the codling moth ( cydia pomonella ) is a member of the lepidopteran family tortricidae .

they are known as an agricultural pest .

it is native to europe and was introduced to north america , where it has become one of the regular pests of apple orchards .

it is found almost worldwide .

it also attacks pears , walnuts , and other tree fruits .

the codling moth is bivoltine in most regions of the usa — in the pacific northwest there is a partial third generation .

codling moth

the exosex cm codling moth pheromone autoconfusion system provides another codling moth control option .
figure 1 . tunneling of apple fruit caused by larvae of the codling moth .
figure 4 . late stage caterpillar of a codling moth feeding within an apple .
figure 1 . codling moth larval entries ( stings ) . ( h . philip )
controls codling moth and other pests on vegetables , herbs , fruit , and ornamentals .
codling moth is a small moth whose caterpillars bore into the fruits of apple and pear trees during mid - to late - summer .
the caterpillar of the codling moth is the common ‘worm’ in a wormy apple or pear .
now is the time to control codling moth in tasmanian apples and pears . | globalnet academy
there are various sprays and treatments available for the control of codling moth adults and caterpillars .
codling moth caterpillars are inconspicuous little creatures that eat your apple cores and leave brown exit holes .
like other sex pheromone mating disruption systems , it only gives adequate control of low codling moth populations and should be used in combination with other codling moth control measures including granulovirus and / or insecticides .
codling moth adult with typical copper coloured wing tips and banding on the wings . img ref : urltoken
figure 10b . codling moth larvae preparing to pupate within a cardboard band placed on an apple tree trunk .
a simple codling moth trap made from a plastic bottle and a sweet liquid bait . img ref : urltoken
each dispenser contains wax powder loaded with the codling moth sex pheromone in its base and a sex pheromone lure .
successful management of codling moth is dependent upon many factors such as size and extent of the codling moth population , number , size and condition of trees , presence of natural enemies , available pesticides , and tree owner attitudes . there is no one - size - fits - all best management strategy for all homeowners wishing to manage codling moth .
table 1 . key events in codling moth life cycles estimated by use of biofix 1 and subsequently accumulated degree days 2 . these estimates are adapted from utah pests fact sheet en - 13 - 0 6 ( codling moth ) .
figure 3 . excrement of a codling moth caterpillar expelled from point of entry near calyx end of an apple fruit .
generation codling moth : apply ovicides at biofix plus 100 degree days ( this is usually close to petal fall ) .
codling moth resistance to traditional organophosphate insecticides such as imidan is becoming more common on the east and west coasts , as well as in parts of kentucky . fortunately , there are new labeled insecticide alternatives for codling moth control on apples with different modes of action . growers should not rely on a single insecticide mode of action throughout the year to control codling moth .
it is not worthwhile controlling codling moth on quince or walnut as the level of infestation in these fruits is rarely significant .
codling moth , cydia ( laspeyresia ) pomonella , is a serious insect pest of apples , pears , and english walnuts .
other natural enemies of codling moth include tachinid flies , ichneumon wasps , braconid wasps , chalcid wasps , carabid beetles , predatory bugs , green and brown lacewings , ladybirds , earwigs and ants . spiders eat codling moth eggs , moths and larvae . higher predation of codling moth larvae by carabid beetles has been observed in orchards with significant amounts of leaf litter and mulch .
also may be feasible and need to be considered , particularly in the context of reducing residual overwintering populations of codling moth .
the codling moth , cydia pomonella , is a pest species in apples , pears , quinces and occasionally stone fruit . the adult for of codling moth is a grey moth about 10mm long with a 20mm wing span . it has a copper coloured patch on each wing tip and brown banding along the upper surface of the wing . the hind wings of the moth are usually fringed .
proper monitoring and timing of insecticides is essential for managing codling moth . if insecticides are applied too late , larvae will have tunneled into the fruit where they can no longer be controlled by insecticides . the developmental model to predict timing of codling moth sprays is :
figure 6 . frass , a mixture of feces and food fragments , fills tunnels that codling moth larvae have bored into this apple .
codling moth cydia pomonella is the principal insect pest of pome fruit in victoria and can damage almost the entire crop if not controlled .
codling moth eggs are preyed on by earwigs and mirid bugs but neither gives significant control . wasps such as trichogramma parasitise codling moth eggs and have been used with some success in russia . under australian conditions , the rate of parasitism was too low for commercial use .
mating disruption represents a valuable alternative to insecticide treatment for isolated orchards with a low codling moth population . the hand - applied pheromone dispensers and various forms of sprayable pheromones are commercially available and can be used for codling moth control . if oriental fruit moth is also a problem in the same block , then select a pheromone to control both species . in orchards with codling moth populations resistant to organophosphate insecticides , a combination of mating disruption and codling moth granulosis virus is recommended to effectively control this pest . also , the recently registered insecticides with new modes of action are very effective against this pest .
alone , natural enemies are not able to keep codling moth populations below economic levels . augmentative releases of the egg parasite trichogramma platneri have been applied to reduce codling moth populations , but research has shown that this technique has limited effectiveness and is too expensive for practical use .
figure 6 . eggs of the codling moth are laid on leaves or fruit . photograph courtesy of ken gray collection / oregon state university .
figure 11a . a pheromone trap for codling moth , baited with the sex attractant produced by the female . photograph courtesy of rick zimmerman .
if a backyard tree or orchard has a very high moth population , it might be impossible to satisfactorily reduce codling moth without using pesticides . also , nearby orchards or backyard trees in which no control program is in place can serve as a continual source of codling moth and can make it even more difficult to limit damage through nonchemical means alone .
