melanophryniscus milanoi is a species of toad in the family bufonidae , first found in the atlantic forest in santa catarina , brazil .

it is found at intermediate-high altitudes and has a phytotelm-breeding reproductive strategy .

it is distinguished from its cogenerate species based on differences in snout-vent length ; having white and/or yellow spots on its forearms , mouth , belly and cloaca ; the pattern and arrangement of warts ; and the presence and number of corneous spines .

it might be threatened by habitat loss .

melanophryniscus milanoi

melanophryniscus tumifrons . —brazil . rio grande do sul : bmnh 1947–2–1461 ( holotype ) .
reproductive behaviour of melanophryniscus sp . from sierra de la ventana ( buenos aires , argentina )
melanophryniscus paraguayensis . —paraguay . central : municipalidad de mariano roque alonso , urbanización surubu’í : mlp db 6763–4 , 6766–8 .
advertisement calls of melanophryniscus dorsalis ( mertens , 1933 ) and m . montevidensis ( philippi , 1902 ) , two parapatric species from southern brazil and uruguay , with comments on morphological variation in the melanophryniscus stelzneri group ( anura : bufonidae )
melanophryniscus admirabilis . — brazil . rio grande do sul : perau de janeiro , municipality of arvorezinha : mcp 7923 ( holotype ) .
melanophryniscus devincenzii . —uruguay . rivera : la palma : rubio chico , near subida de pena : cuchilla negra : mnhn 01675 ( holotype ) .
melanophryniscus estebani . — argentina . san luís : coronel pringles : la carolina : macn 28877–931 ; between la carolina and inti huasi : macn 35406–20 .
white , yellow , and red markers indicate occurrence records of m . biancae sp . nov . , m . xanthostomus sp . nov . , and m . milanoi sp . nov . , respectively . markers with black dots indicate type localities . background based on srtm30 elevation data .
melanophryniscus rubriventris . — argentina . jujuy : manuel belgrano : capillas : fml 01520 , 04947 ; salta : orán : san andrés : fml 00173 ( holotype ) .
melanophryniscus moreirae . — brazil . rio de janeiro : parque nacional do itatiaia : cenai ( macn ) 8732 ( paratype ) , mlp 1071 , 1804–5 , mzusp 13613–20 .
melanophryniscus vilavelhensis . — brazil . paraná : parque estadual de vila velha ( 25°14’50”s , 50°00’17”w ) , municipality of ponta grossa : mhnci 4873 ( holotype ) , 4874–84 ( paratypes ) .
melanophryniscus sanmartini . — uruguay . lavalleja : villa serrana , near arroyo aiguá dam : mnhn 1676 ( holotype ) ; salto del penitente mnhn 9376–7 ; rocha : santa teresa : mnhn 9378 .
melanophryniscus atroluteus . — brazil . rio grande do sul : itaquí : mzusp 814 , 55577 ( syntypes ) . argentina . corrientes : ituzaingó , rincón santa maría : mlp db 2292–3 , 2394 .
melanophryniscus klappenbachi . — argentina . chaco : 1° de mayo : río tragadero : mfa - zv . h 413–4 ; san fernando : arroyo palometa , ntl . road 11 : mnhn 1496 ( holotype ) .
melanophryniscus dorsalis . — brazil . rio grande do sul : torres : mcp 00233–44 , 00246–50 , 00252–65 , 00319–20 , 06446–7 , 06524–8 , mnrj 03022 , 03037 , 27342–4 , 27346 , mzusp 021710 , 102606–8 .
melanophryniscus milanoi baldo , bornschein , pie , firkowski , ribeiro , and belmonte - lopes in bornschein , firkowski , baldo , ribeiro , belmonte - lopes , corrêa , morato , and pie , 2015 , plos one , 10 ( 12 ) : e0142791 : 12 . holotype : dzup 205 , by original designation . type locality :
morro do baú ( 26°47’55”s , 48°55’55”w ; 680 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of ilhota , state of santa catarina , southern brazil
. urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : bfd08f89 - 237f - 40f1 - 962e - 6353b79dfc6b
melanophryniscus montevidensis . — uruguay . montevideo : barra de santa lucía : cenai ( macn ) 03263 , 03281 ; montevideo : fml 00039 . rocha : cabo polonio cenai ( macn ) 06337 , 07118 , mzusp 055618–9 .
melanophryniscus gallardo , 1961 currently includes 26 toad species distributed from southeastern brazil to uruguay , central and northern argentina , paraguay , and southern bolivia [ 1 ] . there is increasing phylogenetic evidence supporting the placement of melanophryniscus as the sister group of the rest of bufonidae ( e . g . [ 2 , 3 ] ) . some species of melanophryniscus have been shown to possess skin toxins , such as lipophilic alkaloids , which are obtained through their diet ( [ 4 ] ; see also [ 5 , 6 ] . the current richness of the genus is likely underestimated , and the collection of new specimens and genetic analyses are expected to reveal new species [ 7 , 8 ] .
melanophryniscus sp . —brazil . paraná : gigante ( 25°27’29”s , 48°55’42”w ) , serra do marumbi , municipality of morretes : mn 4993–4 ; olimpo ( 25°27’13”s , 48°55’13”w ) , serra do marumbi , municipality of morretes : mn 4253 .
recently , two new species of melanophryniscus were described from the state of paraná , in southern brazil [ 15 , 16 ] . both are phytotelm - breeding species , which was a new reproductive mode for the genus [ 15 ] . field expeditions from southern são paulo state to eastern santa catarina state have revealed several new populations of phytotelm - breeding melanophryniscus that were possibly overlooked previously due to their occurrence in high - altitude forests and grasslands ( mrb et al . pers . obs . ; this study ) . in the present study , we describe three new phytotelm - breeding species of melanophryniscus from southern brazil and discuss the implications of these discoveries for the conservation of the genus in the atlantic rainforest .
melanophryniscus fulvoguttatus . — brazil . mato grosso do sul : maracaju : mlp db 4096–8 , mnrj 04220 , 04222–30 , 04232–7 , 04239–44 . paraguay : amambay : estancia san juan , 20 km ne from bella vista : mhnp 4487 .
melanophryniscus simplex . —brazil . rio grande do sul : boca da serra , são joaquim , near to bom jardim do sul : mzusp 035599 ( holotype ) , mnrj 25943–5 ( paratypes ) , mzusp 035596 , 035600–4 ( paratypes ) .
melanophryniscus xanthostomus sp . nov . is in a similar condition as m . milanoi sp . nov . : it has a small estimated extent of occurrence , which has been exposed to many disturbances of anthropogenic origin , such as deforestation and forest retraction due to fires . in addition , it has been recorded as occurring in “no more than five locations” , which would lead the species to be categorized as “endangered” ( b . 1 . a . b . criteria ( i , ii , iii ) ) . yet , but we prefer to wait for new distribution data before proposing this status of conservation and for now we also propose to classify the species as “data deficient” .
melanophryniscus macrogranulosus . —brazil . rio grande do sul : morro da gruta , porto fagundes , porto colônia , dom pedro de alcântara : mrcn 01694 ( holotype ) , 01693 , 1695–9 , 01701–2 ( paratypes ) , 13818 , 13820 ; maquiné , barra de ouro : zufsm 3920 .
melanophryniscus stelzneri . — argentina . córdoba : fml 00021 , mzusp 016330 ; calamuchita : athos pampa : río reartes : cenai ( macn ) 04125–6 ; calamuchita : calmayo : cenai ( macn ) 03324 ; calumuchita : estancia el sauce : macn 07295–300 , 07758 , 08000 , 08000 : 1 .
baldo d , candioti fv , haad b , kolenc f , borteiro c , pereyra mo , et al . comparative morphology of pond , stream and phytotelm - dwelling tadpoles of the south american redbelly toads ( anura : bufonidae : melanophryniscus ) . biol j linn soc . 2014 ; 112 : 417–441 .
citation : bornschein mr , firkowski cr , baldo d , ribeiro lf , belmonte - lopes r , corrêa l , et al . ( 2015 ) three new species of phytotelm - breeding melanophryniscus from the atlantic rainforest of southern brazil ( anura : bufonidae ) . plos one 10 ( 12 ) : e0142791 . urltoken
species description : bornschein mr , firkowski dr , baldo d , ribeiro lf , belmonte - lopes r , correa l , morato saa , pie mr 2014 three new species of phytotelm - breeding melanophryniscus from the atlantic rainforest of southern brazil ( anura : bufonidae ) . plos one doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0142791
melanophryniscus cupreuscapularis . — argentina . corrientes : capital : corrientes : chunam 539 , mfa - zv . h 386–8 ; perichón : hb 070 , 072 , 080 , 124–5 , 132 , 752 , mfa - zv . h 069 , 286 ; mlp db 1053–5 , 1760–2 , 3425 , 3537 , mfa - zv . h 286 .
melanophryniscus alipioi . — brazil . paraná : capivari grande ( 25°07’49”s , 48°49’15”w ) , serra do capivari , municipality of campina grande do sul ( topotypes ) : dzup 209 , 284–93 , 318–9 ; capivari mirim ( 25°08’38”s , 48°50’35”w ) , serra do capivari , municipality of campina grande do sul : dzup 294–7 , 341–4 , 352–5 , 361 .
