; has no arms , spines , or endoskeleton 2 - sea cucumbers are echinoderms from the class holothuroidea . they are marine animals with a leathery skin and an elongated body containing a single , branched gonad
byrne m , nakajima y , chee fc , burke rd : apical organs in echinoderm larvae : insights into larval evolution in the ambulacraria . evol dev . 2007 , 9 : 432 - 445 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1525 - 142x . 2007 . 00189 . x .
phylum echinodermata is made up of five classes : asteroidea ( sea stars ) , ophiuroidea ( brittle stars ) , echinoidea ( sea urchins and sand dollars ) , crinoidea ( sea lilies and feather stars ) , and holothuroidea ( sea cucumbers ) . sea stars have the typical echinoderm body plan
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littlewood , d . t . j . , a . b . smith , k . a . clough , and r . h . emson . 1997 . the interrelationships of the echinoderm classes : morphological and molecular evidence . biol . j . linn . soc . 61 : 409 - 438 .
significant local and systemic effects are possible following echinoderm envenomation from any of the three venomous classes , starfish ( asteroidea ) , sea urchins ( echinoidea ) , and sea cucumbers ( holothuroidea ) . however , a clear link between echinoderm envenomation and death ( other than subsequent drowning ) cannot be found in the literature , despite several anecdotal reports of fatalities . [ 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 ] detailed documentation is sparse , and death must be very rare . this is in contrast to poisoning or intoxication following ingestion of certain echinoderms , which has been well documented to result in severe illness and fatality .
the body of an echinoderm has radial organization and is composed of multiple ( usually five ) units , which are arranged as sectors or rays around the central axis connecting the mouth and the anus . each of these radial units is supplied with a set of major organs , which in sea cucumbers ( figure
brittle stars are rapid crawlers and can usually escape from enemies . should a predator manage to lunge for it , however , the brittle star will cast off an arm , leaving the predator with a snack as the echinoderm flees . arms can be regenerated as long as most of the central disc is intact .
interestingly , although most mature echinoderms are benthic ( meaning that they live on the bottom ) , the larvae are usually planktonic with bilateral symmetry . during the process of maturing , the echinoderm will change its body shape from bilaterally symmetrical to radially symmetrical , and in the process , settle down on the sea floor .
the echinoderm nervous system is complex . in all groups , a nerve plexus lies within and below the skin . in addition , the esophagus is surrounded by one to several nerve rings , from which run radial nerves often in parallel with branches of the water - vascular system . ring and radial nerves coordinate righting activity .
in consequence , echinoderm models have the potential to contribute significantly to the understanding of regeneration at the molecular and cellular levels , are good models for in vivo research on regeneration and , owing to the shared ancestry of echinoderms with chordates , findings from these models are likely to have a positive impact on mammalian regeneration research .
mesodermal skeleton : echinoderm’s skeleton is unique to the animal kingdom . it is made up of many tiny plates or spines called ossicles , which are comprised of calcium carbonate . in a typical animal , this would lead to the organism having a heavy skeleton , but in the case of echinoderms , they remain light through a sponge like material called stereom . instead of having a rigid skeleton , the stereom is porous , being comprised of a network of calcium crystals that give an echinoderm its shape and rigidity without carrying extra mass ( manton , 2014 ) . below is a photo of an exposed skeleton of the common starfish ( asterias rubens ) .
myzostomids are described from three echinoderm classes - asteroids , ophiuroids , and crinoids . among crinoids , myzostomids are recorded to infect seven major clades ( roughly corresponding to taxonomic families ) , of which four are feather stars ( all represented here ) and three are stalked crinoids ( bathycrinidae not represented here ) . terminals were coded :
the biomineral matrix of echinoderm skeletons is composed of calcium carbonate and several proteins . the calcite is deposited as numerous tiny crystals , but all of them lie on the same crystal axis within an ossicle . for this reason , ossicles are birefringent under polarizing light . ossicles are not solid , but have a sponge - like microstructure called stereom that is unique to the phylum . embryologically , echinoderm ossicles are a true endoskeleton , since they are produced by mesenchymal cells and are usually covered by epidermis . functionally , however , the majority of ossicles act more like an exoskeleton , lying just under the epidermis and enclosing most other tissues in a flexible but tough covering .