organophosphate resistance in codling moth will encourage earlier adoption of alternative control tactics . the potential of switching to insecticides with different modes of action , for example insect growth regulators ( westigard 1979 ) , may be limited by cross - resistance evident in organophosphate - resistant codling moth populations ( s . welter & j . dunley , unpublished ) . mating disruption offers a highly selective alternative for control of codling moth ( charmillot 1990 , rothschild 1982 ) , and researchers have reported codling moth control in mating disruption programs using a
rope - type
dispenser system . even if highly successful for codling moth control , it is not likely that mating disruption would eliminate use of all insecticides in pome fruit orchards . insecticides would be used against pests for which alternatives are not available or when pest populations ( including codling moth ) threaten to exceed the economic injury level .
figure 9 . the original entry wounds made are quite small , but do indicate that a fruit is infested by a developing codling moth caterpillar .
( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) , a potential biological control agent of codling moth in new zealand . new zealand plant protection 64 : 227 - 234 .
there are great many natural controls of codling moth , including some parasitic wasps and a host of generalist predators of insects ( e . g . , assassin bugs , minute pirate bugs , green lacewing larvae ) ( figure 7 ) . on unsprayed trees , or on trees where the insecticides used are selective in their effects ( e . g . , codling moth granulosis virus ) these natural enemies can provide an important supplemental control of codling moth—and other insects / mites that may affect the crop ( e . g . , pear psylla , mites ) . however , due to the serious nature of codling moth injury , where a single larva can destroy a fruit , the natural enemies present for codling moth often will not provide control that is fully acceptable .
2 degree days are based on daily calculating the number of degrees of temperature ( f ) that the average temperature ( maximum temperature + minimum temperature / 2 ) exceeds the base temperature of codling moth activity ( 50°f ) . predictions of codling moth activity are based on the accumulated degree days following biofix .
organically acceptable tools for the control of codling moth include cultural control in conjunction with mating disruption and sprays of approved oils , codling moth granulovirus ( cyd - x ) , the entrust formulations of spinosad , and kaolin clay ( surround ) . check with your certifier about the exact status of all materials .
figure 7 . the assassin bug zelus luridus is one of many insects that will feed on codling moth and other insects found in apple and pear trees .
figure 11b . codling moth males trapped on the sticky surface of a pheromone trap . the red rubber septa contains the sex pheromone produced by the female .
note : the codling moth was introduced to north america by the colonists more than 200 years ago and is now one of the leading pests in home orchards .
codling moth is a key pest of apple , which attacks the fruit directly causing economic damage at low population densities . it is sometimes very damaging to pear .
control of codling moth is the key to almost all other pest programs in pome fruit orchards since the chemicals commonly used to control codling moth have adverse effects on beneficial insect species , which contribute to biological control of other pests . as a result , regular seasonal chemical control programs are often required for control of minor pests .
codling moth larvae can enter fruit at any point on the surface of apples but often attack at areas that provide some cover such as the stem end , calyx end , or where two fruit touch ( figure 3 ) . larval entry into pears , which are harder - skinned , is primarily at the calyx end and attacks of pear occur later in the growing season . rarely , codling moth larvae have been found in cherries , peaches and large - fruited crab apples . although control of codling moth in these crops is not necessary , infestations in crab apples can be significant sources of codling moth that may later migrate to nearby apple and pear trees .
mating disruption relies on confusion to prevent codling moths from mating . male codling moths locate female moths at night by following the sex attractant released into the air by the females . mating disruption uses commercial dispensers of synthetic sex attractant to prevent male moths from locating females . unfertilized moths are not able to lay viable eggs . unlike other methods , codling moths are not killed with this technique . this technique is most successful in blocks of at least 5 acres and where initial populations of codling moth are low . keep in mind that mating disruption for codling moth will not control other insects that are normally controlled with cover sprays ( plum curculio or oriental fruit moth for example ) .
trichogramma wasps , minute parasitic wasps that develop in the eggs of various moths , are available from several suppliers of biological control organisms . potentially they may help suppress codling moth populations if applied repeatedly to coincide with periods when codling moth eggs are present , although effectiveness in home orchard settings has never been studied and should be considered experimental .
suppliers , which may provide some control of codling moth . these are microscopic worm - like creatures that enter the bodies of caterpillars and infects them with a fatal bacterial disease
codling moth , cydia pomonella , was introduced from europe in colonial times and now occurs throughout north america as well as most of the world , wherever apples are grown .
timing of the first codling moth spray in the spring can be more accurate if the beginning of egg hatch is predicted using codling moth trap captures and degree - day accumulations . the bcma ( kelowna ) factsheet predicting codling moth spray dates with degree - days explains how to measure temperatures , determine biofix and calculate degree - days necessary to time the first spray . a maximum - minimum thermometer housed in a well - ventilated shelter is required in order to record minimum and maximum temperatures necessary to calculate degree - days .
the most important natural enemy of the codling moth is the trichogramma micro wasp , which parasitises the moth eggs . the wasp larva then feeds on the contents of the moth egg . micro wasps are tiny , less than half a millimetre long and not hazardous to people in any way , instead they rank as one of the most beneficial insect in our gardens . one female wasp is able to parasitise over 50 moth eggs . trichogramma wasps are commercially produced in australia . other pests controlled by micro wasps include : tomato budworm , corn ear worm , oriental fruit moth , lightbrown apple moth , cabbage moth and loopers . trichogramma wasps are available commercially from bugs for bugs qld urltoken
1 biofix is determined by the use of pheromone traps baited with the codling moth phermone lure ( codlemone ) . traps should be placed in trees shortly before bloom . the presence of two male codling moths in a trap is used to establish the date of biofix .