melanophryniscus spectabilis . —brazil . santa catarina : nova teutonia : fml 03496–1 / 10 , mlp 1802–3 , mnrj 25936–42 ( paratypes ) , mzusp 009409–20 , 009440 , 009447–59 , 009470–73 , 009475–84 , 009486–92 , 009494–5 , 009498–501 , 009508–9 ( paratypes ) , 009424 ( holotype ) , mzusp 102163–99 ; pequena central hidrelétrica ( pch ) , xavantina : cfbh 18269–73 ; 18276–8 .
the few cases of reproduction by species of melanophryniscus in epiphytic bromeliads suggest that terrestrial adults have limited access to plants that are high above the ground level . the melanophryniscus species that reproduce in bromeliads use a large number of plant species , from several genera , suggesting a lack of specificity for the species and even for a given genus of this family . in addition , the use of fallen dead bamboo as a breeding site seems to be an opportunistic strategy , since bamboos die after reproduction , which takes place at an interval of decades [ 35 , 36 ] . although we did not see m . xanthostomus sp . nov . calling in a water tank inside of a broken bamboo , we observed males of a population of m . cf . alipioi calling exactly in this condition ( mrb pers . obs . ) .
we highlight that the montane habitats of the new species are also occupied by three additional frog species potentially under threat of extinction , specifically brachycephalus quiririensis at serra do quiriri ( which includes the type localities of m biancae sp . nov . and m . xanthostomus sp . nov . ) , b . mariaeterezae at serra queimada ( another locality of occurrence of m . xanthostomus sp . nov . ) , and b . fuscolineatus at morro do baú ( type locality of m . milanoi sp . nov . ) [ 37 , 38 , 39 ] . this reinforces the need for conservation initiatives and additional research on montane regions of the atlantic rainforest , whose degree of endemicity can be very high , and yet their biodiversity is still poorly understood .
we estimate an extent of occurrence of m . milanoi sp . nov . , in montane areas to about 77 km westward from the western locality of its occurrence , in the transition of atlantic rainforest and araucaria forest , in 307 , 060 ha . considering this area of extent of occurrence , the species fits the criteria to be considered as “endangered” ( criteria b . 2 . a . b . ( iii ) and b . 1 . a . b . ( i , ii , iii ) , respectively ) . however , due to the possibility that it has a larger extent of occurrence , which would cause it to be classified as “vulnerable” or even as a not threatened species , we propose to classify the species as “data deficient” .
due to its intermediate size ( svl = 17 . 6–23 . 7 mm ; table 1 ) , m . milanoi sp . nov . differs from the smaller ( m . vilavelhensis , svl = 12 . 8–17 . 2 mm , [ 16 ] ; m . setiba , svl = 13 . 8–16 . 1 mm , [ 17 ] , and m . biancae sp . nov . svl = 12 . 9–13 . 8 mm [ see above ] ) , and from larger species of the genus ( m . estebani , svl = 25 . 0–34 . 0 mm , [ 19 ] ; m . admirabilis , 29 . 5–40 . 3 mm , [ 14 ] ; and m . rubriventris , svl = 32 . 0–42 . 7 mm ) .
melanophryniscus krauczuki . — argentina . misiones : candelaria : ñu pyahú : prov . road 3 , 3 . 5 km from nat . road 12 : mlp db 0744 ( holotype ) ; fml 10124–5 ; macn 37141–2 ; mlp db 0719–20 , 0724–7 , 0730–2 , 0739–40 , 0742–3 , 0745–6 , 0750–1 , 0756–8 , 0766 , 0768–9 , 0772 , 0775 , 0777 , 0780 , 0783–6 , 0807 , 0827–8 , 0831 , 0970–6 , 1900–2 ( all paratypes ) .
melanophryniscus cambaraensis . —brazil . rio grande do sul : cambará do sul , fortaleza dos aparados : mcp 00997 , 02770–1 , 02784 , mrcn 09797 ( holotype ) , mnhn 04993 ( paratype ) , mrcn 09752–3 , 09755 , 09757–60 ( paratypes ) , 09762–88 , 09790–2 , 09794 , 09799–813 , 09895 , 13456–62 , 13466–77 ; são francisco de paula : mnrj 04251–2 , 04254 ; são francisco de paula , floresta nacional de são francisco de paula : cfbh 2954–6 , mrcn 13473 , mnrj 21091–4 .
melanophryniscus pachyrhynus . —brazil . rio grande do sul : mzusp 000752 ( paralectotype ) ; piratini , zufsm 4141 ; são lourenço do sul , mzusp 0756 ( lectotype ) ; caçapava do sul , mcp 3525 ; dom feliciano , zufsm 2868 , 2874 , 2896 , 2902 , 2917 , 2922 , 2982–4 , 3753–61 . uruguay : maldonado : cerro de las ánimas , mnhn 05476 ( holotype ) , mnhn 0392 ( paratype of both m . sanmartini and m . orejasmirandai ) , mnhn 04383–4 ( paratypes of m . orejasmirandai ) .
melanophryniscus biancae sp . nov . is a montane species ( 1 , 310–1 , 465 m a . s . l . ) that inhabits marshes ( “formação pioneira de influência fluvial” ) that are present along small water courses or in small water drainages in natural grasslands ( “estepe gramíneo lenhosa” ) , at least during their reproductive season ( fig 6 ) . we do not know if the species exclusively inhabits marshes , or if it occurs elsewhere but returns to these habitats during the reproductive season . reproduction was observed to take place in eriocaulon ligulatum ( eriocaulaceae ; fig 6b and 6c ) .
the rugose dorsal skin , entirely covered with small to medium glandular warts uniformly scattered and tipped with several apical spines in m . milanoi sp . nov . , allows it to be differentiated from m . admirabilis ( skin with large , yellowish glandular warts without apical spines ) , m . alipioi ( dorsally rugose , scattered with medium to large , blunt , rounded glandular warts , without keratinized spines ; fig 5 ) , m . langonei ( dorsum rugose with small to medium glandular warts , tipped with several apical spines and with several longitudinal glandular ridges ) , m . moreirae ( smooth dorsal skin , covered with large glandular warts , devoid of apical spines in males and with only a few keratinized spines in females ) , m . sanmartini ( dorsum rugose , with small to medium rounded glandular warts scattered , more abundantly in the head , and tipped with several apical spines ) , and from several species of the m . stelzneri group ( skin almost smooth , with few developed glandular warts , tipped with few and small apical spines in m . estebani , m . fulvoguttatus , m . klappenbachi , and m . stelzneri ; or skin smooth with large glandular warts devoid of apical spines in m . rubriventris ) .
the dorsal coloration pattern ( with a mixture of two shades of brown patchily distributed , rarely with a yellow stripe on upper arms ) also differentiates m . milanoi sp . nov . from m . admirabilis ( almost homogeneously green to yellowish ) , m . alipioi ( almost homogeneously brown to blackish , without a yellow stripe on upper arms ; fig 5 ) , m . biancae sp . nov . ( shades of brown sometimes divided in side - by - side lines and always with a yellow stripe on upper arms ; fig 3 ) , m . krauczuki ( homogeneously dark brown , without yellow stripe on upper arms ) , m . langonei ( dorsal color light brown with the glandular ridges darker ) , m . moreirae ( dorsum dark grey to black or brownish with scattered light areas with a white stripe on upper arms and a supracloacal white spot ) , and from all species of the m . stelzneri group ( black , dark brown or dark green dorsal coloration , with copper , yellow , orange or red spots in m . atroluteus , m . cupreuscapularis , m . dorsalis , m . estebani , m . fulvoguttatus , m . klappenbachi , m . montevidensis , m . paraguayensis , m . rubriventris , and m . stelzneri ) .
melanophryniscus xanthostomus sp . nov . has a rugose dorsal skin with medium - sized glandular warts , uniformly scattered , and tipped with apical spines allowing differentiate it also from the following species : m . admirabilis ( skin with large yellowish glandular warts , without apical spines ) ; m . biancae sp . nov . and m . vilavelhensis ( dorsal skin with very low glandular warts covered with few small spines ) ; m . langonei ( dorsum rugose with small to medium glandular warts , tipped with several apical spines and with several longitudinal glandular ridges ) ; m . sanmartini ( dorsum rugose , with small to medium rounded glandular warts scattered , more abundantly in the head , and tipped with several apical spines ) ; and from several species of the m . stelzneri group ( skin almost smooth , with few developed glandular warts , tipped with few and small apical spines in m . estebani , m . fulvoguttatus , m . klappenbachi , and m . stelzneri ; or skin smooth with large glandular warts devoid of apical spines in m . rubriventris ) .
species of melanophryniscus have been traditionally divided into the m . tumifrons , m . stelzneri , and m . moreirae phenetic species groups [ 9 ] , originally with eight , eight , and two species , respectively . the presence of a frontal macrogland ( sensu [ 10 ] ) has been proposed as a diagnostic character for the m . tumifrons group [ 9 ] . this character was later considered as a putative synapomorphy for the m . tumifrons group [ 11 ] . additional support for this group was recently obtained based on chromosomal data [ 12 ] . the m . moreirae group was defined as species having “very developed warts with an apical corneous spine on dorsal surfaces and flanks , absence of conspicuous color pattern of contrasting spots or blotches on dorsum , and absence of a protuberance on the snout” [ 13 ] . finally , the m . stelzneri group “involves species having corneous spines on shallow warts or directly on skin when these are absent , usually presence of conspicuous color pattern of contrasting spots or blotches on dorsum , and absence of a protuberance on the snout” [ 13 ] . some cytogenetic characters support the m . stelzneri group [ 12 ] .