pearse , v . b . , and j . s . pearse . 1994 . echinoderm phylogeny and the place of the concentricyloids . pages 121 - 126 in echinoderms through time ( b . david , a . guille , j . - p . féral , and m . roux , eds . ) . balkema , rotterdam .
smith , a . b . 1988b . to group or not to group : taxonomic position of xyloplax . pages 17 - 23 in proceedings of the 6th international echinoderm conference ( r . d . burke , p . v . mladenov , p . lambert , r . l . parsley , eds . ) . balkema , rotterdam .
that winds up acting more like a shell . technically , the skeleton , of calcium salts and proteins ( like ours ) , is inside , but it is usually covered only by a very thin skin . even the spines that give the group its name ( echinoderm means
spiny skin
) are really projections of the skeleton .
like some related phyla , the blastopore ( site where gastrulation begins ) in echinoderm embryos becomes the larval anus ; the larval mouth is a secondary opening . in some extant forms , the larval mouth is preserved as the adult mouth , while in others the entire digestive system is re - plumbed during metamorphosis and a new mouth and anus form .
echinoderm s ( e . g . , sea urchins ) , hemichordates ( including acornworms ) , urochordates ( e . g . , sea squirts ) , and cephalochordates ( amphioxus ) are restricted to a marine habitat . as with many other marine animals , their gametes are shed into the water . in echinoderms , the gonads are generally suspended from the…
reproduction is carried out by the release of sperm and eggs into the water . most species produce pelagic ( = free floating ) planktonic larvae which feed on plankton . these larvae are bilaterally symmetrical , unlike their parents ( illustration of a larvae of a sea star below ) . when they settle to the bottom they change to the typical echinoderm features .
in addition , we use a variety of alignment and tree search methods to construct phylogenies from large molecular and morphological character data sets that include exemplars of all echinoderm classes and several deuterostome outgroups . these analyses all show that xyloplax is an asteroid . the best trees from all alignment parameters and tree search methods recover xyloplax as sister to the asteroid family pterasteridae .
echinoderm envenomations . close - up of brittle star arm . although spiny , members belonging to this class ( ophiuroidea ) generally are considered harmless . of the phylum echinodermata , only starfish ( class asteroidea ) , sea urchins ( class echinoidea ) , and sea cucumbers ( class holothuroidea ) are capable of envenomation . photo courtesy of scott a . gallagher , md .
they have a unique powering system that depends upon pumping of water into specialized structures . this water vascular system exerts a lot of what force an echinoderm can exert . they do have muscles , which are important for control , but they do a lot with tube feet , extendable tubes with suction - cup ends that are used for crawling and holding onto things .
( the arrangement of body parts as rays ) developed early in echinoderm evolution and eventually became superimposed upon the fundamental bilateral symmetry , often obliterating it . radial pentamerous symmetry is conspicuous among all groups of living echinoderms . although the reasons for the success of radial symmetry are not yet completely understood , it has been suggested that a pentamerous arrangement of skeletal parts strengthens an
dr jian han , of northwest university , said : “we had to process enormous volumes of limestone – about three tonnes – to get to the fossils , but a steady stream of new finds allowed us to tackle some key questions : was this a very early echinoderm , or something even more primitive ? the latter now seems to be the correct answer . ”
this book is a magnificent collation of information and is a one - stop - shop for all things echinoderm . the editors maria byrne and tim o’hara have done a marvellous job compiling such a vast amount of knowledge and literature . this is a must - have book for all those interested in echinoderms and i would give it five out of five sea stars !
echinoderms are the largest phylum with no freshwater or terrestrial forms . echinoderm environments must be marine , as in saltwater , for the echinoderm to survive . within marine environments , the conditions echinoderms live in can vary greatly . environments range in water temperature , water depth , water movement and the different organisms surrounding the echinoderms . water temperatures can range from arctic temperatures to tropical temperatures . water depth and movement somewhat tie in together in the idea that the more shallow the water , the more likely the water will be moving . deeper water is sometimes less affected by rain and storms and therefore does not affect the echinoderms as much . water movement could impact the echinoderms by moving them or destroying their habitats . depending on the species the water depth and movement will vary . echinoderms are generally found in shallow water near shores or in reef environments but can also live in great depths of water . almost all echinoderms are benthic , meaning they live on the seafloor , but some sea lilies can swim for some distance while some sea cucumbers float throughout the water ( xiaofeng , hagdorn , & chuanshang , 2006 ) . below is a photo of a tank for marine animals . this tank contains brittle stars , sea cucumbers , and sea urchins along with non - echinoderm animals . this marine tank is kept in conditions to reflect the echinoderm’s natural habitat . the tank is salt water and is kept at 78°f . in the tank are rocks , plants and other things to help give shelter and protection to the animals .
which is positioned at the base of the arms . echinoderm water vascular systems are either open or closed , crinoids all have an open water vascular system . if the radial canals run down the ambulacral grooves and are not covered by plates then the system is considered
open
, if the radial canals are primarily internal and externalized through pores , the system is
closed
.
all the regenerative strategies that are currently described in animals are represented in echinoderms . arm regeneration in ophiuroids and crinoids is an epimorphic blastemal process , by which new tissues arise from active proliferation of migratory undifferentiated cells ( amoebocytes and coelomocytes ) , which accumulate at the end of the nerve cord as a blastema . in sea stars and sea urchins , morphallaxis is the main regenerative process , involving cells derived from existing tissues by differentiation , transdifferentiation or migration 2 , 3 . importantly , echinoderms are deuterostomes and an average of 70 % of echinoderm genes have human homologues 8 . therefore , the processes involved in echinoderm regeneration are more likely to be extended to mammals than those observed in other classical models such as hydra or planarians , which are more distantly related to chordates .
our transcriptomic analysis corroborates existing data on cellular mechanisms implicated in regeneration in sea cucumbers . more importantly , however , it also illuminates new aspects of echinoderm regeneration , which have been scarcely studied or overlooked altogether . the most significant outcome of the present work is that it lays out a roadmap for future studies of regulatory mechanisms by providing a list of key candidate genes for functional analysis .
with the arthropods , the progression of protostome animal groups hits its end . now we go back to the deuterostome line of animals , which only has two major groups on it : our group , the chordates , which well get to soon , and the echinoderms , the starfish , sea urchins , and their relatives , a rather odd group to be our nearest relatives . the echinoderm s have a number of odd features : they show a five - fold circular pattern called pentaradial symmetry : in theory , any one - fifth
pie slice
of an echinoderm should have all of the same structures as any other . it is likely that echinoderms originated as a bilaterally symmetrical group , since their early embryo development has that layout , but they apparently became sessile , which seems to lead to radial symmetry , and retained that pattern even in the descendants who again became crawling browsers , although its odd that crawling animals didnt tend to also evolve head ends and bilateral symmetry ( only one echinoderm subgroup has ) . since they have no head end , echinoderms lack central processors or
brains ,
although processing gets done on a more spread - out system .
an echinoderm uses its spikes on the surface to take in oxygen in order for respiration to take place . it has a gill structure to take in the oxygen but overall the respiratory system is poorly developed . humans take in oxygen through the lungs and has a series of processes that included exhaling carbon dioxide and inhaling clean air and even though they both require respiration there is not an appearing similarity .
echinoderms ( scientific name echinodermata ) are a major group of only marine animals . the name comes from the greek word for
spiny skin
. there are about 7 , 000 species found usually on the sea floor in every marine habitat from the intertidal zone to the ocean depths . they have a wide variety of colours . there are at least 800 species of echinoderm on the great barrier reef .
the most striking feature of all echinoderms is their pentamerous radial symmetry . that is , the body can be divided into five parts ( or appendages ) which point outward from the center of the body . interestingly , although most mature echinoderms are radially symmetrical , the larvae usually have bilateral symmetry . during the process of maturing , the echinoderm will change its body shape and settle down on the sea floor .
the structure of the echinoderm body plan is based on five - part symmetry with no head to lead the way . their bodies seem little more than a skeleton made of tiny little plates and water . they move on hundreds of tiny , water - filled tube feet operated by a hydraulic system . this works well for slow moving , bottom dwelling animals and their tube feet are very efficient at catching prey .
the success rate for these spawning events isn ' t very high , when you factor in both the odds of a sperm and egg encountering one another in the vast ocean and also other animals feeding on the spawning materials . echinoderm spawning events often set off feeding frenzies in the fish and coral communities . after spawning , a few species of echinoderms will care for their fertilized eggs , most commonly the cold water starfishes .
echinoderms can reproduce both sexually and asexually . asexual reproduction happens when the body of an echinoderm splits apart and when it regenerates missing body parts and becomes a whole new animal . sexual reproduction happens when over a million eggs from a female are injected into the water and spermatozoa ( or sperm ) is injected by the male . there the eggs are fertilized . after fertilization , a hollow ball called the blastula forms and starts turning into a larva called bipinnaria larva . from that , the larva grows more arms and internal organs and transforms into , well , a starfish . this whole process takes about two months . different species in the echinoderm family can live for different lengths . usually echinoderms are eaten so they don’t live their lives fully . some species can live than less than a year , others for multiple centuries . this is a picture of starfish eggs .
echinoderms represent a researchable subset of a dynamic larval evolutionary cosmos . evolution of echinoderm larvae has taken place over widely varying time scales from the origins of larvae of living classes in the early palaeozoic , approximately 500 million years ago , to recent , rapid and large - scale changes that have occurred within living genera within a span of less than a million years to a few million years . it is these recent evolutionary events that offer a window into processes of larval evolution operating at a micro - evolutionary level of evolution of discrete developmental mechanisms . we review the evolution of the diverse larval forms of living echinoderms to outline the origins of echinoderm larval forms , their diversity among living echinoderms , molecular clocks and rates of larval evolution , and finally current studies on the roles of developmental regulatory mechanisms in the rapid and radical evolutionary changes observed between closely related congeneric species .
the skeleton varies with the type of echinoderm but in sea stars and brittle stars , the skeleton consists of small ossicles that move with one another forming flexible joints much like our joints of tendons and ligaments . a theory is that the spikes on the sea star are a continuation of the skeleton but even though humans have endoskeletons they do not have any continuation onto the skin other than the outer covering that protects our inner organs .
since most echinoderms have some type of calcareous support exoskeleton ( actually often interlocking plates of calcium carbonate ) , there exists an extensive fossil record tracing echinoderm evolution . yet , many aspects of their early evolutionary origins are confounded , such that the classification table below is but one of many interpretations to be found in the literature . importantly , the echinodermata phylogenetic relationship to other phyla is poorly understood because they were already well differentiated by the cambrian , and their unique characteristics are not present in other groups . while echinoderms are known from the cambrian on , the vendian period has a few soft - bodied fossils that are putative echinoderms or their ancestors . these include arkarua and tribrachidium from the ediacara hills of australia . homalozoans , from which echinoderm may have descended , and eocrinoids , that are not directly ancestral to the true crinoids , are abundant in the early cambrian fossil record .
after fertilization occurs , the echinoderm larva begins to develop either into a free - floating planktonic form or a non - swimming form that is relegated to the ocean floor like its parents . some of the planktonic varieties , which don ' t so much swim as they drift in the ocean currents , will feed on their own yolk , whereas some that have less yolk will begin to get their nutrients from organisms in the water column much sooner .
one look at a sea urchin and you can see why they would be called sea hedgehogs . they have hard rounded shells covered with sharp movable spines . urchins are part of the phylum echinoderm and their name comes from ancient greek ( echinos meaning
hedgehog
and derma meaning
skin
) . there are more than 900 species of sea urchins and they come in a range of colors including purple , blue , brown , green , and red .
irrespective of method or data sampling scheme , phylogenetic analyses of large and diverse data sets place xyloplax as sister to pterasterids among asteroids with high support values . xyloplax is an asteroid—thus resolving the question of whether there are five or six classes of extant echinoderms . we also resolve questions on water - vascular anatomy and developmental evolution of xyloplax based on confocal microscopy of embryos . however , results for the relationships among echinoderm classes are dependent on choice of parameters and methods .
echinoderms have been compared to living , moving castles . castles are made of interlocking blocks , with a single main entrance and numerous slit windows for air and for defense . echinoderm skeletons are made up of interlocking calcium carbonate plates and spines . this skeleton is enclosed by the epidermis and is thus an endoskeleton . in some , such as sea urchins , the plates fit together tightly . in others , such as starfish , the plates are more loosely bound , and in
baker et al . ( 1986 ) described the water - vascular system of xyloplax medusiformis as having tube feet borne on dual circumoral rings rather than along radial canals in a pentaradial design . this description challenged the concept of uniform pentaradial water - vascular symmetry among extant echinoderms . x . medusiformis was considered so distinct from all other echinoderms that it required a new class of echinoderm . baker et al . ( 1986 ) and rowe et al . ( 1988 ) created the class concentricycloidea to contain only xyloplax . baker et al . ( 1986 ) named the class for the small disk shape and the described dual circumoral rings of the water - vascular system . the class - level status of concentricycloidea rests on early descriptions of adult morphology of two species of xyloplax and the perceived distinction of that morphology from other echinoderm classes ( baker et al . 1986 , rowe et al . 1988 , pearse v . and pearse j . 1994 ) .
including fossil taxa , the number of echinoderm classes rises to approximately 20 . the lack of a clear understanding of homologies among ossicles in various extinct classes has hampered attempts to reconstruct their phylogenetic relationships ( mooi and david 1997 ) , and it is fair to say that much work remains to be done . analyses by smith and paul ( 1984 ) , smith ( 1988a ) , and sumrall and sprinkle ( 1997 ) are the most comprehensive and rigorous available for paleozoic echinoderms .
the oldest echinoderms found to date are from the cambrian period . this period was about 540 million years ago . some fossils have been found that may be an ancient echinoderm , but there is no definite proof at the moment . the ancient phyla of echinoderms was divided into classes based on body geometry , type of plating , body symmetry and the absence or presence of appendages . three basic body plans emerged during the cambrian echinoderms ( scripps institution of oceanography , 2011 ) .
the extraction , amplification , and dna sequencing of x . janetae were performed in a laboratory in which no echinoderm samples had previously been processed , eliminating the possibility that xyloplax samples were contaminated by dna from other echinoderms . dna from x . janetae was isolated and amplified using the protocols described above except that pcr and cycle sequencing products were cleaned using a magnetic plate and ampure and seqclean ( agencourt ) , and sequences were run on an applied biosystems prism 3100 / 3100 analyzer .
the first true echinoderms appear in the fossil record in the cambrian period , which began about 560 million years ago . during the pre - cambrian period , echinoderm ancestors are not believed to have had radial symmetry ( zamora , 2012 ) . echinoderm ancestors in the pre - cambrian are also thought to have been soft - bodied with unmineralized plates , which contrasts with all true echinoderms , starting in the cambrian , who have hard mineralized skeletons which provide structure and protection ( speer , 1999 ) . the earliest echinoderms are thought to have been deposit feeders , which intake and extract nutrients from the sediment on the floor of the ocean . this varies from the current method of feeding found in echinoderms today , suspension feeding , in which echinoderms eat particles found suspending in their environment ( steele ) . the first echinoderms in the cambrian period had both radiate and asymmetric forms and a similar water vascular system to those found today , including one coelom ( zamora , 2012 ) .
echinoderms are capable of performing asexual reproduction , and the most common way they achieve this is through division of body parts or body sections , which is called fragmentation . what happens in this reproductive strategy is that an echinoderm may deliberately or accidently detach a limb or body section . this may happen due to possible predation , an unforeseen accident , or in some cases with species of starfish , it separates itself by pulling opposing limbs in opposite directions until the individual splits . ( pawson / encyclopedia britannica , 2014 )
the ability of echinoderms to regenerate missing body parts has been a subject of interest to scientists for many years . asexual reproduction ( by fission or budding ) is a phenomenon that involves regeneration of missing structures . although asexual reproduction and regeneration have been the focus of many studies in adult echinoderms , there have been comparatively fewer studies examining these phenomena in echinoderm larvae , and most of these have been conducted in the last few years . in this article we review regeneration in larval echinoderms . we also discuss larval asexual reproduction .
raff , r . a . , k . g . field , m . t . ghiselin , d . j . lane , g . j . olsen , n . r . pace , a . l . parks , b . p . parr , and e . c . raff . 1988 . molecular analysis of distant phylogenetic relationships in echinoderms . pages 29 - 41 in echinoderm phylogeny and evolutionary biology ( c . r . c . paul and a . b . smith , eds . ) . clarendon press , oxford .
another trait common to all echinoderms is their unique internal plumbing system known as the water vascular system . a hydraulic network of canals runs throughout the body , usually ending in a series of tube feet . by examining the ventral side of a sea star , for example , one will be able to see hundreds of tiny feet usually arranged into several rows on each appendage of the star . these are called tube feet . by varying the internal water pressure , the echinoderm can extend and contract its tube feet for locomotion , food collection and respiration .
raff , r . a . , field , k . g . , ghiselin , m . t . , lae , d . j . , olsen , g . j . , pace , n . r . , parks , a . l . , parr , b . a . , and raff , e . c . 1988 . molecular analysis of distant phylogenetic relationships in echinoderms . in : paul , c . r . c . and smith , a . b . ( eds . ) echinoderm physiology and evolutionary biology . clarendon press , oxford .
the cilia ' s job is very similar to the job of leaves on a tree . their goal is to release bad gases , like carbon dioxide , and take in good gases , like oxygen , from the water . the tube feet can also help with this process in the same way by acting as another surface for exchanging nutrients and gases with the outside world . it is also worth noting that unlike humans , whose blood is a characteristic red color because of the presence of hemoglobin , echinoderm blood is nearly colorless because it does not contain any respiratory pigments .
studies attempting to resolve relationships among echinoderm classes using multilocus sequence and morphological data have found very similar optimality scores for trees supporting each of the two major competing hypotheses . littlewood et al . ( 1997 ) narrowly supported the cryptosyringida hypothesis , whereas janies ( 2001 ) narrowly supported the asterozoa–echinozoa hypothesis . moreover , both studies acknowledge near - optimal trees that challenge the best - supported hypotheses . in addition , the loci that have traditionally been used in animal phylogenetics ( e . g . , ribosomal genes ) vary in sequence length among echinoderm classes . when compared with protein - coding loci , these length differences in orthologous ribosomal sequences widen the search space at both the levels of alignment and trees and thus require significant computational time and space to find satisfactory results . studies of mitochondrial gene order sought to resolve class - level relationships among echinoderms ( smith et al . 1992 ) . however , complex patterns of genomic rearrangements and low taxon sampling have thus far limited their ability to resolve relationships ( scouras et al . 2004 ) . recent studies of mitochondrial gene order have produced results supporting hypotheses for which there is little corroboration in morphology , development , or nuclear genes ( perseke et al . 2008 , perseke et al . 2010 ) .
during the mid - cambrian , the species richness , or the number of species , increased by fifteen percent . in the ordovician period , starting around 510 million years ago , the earliest echinozoans , starfish , and brittle stars appear ( baumiller , 2015 ) . after the great ordovician biodiversification event ( gobe ) , suspension - feeding organisms , like the echinoderms dominated ocean floor habitats . three echinoderm classes from the cambrian went extinct during this period , six classes survived from the cambrian , and eleven new classes appeared after the gobe . no new classes of echinoderms have emerged since the gobe ( baumiller , 2015 ) .


the sharptooth jobfish , pristipomoides typus , also known as white snapper - jobfish , goldband snapper , threadfin snapper , is a species of snapper native to the eastern indian ocean and into the western pacific ocean as far east as australia .

they inhabit waters over rocky substrates at depths from 40 to 120 m ( 130 to 390 ft ) .

the greatest known weight for this species is 2.2 kg ( 4.9 lb ) , and maximum length is 70.0 cm ( 27.6 in ) .

this species is very important to indian and sri lankan commercial fisheries and is sought out as a game fish .

pristipomoides typus

sharptooth snapper , pristipomoides typus . source : australian national fish collection , csiro . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial
jennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from pristipomoides typus bleeker , 1852 to their own page .
showing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase
pristipomoides typus
. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .
greek , pristis = saw + greek , poma , - atos = cover , operculum + greek , oides = similar to ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; demersal ; depth range 40 - 120 m ( ref . 12260 ) . tropical ; 32°n - 12°s , 93°e - 157°e ( ref . 55 )
eastern indian ocean : andaman sea . western pacific : new guinea to sumatra , north to the ryukyu islands . present in australia from the north west shelf to tweed heads in new south wales ( ref . 6390 ) . records from the western indian ocean need verification .
maturity : l m ? , range 28 - ? cm max length : 70 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 55 ) ; max . published weight : 2 . 2 kg ( ref . 1451 ) ; max . reported age : 11 years ( ref . 3090 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 10 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 12 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 . interorbital space flat . bases of dorsal and anal fins without scales , their last soft rays extended into short filaments . pectoral fins long , reaching level of anus . scale rows on back parallel to lateral line . overall color rosy red ; the top of the head with longitudinal vermiculated lines and spots of brownish yellow ; the dorsal fin with wavy yellow lines .
sharptooth snappers are found in tropical and sub - tropical deep waters . they are found in schools and live in areas of hard , rocky and uneven sea floor ( ref . 27354 ) . they feed on benthic invertebrates and fishes .
studies in south china sea ( ref . 28116 ) and hawaii ( ref . 28117 ) suggest that this species is a serial spawner ( ref . 28115 ) .
allen , g . r . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 6 . snappers of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of lutjanid species known to date . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 6 ) : 208 p . rome : fao . ( ref . 55 )
) : 23 . 4 - 28 . 2 , mean 27 . 2 ( based on 260 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5005 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01202 ( 0 . 00696 - 0 . 02076 ) , b = 2 . 95 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 ±0 . 61 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 25 ; tmax = 11 ; fec = 760 , 000 ) .
prior r = 0 . 59 , 2 sd range = 0 . 36 - 0 . 98 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 53 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 25 , based on : 1 m , 1 k , 1 tmax , 4 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 39 of 100 ) .
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urltoken
en - sharptooth jobfish , fr - colas dentu , sp - panchito dentón .
sharptooth snappers are found in tropical and sub - tropical deep waters . they are found in schools and live in areas of hard , rocky and uneven sea floor ( ref . 27354 ) . they feed on benthic invertebrates and fishes .
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yearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,
codes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases
, pp . 15 pp . + appendices
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