the addition of pear ester to a pheromone lure will increase captures of males and also capture females . this blend may help provide a minor amount of suppression of codling moth .
homemade lures . many moths , including codling moth , can be attracted to fermenting sugar - based lures . a common lure involves molasses diluted about 1 : 7 in water . natural yeast will ferment this mixture making it attractive to codling moths . beer and diluted fruit juices are also sometimes used for making moth lures . for controlling codling moth these mixtures should be placed in an open container ( e . g . , a cut plastic milk jug , 2 - liter bottle ) and hung on or near fruit trees . adding a few drops of soap or other material that breaks surface tension may increase moth captures .
the codling moth wing is generally a darker shade of gray near the base , with a dark patch containing coppery scales near the inside wing tip . photo by g . krawczyk .
everyone knows the old joke : what is worse than finding a worm in your apple ? answer : half a worm . the saying refers to the larva of the codling moth (
codling moth can be very difficult to manage , especially if the population has been allowed to build up over a season or two . it is much easier to keep moth numbers low from the start than to suppress a well - established population . in trees with low levels , codling moth often can be kept to tolerable levels by using a combination of nonchemical management methods ; however , it is important to begin implementing these measures early in the season .
initial trap catches for adult moth in the early spring are termed biofixes . this information will be used to predict when egg hatch will occur and synchronize insecticide sprays . the biofix for the codling moth is the starting date of the first sustained flight of male moths captured in pheromone traps . generally , this is when the fifth moth has been captured in the trap . a few moths often emerge very early in the spring ahead of the rest . using the fifth moth as the biofix better represents when the majority of the codling moths begin to emerge . this usually occurs just after petal fall . codling moth traps need to be examined daily in order to know exactly when the biofix occurs . after the biofix has occurred , degree days are calculated on a daily basis and a running total is kept ( see
predicting insect development using degree days
in entfact 201 ) . the codling moth has a 50
varietal differences . no apples or pears are completely resistant to codling moth . there are some small differences in susceptibility based on fruit firmness , with firmer fruited varieties being somewhat less susceptible . early maturing varieties take less management time because they are harvested sooner while later maturing varieties are still on the tree and at risk of infestation from the third generation of codling moth .
codling moth granulosis virus ( carpovirusine , cyd - x , virosoft cp4 ) - check label for rates . phi 0 days . granulosis virus is a selective biological insecticide that must be ingested in order to be effective . thorough coverage is important . the virus degrades when exposed to uv light . if a grower relies only on granulosis virus for codling moth control , frequent applications are necessary ( every 7 to 10 days ) , especially when codling moth pressure is high . the virus controls larvae , but some damage , primarily stings , may be evident .
figure 10a . banding trunks of trees with cardboard or burlap bands can provide sites where codling moth will pupate . they can then be collected and destroyed . photograph courtesy of rick zimmerman .
: apples are the most important host , but the codling moth will also attack pears , walnut , quince , crabapples , hawthorn , loquat , and some stone fruits , mainly apricots .
now is the time to control codling moth in tasmanian fruit trees . with a little knowledge and a few handy tips , you will be enjoying perfect grub - free fruit this summer .
visit the oksir program web site ( urltoken ) for more information about colding moth control .
virosoft cp4 granulovirus – codling moth larvae must eat the virus before they enter the fruit , so thorough coverage is essential . the efficacy of the virus deteriorates quickly ( short residual period ) . apply weekly in the late afternoon or on a cloudy day throughout the period when codling moth larvae are emerging from eggs . because the granulovirus does not kill codling moth larvae as quickly as most chemical sprays , some feeding damage will occur . store virosoft in a cool place between uses to reduce degradation of the granulovirus . this product is certified for use in organic production orchards .
a third generation of codling moth eggs does not occur every year in every location . codling moth larvae normally go into diapause ( winter dormant state ) around august 22 , but in warm years and warm locations they will have already started pupation before august 22 , and these pupae will soon emerge as adults to produce a third generation . if 650 degree - days have accumulated between the peak of the second generation flight and august 22 , most of the codling moth will not go into diapause but will pupate and emerge in august to early september , depending on climate .
codling moth has two to four generations each season . continue to monitor the generations with traps and accumulate degree - days until the crop is harvested or populations decline below damaging levels in september .
among insecticides generally used for codling moth control , there are none with enough selectivity and effectiveness to be useful for integrated control programs . during the 1980 ' s , the agricultural chemical industry made a substantial effort to develop selective insecticides for codling moth control . development efforts focused on insect growth regulators such as the chitin - synthesis inhibitors and juvenile hormone mimics . research trials and limited grower use have shown that diflubenzuron , a chitin - synthesis inhibitor , provides adequate codling moth control on apple and pears without disrupting biological control of other pests ( westigard 1979 , alston 1992 ) .
a lattice of 25 delta dispensers per ha is set out in a grid through the orchards at the start of the codling moth flight in may , as indicated by sex pheromone trap catches .
sanitation – remove any non - commercial codling moth host trees ; if on surrounding properties or public lands , inform sir staff . woodpiles and any wooden structures , such as fruit bins or boxes , tree props , or ladders , are important sources of overwintered codling moths . as codling moth populations decrease , it becomes important to eliminate or treat wooden structures within or immediately adjacent to the orchards . pay attention to the source of anything wooden entering the orchard , especially wooden bins and props .