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copyright : © 2015 bornschein et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
funding : mrb received a prodoc grant from capes ( project 2599 / 2010 ) and currently receives a pnpd grant from capes . rbl is supported by fellowships from cnpq / mct ( 141823 / 2011–9 ) . mrp is supported by a grant from cnpq / mct ( 571334 / 2008–3 ) . db receives financial support for consejo nacional de investigaciones científicas y técnicas ( conicet ) and anpcyt ( pip 112201101– 00875 , pict 2007–2202 , 2011 - 1524 , 2011–1895 , 2012–2687 , and 404–2013 ) . fieldwork during 2011 and 2012 was partially funded by fundação grupo o boticário de proteção à natureza ( through the project 0895 _ 20111 conducted by mater natura - instituto de estudos ambientais ) . the additional funds were obtained in the form of the other fellowships indicated to some of the authors . stcp engenharia de projetos ltda provided support in the form of salaries for one of the authors ( saam ) , but did not have any additional role in the study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript . the specific role of this author is articulated in the “author contributions” section .
competing interests : saam is employed by stcp engenharia de projetos ltda . there are no patents , products in development or marketed products to declare . this does not alter the authors ' adherence to all the plos one policies on sharing data and materials , as detailed online in the guide for authors .
this study was conducted with brazilian research and collection permits , which include national ( sisbio 22470–1 , 22470–2 , and 20416–2 ) and regional permits , from instituto ambiental do paraná ( 355 / 11 and 07 . 15 ) and fundação municipal do meio ambiente of joinville ( permit 001 / 11 ) , and follow the national guidelines regarding the collection and preservation of specimens for biological research and were approved as part of obtaining the field permits . specimens were collected by hand , killed in an anesthetic solution , fixed in 10 % formalin , and preserved in 70 % ethyl alcohol . measurements , taken with a caliper at a precision of 0 . 05 mm , are abbreviated as follows : svl ( snout - vent length ) , hl ( head length from tip of snout to angle of jaw ) , hw ( head width at widest point ) , ed ( eye diameter ) , iod ( interorbital distance between anterior corners of the eyes ) , ind ( internostril distance between inner margins of nostrils ) , end ( eye - nostril distance—from anterior corner of the eye to posterior margin of nostril ) , thl ( thigh length ) , tbl ( tibia length ) , and fl ( foot length ) .
specimens were deposited at dzup ( coleção de herpetologia , departamento de zoologia , universidade federal do paraná , curitiba , state of paraná , brazil ) and mhnci ( museu de história natural capão da imbuia , prefeitura municipal de curitiba , curitiba , state of paraná , brazil ) . appendix i provides a complete list of examined specimens , which are deposited in the following institutions : bmnh = british museum natural history ; cenai ( macn ) = centro nacional de investigaciones biológicas ( now within macn collection ) ; cfbh = célio f . b . haddad collection , departamento de zoologia , universidade estadual paulista , rio claro , state of são paulo , brazil ; chunam = universidad nacional de misiones , posadas , argentina ; fml = fundación miguel lillo , instituto de herpetología , tucumán , argentina ; hb = ex colección herpetológica del centro de ecología aplicada del litoral ( now in macn ) ; macn = museo argentino de ciencias naturales bernardino rivadavia , buenos aires , argentina ; mcp = museu de ciências e tecnologia da pontifícia universidade católica do rio grande do sul , porto alegre , state of rio grande do sul , brazil ; mfa - zv . h = museo florentino ameghino , santa fe , argentina ; mhnp = museo de historia natural del paraguay , asunción , paraguay ; mlp = museo de la plata , argentina ; mlp db = museo de la plata , personal collection of d . baldo , la plata , argentina ; mnhn = museo nacional de historia natural , montevideo , uruguay ; mnrj = museu nacional , rio de janeiro , state of rio de janeiro , brazil ; mrcn = museu de ciências naturais da fundação zoobotânica do rio grande do sul , porto alegre , state of rio grande do sul , brazil ; mzusp = museu de zoologia da universidade de são paulo , são paulo , state of são paulo , brazil ; zufsm = universidade federal de santa maria , santa maria , state of rio grande do sul , brazil .
the electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix “ urltoken ” . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 5876b4d8 - 4267 - 49c3 - bf4c - 7ba55a634816 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central and lockss .
two adult males from the type - locality ( serra do quiriri , municipality of garuva ) : a , b = mhnci 9809 ( photographs by h . garcia ) ; c = mhnci 9810 .
the lower surface of the right hand and right foot are shown on the bottom right . the scale bars on the top two photographs correspond to 0 . 5 cm , whereas on the bottom they correspond to 1 mm .
sp . nov . , all adult males , alive , in dorsal and ventral view .
a = dzup 237 ; b = dzup 238 ( holotype ) ; c = dzup 240 ; d = dzup 242 ; e = dzup 239 ; f = dzup 241 . the bar corresponds to 1 cm .
urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 44b4d7a6 - a9bf - 4ee0 - 85ac - d865cbb7336c
dzup 238 ( figs 2 and 3b ) , male , collected at serra do quiriri ( 26°01’42”s , 48°57’54”w ; 1 , 310 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of garuva , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 15 february 2011 by mrb and lc .
dzup 237 , 239–42 , 323–4 ( fig 3 ) , seven males , all with the same data as the holotype , and dzup 326 , an unsexed juvenile , collected as an egg on the same day as the holotype , reared in the laboratory , killed and preserved on 21 july 2011 . dzup 231 and 325 , male and one unsexed juvenile collected by mrb , mrp , and dulce carvalho on 3 february 2011 as eggs , which were reared in the laboratory , killed , and preserved on 21 july 2011 .
mhnci 9809–10 , two males , collected at the type locality by mrp and rb - l on 20 february 2015 .
the minute size of m . biancae sp . nov . ( svl = 12 . 9–13 . 8 mm ) is closest to that of m . vilavelhensis ( svl = 12 . 8–17 . 2 mm , [ 16 ] ) and m . setiba ( svl = 13 . 8–16 . 1 mm , [ 17 ] ) and differs greatly from the remaining species : m . admirabilis ( 29 . 5–40 . 3 mm , [ 14 ] ) ; m . alipioi ( svl = 19 . 4–27 . 8 mm ) ; m . atroluteus ( svl = 18 . 3–25 . 7 mm ) ; m . cupreuscapularis ( svl = 19 . 5–26 . 6 mm ) ; m . dorsalis ( svl = 20 . 0–26 . 9 mm ) ; m . estebani ( svl = 25 . 0–34 . 0 mm ; [ 19 ] ) ; m . fulvoguttatus ( svl = 19 . 7–27 . 2 mm ) ; m . krauczuki ( svl = 18 . 0–24 . 4 mm ) ; m . langonei ( svl = 20 . 5–21 . 5 mm ; [ 20 ] ) ; m . montevidensis ( svl = 18 . 6–28 . 0 mm ) ; m . moreirae ( svl = 20 . 6–29 . 1 mm ) ; m . paraguayensis ( svl = 20 . 5–25 . 6 mm , [ 18 ] ) ; m . rubriventris ( svl = 32 . 0–42 . 67 mm ) ; m . sanmartini ( svl = 19 . 0–24 . 9 mm ) ; as well as from all species of the m . tumifrons group ( always larger than 20 mm ) .
( dzup 208 ) alive , in dorsal and ventral view , from the type locality of the species ( parque estadual de vila velha , 25°14’50”s , 50°00’17”w , municipality of ponta grossa , paraná , southern brazil ) .