codling moth is the most important insect pest of apple and pears in north america . damage is done by the larvae , which are cream - colored caterpillars that tunnel fruit and produce ‘wormy’ apples ( figure 1 ) . control of this insect can be difficult due largely to the feeding habits of the insect , but several measures may be used in home orchards to effectively manage codling moth .
codling moth adults are about 1 / 2 to 3 / 4 inch long with mottled gray wings that they hold tentlike over their bodies ( figure 1 ) . their appearance blends well with most tree bark , making them difficult to detect . if you are trapping the adults , you can distinguish codling moth from other moths by the dark , coppery brown band at the tip of their wings .
figure 8 . a common point where codling moth larvae will enter fruit is where two fruit are in contact . thinning fruit to avoid fruit - to - fruit contact can help control the insect .
biological control . although a few predators such as spiders or carabid beetles might feed on codling moth larvae or pupae , naturally occurring biological control isn’t effective . in commercial walnut and pear orchards , releases of the tiny wasp trichogramma platneri have been used successfully to manage codling moth in combination with mating disruption or soft pesticides . this method hasn’t been successful in commercial apples and hasn’t been tested in backyards .
the rate of development will vary with temperature , proceeding more rapidly in warmer weather and climates . depending on the climate , codling moth can have two , three , and sometimes four generations per year .
degree days are a measure of temperature occurring during a day . they are useful for predicting activity of codling moth ( and many other insects ) because insects are cold - blooded and development follows temperature .
the accumulation of these degree days is initiated by the biofix - first sustained moth catch . for insecticides targeting larvae , omafra recommends spraying at 125 ddc ( base 10°c ) after biofix . apply ovicides at 50 ddc ( base 10°c ) after biofix . for second generation codling moth , apply larvicides at 600 to 625 ddc ( base 10°c ) after biofix from the first generation flight . to determine the best timing of a particular insecticide to control codling moth , see omafra publication 360 , fruit production recommendations .
the integration of parasitism into areawide codling moth management necessitates a clear understanding of the interaction of management tactics and the selection of complementary treatments . the general objective of reducing or eliminating the use of broad - spectrum pesticides against codling moth in pome fruit crops in the western u . s . will create a more hospitable environment for natural enemies and will constitute the most important element of the conservation of imported and augmented parasitoids .
codling moth larvae belong to a 20mm grayish brown moth which has alternating grey - brown bands across the wing tip . eggs are laid on leaves usually near fruit . larvae tunnel into the fruit and feed for for 3 - 5 weeks before tunneling out an exit hole . after pupation , adults emerge 12 - 21 days later and the cycle is repeated . there are two types of damage caused by the larvae of the codling moth . the first is a “sting” to the fruit , where the larvae has penetrated the fruit surface but has died shortly after . the second is when the larvae has tunnelled into the fruit core and been able to feed in the seed cavity . codling moth prefers apples , pears , quinces and crabapples .
a cheaper option is kiwicare organic caterpillar bio control . though not sold for codling moth – its targets are pests like leaf roller , white butterfly and looper – the bacillus thuringiensis it contains is effective against the codling caterpillar . both madex 3 and the kiwicare product are only effective against the larvae before it enters the fruit .
pheromone traps for codling moth are available from garden shops or from mail order suppliers of pest controls . these consist of an open - sided box that is hung in the tree in early may . the bottom of the box has a sticky sheet on which the pheromone pellet is placed . the pheromone is a scent similar to that produced by virgin female codling moths and attracts mates . male codling moths are lured into the trap and get stuck
in the past in pennsylvania , the codling moth was maintained at low population levels by insecticides sprayed to control other pests and usually did not seriously affect apple production in commercial orchards . in the last 10 years the significance of this pest drastically increased mainly due to insecticide resistance . codling moth has been known to infest 95 percent of the apples in an orchard when control measures were not taken against it . given this insect ' s ability to adapt to various fruits ( e . g . , the ability to coincide with different fruiting times ) and to develop resistance to insecticides , fruit growers must continually be on guard against a resurgence of codling moth .
the adult female codling moth lays approximately 60 whitish grey eggs , that are about the size of a pinhead , on the surface of the leaves when the average temperature is over 15 degrees in spring and early summer .
organic growers should use multiple codling moth granulovirus sprays ( up to 6 applications per generation and not exceeding 10 applications per season for madex top ) and in combination with season - long maintenance of a pheromone autoconfusion system .
bug zappers . there are some commercial orchards which utilize bug zappers or light traps to reduce codling moth populations . this is a significant expense and not widely practiced . however , there may be some reduction in both female and male codling moth if a light trap / bug zapper is place in the upper 1 / 3 of the tree canopy . keep in mind the light traps / bug zappers will also kill large numbers of beneficial insects .
degree - days are determined by use of the average temperature for a day ( maximum temperature + minimum temperature / 2 ) and subtracting it from the base temperature at which the insect does not develop . for the codling moth a base temperature of 50°f is used . ( temperatures above 88°f are upper thresholds for codling moth activity and should not be included in degree day accounting . ) as an example , a day when the high temperature was 80°f and the low temperature was 60°f , then 20 degree days would accumulate [ ( 80 + 60 / 2 ) – 50 ] . table 1 lists codling moth activities that can be predicted by use of this model .
fruit with extensive tunnelling often aborts prior to harvest , while fruit with surface feeding may remain on the tree until harvest . this injury causes internal breakdown of the fruit often leading to premature drop . the exit hole - where mature larva emerged - is often plugged with frass . exit holes can occur on the side or bottom of fruit ( figure 4 - 94 and figure 4 - 95 ) . fruit damage from oriental fruit moth and codling moth is similar , but codling moth larvae usually feed on the fruit seeds , while oriental fruit moth larvae only feed on the fruit flesh . if uncontrolled , codling moth can damage 50 % to 90 % of the crop . first generation damage appears in orchards in late june to august , and second generation damage appears in orchards from late august through to october . second generation larvae are considered to cause the greatest amount of damage .
an ipm program uses a combination of tools for codling moth management , including insecticides , mating disruption , and cultural controls . mating disruption is the preferred tool because of its low toxicity to people , natural enemies , and the environment , but it may need to be supplemented with insecticide sprays , especially during the first few years . in orchards where codling moth is managed primarily with insecticides , alternate insecticides that have a different mode - of - action group number to avoid the development of resistance . if you see trap catches increasing and suspect insecticide tolerance or resistance , combine the use of mating disruption with the insecticides . all codling moth management programs should be supplemented with cultural controls .
codling moth granulosis virus . a virus specific to codling moth is available by mail order from several garden / farm supply companies , sold under the trade name cyd - x . if ingested the virus produces a lethal disease that kills larvae within 3 to 7 days . advantages of using cyd - x include its specificity of action to codling moth larvae , which spares natural enemies . it is also allowed in certified organic production . its primary limitation is that it must be ingested , so thorough coverage of apples must be in place prior to larval tunneling . weekly applications are recommended and combination with horticultural oil can improve coverage and control . applications can be made up to day of harvest .
it seems probable that natural biological control , classical biological control , and augmentative biological control all could play substantial roles in the suppression of the most important secondary pests of apple and pear under a selective management program against codling moth .
adult female codling moths release a sex - attractant chemical ( pheromone ) to attract male codling moths . synthetic pheromones are used in traps to indicate the presence of male codling moths in orchards . pheromone - trap catches and temperature records can be used to predict when the eggs resulting from a particular moth flight will be hatching . such predictions , if accurate , should allow better timing of spraying . further advice on the use of pheromones can be obtained from the author .
the apple season is a peak time to work on your organic strategies for codling moth . inspect the trees every 10 days , collect any fruit you find with small holes and destroy it by immersing it in water for several days .
every year do a winter clean - up of the orchard by removing loose bark and follow this with an eco oil spray , to destroy over - wintering codling moth larvae . make sure the trees are well mulched but keep the mulch away from the actual bark of the tree . the mulch provides habitat for ants , spiders and predatory ground beetles , all of whom feed on codling moth larvae . remember to check storage areas , particularly apple crates for over - wintering cocoons .
codling moth spends winter as a fullgrown caterpillar within a silken cocoon , pupating in late winter or early spring ( figure 5 ) . adult codling moths first emerge in spring , typically within days of apple bloom . earlier emergence may occur if the insects spent wintering next to a building or other warm area . peak emergence can occur within a week of the first moth emergence , but the last moth of the first generationmay not emerge for six or seven weeks . mating occurs within a few days of adult emergence followed by egg laying . egg laying increases as night time temperatures increase above 62°f .
the most important natural enemy of the codling moth is the trichogramma wasp , which parasitises the moth eggs . as an adult this micro wasp feeds on insect eggs , nectar , pollen and honeydew . it lives several times longer and destroys many more pests when supplied with nectar . properly managed cover crops are the key to maintaining high levels of predatory insects .
resistance in codling moth has been identified and yet remains localized ( varela et al . 1993 , knight et al . 1994 ) . historical data exist on resistance and codling moth population levels in several locations in western usa including california , oregon and washington . there are regional and crop - influenced differences in resistance levels that provide an opportunity for identifying factors which influence the evolution of resistance . simple and rapid techniques are available for monitoring levels of resistance ( riedl et al . 1985 , meagher and hull 1986 , suckling et al . 1985 ) . it is suggested that alternative control tactics such as mating disruption may be used before resistance in codling moth is widespread and before tactics detrimental to existing ipm programs have been widely adopted .
proper timing of insecticide sprays is critical if they are to be effective against codling moth ; they should be applied before or just as eggs are hatching . once the worm has gone into the fruit or nut , it is protected from pesticides .
codling moth has a 0 . 5 to 0 . 75 inch wingspan . the tip of each forewing has a coppery - tinged , dark brown band that distinguishes codling moth from other moths found in apple orchards . females lay eggs singly on leaves and sometimes on fruit later in the season . the eggs are smaller than a pinhead , disk - shaped , and opaque white when first laid . just before hatching the black head of the larvae becomes visible . newly hatched larvae are white with black heads . mature larvae are 0 . 5 to 0 . 75 inch long , pinkish white , with mottled brown heads . depending on climatic conditions and location in the state , there are two to four generations of codling moth each year .
yes , it is possible to get rid of codling moths using time - tested , organic and natural techniques . here’s how :
figure 12 . twist - tie strips containing pheromone of codling moth being attached to branches for use in mating disruption within a commercial orchard . large amounts of pheromone are emitted that can confuse male moths and disrupt mating . photograph courtesy of rick zimmerman .
home owners should also pick up and destroy fallen fruit . often fruit that drop prematurely are infested with either codling moth or plum curculio larvae . for more information on reduced insecticide apple management , see entfact‑201 , apple insect control with reduced insecticide usage .