, alive , in dorsal and ventral view , from the type locality of the species ( capivari grande , 25°07’49”s , 48°49’15”w , serra do capivari , municipality of campina grande do sul , paraná , southern brazil ) .
a = dzup 284 ( juvenile male ) ; b = dzup 293 ( adult male ) ; c = dzup 290 ( adult male ) ; d = dzup 285 ( adult female ) ; e = dzup 292 ( adult male ) ; f = dzup 291 ( adult female ) . the bar corresponds to 1 cm .
the ventral pattern yellow with scattered white dots also differentiates m . biancae sp . nov . from m . alipioi ( fig 5 ) , m . moreirae , all species of m . stelzneri group ( except m . rubriventris ) , and m . admirabilis ( all dark brown or black , with a large red / orange femoral patch , and different patterns of red , orange , or yellow spots in abdominal , throat , gular , and pectoral areas ) . finally , m . biancae sp . nov . is easily distinguishable from all species of the m . tumifrons group ( m . devincenzii , m . macrogranulosus , m . pachyrhynus , m . peritus , m . simplex , m . spectabilis , and m . tumifrons ) due to the lack of a frontal macrogland .
dark brown ( a60 : m80 / c90 ) back with a lateral stripe on each side , extending from the eye region to the thigh , brown ( a69 : m70 / c80 ) , and a small patch in the medial cephalic region light brown ( a70 : m70 / c70 ) ( fig 3b ) . arms , in dorsal view , brown ( a69 : m70 / c80 ) with a faded yellow band ( a80 : m10 / c00 ) extending from the armpit to the elbow . legs , in dorsal view , with dark brown ( a60 : m80 / c90 ) and brown ( a69 : m70 / c80 ) bands . hands and feet , in dorsal view , orange ( a80 : m60 / c00 ) with brown stripes ( a69 : m70 / c80 ) in the fingers ; tip of the fingers orange - red ( a70 : m80 / c00 ) . supracloacal region faded yellow ( a80 : m10 / c00 ) . belly predominantly yellow ( a40 : m00 / c00 ) with many dots on glandular warts of same yellow color , but that stand out seeming to be another tone by the absence of a more darkened background that exists in other parts of the belly , particularly between the arms ( fig 3b ) . region of the vocal sac and abdomen yellow and red ( a70 : m70 / c00 ) ; near the cloaca , dark red ( a70 : m90 / c50 ) . arms , in ventral view , red ( a70 : m70 / c00 ) with a few yellow dots ( a40 : m00 / c00 ) ; close to hands , with a gray patch maculate with yellow and some white dots . legs , in ventral view , red ( a70 : m70 / c00 ) with yellow dots ( a40 : m00 / c00 ) on the thighs and with a gray color washed with yellow , containing white dots , in the rest ; part of the red region is bordered with yellow ( a40 : m00 / c00 ) . hands and feet , in ventral view , orange - red ( a70 : m80 / c00 ) .
the range of measurements of adult paratypes is shown in table 1 . snout shape in dorsal view varies from truncated ( dzup 240–2 , 245 , 323–5 ) to slightly mucronate in some specimens ( dzup 237 , 239 , 326 ) . males have nuptial pads covering the entire dorsal surface of the finger ii and the proximal half of the dorsal surface of the finger iii ( only on finger ii in dzup 326 ) . the nuptial pad spines can be dark brown ( dzup 237–8 , 342 ) , light brown ( dzup 239–41 , 323 , 325 ) , or unpigmented ( dzup 326 ) . no female of m . biancae sp . nov . has been collected to date .
spp . nov . values are sample size ( n ) , range , and mean ± standard deviation ( in parentheses ) .
some variation is found in dorsal and ventral color patterns ( fig 3 ) . the light brown patch on the medial cephalic region can be absent ( dzup 239 ) ; poorly defined ( dzup 238 , 240 , 324–5 ) ; extent from the anterior interocular region to behind of head ( dzup 237 , 241–2 ) ; or extent from the posterior interocular region to behind of head ( dzup 323 ) . the dorsal surface of the majority of the paratopotypes has both shades of brown colors not divided in side - by - side lines but patchily distributed . the yellow pattern of the upper surface of arms was little perceptible in dzup 239 . the supracloacal region was of a darker yellow ( dzup 237 , 239 ) or lighter yellow ( dzup 242 , 324 ) . ventrally , there is no trace of red in dzup 237 and only a very limited tinge of red on dzup 240 . some individuals had black ventral coloration in the gular , chest , and / or in the belly regions . a black ventral coloration was vestigial ( dzup 240 ) or conspicuous ( dzup 239 , 241–2 , 324–5 ) . the red of the thighs was reduced on dzup 240 ; the rest of the legs can be blackish ( dzup 242 ) .
the specific epithet honors bianca luiza reinert , ornithologist and environmentalist who dedicated her life to protect wetlands of the state of paraná , southern brazil .
sp . nov . in the type - locality ( serra do quiriri , municipality of garuva ) .
a = in the middle of the photograph , marshes where the species was found ( two people are also present for scale ) —in the foreground there are grasslands without occurrence of the plant where the species reproduces . b = eriocaulon ligulatum ( eriocaulaceae ) in marshes , the reproductive site of the new species . c = base of leaves of e . ligulatum with water tanks where males sing and eggs are laid , except for the water tanks of the dead , yellow leaves .
we detected males calling in e . ligulatum at night ; they began to call 25 min after sunset and continued until at least 00 h 30 min on a cold night ( 13°c ) with drizzle on 15 february 2011 . on that occasion , we found eggs and a tadpole . on 3 february 2011 we found eggs , tadpoles and some specimens near the end of metamorphosis . on 9 october 2004 we found eggs . on 20 january and 20 february 2015 , each following three days of rain , we did not find eggs and tadpoles in e . ligulatum . in particular , on the second date , in 2 h of searching after the sunset we found only two males in e . ligulatum .
we found eggs and tadpoles in the water at the base of green leaves of e . ligulatum that were either horizontal or slightly inclined upwards ( fig 6c ) . in one plant , we found some eggs in the small volume of water that accumulates near the base of vertical leaves , whereas in another plant we found some eggs in leaves 2 cm above the water . eggs were isolated from each other and were found freely in the water or attached to the abaxial surface of leaves . we found one to four eggs in a water tank and found three to nine eggs per plant .
collected eggs developed in an aquarium and individuals were transferred to a closed terrarium soon after completing metamorphosis , in which they developed until becoming adults ( see above in paratopotypes ) without any additional food source . individuals in the terrarium had nocturnal activity .
the species is known from the type locality ( a marsh with ~ 0 . 74 ha ) and from a second locality in the same mountain range , owned by the ciser company ( 26°01’33”s , 48°56’37”w ; 1 , 465 m a . s . l . ; fig 7 ) , serra do quiriri , municipality of garuva , northeastern santa catarina , southern brazil , where eggs were collected by j . a . langone , r . o . de sá , m . v . segalla , and mrb on 9 october 2004 . the eggs were kept in laboratory , hatched and 16 individuals metamorphosed between 16 and 20 november 2004 ( dzup uncatalogued ) . these two locations are distant from each other by only 2 . 1 km . we did not find the species in a marsh with e . ligulatum in the foothills of the serra do quiriri ( municipality of campo alegre [ 26°00’20”s , 49°01’56”w ; 842 m a . s . l . ; 2 . 09 ha ] , state of santa catarina ) on the same night of 15 february 2011 when the type series was collected .
a = adult male from morro do baú ( dzup 206 ) ; b = adult male from morro do baú ( dzup 201 ) ; c = adult male from morro do cachorro ( dzup 460 ) .
( dzup 205 ) , adult male , a few minutes after being fixed . the lower surface of the right hand and right foot are shown on the bottom right . the scale bars on the top two photographs correspond to 0 . 5 cm , whereas on the bottom they correspond to 1 mm .
a = dzup 199 ; b = dzup 226 ; c = dzup 227 ; d = dzup 202 ; e = dzup 203 ; f = dzup 206 . the bar corresponds to 1 cm .
urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : bfd08f89 - 237f - 40f1 - 962e - 6353b79dfc6b
dzup 205 ( fig 9 ) , male , collected at morro do baú ( 26°47’55”s , 48°55’55”w ; 680 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of ilhota , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 26 october 2010 by mrb , rb - l , lc , mrp , and crf .
dzup 199 , male , collected on 23 october 2010 by mrb and rb - l . dzup 200–4 , 206–7 , 225–7 ( fig 10 ) , 10 males , all with same data as holotype . all specimens collected between 655 and 710 m a . s . l .
dzup 418 , 432–6 , six males , collected at morro boa vista ( 26°30’58”s , 49°03’14”w ; 835–850 m a . s . l . ) , on the border between the municipalities of jaraguá do sul and massaranduba , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 25 october 2012 by mrp , lfr , and felipe a . cini da silva . dzup 417 , female , and dzup 427–31 , five males , collected at morro azul ( 26°45’49”s , 49°12’23”w ; 720–740 m a . s . l . ) , on the border between the municipalities of pomerode and rio dos cedros , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 26 october 2012 by mrp , lfr , and felipe a . cini da silva . dzup 416 , 419–26 , 437 , 460 , three females and eight males , collected at morro do cachorro ( 26°46’42”s , 49°01’57”w ; 755–795 m a . s . l . ) , on the border between the municipalities of blumenau , gaspar , and luiz alves , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 29 october 2012 by mrp , lfr , and felipe a . cini da silva .