open - mouthed jars can be filled with a variety of baits to attract codling moth . try port diluted with water ( 1 part port to 9 parts water ) , fermenting apple juice , molasses or oil of cloves . add a film of vegetable oil to the top to stop moths from escaping and prevent mosquitoes breeding . hang them in trees in the warmest part of the orchard . studies have shown codling moth prefer a bait four to five days old . replace the baits every two weeks .
until recently , organophosphates ( op ) were the main products used for codling moth control . in the last few years , several alternative materials ( e . g . insect growth regulators ( igr ) and neonicotinoids ) have been registered in canada . be aware that some new materials do not provide subsequent control of apple maggot - often present in orchards at the same time as second generation codling moth . see omafra publication 360 , fruit production recommendations for more information on the options available for managing these pests .
it is important to note that physiological time varies from day to day but chronological time is constant . the eggs , larvae and pupae of codling moth each have specific physiological time requirements to complete development before they transform to the next stage . temperature also affects the flight , mating and egg laying activities of the adults . although the minimum threshold for emergence of moths is 10 degrees c , male moths do not fly until temperatures exceed 13 degrees c and codling moths do not mate until temperatures exceed 16 degrees c . table 1 lists the minimum thresholds and the physiological time requirements of codling moth during its various stages of development and activities .
trapping . hanging traps in each susceptible fruit or nut tree might help to reduce codling moth populations on isolated trees but isn’t a reliable way to reduce damage . if it works at all , this method likely will have the most effect where trees are isolated from other trees harboring codling moth ( e . g . , apple , pear , or english walnut ) and when several traps are placed in a tree . use in combination with sanitation and other control methods for the best effect and expect damaged fruit .
the codling moth , cydia pomonella ( linnaeus ) was introduced to north america from eurasia and is an important pest of apples worldwide . other north american hosts include pear , quince ( cydonia oblonga mill ) , hawthorn ( crataegus spp . ) , crab apple ( malus spp . ) and walnut ( juglans spp . ) . codling moth adults fly into orchards from nearby abandoned orchards , or from hosts in surrounding woodlots ( apple , quince , hawthorn and crab apple ) . in some areas adults overwinter in orchards .
the adult codling moth is a small moth , approximately 1 / 2 inch in length ( figure 2 ) . the general coloration is grayish in appearance with narrow alternating bands of white . the tips of the wings are coppery . adult codling moths are rarely seen since they are most active during nighttime hours . the larvae , which are usually found in the fruit , are creamy white to slightly pink . the head and thoracic shield are brown or black . the body will turn from creamy white to a slight pink color .
codling moth damage in apples is easy to spot . there is typically a small brown hole in the fruit with brown frass ( caterpillar poo ) exuding from it . cutting the fruit in half will reveal a tunnel through to the core where the caterpillar is feeding .
petroleum oils have historically been used as pesticides in pome fruits . these products have become highly refined and pure , reducing some of the phytoxicity concerns associated with former products . the use of summer mineral oil applications to control codling moth has been shown to have promise on pear ( westigard , personal communication ) and research on its utility on apple is currently being examined . in pear , summer oils have provided suppression of spider mites in addition to codling moth , but the impact on other non - target organisms is not fully known .
codling moth larvae are susceptible to infection by a virus that can devastate localised populations . the virus has been developed into a commercial product overseas but local trials in australia have had disappointing results . a parasitic nematode has shown promise for control of over - wintering larvae .
1 . pheromone sticky wing traps are used to monitor the mating activity of codling moth . they allow you to be aware of when codling moths become active , so that you can correctly time your spraying or bagging program . 2 . pheromones are also used for mating disruption . by using isomate twist ties , the orchard area is saturated with pheromones , making it extremely difficult for codling moths to find each other in order to mate . this technique is only suitable for larger blocks of at least three hectares ; it is unlikely to work well in a small orchard .
research shows codling moth populations in washington , oregon , michigan and elsewhere have developed resistance to op insecticides ( guthion , imidan , zolone ) . preliminary research conducted by agriculture and agri - food canada suggests op resistance is present in some apple orchards in ontario . to deter the development of pesticide resistance , always rotate chemistries between generations wherever possible . use one chemistry for first generation codling moth ( e . g . insect growth regulators ) and a different chemistry ( e . g . neonicotinoids ) for second generation . do not rotate chemistries within a generation .
codling moth is the cause of what is often referred to as
maggoty apples
. the caterpillars of this insect can damage a high proportion of the fruits on apple trees in gardens . it can also affect pear fruits and occasionally it is found in walnut and quince fruits .
there are only a very limited number of spray products on the home garden / consumer market that are available for managing codling moth in home orchards . all of these require repeated application , timed for periods when eggs are being laid and are hatching , and thorough coverage of fruit .
a pheromone is a non - toxic , species - specific scent produced by the female insect to attract the male . pheromones are a particularly useful control for codling moth as the moths do not travel very far - usually under 60 metres ? and find each other entirely by scent .
the codling moth larva is one of the very destructive pests introduced from europe by settlers . this is the ‘worm in the apple . ’ while it can attack various fruits , it primarily damages apples . this is a key pest of apples that requires management in every orchard in kentucky .
there are few effective cultural or biological controls to help manage codling moth . predators , such as ground beetles ( carabidae ) , ants and crickets , and parasitic wasps , attack larvae as they leave fruit and crawl towards tree trunks , but do not provide economically acceptable levels of control .
codling moth pupae emerge as moths after 18 to 30 days in summer . they then go on to repeat the cycle twice more in the season . the third and final generation of the season delays it’s emergence as adults , overwintering and emerging in the next spring to start the cycle again .
mating disruption - mating disruption works by preventing male moths from finding female moths for mating within blocks treated with the pheromone dispensers , isomate - c plus ( codling moth ) or isomate cm flex ( codling moth ) or isomate - cm / lr tt ( codling moth and leafrollers twin tubes ) . this control tactic is most effective when applied on an area - wide basis involving as many adjoining orchards as possible . isomate - c plus and isomate cm flex should be applied at a rate of 500 - 1000 / ha ( 200 - 400 / ac ) , isomate - cm / lr tt at a rate of 750 / ha ( 300 / ac ) before the first moths fly in the spring . do not reduce the rate before consulting with the sir program or your crop management advisor . place the dispensers in the upper third of the canopy , preferably in shaded areas . orchards less than 2 ha in size are not suitable for mating disruption . growers should apply a border cover spray along edges adjacent to unmanaged sources of codling moth . place additional dispensers in border trees to minimize the effect of immigration . carefully read and follow the instructions provided with the dispensers .
apply about 10 days after full petal fall ( all petals are off ) or 17 to 21 days after full bloom . note degree days can be calculated from the codling moth phenology model at uspest . org . the brunner / hoyt model is most widely applicable across different regions of the pnw .
surround wp — a wettable kaolin clay — can be used to deter a broad range of fruit tree pests ( and diseases ) , and will reduce codling moth damage by 50 - 60 % . apply before moths arrive and continue for 6 - 8 weekly applications , or until the infestation is over .
in the past i have caught a lot with solar lights over water or oil and milk bottle traps . others report that this method has been very effective , almost eradicating codling moth in three years . for me , they have not been sufficient control but are a good , cheap indicator of numbers .
) was collected from kazakhstan in the 1990s . it was released in california , argentina and chile to control codling moth and brought into new zealand quarantine in 2009 for tests to determine their behaviour , biology and ecological impacts ( sandanayaka et al . 2011 ) . it was subsequently released into new zealand 2012 .
a simple organic method of trapping coddling moths that has been used in tasmanian orchards for decades , is a fence paling trap . to make this sort of trap , you screw together two 30cm lengths of fence paling with a 5mm gap in between . the codling moth larvae use the gap as a place to pupate . the traps are suspended in trees in the orchard and once every three weeks , they are removed and the pupating moth larvae are destroyed .
adult - brownish - gray moth about 10 - 12 mm long with a copper spot on the end of each forewing ( fig . 5 ) .
clothianidin ( belay insecticide ) at 6 to 12 fl oz / a ( 0 . 1 to 0 . 2 lb ai / a ) . for control of first generation codling moth in areas with light pressure and suppression of first generation codling moth in areas of heavy infestation . do not apply more than 12 fl oz ( 0 . 2 lb ai ) of belay insecticide per acre per season . phi 7 days . do not feed or allow livestock to graze on cover crops from treated orchards . belay insecticide must not be applied during bloom or if bees are actively foraging . [ larvicidal ] . [ group 4 ]
leafrollers are a major concern in orchards using selective controls for codling moth . however , helsen & blommers ( 1989 ) have demonstrated the benefits of changing from a broad - spectrum chemical program for codling moth control in the netherlands , where natural control of the summer fruit tortrix in ipm orchards , primarily from general predators , was found to be responsible for 99 % mortality of eggs and larvae . in the western u . s . , there are three main leafroller species : all three are native and have substantial parasitoid complexes ( newcomer 1958 , paradis & leroux 1962 , powell 1964 , simmons 1973 , mayer & beirne 1974 ) .
a plant - derived chemical ( kairomone ) lure has been developed to assist in monitoring codling moth populations . this lure is sold commercially as the
da
lure and is available alone and in combination with pheromone (
combo lure
) . the da lure has been shown to catch both female and male moths , whereas pheromone lures catch only male moths . the sex of moths caught in traps using the da lure can be determined by observing the tip of the abdomen . if the moth is female , the abdomen can be squeezed to eject the bursa pouch and give some idea of whether the moth is unmated , mated once , or more than once . generally , if the female ' s abdomen feels hard to the touch , the moth is most likely mated .
the adult female moth is approximately 3 / 8 inch long and grayish in color . the male is slightly smaller and has a grouping of hairlike scales near the wing base . the wing is generally a darker shade of gray near the base , with a dark patch containing coppery scales near the inside wing tip . the larvae have a cream to pinkish body and a brown head with dark speckles on the prothoracic shield behind the head . larvae reach ½ to 5 / 8 inch long at maturity . codling moth larvae , are often confused with the oriental fruit moth larvae , which are smaller , lack spots on the prothoracic shield , and have a comblike structure ( anal comb ) on the posterior end visible under magnification . codling moth eggs , laid singly , appear as flat , slightly oval discs . at first translucent , they later become reddish , and finally enter the black head stage just before hatching , when the dark head capsule can be seen .


the algerian wall gecko ( tarentola neglecta ) is a species of lizard in the family gekkonidae .

it is found in algeria , tunisia , and possibly libya .

this gecko lives in vegetation in dry areas such as deserts .

it has also been found in abandoned buildings .

it is locally common with no major threats .