dorsum and sides of the face dark brown ( a80 : m99 / c90 ) with reddish brown spots ( a70 : m90 / c70 ) in the middle of the dorsum ; these reddish brown spots becoming diluted and little visible from the middle of the dorsum up to the supracloacal region ( fig 9 ) . body sides , between arms and legs , very dark brown ( n99 : a50 / m20 ) with some white dots on glandular warts . body sides from the armpit to the side of the face with a brown stripe ( a70 : m60 / c50 ) . arms , in dorsal view , dark brown ( a80 : m99 / c90 ) with an orange band ( a70 : m40 / c10 ) extending from the armpit to the elbow and with small white dots on glandular warts in both brown and orange areas . forearms , legs , hands , and feet , in dorsal view , blackish ( a70 : m40 / c10 ) , with small white dots on glandular warts . fingers and toes , also in dorsal view , blackish ( a70 : m40 / c10 ) tipped red ( a80 : m99 / c50 ) with several white dots , on blackish area , in outer fingers and toes , and red ( a80 : m99 / c50 ) with white and blackish ( a70 : m40 / c10 ) in proximal areas , in inner fingers and toes . belly black with a large spot bright red ( a80 : m99 / c10 ) occupying the distal third and entirely covered with small white dots , less intense in the gular region ( fig 9 ) . near the cloaca , dark red ( a80 : m99 / c40 ) . arms , in ventral view , bright red ( a80 : m99 / c10 ) with white dots on glandular warts and with yellow ( a70 : m00 / c00 ) in the proximal margin of the red . forearms , in ventral view black with a red spot proximal—in continuum with the red of the arms , and some white dots . legs , in ventral view , black with white dots on glandular warts and with dark red ( a80 : m99 / c40 ) thighs . hands , in ventral view , red ( a80 : m99 / c50 ) . feet , in ventral view , red ( a80 : m99 / c50 ) with a black diagonal line starting between the metatarsal tubercles and ending near the toe v ( the outer metatarsal tubercle is a red spot on this black line ) . iris black with several golden spots and with a narrow golden ring bordering the pupil ( fig 9 ) .
the range of measurements of adult paratypes is shown in table 1 . in dorsal view , snout shape varies from mucronate ( dzup 200 , 202–3 , 205–7 , 227 ) to rounded ( dzup 199 , 201 , 204 , 225–6 ) . nostrils are protruding in two specimens ( dzup 202–3 ) . the relative length of fingers is variable : iv˃ iii˃v˃ii ( dzup 204 ) ; iv˃v˃iii˃ii ( dzup 201–2 , 226–7 ) ; or iv˃v = iii˃ii ( dzup 199 , 206–7 ) . the relative length of toes is also variable : iv˃iii˃v˃ii˃i ( dzup 199 , 202 , 204 , 207 , 226–7 ) and iv˃v = iii˃ii˃i ( dzup 201 ) . mature males have nuptial pads on dorsal surface of finger ii and proximal half of finger iii . the nuptial pad spines are either strongly pigmented ( dzup 199–207 , 225–7 ) or poorly pigmented ( dzup 201 , 205 ) , and , in some specimens , the nuptial pad spines are larger on finger iii ( dzup 199–200 , 202–4 , 207 ) .
there is sexual dimorphism in svl ( table 1 ) , with females being larger than males ( 20 . 3–23 . 7 mm , mean = 22 . 2 mm , n = 3 vs . 17 . 6–21 . 1 mm , mean = 19 . 2 mm , n = 31 , for females and males , respectively ) .
the specific epithet honors miguel s . milano , an environmentalist who dedicated his life to protect brazilian nature , such as serving as the director of the “fundação grupo o boticário de proteção à natureza” for many years .
a = type - locality ( morro do baú , municipality of ilhota ) , around the foothills of the mountain in the top of the photograph . b = terrestrial bromeliad where a male was calling at morro boa vista ( on the border between the municipalities of jaraguá do sul and massaranduba ) . c = epiphytic bromeliad where a male was calling in morro azul ( on the border between the municipalities of pomerode and rio dos cedros ) .
in their habitat . a = pair during amplexus—notice the tadpole in the water below . b = adult male , in most common position of calling males—notice the two eggs , one attached to the abaxial surface of the leave and the other to the adaxial surface ( right egg ) . ( these eggs are out of the water because the water flowed out after the leaf of the bromeliad has been away for the camera approach ) . both photos taken in the morro do cachorro ( on the border between the municipalities of blumenau , gaspar , and luiz alves ) .
the species is known from the type locality and from three additional localities of referred specimens , all of them situated between the right margin of itapocu river and left margin of itajaí - açu river , northeastern santa catarina , southern brazil ( fig 7 ) . the distances between these localities are 32 km in the north - south direction and 27 km in the east - west direction .
a = holotype , adult male from serra do quiriri ( dzup 192 ) ; b = paratype , adult male from morro do boi ( dzup 461 ) ; c = paratype , adult male from serra queimada ( dzup 368 ) .
( dzup 192 ) , adult males , a few minutes after being fixed . the lower surface of the right hand and right foot are shown on the bottom right . the scale bars on the top two photographs correspond to 0 . 5 cm , whereas on the bottom they correspond to 1 mm .
a = dzup 196 ( adult female ) ; b = dzup 194 ( adult female ) ; c = dzup 195 ( adult male ) ; d = dzup 193 ( adult male ) ; e = mhnci 9807 ( adult male ) ; f = mhnci 9808 ( adult male ) . the bar corresponds to 1 cm .
urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 993e45ff - 867b - 41ec - 89ab - 1ba8cc9430b8
dzup 192 ( figs 13a and 14 ) , male collected serra do quiriri ( 26°01’17”s , 48°59’47”w ; 1 , 270 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of campo alegre , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 3 february 2011 by mrb , mrp , and dulce carvalho .
dzup 193 and 195 ( fig 15 ) , two males , and dzup 194 and 196 ( fig 15 ) , two females , all with same data as holotype . all specimens collected between 1 , 255 and 1 , 275 m a . s . l . tissue samples collected from all specimens ( dzup ) .
mhnci 9806–8 ( ex dzup 189–91 ; fig 15 ) , three males collected at condomínio vale dos lagos ( 26°08’48”s , 49°10’43”w ; 930–935 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of joinville , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 23 january 2011 by mrb and saam . dzup 368–70 , three males collected at reserva particular do patrimônio natural caetezal ( 26°06’32”s , 49°03’26”w ; 1 , 240–1 , 270 m a . s . l . ) , serra queimada , municipality of joinville , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 26 september 2012 by mrp , lfr , and felipe a . cini da silva . dzup 461 , male , and dzup 462 , female , collected at morro do boi ( 26°24”53”s , 49°13’08”w ; 565 m a . s . l . ) municipality of corupá , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 3 november 2012 by mrp , lfr , and felipe a . cini da silva .
the ventral coloration dark brown to black with yellow spots on chest , abdomen and a yellow with white stripe covering the mandibular arch distinguishes m . xanthostomus sp . nov . from m . admirabilis ( gular region black with large yellow glands ; chest and belly black , with irregular spots pale green or yellowish ) ; m . biancae sp . nov . ( entirely yellow with scattered white dots ; fig 3 ) ; m . krauczuki ( ventral of head dark brown with numerous small white dots along the mandibular arch ; pectoral zone dark brown with small white dots , belly dark brown with large , irregular , and bright orange spots ) ; and from m . dorsalis ( black with red spots on chest , abdomen and with a large femoral patch ) .
finally , m . xanthostomus sp . nov . is easily distinguishable from all species of the m . tumifrons group ( m . devincenzii , m . macrogranulosus , m . pachyrhynus , m . peritus , m . simplex , m . spectabilis , and m . tumifrons ) due to the lack of frontal macrogland .
the range of measurements of adult paratypes is shown in table 1 . there is sexual dimorphism in the svl ( table 1 ) , with females being slightly larger than males ( 20 . 5–21 . 5 mm , mean = 21 . 1 mm , n = 3 vs . 18 . 1–21 . 5 mm , mean = 20 . 4 , n = 9 ) . nostrils slightly protruding in some specimens ( mhnci 9807 , dzup 193 , 195–6 ) . the relative length of fingers varies from iv˃v˃iii˃ii ( mhnci 9806–8 , dzup 192 , 194–5 ) to iv˃v˃iii = ii ( dzup 196 ) . the relative length of toes is also variable : iv˃iii = v˃ii = i ( mhnci 9808 ) ; iv˃iii˃v˃ii˃i ( mhnci 9806 ) ; iv˃v = iii˃ii˃i ( mhnci 9807 ) ; iv ˃v˃ iii ˃ii˃i ( dzup 194–6 ) ; and iv ˃v˃ iii ˃ii = i ( dzup 192 ) . mature males have nuptial pads on dorsal surface of finger ii and proximal half of finger iii ( only on finger ii in dzup 370 ) . the nuptial pad spines range from strongly pigmented ( mhnci 9806 , 9808 , dzup 193 , 368–9 ) to unpigmented ( dzup 192 , 195–6 , 370 ) . there are also variations in the quantity and size of glandular warts , with the specimen with smoother skin being mhnci 9807 ( fig 15e ) .
the specific epithet stems from the greek words xanthos ( yellow ) and stoma ( mouth ) , indicating one of the most obvious diagnostic characters of the new species .
a = type - locality ( serra do quiriri , municipality of campo alegre ) —this forest had a fire a few years before that killed many trees , leading to intense sunlight inside and the occupation of dense vegetation in the understory . b = cloud forest , habitat of the species at reserva particular do patrimônio natural caetezal , top of the serra queimada ( municipality of joinville ) . c = terrestrial bromeliad ( aechmea distichantha ) where a male was calling in the water tank in the center of the photo ( municipality of campo alegre ) .
the species is known from the type locality , three additional localities of paratypes , and an additional locality where eggs ( identity confirmed by genetic analysis ) were collected , namely laranjeiras ( 26°06’42”s , 49°10’36”w ; 860 m a . s . l . ) , municipality of campo alegre , state of santa catarina , southern brazil , on 27 january 2011 by mrb and saam , all in northeastern state of santa catarina , southern brazil ( fig 7 ) . the distances between these localities are approximately 44 km in the north - south direction and 21 km in the east - west direction .
as management actions to protect m biancae sp . nov . , we tentatively propose the following measures : ( 1 ) the species should be incorporated into the brazilian list of endangered species and ( 2 ) the “plano de ação nacional para a conservação dos répteis e anfíbios do sul do brasil” ; ( 3 ) the owners of pinus spp . plantations in the serra do araçatuca , a possible area of occurrence of m biancae sp . nov . within the “área de proteção ambiental de guaratuba” , should be required by the “instituto ambiental do paraná” ( the environmental agency responsible for the region ) to manage the invasion of this tree in this serra ; and ( 4 ) the “fundação de amparo à tecnologia e meio ambiente” ( fatma—the environmental agency responsible for the region ) should not allow the plantation of pinus spp . in serra do quiriri , ( 5 ) fatma should also stop issuing permits for new kaolin mining in this area , and ( 6 ) fatma should also require the mining company to study the conservation status of the new species at the type locality before evaluating any requests for license renewal for mining operations .


the black-crowned sparrow-lark ( eremopterix nigriceps ) is a species of lark in the family alaudidae .

it is found across northern africa from mauritania through the middle east to north-western india .

its natural habitat is dry savanna .

black - crowned sparrow - lark

black - crowned finch lark , black - crowned finch - lark , black - crowned sparrow lark , white - crested finch - lark , white - crested sparrow - lark , white - fronted finch - lark , white - fronted sparrow - lark .
black - crowned sparrow lark perched on stones in cape verde . - stock image
black - crowned sparrow - lark ssp . . . e . nigriceps albifrons jan dekker
the ashy - crowned sparrow - lark was originally placed in the genus alauda . this species is also known by the following alternate names : ash - crowned sparrow - lark , ashy - crowned finch - lark , black - bellied finch - lark , and black - bellied sparrow - lark .
black - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix nigriceps ) is a species of bird in the alaudidae family .
based on behaviour observed by us it is likely that black - crowned sparrow - larks are primarily seed - eaters .
black - crowned sparrow - larks specialize in life on the fringes of deserts , in relatively open , semi - arid habitats .
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black - eared sparrow - lark ( eremopterix australis ) by alan manson . | bird families : a | pinterest | bird
black - crowned sparrow - larks were first spotted by us at ras al - hadd , near the eastern tip of oman , in may 2010 .
chestnut - backed sparrow - lark ( eremopterix leucotis ) arno _ louise . | bird families : a | pinterest | arno
the overall distribution of this species can be assessed based on sighting reports submitted by birdwatchers to the urltoken website . the global distribution of the black - crowned sparrow - lark is available here . black - crowned sparrow - larks occur from the canary islands in the west , through the southern fringe of the sahara desert in africa , via parts of egypt and of the middle east , parts of arabia and along the southern coastal fringe of asia to the border region of pakistan with india .
a small lark which resembles a finch ( fringillidae species ) in appearance , the black - crowned sparrow - lark is easily recognised by the male’s distinctive black and white head pattern , consisting of a white forehead and cheeks on an otherwise black background ( 2 ) . the underparts are also black , contrasting with the paler , sandy - brown upperparts and wings , while the tail is dark brown . the legs are pale fleshy - pink , and the beak is bluish - white and rather stubby in shape ( 2 ) . the female black - crowned sparrow - lark lacks the distinctive head pattern of the male , and is much duller in appearance , with a largely greyish - brown body , a dark underwing and a greyish beak . the juvenile resembles the adult female , but the feathers on the upperparts have more buffy margins , giving a slightly scaled appearance ( 2 ) .
the ashy - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix griseus ) is a small sparrow - sized member of the lark family . it is found in the plains in open land with bare ground , grass and scrub across south asia . the males are well marked with a contrasting black - and - white face pattern , while females are sandy brown , looking similar to a female sparrow . males are easily detected during the breeding season by the long descending whistle that accompanies their undulating and dive - bombing flight displays .
the black - crowned sparrow - lark inhabits arid and semi - arid plains with scattered grass and other low vegetation . it appears to prefer areas with sandy rather than rocky soil , and has also been recorded around saline pans ( undrained natural depressions in which water accumulates , leaving behind salt deposits when it evaporates ) ( 2 ) .
sparrow sized with a finch - like bill and short legs , these birds are usually seen sitting on the ground , and although they will sometimes perch on wires they do not perch in trees or bushes . the male is sandy brown overall with a black belly , chin , lower lores and eye stripe . the top of the head is ashy ( although the base of these crown feathers are dark ) unlike the dark brown to black in the black - crowned sparrow - lark which partly overlaps with the range of this species in the arid zone of india and pakistan . the female is pale brown and very similar to a female house sparrow , although the legs are much shorter and appearing stockier and shorter - necked .
sclater ' s lark with chick in nest . [ photo peter steyn © ]
12–13 cm ; 13–21 g . small , sexually dimorphic lark with appearance like that of a finch ( fringillidae ) . adult male nominate race has black head , large white ear . . .
apart from a few patches in central saudi arabia , black - crowned sparrow - larks populate only the ( near - ) coastal fringe of the arabian peninsula , from about jeddah in the west , through southern saudi arabia , all of the yemeni coastline and on via oman into the uae , as far as about bahrain .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . black - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix nigriceps ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
sclater ' s lark , beaufort west , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker © ]
sclater ' s lark at its nest , maltahöhe , namibia . [ photo warwick tarboton © ]
maternal care - this plain sparrow - like bird is a black - crowned sparrow - lark . this rarity is typically recorded around the thar desert and the rann of kutch . the young one seemed to have an endless appetite , as the mother was continuously occupied in finding more and more insects to feed it . of course , the smart mother would gobble down some of her prey to keep her energy resources going . it took me almost an hour of lying on the ground , making only small adjustments to face the birds , to make this photograph . well worth the effort , as this remains one of my fondest memories from tal chapar .
alström , p . ( 2018 ) . ashy - crowned sparrow - lark ( eremopterix griseus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
it inhabits arid and semi - arid plains with scattered grass and other low vegetation in areas like saanr , but is also found in farmlands . the male is easily recognised by it’s distinctive black and white head pattern , consisting of a white forehead and cheeks on an otherwise black background .
harriers , winter migrants here , soon set out gliding gracefully over the grassland looking for their breakfast . the birder’s day has just started as ( s ) he is bound to be mesmerized by the number of birds that are seen here . as many as 320 species have been recorded in this place – including 40 + species of raptors ( birds of prey ) , rare birds like laggar falcon , spotted creeper , white - browed bushchat and black - crowned sparrow - lark , and winter migrants like white - tailed eagle and sociable lapwing ( a critically endangered bird ) .
exhibits similar behaviour but also sings during its ascent , whereas the crested lark sings either at altitude or on the ground .
, with the main distinctions between the two being the thekla ' s heavier black - brown streaks and its grey underwing , present in european specimens .
sparrow sized with a finch - like bill and short legs , these birds are usually seen sitting on the ground , and although they will sometimes perch on wires they do not perch in trees or bushes . the male is sandy brown overall with a black belly , chin , lower lores and eye stripe . the top of the head is ashy ( although the base of these crown feathers are dark ) unlike the dark brown to black in the
this species is restricted to below 1000 metres elevation and is found south of the himalayas to sri lanka extending to the indus river system in the west and to assam in the east . it is found in stubble , scrub , waste land , riverside sand and tidal flats on the coast . the avoid the interior of the desert zone , a habitat that is more likely to be used by the black - crowned sparrow - lark . the two species overlap partly in range , although they are rarely seen together in the same locations . during the monsoon season , they withdraw from heavy rainfall regions .
this species is restricted to below 1000 metres elevation and is found from south of the himalayas to sri lanka extending to the indus river system in the west and to assam in the east . it is found in stubble , scrub , waste land , riverside sand and tidal flats on the coast . they avoid the interior of the desert zone , a habitat that is more likely to be used by the black - crowned sparrow - lark . the two species overlap partly in range , although they are rarely seen together in the same locations . during the monsoon season , they withdraw from heavy rainfall regions .
shivanarayan , n ( 1978 ) damage to sorghum by ashycrowned finch - lark . newsletter for birdwatchers . 18 ( 3 ) : 10 .
the crested lark ( galerida cristata ) is a species of lark distinguished from the other 81 species of lark by the crest of feathers that rise up in territorial or courtship displays and when singing . common to mainland europe , the birds can also be found in northern africa and in parts of western asia and china . it is a non - migratory bird , but can occasionally be found as a vagrant in great britain .
black - crowned sparrow - larks are the smallest larks in eurasia . they have a proportionally large head and bill . their plumage is dimorphic , i . e . males and females are different . male black - crowned sparrow - larks are in fact not quite black , but dark chocolate - brown . apart from the grey frons and ear coverts , the head , neck and underparts , from chin to tail , are all that dark shade of brown . the nape of the neck , back and rump are grey . the wings are grey , with darker grey central chevrons on the coverts . the uppertail is also grey . in - flight the entire body and the underwing coverts are dark - brown ; only the flight feathers are grey . females have an off - white to light - creamy front and a narrow off - white neck band . the rest of the head and the back are light grey - brown , streaked with grey . the wing coverts are also light grey - brown , with dark centres . the flight feathers are dark - grey with wide light grey - brown edges . the irises of both sexes are dark . the strong , triangular bill is grey ; legs and feet are greyish - pink . juveniles resemble females with somewhat paler colours yet .
the name in some hindi dialects for the bird is dabhak churi , which means
crouching sparrow
. in british india , it was shot for the table and termed as ' ortolan ' .
the chicks are brooded constantly by both parents in the midday to keep them cool , leaving the nest after about 10 - 14 days , before they can fly ( soon taking shelter from the heat beneath a shrub ) . it is possible that the cause of it consistently laying only one egg may be because it is necessary for both adults to brood the chicks in the heat of the day , making it difficult for them to feed more than one chick . however , there are other species of lark that manage to raise 2 nestlings in much more extreme conditions ( such as the black - crowned sparrowlark in saudi arabia ) .
11–12 cm . small , sexually dimorphic lark with appearance superficially like that of a finch ( fringillidae ) . adult male has pale greyish - brown forehead and crown ( . . .
the woodlark or wood lark ( lullula arborea ) is the only species in the lark genus lullula . it breeds across most of europe , the middle east , asia and the mountains of north africa . it is mainly resident ( non - migratory ) in the west of its range , but eastern populations of this passerine bird are more migratory , moving further south in winter .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . grey - backed sparrow - lark ( eremopterix verticalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
10–11 cm ; 12–16 g . small , sexually dimorphic lark resembling a finch ( fringillidae ) ; diagnostic white forehead , rarely absent ( one bird from sudan ) . adult male . . .
its plumage is downy but sparse and appears whitish . the distinct crest from which the crested lark gets its name is conspicuous at all times but is more pronounced during territorial or courtship displays and when singing .
hayman , peter ; burton , philip ( 1979 ) .
crested lark
. the birdlife of britain ( 2nd ed . ) . london : mitchell beazley publishers limited . p . 80 . isbn 0855330872 .
incubation starts with the last egg and , depending on the species , takes 11 - 16 days . usually , only the female incubates and broods the young . however , sparrow - larks and a few other species seem to be an exception to this rule .
in all larks , both sexes feed the chicks and eat or remove their feces . after eight to 13 days , before they are able to fly , lark chicks leave the nest , still supplied with food by their parents . if the female starts a second brood , the male cares for the young alone . steyn observed cooperative breeding in the spike - heeled lark ( chersomanes albofasciata ) ; three adults fed two chicks in one nest in the karoo .
as passerines go , the larks are neither particularly large nor especially small , ranging in size from that of a finch to that of a common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) . body length ranges from approximately 10 cm , as with some female sparrow - larks in the genus . . .
uncommon resident ; breeds in kuwait . adult male is the most distinctive small desert lark . often difficult to see in the arid emptiness of the desert . in some years breeding numbers may boom : up to 100 breeding pairs observed in summer 2006 .
, which reads
the notes of the wood - lark are heard , delightful along the banks of the lunan in spring and autumn ; its nocturnal song has a dying cadence peculiarly melodious and has often been mistaken for the song of the philomel [ nightingale ] .
most lark species are gregarious when on passage and outside the breeding season . nevertheless , some appear to exhibit year - round territoriality and are seen only singly or in pairs even when not breeding , particularly afrotropical species , such as somali long - billed ( mirafra somalica . . .
the complexity and quality of lark song are as noteworthy as the birds’ plumages are sober , a combination that is not uncommon among passerines . the possession of dull plumage , as necessitated by the general adaptation of the alaudidae to steppe habitats and , especially , to nesting on the . . .
lark with an extremely large distribution area . species mainly sedentary , however can perform short - distance migrations or dispersible movements . it occurs in the subtropical regions of north africa , arabian peninsula and southern asia , in arid plains . the evolution trend of the global population is apparently an increase one .
this small lark is a common and widespread species , and is not currently considered at risk of extinction ( 3 ) . it may be able to tolerate some degree of grazing pressure within its arid habitats , and desertification in west africa appears to have allowed the species to extend its range southwards ( 2 ) .
guillaumet , alban ; pons , jean - marc ; godelle , bernard ; crochet , pierre - andre ( 2006 ) .
history of the crested lark in the mediterranean region as revealed by mtdna sequences and morphology
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 645–56 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 01 . 002 .
distribution of sclater ' s lark in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .
figures for europe are less varied , with estimates putting the number of breeding pairs at between 3 , 600 , 000 and 7 , 600 , 000 , or between 7 , 200 , 000 and 15 , 200 , 000 individuals . in europe , trends since 1982 have shown an overall decline in the population of the species , resulting in the assumption that the crested lark is in decline globally .
puff and roll - chapar is on the birwatcher ' s hotlist due to its long list of rarities . this composite image shows a stoliczka ' s bushchat . what a name ! named after the zoologist ferdinand stoliczka , this bird is an enigma . it ' s distribution is very patchy across north - western india and is very rarely encountered in its range . no one knows where the bird disappears to breed - a nest has never been seen by a human . and the display it puts up - puffing its chest , the bird sways from one side to the other ( as seen in the composite ) - seems to have inspired some bollywood moves ! the black and white bird on the left is getting out of breeding plumage ( late monsoon ) . the brown bird on the right in complete non - breeding plumage ( early summer ) .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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desertification a process of sustained decline of the biological productivity of arid and semiarid land ; the end - result is desert , or skeletal soil that is irrecoverable . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) and echinoderms . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony .
del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . ( 2004 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 : cotingas to pipits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona .
williams , j . b . , tieleman , b . i . and shobrak , m . ( 1999 ) lizard burrows provide thermal refugia for larks in the arabian desert . the condor , 101 : 714 - 717 .
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relationships previously considered obscure , but genetic data suggest closest to e . griseus # r . geographical variation largely clinal , size increasing from w to e . birds of socotra described as race forbeswatsoni , but appear indistinguishable from melanauchen , of which sincipitalis ( arabia ) is also a synonym # r . race albifrons may not be separable from nominate # r . four subspecies recognized .
( sundevall , 1850 ) – western sahara , mauritania and senegal e to sudan ( e to r nile ) .
( cabanis , 1851 ) – e sudan e to extreme s iraq , kuwait and c & s arabian peninsula , and s to somalia and socotra .
( blyth , 1867 ) – se iran e to pakistan and nw india .
male song , in aerial display or from low vantage such as bush or rock on ground , considerably . . .
arid and semi - arid plains with scattered grass and other low - lying vegetation ; prefers sandy soils . . .
primarily seeds of grasses and other plants ; also insects and other invertebrates , including grasshoppers ( acrididae ) , beetles ( coleoptera . . .
nesting mostly in association with rainfall , typically in summer in most of range , but also opportunistically , whenever conditions suitable . . .
most populations , even small island ones , subject to some local movements , following favourable . . .
not globally threatened . locally common throughout much of range . breeding density up to 1 pair / 3 ha in favourable conditions . desertification in w africa has led to . . .
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recent molecular phylogeny of this family # r —the most comprehensive attempted to date—has recommended novel arrangements for several species and genera , including the resurrection of a number of abandoned genus - group names .
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eremopterix nigriceps . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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jennifer hammock split the classifications by birds resource and smithsonian type specimen data from eremopterix nigriceps ( gould , 1839 ) to their own page .
kari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name
saharanvarpuskiuru
from
eremopterix nigriceps ( gould , 1839 )
as trusted .
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the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 9 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .
below is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
in europe , the breeding population is estimated to number 3 , 600 , 000 - 7 , 600 , 000 breeding pairs , equating to 10 , 800 , 000 - 22 , 800 , 000 individuals ( birdlife international 2004 ) . europe forms 25 - 49 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 22 , 000 , 000 - 91 , 200 , 000 individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . national population sizes have been estimated at c . 100 - 10 , 000 breeding pairs in china and < c . 10 , 000 breeding pairs in korea ( brazil 2009 ) .
- birds in the dryer parts of morocco and tunisia had longer bills while those in more coastal northern parts had shorter bills typical of the european subspecies . the authors sampled the mitochondrial dna and found they were distinct genetically .
, has been found to have diverged 1 . 9 million years ago and is regarded now by the
with a height of 17 cm and a wingspan of 29 to 38 cm , weighing between 37 and 55 g .
it is a small , brown bird which has a short tail with light brown outer feathers . male and females have no real differences , but young crested larks have more spots on their back than their older counterparts .
today , it could be found in sweden until the 1990s , with sources reporting six individual birds in 1992 before becoming extinct in sweden in 1993 .
the birds have also gone extinct in several other european countries , including norway ( 1972 ) , luxembourg ( 1973 ) and switzerland ( 1980s ) .
this is a common bird of dry , open country and is often seen by roadsides or in cereal fields , although it is also found occupying small , sandy patches by railways , docks and airfields .
it sings in flight from high in the sky , at roughly 30 to 60 metres above the ground . the related
it nests in small depressions in the ground , often in wastelands and on the outskirts of towns . the nests are untidy structures composed primarily of dead grasses and roots .
as with most larks , the chicks leave the nest early , after about eight days and take flight after reaching 15–16 days old .
juvenile birds are fed by both parents , and generally leave the nest before they are able to fly to start foraging for food themselves .
: its plain earth - coloured plumage and hood , its humility (
for it goes willingly along the wayside and finds a grain of corn for itself
) , and its time spent in song .
estimates for the global population of mature individuals of the species range from 22 , 000 , 000 to 91 , 200 , 000 .
harrison , c . j . o . ( 1966 ) .
the validity of some genera of larks ( alaudidae )
. ibis 108 ( 4 ) : 573–83 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 1966 . tb07209 . x .
gill , f & d donsker ( eds . ) ( 30 june 2013 ) .
černý , walter ( 1975 ) . a field guide in colour to birds . translated by margot schierlová ; illustrated by karel drchal . london : octopus books limited . pp . 156–157 . isbn 070640405x .
snow , david ; perrins , christopher m ( editors ) ( 1998 ) . the birds of the western palearctic concise edition 2 . oxford : oxford university press . pp . 1037–1040 . isbn 0198501889 .
harbard , chris ( 1989 ) . songbirds : how to attract them and identify their song . london : kingfisher books . p . 52 . isbn 0862724597 .
burnie , david ( 2001 ) . animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife . london : dorling kindersley . p . 342 . isbn 9780789477644 .
hayman , peter ; hume , rob . the complete guide to the bird life of britain and europe . 2004 : bounty books . p . 185 . isbn 9781857327953 .
european news
. british birds ( british birds ltd ) 88 : 274 . june 1995 . issn 0007 - 0335 .
armstrong , edward a . ( 1973 ) . saint francis , nature mystic : the derivation and significance of the nature stories in the franciscan legend . berkeley and los angeles , california : university of california press . pp . 90–91 . isbn 0520019660 .
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the honour of heading the sequence of oscine families falls upon the apparently humdrum larks , the alaudidae , a relatively limited group of small , dun - coloured birds typical of the treeless regions of africa and . . .
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over their extensive geographical distribution , larks occupy a great diversity of habitats . they are found in african savannas , asian steppes , mediterranean scrub , eurosiberian pastures and high mountain zones . . .
despite the existence of noteworthy interspecific differences in bill morphology ( see morphological aspects ) , the diet of adult larks in almost all cases comprises seeds and . . .
the breeding habits of the alaudidae , although subject to notable exceptions , may be summarized by stating that : the members of this family are monogamous and territorial ; they breed as isolated pairs or in loose colonies ; their nests are constructed on the ground , by the females ; clutch size . . .
larks exhibit a great diversity of movements , including regular and partial migration , vagrancy and nomadism . many species , however , are entirely sedentary . among others , it is often the case that some populations of a single species undertake one kind of movement , while others either perform . . .
few passerines are more familiar to people than are larks . this is somewhat surprising in view of the fact that the family alaudidae contains only a moderate number of species , of sober plumage , and inhabiting chiefly parts of africa and asia that are sparsely populated by humans . the . . .
alaudids provide examples of practically the full range of avian population sizes . some number many millions of pairs , while others can muster only a few hundred , the differences generally reflecting the very variable extents of their geographical distributions . at one extreme there is the . . .
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list of species of the larks ( alaudidae ) family . each species provides information on taxonomy , descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation and bibliography .
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de juana , e . , suárez , f . & ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . larks ( alaudidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
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it occurs in the subtropical regions of north africa , arabian peninsula and southern asia , mainly in arid and semi - arid plains with grass or sparse low vegetation . it prefers sandy areas .
later in may 2010 this species was also observed near sohar , some 200 km west of muscat .
here seen dropping a 250 - milligram acid bomb . . . [ ras al - hadd , may 2010 ]
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as the sun rises over the grassland , it is evident why this place is named tal chapar . barring a few trees and waterholes , the park is absolutely flat all around ( tal chapar = “flat land of chapar” ) . this wonderful habitat plays host to thousands of blackbucks ( one of the highest wild populations in the world ) . wherever you look , you are bound to see them prancing about the grassland , dueling with each other , silently grazing , or just lazing around .
as the sun starts warming up the ground , the burrows start stirring with activity . spiny - tailed lizards and indian jirds start their frenetic activity , disappearing as quickly if a predator comes on scene . these ground - dwellers occur here in huge numbers and provide a sustainable prey base for the variety of predators found here – raptors , indian and desert foxes , and monitor lizards . thirst draws animals to the water holes around the park . afternoons around the water holes are normally buzzing with activity . as dusk sets in , the winter sky is often filled with hundreds of harriers returning to the park to roost in the safe confines of the park – a spectacle not to be missed .
tal chapar is not just a natural miracle . sincere conservation work over the past decade by the forest department , including rainwater harvesting , promoting indigenous grass species over exotic ones and restricting movement of domestic animals inside the park , has ensured that wildlife thrives in this oasis on the edge of the thar desert .
about tal chapar : former hunting grounds of the maharaja of bikaner , tal chapar is now a protected wildlife sanctuary . tal chapar can be reached by train / road from delhi ( around 350km ) or by road from jaipur ( around 200km ) . you can stay at the comfortable forest rest house adjoining the park .
a new dawn - the sun rises over a new day at tal chapar . an early morning mist often hangs over the place in winters , giving it a magical look .
conservation - a forest guard patrols the park early in the morning . the forest department has worked hard to help the grassland and its denizens thrive . a degenerating habitat where blackbuck had to once be fed every summer due to scarcity of grass now has enough and more grass for its 3000 + blackbucks . what follows in this photo essay is largely the result of this passion for wildlife and conservation .
harrier on a hunt - harriers are the amongst the first raptors to get active and , very soon , they are seen gliding all over the grassland . this montagu ' s harrier seems to have gotten lucky .
take - off - blackbucks are india ' s fastest land mammals , clocking speeds of around 80 km / hr . they are often seen stotting - leaping high above the ground - in the midst of a run . this is meant to be a signal to a predator that the animal is healthy and not worth the chase .
kestrel raaga - a good old stretch is so refreshing in the morning . this common kestrel seems to be expressing the same sentiment . and enjoying it too . kestrels visit the park during winter . they can be spotted all over , especially with their distinguishing hovering ( remaining still at the same place while flapping their wings ) over the grassland looking for prey .
cuteness - as the morning warms up , this indian desert jirds pops it head out of its burrow . after assuring itself that the area is predator - free , it would go ahead and start feeding on plant matter around its colony . jirds live in underground colonies , with an intricate system of tunnels . they form one of the key prey - bases for birds of prey and small predatory mammals in the grassland .
on flatter ( and slightly harder ground ) , thousands of spiny - tailed lizards start emerging . these miniature godzillas are in fact primarily herbivores ! being cold - blooded , they warm up in the sun before setting about their feeding activity .
the early bird - this resident tawny eagle seems to have gotten lucky . in its strong talons is firmly gripped an unwary spiny - tailed lizard . however , the eagle has to be careful here . there are enough and more hungry raptors around that ' ll try to snatch the prize away . sadly , spiny - tailed lizards are also prized by humans for their tails - the oils extracted are believed to have medicinal properties . in chapar , good protection principles ensure that they thrive in large numbers .
the kid - not your average kid though . this juvenile white - tailed eagle towered over every other eagle in the grassland while it was around . standing just under a metre tall , it could be seen from virtually any corner of the grassland . this incredibly rare bird ( for india ) was recorded for the first ( and only time ) in tal chapar in the winter of 2012 - 13 . the first sighting at chapar was by our group ( on a darter photography tour ) . the star of the season , it spent the entire winter in the grassland .
ramp walk - another superstar of chapar . the critically endangered sociable lapwing is often seen here in winters . a small brown bird that is found in groups , this bird migrates here from its breeding grounds in russia and kazakhstan . population estimates of this bird are less than 5000 birds ( that ' s lesser than the number of people in some apartment complexes ) and numbers are predicted to fall by 80 % in a decade .
desert colours - after a dazzling array of different shades of brown , this one seems to stand out . and with a bang ! the blue - cheeked bee eater is also very different in another way - it is a summer visitor the park . traveling all the way from africa , this bird visits the park in summer to breed . after the breeding season , it makes the long journey back only to return next summer .
my domain - this desert fox kit enjoys a playful evening close to the family den . desert foxes , indian foxes , jungle cats and desert cats form the key small predators in this park . they primarily feed on reptiles , small mammals and birds .
co - existence - in any grassland , water is a critical resource . even more so when it is located on the edge of the thar desert . it is not uncommon to see many different species of animals congregate here on a warm afternoon to cool off . in this case , we spent a good amount of time observing this bonelli ' s eagle chilling out , while she was visited by a blackbuck , a greenshank and a monitor lizard !
playful under watch - when young ones are around , it is a time of extra caution for the parents . here , the grey francolin was on her way into the safety of the grass when the young ones found something interesting . she had to urge them to move on so as to ensure that they get to their safe roost before nightfall .