algerian wall gecko

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tarentola delalandii ( a . m . c . duméril & bibron , 1836 ) - tenerife wall gecko
bshaena , ismail ; ulrich joger 2013 . a new gecko from libya : tarentola neglecta lanzai n . ssp . amphibia - reptilia 34 ( 3 ) : 353–362 - get paper here
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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is found over much of central algeria and southern tunisia , and is also possibly present in parts of northwestern libya , but this requires confirmation . it has been recorded from sea level up to 300 m asl .
it is generally associated with trees and bushes in arid areas such as desert , dry river beds and surrounding oases . it can be found in abandoned buildings but has not been recorded from inhabited houses . it is an oviparous species .
there are no major threats to this species at present . wood collection can be a localised threat to some populations . it is not collected commercially .
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joger , u . 1984 . taxonomische revision der gattung tarentola ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) . bonner zoologische beitraege 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 129–174
schleich , h h . , kästle , w . and kabisch , k . 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of north africa . koeltz scientific books , koenigstein .
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right now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .
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nota bene : a binomial authority or a trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than tarentola .
beolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( tarentola boettgeri , p . 29 ; t . crombei , p . 62 ; t . darwini p . 65 ) .
gray je . 1825 .
a synopsis of the genera of reptiles and amphibia , with a description of some new species
. annals of philosophy , london , series 2 , 10 : 193 - 217 . ( tarentola , new genus , p . 199 ) .
joger u . 1984 .
die radiation der gattung tarentola in makaronesien
. courier forschunginstitut senckenberg 71 : 91 - 111 .
schleich hh . 1984 .
die geckos der gattung tarentola der kapverden ( reptilia : sauria : gekkonidae )
. courier forschunginstitut senckenberg 68 : 95 - 106 .
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tarentola neglecta strauch 1887 tarentola angusticeps strauch 1887 ( fide boulenger 1887 ) tarentola neglecta — loveridge 1947 : 311 tarentola neglecta — wermuth 1965 : 181 tarentola ( saharogecko ) neglecta — joger 1984 tarentola neglecta — kluge 1993 tarentola ( saharogecko ) neglecta — rösler 1995 : 157 tarentola neglecta — schleich , kästle & kabisch 1996 : 277 tarentola ( saharogecko ) neglecta — rösler 2000 : 117 tarentola neglecta geyri joger 1984 tarentola neglecta geyri — trape , chirio & trape 2012 tarentola neglecta lanzai bshaena & joger 2013 tarentola neglecta lanzai — bauer et al . 2017
lanzai : c libya ; type locality : mandria oasis ( libyan sahara desert , n 26°45′ 40 . 73′′ , e 13°25′ 37 . 64′′ , 538 m elevation ) , at ruins of an abandoned building .
type locality : “batna , algeria” ( i . e . probably southern algeria , fide loveridge 1947 ) .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : unlocated holotype : zfmk 2134 , paratypes in zfmk and bmnh [ geyri ] holotype : snhm - bs n 44084 , an adult female , collected by ismail m . bshaena in october 2008 [ lanzai ]
subspecies : tarentola neglecta strauch , 1895 , is characterized by partially reduced digital lamellae , a more slender shape of head and body and lower scale counts than other tarentola species ( joger , 1984 ) . distribution : reports from chad are misidentified t . ephippiata ( bshaena & joger 2013 ) .
bauer , aaron m . ; jonathan c . deboer , dylan j . taylor 2017 . atlas of the reptiles of libya . proc . cal . acad . sci . 64 ( 8 ) : 155 - 318 - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1887 . remarks on dr . a . strauch’s catalogue of geckos in the zoological museum of the imperial academy of st . petersburg . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 19 : 383 - 388 - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1893 . note on tarentola americana . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 12 : 204 - get paper here
boulenger , george a . 1891 . catalogue of the reptiles and batrachians of barbary ( morocco , algeria , tunisia ) , based chiefly upon the notes and collections made in 1880 - 1884 by m . fernand lataste . tr . zool . soc . 13 : 93 - 164
joger u 1984 . taxonomische revision der gattung tarentola ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) . bonner zoologische beiträge 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 129 - 174 - get paper here
loveridge , a . 1947 . revision of the african lizards of the family gekkondiae . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 98 : 1 - 469 - get paper here
rösler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153
rösler , herbert 1995 . geckos der welt - alle gattungen . urania , leipzig , 256 pp .
schleich , h . h . , kästle , w . , kabisch , k . 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of north africa . koeltz , koenigstein , 627 pp .
sindaco , r . & jeremcenko , v . k . 2008 . the reptiles of the western palearctic . edizioni belvedere , latina ( italy ) , 579 pp . - get paper here
strauch , a . a . 1887 . bemerkungen über die geckoniden - sammlung im zoologischen museum der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften zu st . petersburg . mém . acad . impér . sci . st . - pétersbourg , ser . 7 , 35 ( 2 ) : ( 2 ) , 1 - 72 - get paper here
tlili , wided ; aymen nefla , michel delaugerre , ridha ouni , saïd nouira 2014 . factors determining gekkotan ( reptilia , sauria ) distribution in tunisia ( north africa ) . acta herpetologica 9 ( 2 ) : 203 - 217 - get paper here
trape , j . f . ; trape , s . & chirio , l . 2012 . lézards , crocodiles et tortues d ' afrique occidentale et du sahara . ird orstom , 503 pp . - get paper here
wake , d . b . , & kluge , a . g . 1961 . the machris expedition to tchad , africa . amphibians and reptiles . l . a . co . mus . , contrib . in sci . no . 40 : 1 - 12
werner , f . 1894 . zweiter beitrag zur herpetologie von ost - algerien . verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 44 : 75 - 87 - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .