micrelenchus is a genus of small sea snails that have shells with pearly interiors and an operculum .

they are marine gastropod molluscs in the family trochidae , the top snails or top shells .

the genus name has become a synonym of cantharidus montfort , 1810 this genus is only known to occur in new zealand .

micrelenchus

» species micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) tenebrosus ( a . adams , 1853 ) represented as micrelenchus tenebrosus ( a . adams , 1853 )
» species micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) tesselatus ( a . adams , 1853 ) represented as micrelenchus tesselatus ( a . adams , 1853 )
micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) tesselatus ( a . adams , 1853 ) · accepted , alternate representation
micrelenchus ( mawhero ) b . a . marshall , 1998 represented as micrelenchus finlay , 1926
subgenus micrelenchus ( mawhero ) b . a . marshall , 1998 represented as micrelenchus finlay , 1926
» species micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) huttonii ( e . a . smith , 1876 ) represented as micrelenchus huttonii ( e . a . smith , 1876 )
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) tenebrosus ( a . adams , 1853 )
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) tesselatus ( a . adams , 1853 )
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus ( micrelenchus ) huttonii ( e . a . smith , 1876 )
species micrelenchus ( mawhero ) burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 ) represented as micrelenchus burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 )
» species micrelenchus ( mawhero ) burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 ) represented as micrelenchus burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 )
species micrelenchus parcipictus powell , 1946 accepted as cantharidus tenebrosus a . adams , 1853 accepted as micrelenchus tenebrosus ( a . adams , 1853 ) ( synonym )
micrelenchus ( mawhero ) b . a . marshall , 1998 · accepted , alternate representation
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus tesselatus ( a . adams , 1853 )
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 )
micrelenchus ( mawhero ) burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 ) · accepted , alternate representation
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus ( mawhero ) b . a . marshall , 1998
worms - world register of marine species - micrelenchus ( mawhero ) burchorum ( b . a . marshall , 1998 )
species micrelenchus festivus b . a . marshall , 1998 accepted as cantharidus festivus ( b . a . marshall , 1998 ) ( o )
( of micrelenchus oliveri cryptus powell , 1946 ) marshall b . a . 1998 . the new zealand recent species of cantharidus montfort , 1810 and micrelenchus finlay , 1926 ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochidae ) . molluscan research 19 ( 1 ) : 107 - 156 [ details ]
species micrelenchus dilatatus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1870 ) accepted as cantharidus dilatatus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1870 )
species micrelenchus artizona ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as cantharidus artizona a . adams , 1853 accepted as roseaplagis artizona ( a . adams , 1853 )
species micrelenchus rufozona ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as cantharidus rufozona a . adams , 1853 accepted as roseaplagis rufozona ( a . adams , 1853 )
» species micrelenchus ( plumbelenchus ) dilatatus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1870 ) accepted as cantharidus dilatatus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1870 )
» species micrelenchus ( plumbelenchus ) artizona ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as cantharidus artizona a . adams , 1853 accepted as roseaplagis artizona ( a . adams , 1853 )
» species micrelenchus ( plumbelenchus ) rufozona ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as cantharidus rufozona a . adams , 1853 accepted as roseaplagis rufozona ( a . adams , 1853 )
marshall , b . a . 1998 : the new zealand recent species of cantharidus montfort , 1810 and micrelenchus finlay , 1926 ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochidae ) , molluscan research , 19 ( p . 125 )
( of cantharidus purpureus ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) marshall b . a . 1998 . the new zealand recent species of cantharidus montfort , 1810 and micrelenchus finlay , 1926 ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochidae ) . molluscan research 19 ( 1 ) : 107 - 156 [ details ]
this disappears entirely from neozelanic molluscan systematics . all the species included by suter have been dealt with in the previous notes , except gibbula micans suter , and this , until further specimens are available , may be classed under micrelenchus . a resume of the alterations in this genus reads , —
( of cantharidus burchorum b . a . marshall , 1998 ) marshall b . a . 1998 . the new zealand recent species of cantharidus montfort , 1810 and micrelenchus finlay , 1926 ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochidae ) . molluscan research 19 ( 1 ) : 107 - 156 [ details ]
the small species allotted to cantharidus form an easily recognizable group , for which i propose the new genus micrelenchus , with trochus sanguineus gray as type ; this group dates back at least to the “miocene” in new zealand ( undescribed species in geol . survey and finlay collection ) , but true cantharidus is at present known only from the pliocene onwards .
( of micrelenchus ( mawhero ) b . a . marshall , 1998 ) donald k . & spencer h . g . ( 2016 ) . phylogenetic patterns in new zealand and temperate australian cantharidines ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochidae : cantharidinae ) : trans - tasman divergences are ancient . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 100 : 333 - 344 . [ details ]
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[ read before the otago institute , 11th november , 1924 ; received by editor , 31st december , 1925 ; issued separately , december 23rd 1926 .
. , vol . 47 , pp . 417–497 , 1915 ) . many subsequent notes were drawn up by him in connection with the collection in the british museum ( natural history ) , but the war prohibited any sustained study and consequent publication . examination of roy bell ' s australian material developed a few cases of neozelanic interest , and some have been published in the report on the twofold bay collection (
. , vol . 49 , pp . 179–278 , 1924 ) , hereafter referred to as “iredale ( 1924 ) ” . in 1923 iredale returned to australia , and his intensive collecting around sydney has been instrumental in indicating some relationships not previously recognized .
little close relationship in recent times is determinable between the east australian and neozelanic molluscan faunas , relations whenever recognized being usually with the latter and tasmanian species . a “list of recorded relationships between australian and new zealand mollusca , ” dealing chiefly with the fossils , has
[ footnote ] * as originally presented , this paper was under the joint authorship of t . iredale and h . j . finlay . it had been suggested and written by the latter after verbal discussion and some correspondence with mr . iredale , to whom it was subsequently submitted for revision and extension . pressure of other work , however , unfortunately prevented mr . iredale from carrying out this part of the undertaking , and it has accordingly been agreed that the paper shall appear under a single name . the writer must therefore take all responsibility for its shortcomings , and desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to mr . iredale not only for some of the ideas and suggestions contained therein , but also for his generosity in permitting the publication of the paper in its present form . —h . j . f .
it may be understood also that , unless statement is made to the contrary , wherever reference is made to any species , i have studied either the actual type specimens or , when these were not available , topotypes of the species . the tertiary and recent types in the dominion , canterbury , and otago museums , and the new zealand geological survey collection have been at all times readily made available for study , and i here desire to record my thanks to the curators and others in these institutions who have made this possible . unfortunately , the types in suter ' s own collection—now in the wanganui museum—are not so readily available . my own private collection , however , —a practically complete topotypic suite ( and perhaps the largest yet made ) of new zealand fossil and living mollusca—has enabled me to overcome almost every difficulty in regard to types .
since the publication of suter ' s “manual , ” workers have , as iredale anticipated , been busy in connection with neozelanic molluscs , and the keen interest shown by the younger workers is a great tribute to suter ' s monument . errors in suter ' s work are found to be numerous , but when the magnitude of the work is contrasted with the many disabilities of the worker , in lack of both specimens and literature , suter ' s accomplishment is prodigious . it is possible that if such a work were available to australian conchologists more interest would be evinced , when at the present time the older
generation , hedley , verco , may , pritchard , gatliff , and gabriel , seem to have no successors . the enthusiastic band of workers , ( allan , brookes . bucknill , marwick , miss mestayer , oliver , and powell ) at present in new zealand is the best tribute to his work suter would have desired , while the passing of murdoch leaves a blank which one may hope to see filled , perhaps by still another student .
mann has provided data in connection with austral species he has been peculiarly unfortunate in his judgment of their affinities .
there are very strong geological and geographical reasons for the step i propose to take , and as much literature bearing on this point has accumulated within recent years , one may note here the views of some of the geologists , palaeontologists , and zoo - geographers who have dealt with these problems . especially may one recommend study of the many important papers and summaries by benson and k . martin , and of the “proceedings of the first pan - pacific scientific conference , part 3 . ”
[ footnote ] * “up to this time ( late jurassic ) the successive faunas were all closely related to malayan and tethyan faunas in general , with some circumpacific elements , but now significant changes took place… . the new immigrant fauna ( senonian ) was distinctly of the indo - pacific type , and apparently had a definitely marked affinity with that of new zealand and the american antarctic regions . ”— ( benson , 1924 , p . 124 . )
[ footnote ] † workers have hesitated to unite even silurian austral fossils with superficially similar northern forms . thus , as regards corals , benson ( 1923 , p . 25 , footnote ) has noted that “yabe is , however , inclined to explain the similarity of the canadian , baltic , and australian forms ( of halysites ) as the result of parallel evolution under analogous conditions from a common stock , rather than by a continuous intermigration of derived forms . ”
[ footnote ] ‡ my thanks are due to dr . benson for kindly translating this paper from the original dutch .
the foraminifera one would expect to be more widely dispersed and to afford less definite information than the mollusca , but they nevertheless give evidence of a definite stage in the breaking down of the eastern margin of australasia . the study of the eocene foraminifera of new caledonia by piroutet and deprat shows that they belong to a characteristic fauna which may be traced through new guinea to the malay archipelago , and contains as one of its components some forms as yet indistinguishable from european species . this fauna is , however , quite unrepresented in new zealand . ( see e . g . , benson , 1924 , p . 125 . )
the case of the brachiopods has been stated by thomson ( 1918 , pp . 37–61 ) . the convergence of many lines of evidence has led to the conception of gondwanaland , “a congerie of continental masses
benson ( 1922 , p . 60 ) has noted that “there is , however , no divergence of opinion in regard to the isolation of new zealand since the middle of tertiary times… . this seems to preclude the possibility of the formation of a temporary association of lands during the late tertiary and pleistocene orogenic and epirogenic movements in new caledonia , new zealand , and eastern australia , to which cockayne
[ footnote ] * as will be seen later some of the new zealand forms are represented in the australian faunal provinces really by regional variants and not identical species ; this , however , does not alter the relative closeness of affinity between the fossil and the recent assemblages .
[ footnote ] † name proposed by hedley ( proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . , vol . 35 , 1910 ) ; rejected by halligan ( proc , roy . soc . n . s . w . , vol . 55 , p . 193 , footnote , 1921 ) . it is , however , a convenient term for an important distributional factor .
[ footnote ] ‡ it should be well understood that indications alone are outlined here ; the recognition of the distinctness of a fauna need not await demonstration of the actual origin of all its component parts .
the “tethys sea , ” “gondwanaland , ” and such like fundamental concepts convey unfortunately but little meaning to many neontologists and systematists . yet they form an indispensible basis for the accurate tracing of faunal relationships , seriation lines , and “natural” genera in austral lands .
[ footnote ] * cf . , for example , in the notes that follow , the cases of leucosyrinx thomsoni mestayer and cerithium invaricosum odhner .
if , therefore , lineage can be traced for a shell form back through the tertiary , i propose to regard that group as of generic or at least subgeneric value , whether the group is represented by only one living species or by many . where available , however , the living forms should first be studied , and the fossils then classified conchologically in seriation . many cases will arise where the radular or opercular features of the living species will command a higher value than the conchological features .
as a means of indicating by nomenclature the recognition of seriation and lineage among mollusca , iredale has proposed the use of trinomials of varying kinds ( proc . mal . soc . , vol . 15 , p . 37 , 1922 ) , and this method seems to be of great value , there being many instances where its application obviates useless discussion as to the exact status of the affined molluscs , and a digest may be here given as applied to the maorian sub - region .
regional names in connection with australian marine molluscs have proved of great value , and consequently the proposition of similar names for new zealand is simply a matter of form . i have already ( gedenboek verbeek , p . 168 , 1925 ) , following a ms . scheme of iredale ' s , subdivided the maorian sub - region into five provinces , as follows : —
[ footnote ] * cf . , for example , cotton ( 1918 , p . 324 ) , “the close political association of the two ( main ) islands is a result , no doubt , of their isolation from the rest of the world : it has come about in spite of striking physical differences between them . ”
where a species occurs in more than one province , it will generally be found to differ subspecifically , and here ordinary trinomials may be used . when the form varies bathymetrically to such an extent that it becomes an arguable point as to its specific identity or distinction , a trinomial is used with the second name enclosed in simple brackets . when a fossil is found so closely related that its specific distinction is indefinite , and its recent relation indubitable , a trinomial may be used , the second name being enclosed in square brackets . as a concrete example , the various forms of thoristella may be taken as well illustrating this scheme : —
this scheme can be enlarged in any way , as the deep water form could be referred to in the cookian province as thoristella ( oppressa ) benthicola ; and a species older than fossilis could be described as thoristeila [ fossilis ] profossilis n . sp .
it may be noted that on the occasion of the first introduction to new zealand of a trinomial system ( matthews and iredale , “a reference list of the birds of new zealand” ; “ ibis ” for april and july , 1913 ) , one austral zoologist expressed his hearty commendation of the scheme , and its advantages cannot be better told than in his words : “it will be seen from a few examples that this is a very useful innovation , in that it indicates at once the close affinity between the different forms or subspecies of one and the same species which inhabit the different islands that constitute the new zealand area . systematic work in all groups nowadays is more and more closely correlated with geographical distribution than it used to be ; and as classification is the espression of genetic relationships , the utility to the evolutionist of this trinomial system becomes manifest . ” ( benham , trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 46 , p . 189 , 1914 ) . i could not better epitomize my views and close this introduction than with these words .
the types of all new species described are in the finlay collection ; paratypes wherever possible have been deposited in the australian museum , sydney .
all new genera proposed for new zealand shells , or newly added to the fauna , and all additions made to the recent fauna since the publication of suter ' s “manual , ” also all notes of interest on already described species , and references to most of the fossils ( all , since 1922 inclusive ) described since the publication of new zealand geological survey palaeontological bulletin no . 5 , 1917 , will be found in this paper , which aims at being not only a more or less exhaustive revision , but also a work of reference to the scattered and now fairly voluminous molluscan literature which has accumulated on new zealand forms since suter ' s death . it is sincerely hoped that in both these categories it will prove useful .
iredale and hull have published a “monograph of the australian loricates” in the australian zoologist , the plan of which for accuracy , clearness of treatment , and general utility to both tyro and specialist it would be difficult to better . the general account of “systematics and structure” forming no . 1 ( austral . zool . , vol . 3 , pt . 5 , pp . 186–194 , 1923 ) is the introduction par excellence for any student starting work on this interesting group . therein it is shown ( p . 186 ) that the name polyplacophora gray , 1821 , the
[ footnote ] † as in the “commentary , ” the references in square brackets give the page of the “manual” referred to , and , also as before , the names at the head of the paragraphs are not always those used by suter .
odhner ( 1924 , pp . 5–9 ) has recorded a considerable number of species from many localities visited by the mortensen expedition , but the identifications do not always seem to be trustworthy . finally , miss mestayer has contributed a couple of papers (
. , vol . 56 , pp . 583–587 ) in which several new species are described . two of her species
have been anticipated by ashby , who , while referring to her ms . account , has described and figured them in his paper ( 1926
this is the species for which ashby proposed ( proc . roy . soc . vict . , vol . 33 , n . s . , p . 157 , 1920 ) the new name l . iredalei through a mistaken idea ; he has since rectified his error ( trans . roy . soc .
[ footnote ] * ashby has recently ( rep . austr . assoc . adv . sci . , vol . 17 , p . 379 , 1926 ) in an “explanatory note” rejected this name , but his reasons are inadequate , and the note not explanatory .
, p . 529 ) , and odhner ( 1924 , p . 5 ) have used ashby ' s incorrect name .
the genus terenochiton iredale , 1914 ( proc . mal . soc . , vol . 11 , p . 28 ) may be used for this species , and there are several others to be described in neozelanic waters . odhner ( 1924 , p . 5 ) , in identifying and figuring a valve from campbell island as inquinatus , has noted that it differs from stewart island specimens , also figured . hedley ( 1916 , p . 34 ) has added from macquarie island lepidopleurus kerguelenensis haddon , but this seems a doubtful identification from every point of view .
i . empleurus ( hutton ) . miss mestayer ( trans . n . z . ‘inst . , vol . 53 , p . 180 , 1921 ) has supplemented suter ' s description of the valves and has lately figured and given oliver ' s description of the radula ( l . c . , vol . 56 , p . 583 , 1926 ) . i have recorded the species from the littoral in dunedin harbour ( l . c . , vol . 55 , p . 517 , 1924 ) , and odhner records it from campbell island ( 1924 , p . 6 ) , though as he mentions differences in sculpture and slitting , he probably had a distinet species .
i . sulculatus ( suter ) . recorded by odhner ( 1924 , p . 7 ) from north channel , kawau island ( misspelt “kawaii” ) .
i . kapitiensis ( mestayer ) ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 56 , p . 583 , 1926 ) . described from kapiti island on the specimens suter identified as chiton limans sykes .
add plaxiphora ( maorichiton ) lyallensis mestayer ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 3 , p . 176 , 1921 ) . notes have also been given by miss mestayer on p . zigzac ( hutton ) ( l . c . , vol . 56 , p . 584 , 1926 ) and p . ovata ( hutton ) ( l . c . , p . 585 ) , which she treats as distinct from fremblya egregia h . ad . powell ( n . z . journ . sci . & tech . , vol . 6 , p . 285 , 1924 ) has recorded p . biramosa ( q . & g . ) from the cookian region .
this extraordinary genus and species is added to the neozelanic list by hedley , as common at macquarie island ( 1916 , p . 34 ) ; iredale
has studied the specimens and suggests that hemiarthrum may be a degenerate plaxiphorid ( see also austral . zool . , vol . 3 , pt . 8 , p . 339 , 1925 ) , “the unslit head plate being faintly striated , the sutural laminae of the median valves being more like those of plaxiphora s . l . than of acanthochiton s . l . , while the little unslit projecting tail plate is like that of a young plaxiphorid , and not at all acanthochitonoid . further , the sculpture agrees better with that of the former , and curiously enough , while carpenter noted only four tufts around the head valve—the correct number for an acanthochiton —haddon pointed out that the specimen he examined had six , while the specimens in the australian museum prove to have eight , which pretty definitely determines the relationship .
the macquarie island shells appear to be a little different , the sculpture being finer and the mucro of the posterior valve nearly median and little elevated , while in the extra - limital shell the mucro is elevated and terminal . ” ( in litt . )
this is suter ' s “family acanthochitidae fischer” [ p . 25 ] , and ashby ' s “family acanthochitonidae hedley” ( proc . mal . soc . , vol . 17 , p . 10 , 1926 ) . ashby does not accept iredale ' s family name , giving as his reason , “under the international rules , the law of priority does not apply to ordinal or family and subfamily names , the word ‘type - genus’ in article 4 of those rules meaning ‘typical genus’ . ” he then considers acanthochites risso as typical of the family , notes that it has been supplanted by acanthochiton gray ( em . by iredale , 1915 , p . 422 ) and proceeds to derive new family and subfamily names from this source . now iredale has , in another connection , stated his views quite clearly as follows : “the family name… . should be called pyrenidae , not columbellidae… . i have been questioned as to my argument , the only rule in this connection reading “the name of a family is formed by adding the ending - idae
… . to the root of the name of its type genus . ” the only type genus of a family i can recognise is the oldest genus admitted in the family . the selection of any other would cause as much confusion as there is in recognising the type species of a genus at present , and give rise to even more complications . ” ( proc . mal . soc . , vol . 12 , p . 33 , 1916 ) . if any sort of stability is to be maintained , this is the only logical interpretation that can be given to the rule in question ; the point is so manifest that it need not be laboured , and ashby ' s contrary action must be rejected .
it has already been noted that two new recent species of this family described by miss mestayer must be credited to ashby as author . ashby also sinks miss mestayer ' s
. , vol . 56 , p . 586 , 1926 ) as a synonym of the species itself ; the variation is purely individual . a new genus
. , p . 18 ) . several other new species are proposed , and some buried ones resuscitated by ashby in the paper quoted . the carnivorous proclivities of
i have published a note on this form ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 55 , p . 521 , 1924 ) , but , owing to lack of material , was unable to decide on its status . since then odhner has sent me specimens identified as var . subantarcticus from campbell island , and these are quite distinct from neglectus , so that the form should be recognised as a separate species .
this spelling is wrong , as the genus name is written cavolina . it is a very doubtful point whether abildgaard ' s name has preference over bruguiere ' s proposition of cavolina of the same year , but this cannot be settled at present .
hedley has allowed his strangulata specific rank ( 1918 , p . m 106 ) and this should be here followed , eliminating longirostris .
for cavolina trispinosa , hedley has used diacria generically , a usage to be recommended , and adopted here .
cavolina uncinata rang appears to be a doubtful constituent of the new zealand fauna , as no authentic record is cited by suter .
of cuvierina columnella rang , suter wrote , “this is the only living species of cuvierina , ” but hedley has preferred urceolaris moerch as a distinct species for the australian form , and also revived the genus name vaginella , proposed by daudin generations ago ; under this name clark ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 37 , p . 419 , 1903 ) and marshall ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 50 , p . 263 , 1918 ) have described tertiary species from new zealand ( see list after following note ) .
finally , miss mestayer ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 48 , p . 124 , 1916 ) has added to the new zealand fauna styliola subula ( q . & g . ) ( misspelt sublata in her paper ) , and hedley ( 1916 , p . 64 ) has identified some 20 specimens washed up on the shore of macquarie island after a gale as cliodita caduceus q . & g . ( ann . sci . nat . , vol . 6 , pt . 21 , p . 74 , 1825 ) .
iredale has shown ( proc . mal . soc . , vol . 11 , p . 295 , 1915 ) that this genus name must give way to spiratella blainville , but probably
embolus jeffreys must come into use for the second species added by miss mestayer , limacina inflata orbigny ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 48 , p . 124 , 1916 ) . marwick has introduced a new genus lornia ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 56 , p . 316 , 1926 ) for lornia limata n . sp . , a waiarekan fossil with the facies of a spiratella , but very much larger ; it may not be a pteropod at all .
chizacmea for patelloida flammea q . & g . ( p . 558 ) .
the last three being treated as subgenera of notoacmea iredale . he also notes two changes in specific names of new zealand species .
both introduced by iredale : patella inconspicua gray , 1843 ( dieff . travels n . z . , vol . 2 , p . 244 ) supercedes fissurella rubiginosa hutton ( iredale , 1924 , p . 237 ) , and the specific name fragilis is restored to the sole species of atalacmea , patella fragilis sow . , 1823 ( gen . shells , pt . 21 , pl . 140 , f . 6 , and text ) antedating p . unguis - almae lesson , 1830 ( iredale , 1924 , p . 238 ) . oliver , however , retains rubiginosa hutt . as a trinomial for the moriorian form ( p . 565 ) , sinking acmaea cingulata hutton instead as an absolute synonym of inconspicua gray .
radiacmea macquariensis hedley ( 1916 , p . 41 ) and several new species and subspecies are added to the new zealand “ acmaea ” fauna in oliver ' s monograph .
suter admitted this genus and under the section patinigera dall ranged two species , nacella fuegiensis ( reeve , 1855 ) and nacella illuminata ( gould , 1846 ) . the distribution of the former was given as campbell island and macquarie island , and of the latter as antipodes island , auckland islands , campbell island , and macquarie island . under the genus helcioniscus appeared h . redimiculum ( reeve , 1854 ) from the mainland , chatham , bounty , and auckland islands ; and h . strigilis ( hombron and jaquinot , 1841 ) from the mainland , chatham , antipodes , auckland , campbell , and snares islands . iredale in his “commentary” ( p . 432 ) from study of mainland shells in otago advised the lumping of the last two , since shells showing variation covering the two accepted types had been collected on the mainland , and the range was small .
inside sydney harbour , on sandstone exposed to surf , the shells agree fairly closely with those from the narrabeen shale of long reef , save in colouring , which is much richer .
noted by powell ( n . z . journ . sci . & tech . , vol . 4 , p . 204 , 1921 ) as plentiful at busby head , whangarei heads . suter gives this species a range from cape maria van diemen to campbell island ; this needs investigation . bucknill ( 1924 , pl . 2 , figs . 10 , a , b ) has lately figured young and old examples . he has also figured ( l . c . , figs . 8 , 9 ) cellana ornata ( dill . ) and the subspecies inconspicua ( gray ) admitted by suter [ p . 81 ] . but it has already been noted ( see note on family acmaeidae ) that patella inconspicua gray applies to the common mainland radiacmea , and not to a limpet , so that the ornata variety is at present nameless . iredale ( 1924 , p . 238 ) doubts whether the form is worth distinguishing , and from what i have seen i am inclined to agree , but the matter must be left till someone can study large suites from many localities .
suter admits three species and a subspecies , two of the species being identified with australian shells . both these records must be expunged , for reasons given below , where the neozelanic species are described as new . suter ' s figures are not drawn from new zealand shells ; that of s . beddomei is a poor tracing of may ' s drawing ( “revised census of the marine mollusca of tasmania , ” pl . 24 , fig .
24 , 1901 ) , while that of s . atkinsoni seems to be a careless copy of watson ' s figure of his s . carinata ( chall . rep . , vol . 15 , p . 119 , pl . 8 , fig . 6 , 1886 ) . there are at least two species of the beddomei group found in deep water off the snares , but neither of these matches with australian forms ; there are other species of the same group from more northern localities .
shell generally similar to s . atkinsoni , but with less prominent keels . sculpture above fasciole very inconspicuous , only some raised growth - lines and a few spiral grooves ; below the sunken fasciole with its raised edges there is a broad concave almost smooth space , then another keel emerging from the suture ; below this , base is lightly convex , and is scored by 8–9 shallow grooves , marking very low broad ribs , inner ones of which are in and on margin of umbilicus , which is wide and deep , defined by a blunt keel ; above inner spiral rib there are numerous curved axial threads . base nowhere angled by any of the ribs ( there is a third keel in atkinsoni ) ; whorls bulge out further past fasciole than in tenison - woods ' species , and aperture is less oblique , due to narrower umbilicus . whole of aperture bounded by curved lines , not straight as in atkinsoni . anal perforation one - eighth of a whorl in length .
closely allied to s . beddomei , but differing , as suter says , in larger size and more depressed shape , also in more numerous axial ribs . spire hardly at all elevated , the smooth shoulder being very broad and horizontal , apex lightly concave . constantly about 15 axial ribs ( interstices about twice their width ) on base below the smooth concave space under fasciole keel , and about the same number before the aperture on upper side , diminishing regularly in size , but remaining conspicuous till almost hidden by sinking of the upper whorls . ribs on spire begin to encroach on shoulder about 1¼ whorls from aperture . about four narrow and distant spiral threads distributed over base . umbilicus moderately large and deep . other details as in s . beddomei .
more like beddomei in size , but less elate and with fewer axial ribs , and different aperture . spire projecting , its sides formed by the rather high penultimate whorl , its lightly convex top by the much depressed earlier whorls ; the smooth shoulder is not so wide as in previous species , and distinctly sloping . constantly 9 narrow and distant axial ribs ( interstices 3–4 times their width ) on base , and about same number of prominent and still distant ribs before aperture on upper whorls , followed near apex by about half - a - dozen smaller and closer ribs . ribs on spire encroach on shoulder when less than a whorl from aperture . about three almost obsolete spiral ribs very close together bordering umbilicus , which is narrow and very shallow .
aperture suboval except for straight columellar edge , only slightly angled above , margins much thickened for so small a shell . anal perforation smaller and with much less raised margins than in beddomei and laqueus .
add to the synonymy haliotis aleata bolten ( mus . bolten , p . 14 , 1798 ) . in the synonymy suter has included haliotis plicata karsten ( mus . leskeanum , p . 297 , 1789 ) , which would have priority , but karsten ' s names are unacceptable as they are simply quotations from binomial and also non - binomial authors , without any attempt to treat them all binomially .
this should be placed on a suspense list in the meantime . no authentic specimens are known to local collectors , and the new zealand habitat of the specimens suter recorded is open to doubt .
this form also occurs at auckland island , and may be trinomially treated as a regional development of virginea , gmelin . odhner ' s record of virginea from auckland island ( 1924 , p . 12 ) refers to this form ; the differential characters given by suter are quite good .
chapman and gabriel have written ( proc . roy . soc . vict . , vol . 36 , n . s . , p . 29 , dec . , 1923 ) of emarginula wannonensis harris that “suter ( alph . hand list n . z . tert . moll . , p . 9 , 1915 ) has also given it as a living species in new zealand , but so far we have not met with any occurrence recorded from that or any other area . ” the authors then proceed to comment on the long range possessed by this and other species , several times citing wannonensis as a tertiary form now found living only in new zealand . if , however , they had
thiele has proposed emarginula ( tugalia ) suteri nov . for a chatham island shell ( conch . cab . , bd . 2 , abth . 4a , p . 105 , pl . 12 , figs . 17 , 18 , 1916 ) , and this would anticipate hedley ' s bascauda , but though hedley recorded his species from the chathams , he chose as type a shell found “under stones near wellington . ” this is fortunate , for the moriorian form regionally differs from the mainland shell in greater elongation , generally more parallel sides , and squarely , not narrowly , rounded anterior end . no perfectly fresh specimens of suteri thiele have been available ; it is probable that these would be still more easily differentiated from fresh bascauda hedley .
intercalated before the margin is reached . colvillensis , simulates the bascauda group in having netted sculpture , and to this is due the confusion of the species , but its true affinities are at once shown by the nature of the sinus rib . i have myself made this error by recording tugalia bascauda from the littoral , dunedin harbour ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 55 , p . 518 , 1924 ) ; i now withdraw this , as the trifurcate sinus - rib shows the specimen to belong to the elegans group , and though it is juvenile , the altitude , netted sculpture , and carination characterize it as colvillensis . bascauda does not seem to enter the forsterian region , but elegans has already been reported from banks peninsula by iredale ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 40 , p . 392 , 1908 ) as “dead shells in shell - sand” ; —these may have been colvillensis also .
ancestral species to these tugalis occur in the new zealand tertiary . i have described ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 56 , p . 227 , 1926 ) t . pliocenica and t . navicula from the pliocene and miocene respectively , the former being directly ancestral to colvillensis n . sp . , the latter of a rather different type , more like the tertiary australian t . crassireticulata ( pritchard ) ( proc . roy . soc . vict . , vol . 8 , p . 125 , 1896 ) from table cape .
shell intermediate in size between elegans gray and bascauda hedley , high , laterally compressed and narrowly elongate , tapering slightly in front , where there is a very short truncation due to narrowness of interior groove . front slope decidedly carinate medially , the central sinus - rib at first single , wide , and strong , but soon breaking into three narrow ribs which continue with sublinear interstices to margin . sculpture netted , much as in t . bascauda ; in the type the ribs are fairly wide and flattish , but most of the paratypes have narrow radial and concentric ribs , swollen at intersections , with tiny square pits between .
locality , —hauraki gulf , dredged in 20–25 fathoms , near cape colville ; also dowling bay , dunedin harbour , one specimen on the littoral , with emarginula .
the specimens were kindly sent for examination by mr . a . w . b . powell of auckland , and the paratypes are in his collection .
suter observed , “e . a . smith has thoroughly revised the genus in an excellent paper in the quart . journ . conch . , vol . 2 , p . 250 , 1879 . ” it should be noted that this revision had taken place some thirty odd years previously , so that probably some emendations were necessary . in the place referred to in the preceding note , hedley recorded some corrections in connection with australian forms , and indicated breviculus blainville ( bull . sci . soc . phil . , p . 28 , 1817 ) as the name for the neozelanic species .
iredale has named this species as genotype of his vacerra ( 1924 , pp . 182 , 221 ) , which was provided “for the small austral forms ascribed to puncturella , but which do not closely agree , even in superficial features with the type of that genus . ”
much advance has been made in this group since iredale ' s “commentary” was issued . in connection with australasian species iredale has examined many radulae in the gwatkin collection ( now in the british museum ) , including some results in his “roy bell” essay on australian forms . thiele has published a revision of the trochids based solely on radular characters , but when these were
[ footnote ] * in this and similar summaries the enclosure of a name in square brackets indicates that it is a fossil species and does not occur in the recent fauna .
unknown he has fallen back on shell features . as this revision will not be seen by many neozelanic students and is a very imkortant account , a digest ( which i owe to the kindness of mr . tom iredale ) is here offered . some startling associations are propounded , but when we realize that we are dealing with one of the most primitive groups of simply - coiled shells , our surprise at these is lessened .
thiele admits three families : trochidae , cyclostrematidae , and turbinidae , in his stirps trochacea , but his subfamilies are better treated as families , and his subgenera raised to genera , and thereby one can produce an arrangement more in accord with the lessons learned from palaeontology , which thiele has ignored . further , it becomes apparent that the southern trochoids have developed very long ago , as we find in early tertiary beds forms practically inseparable conchologically from their recent descendants . as the separative characters are based almost entirely on animal characters , it is necessary to establish the recent fauna first , and then associate the fossils with the living species in direct lineage , and with the strictest scrutiny , growth - stages providing the best guide .
thiele ' s “family trochidae ” embraces the subfamilies margaritinae , calliostomatinae , trochinae , umboniinae , stomatiinae , angariinae , and delphinoideinae ( = skeneinae , corrected in ms . in the copy seen ) . the “family cyclostrematidae ” is used as a receptacle for a few minutiae , and seems a poor proposition . the “family turbinidae ” is subdivided into four subfamilies , liotinae , bothropomatinae , turbininae , and phasianellinae .
the subfamily calliostomatinae is utilized for the genera calliostoma and photinula alone , including astele as a subgenus , apparently for the australian type and some quite unrelated american shells . the radular characters of the southern “calliostomas” were probably unavailable to thiele , as they show valid distinctions , and would have been utilized for separation . the reference of photinula here does not seem in accord with the conchological features and southern range .
the subfamily umboniinae comprises a novel series , beginning with callumbonella questionably referred here , then followed by a new genus nanula , proposed for the australian margarita tasmanica petterd , halistylus , and then minolia , with sections isanda , umbonella , and conotrochus ; monilea , with section rossiteria and subgenus priotrochus ; and ethalia with a subgenus ethaliella , concluding with umbonium . this will be discussed further on .
the subfamily stomatiinae begins with a doubtful form , stylobates , then the genus stomatia with sections microtis , pseudostomatella thiele ( for papyracea chemnitz ) , and niphonia ; genus phaneta questionably allied , and gena with a section plocamotis ; concluding with genera roya and broderipia .
the subfamily angariinae covers the genus angaria alone ; as a section angarina being admitted , though its reference to the family has been disputed .
the last subfamily , delphinoideinae ( that is , skeneinae ) , is a heterogeneous assemblage of minute forms , northern and southern forms being incongruously associated with numerous question marks , and is of little use . thus , to the genus skenea , a british form of definite status , is added as a subgenus with a “ ? ” adams ' tubiola , a well marked tropical group , the animal of which is unknown . the genus daronia follows , also queried , and as a subgenus , again queried , is added cyclostremella , a northern group quite unrelated . the
genera ganesa and tharsiella succeed , with , as sections , several probably allied groups , but the next series which concerns us consists of austral and pacific forms , most of them queried . these are cirsonella , lodderia , teinostoma ( with sections pseudorotella , calceolina , and callomphala ) , philorene , leucorynchia , haplocochlias , morchiella thiele ( for morchia a . adams , 1860 , not albers , 1850 ) , and microtheca . haplocochlias is geographically dissevered , the remainder agree in geographical distribution . thiele ' s blunder in proposing morchiella is notable , as that is the genus name of a well known group of rissoinids , and morchia a . adams is valid since alber ' s name was not proposed until later on in the year 1860 .
the family cyclostrematidae is a curious selection , as iredale has shown that marryat ' s cyclostrema is indeterminable , but very probably a liotinid . attached hereto are vetulonia , circulus , zalipais , brookula with section liotella , chunula , cithna , and lissotesta , the last two and the first queried .
the preceding synopsis will serve to show that radulae alone are not convincing , but in connection with conchological features and geographical distribution are of the greatest value , and palaeontologists must be guided by the lessons learned therefrom .
suter has placed this species with “solariella” egena ( gould ) , but it does not seem related . i have seen no specimens of this species , nor do any seem to be available in other collections , but if one may judge from webster ' s original figure and description ( the travesty in the “atlas” is useless ) , it seems to be a thoristella . the only factor against this location is the open umbilicus , but this is approached occasionally in the other species , while the remaining details of columella and base can hardly indicate any other genus . the usual cookian form is t . oppressa ( hutton ) , and it will be interesting if there is a second northern form . suter records carmesina from cape palliser , at the not far distant lyall bay occur specimens apparently intermediate between carmesina and dunedinensis —certainly not oppressa . the exact valuation of these cookian forms must be left till much more material is available .
thoristella ( chathamensis ) benthicola n . subsp . ( figs . 7–10 . )
locality , —dredged off otago heads in 60 fathoms ( type ) . also off oamaru at same depth , and in 15 fathoms foveaux strait .
the sutural swellings give this form a striking superficial resemblance to gibbula magus ( l . ) .
thoristella [ chathamensis ] fossilis n . subsp . ( figs . 11–14 . )
related to aucklandica and dunedinensis , but easily distinguished by basal characters . in all the recent species the convexity of base is constant immediately past the keel , in the fossil species base slopes quickly up to peripheral keel which is moderately prominent , and shell has a concave outline above it . six ( rarely five ) cords above keel ( chathamensis never has less than 7 , sometimes 8 ) , both top cord and keel finely crenulate , occasionally the other spirals also , but there are no axial ribs , and the crenulations are much finer than in the other species , about 65 on peripheral cord ( i . e . about five times as many as in chathamensis ) . umbilicus narrower and deeper than in
recent species , which all have a greater callus deposit filling it . an outer rib margins the pit , the inner one is inconspicuous , columella with a strong tubercle at top .
locality , —target gully shell bed ( awamoan , —“miocene” ) ; also pukeuri .
a figure is presented ( from a topotype ) of this hitherto unfigured shell , for comparison with those of the two previous species and the other known forms . ( figs . 15 , 16 ) .
this is a west australian species of clanculus which must be dismissed from the neozelanic fauna . the shell that has been erroneously so identified is quite a rare one and differs at sight from menke ' s species , as indeed suter has already noted . the resemblance to ringens is entirely superficial , for the new zealand shell is not even a clanculus ; no true members of this genus occur in the new zealand area . our shell is imperforate and differs radically from pharaonicus l . ; it is now described as new .
mr . iredale remarks that there is a specimen in the australian museum from mokohinau island , presented by a . hamilton ; “it is a curious evolution , tall , with peculiar sculpture , not comparable with any other i have come across” ( private communication ) .
mr . iredale informs me that a co - type of this species in the australian museum is very close specifically to clanculus plebejus ( phil . ) , the genotype of his mesoclanculus ( iredale , 1924 , p . 224 ) , and is undoubtedly congeneric with it . “it is less closely related
to eurytrochus danieli ( crosse ) from new caledonia , and is not comparable with c . atypicus iredale from the kermadecs , the columellar characters being decidedly different . ” ( in litt . ) .
the neozelanic trochoids are worthy of much attention ; they are generally easily procurable , the animals are not shy , and the radulae need careful study . it is noteworthy that suter should write of lugubris , a peculiar form , “dentition unknown . ” as the four series mentioned are quite distinct and show no intergradation , they may all be regarded as genera , as follows , —


eucorys barbouri is a species of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family cassidae , the helmet snails and bonnet snails .

eucorys barbouri

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : eucorys barbouri ( w . j . clench & c . g . aguayo , 1939 ) - id : 1690500010
( of oocorys barbouri clench & aguayo , 1939 ) rosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garcía , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579–699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
one of the most intriguing patterns in mammalian biogeography is the “island rule” , which states that colonising species have a tendency to converge in body size , with larger species evolving decreased sizes and smaller species increased sizes . it has recently been suggested that an analogous pattern holds for the colonisation of the deep - sea benthos by marine gastropoda . in particular , a pioneering study showed that gastropods from the western atlantic showed the same graded trend from dwarfism to gigantism that is evident in island endemic mammals . however , subsequent to the publication of the gastropod study , the standard tests of the island rule have been shown to yield false positives at a very high rate , leaving the result open to doubt .
the evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .
the replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed—which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .
citation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the “island rule” and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken
copyright : © 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
here , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .
part a shows how different tests of the ‘island rule’ can give qualitatively different results . “deep - sea” species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as “shallow - water” . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1∶1 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : “deep - sea” species are those never observed above 400m , and “shallow - water” species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .
averaging across species has untested statistical properties [ 30 ] , but it does have the advantage of reducing noise and the influence of anomalous data . for example , figure 1b plots results for balanced samples with “deep - sea” defined as > 400m . these data are clearly noisy , and the slope is strongly influenced by a single outlier ( the largest value on both axes ) . this point represents the genus fasciolaria , which contains just a single deep - sea species , the recently discovered fasciolaria tephrina [ 32 ] . to restrict the influence of such isolated observations , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] excluded from their analyses all genera with fewer than two shallow and two deep species . despite reducing sample size by ∼2 / 3 , this procedure strengthens the observed effect , with a highly significant departure from the null now apparent at the shallowest cutoff depth ( table 1 part b ; figure 2 ) .
the body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . “shallow - water” species were never observed below 200m , and “deep - sea” species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1∶1 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .
similarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] – [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .
we are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed – and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .
many thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .
conceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .
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beu , a . g . ( 2008 ) . recent deep - water cassidae of the world . a revision of galeodea , oocorys , sconsia , echinophoria and related taxa , with new genera and species ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . in : héros , v . et al . ( ed . ) tropical deep - sea benthos 25 . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( 1993 ) . 196 : 269 - 387 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 354 [ details ]
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beu , a . g . ( 2008 ) recent deep - water cassidae of the world . a revision of galeodea , oocorys , sconsia , echinophoria and related taxa , with new genera and species ( mollusca , gastropoda ) : in : héros , v . et al . ( ed . ) tropical deep - sea benthos 25 . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( 1993 ) . 196 : 269 - 387
beu , a . g . ( 2008 ) . recent deep - water cassidae of the world . a revision of galeodea , oocorys , sconsia , echinophoria and related taxa , with new genera and species ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . < em > in : héros , v . et al . ( ed . ) tropical deep - sea benthos 25 . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( 1993 ) . < / em > 196 : 269 - 387 .
verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . < i > cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . < / i > harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp .
type locality : atlantis sta . 2987 , off sagua la grande , cuba , 23°22 ' n , 79°53 ' w , 280 - 300 fathoms
notes and descriptions of new deep - water mollusca obtained by the harvard - havana expedition off the coast of cuba . ii memorias de la sociedad cubana de historia natural
felipe poey
13 189 - 197 , pls . 28 - 29 . [ stated date : 17 jun 1939 ; true date : pre 23 jun . ]
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beu , a . g . ( 2008 ) . recent deep - water cassidae of the world . a revision of galeodea , oocorys , sconsia , echinophoria and related taxa , with new genera and species ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . in : héros , v . et al . ( ed . ) tropical deep - sea benthos 25 . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( 1993 ) . 196 : 269 - 387 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 353 [ details ]
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betta chloropharynx is a species of gourami endemic to bangka island , indonesia .

it inhabits the leaf litter in a pool in a secondary forest .

this species grows to a length of 5.9 cm ( 2.3 in ) .

betta chloropharynx

betta chloropharynx should have soft acidic water that is well filtered . they should be kept at mid 70s f .
i’ve got a new mouthbrooding betta – now what ? michael hellweg . 2003 .
betta chloropharnyx have an interesting throat marking which actually can be used to identify the different species of a species group within the genus itself . betta chloropharynx shows a figure - eight lying on its side while others show for example the symbol pi , a horseshoe , a kidney shaped marking and so on .
water : betta chloropharynx is a blackwater species . it needs a ph between 4 . 5 and 5 . 5 with a low gh and kh of 0 - 2 . the water mustn \ ' t be too warm ; anything between 23 - 26 degrees celsius is fine . providing the tank with 30 % weekly water changes is extremely important to keep this large betta happy .
notes : like all betta species they are definitely not suitable for a community tank but instead require a species tank .
betta chloropharynx can be housed in pairs , species tanks , and community tanks . pairs can be housed in a 20 gallon tank , groups should be housed in a 55 gallon tank or larger . pairs should be given cover such as caves and plants . in a pair or species situation it is possible that fry could be discovered in the tanks .
b . chloropharynx is included in the betta waseri group / complex of closely - related species within the genus , an assemblage which also includes a handful of potentially new species such as b . sp . ‘medas’ on an unofficial basis . group members share the following combination of characters : base body colouration clay yellow ; opercle scales iridescent gold in mature males of all species except b . tomi ; throat with black markings which join with black lower jaw in some species ; no chin bar .
adult colouration : betta chloropharynx is not a colourful species . it has a brownish body colour that may possess a purple like shine . the head can be dark with black spots and a nicely green coloured throat , a fact making this betta unique to its species group . the fins are hyaline most of the time and show a faint bluish shine , the pelvic fins are cream coloured . the caudal and dorsal fin have a black ladder barring on them , usually not too distinct . when scared the body turns pale with irregularly shaped brown - blackish patches , the fins become a dark brownish . females are coloured the same , but perhaps with a less strong green colour on their throats .
betta are known to be aggressive so a well decorated tank is beneficial . decorate the tank with java fern , anubias , java moss , cryptocoryne and pistia and smooth wood and stones .
tan , h . h . , 1998 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 8 ( 3 ) : 281 - 287 description of two new species of the betta waseri group ( teleostei : osphronemidae ) .
the genus betta is the most speciose within the family osphronemidae with almost 70 recognised members and looks set to grow further with new ones continuing to be described on a regular basis since the turn of the century .
tan , h . h . , 2009 - raffles bulletin of zoology 57 ( 2 ) : 501 - 504 betta pardalotos , a new species of fighting fish ( teleostei : osphronemidae ) from sumatra , indonesia .
tan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 2006 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 17 ( 2 ) : 97 - 114 six new species of fighting fish ( teleostei : osphronemidae : betta ) from borneo .
tan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 13 : 43 - 99 the fighting fishes ( teleostei : osphronemidae : genus betta ) of singapore , malaysia and brunei .
any other fishes present , including conspecifics , do apparently pose a threat to the young , however , so should be removed at this point if they haven’t been already . an additional point of interest is that brooding males have been noted to accept food which is unusual for a betta .
small insects such as crickets or drosophila fruit flies are also suitable to use ; it’s best to fill the stomachs of these by feeding them fish flakes or some kind of vegetable matter before offering them to the fish . take care not to overfeed as betta spp . seem particularly prone to obesity .
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as it naturally inhabits sluggish waters filtration should not be too strong , with an air - powered sponge filter set to turn over gently adequate . keep the tank well - covered and do not fill it to the top as like all betta spp . it requires occasional access to the layer of humid air that will form above the water surface , and is an excellent jumper .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 - 1 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 9 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 27 - 28 . differs from betta hipposideros in the following characters : µ - shaped black throat mark ( vs . horseshoe - shaped black mark ) ; absence of both dorsal and caudal transverse bars ( vs . presence ) ; fewer subdorsal scales ( mode 5 - 6 vs . 6 1 / 2 ) . distinguished from betta renata in the following characters : µ - shaped black throat mark ( vs . kidney - shaped ) ; absence of both dorsal and caudal transverse bars ( vs . presence ) ; non - spotted opercle ( vs . spotted opercle ) ; opercle with yellow lower margin ( vs . black margin ) ; fewer subdorsal scales ( mode 5 - 6 vs . 6 1 / 2 ) . can be differentiated from betta spilotogena in the following characters : µ - shaped black throat mark ( vs . black median spot ) ; non - spotted opercles ( vs . spotted opercle ; and an opercle with yellow lower margin ( vs . back margin ) ( ref . 56386 ) .
the fry are large enough to accept motile foods such as microworm and artemia nauplii immediately , though it should be noted that there exist reports of young betta developing health issues if fed excessive amounts of the latter . offer small amounts of different foods 2 - 3 times per day for optimal growth rate , and don’t change too much water at once , with regular , small changes preferable to intermittent larger ones .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 9 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12803 )
kottelat , m . and p . k . l . ng , 1994 . diagnoses of five new species of fighting fishes from banka and borneo ( teleostei : belontiidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 5 ( 1 ) : 65 - 78 . ( ref . 12803 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01122 ( 0 . 00514 - 0 . 02450 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
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this species was described from bangka , a small island just off the east coast of sumatra , indonesia . a population from close to the city of palembang on sumatra itself , initially considered conspecific , was described as b . pardalotos in 2009 .
the type specimens were collected from a clear forest pool but this was only present as a result of artificial habitat modification ; in general it’s an inhabitant of peat swamps and associated blackwater streams .
these ancient biotopes are usually found in areas of rainforest , the dense canopy of branches above meaning very little light penetrates the water surface and riparian vegetation also tending to grow thickly .
the water is typically stained darkly with humic acids and other chemicals released by decaying organic material . the dissolved mineral content is generally negligible and the ph can be as low as 3 . 0 or 4 . 0 .
the substrate is usually covered by fallen leaves , branches and submerged tree roots and at certain times of year the fish may be forced to survive within the moist leaf litter for several weeks as permanent water is not always available .
can be maintained in a fully - decorated aquarium although many breeders prefer not to use a substrate for ease of maintenance . driftwood roots and branches can be used and placed such a way that a few shady spots are formed .
if you can’t find driftwood of the desired shape common beech or oak is safe to use if thoroughly dried and stripped of bark . clay plant pots or lengths of piping can also be included to provide further shelter .
the addition of dried leaf litter , with beech , oak or ketapang almond leaves all suitable , can further emphasise the natural feel and as well as offering additional cover for the fish brings with it the growth of microbe colonies as decomposition occurs . these can provide a valuable secondary food source for fry and the tannins and other chemicals released by the decaying leaves are also considered beneficial for fishes from blackwater environments .
like others in the genus this species seems to do best under fairly dim lighting . you could add aquatic plant species that can survive under such conditions such as microsorum pteropus , taxiphyllum barbieri or perhaps some potted cryptocoryne spp . , and a few patches of floating vegetation would be useful to diffuse the light entering the tank .
likely to prey on insects and other small invertebrates / zooplankton in nature . captive fish will normally accept dried products once they’re recognised as edible , but should be offered plenty of small live or frozen foods such as daphnia , artemia or bloodworm regularly to ensure development of optimal colour and condition .
not recommended for the standard community set - up for reasons already touched upon . it’s requirements and disposition mean it’s best kept alone or with very peaceful species since much bigger or more vigorous fishes are likely to intimidate and outcompete it . some small cyprinids and loaches that inhabit similar environments in nature are compatible .
it can be maintained in a pair or group and will display some interesting behavioural interactions under the latter circumstances .
adult males are more colourful , develop more - extended fins and have a broader head shape than females .
paternal mouthbrooder . ideally organise a separate tank for breeding purposes , unless the fish are already being maintained alone , setting this up as suggested above .
the tank should have the tightest - fitting cover you can find ( some breeders use clingfilm instead to ensure no gaps ) as the fry need access to a layer of warm , humid air without which development of the labyrinth organ can be impaired .
following a protracted courtship , eggs and milt are released during an ’embrace’ typical of osphronemids in which the male wraps his body around that of the female . several ‘dummy’ embraces may be required before spawning commences .
fertilised eggs are caught on the anal fin of the male then picked up in the mouth of the female before being spat out into the water for the male to catch . once the male has them all in his mouth the cycle is repeated until the female is spent of eggs , a process which can take some time .
a brooding male may swallow or release the eggs prematurely if stressed or inexperienced , so it’s preferable to leave the female and any other fishes in situ . the incubation period is 10 – 21 days at the end of which the male will begin to release fully - formed , free - swimming fry . at this point they can be removed or left to grow alongside the parents , with some reports suggesting they actually grow more quickly under such circumstances .
the easiest way to distinguish members from one another is by examining the throat markings which vary according to species . in this case the lighter of these form a shape that roughly resembles a horizontal figure of eight or , following tan and ng ( 2005 ) , the lower - case of the greek letter ‘mu’ , i . e . , μ . there also exist various morphometric differences but this single character can be used to distinguish it from all other members of the b . waseri group .
member species have successfully adapted to inhabit a variety of ecological niches from stagnant ditches to flowing hill streams including some extreme environments such as highly acidic peat swamp forests .
the referral of members to a number of groups containing closely - related species is now generally accepted but largely based on morphological / behavioural characters . molecular phylogenetic work is thus required and would undoubtedly prove useful in more precisely determining relationships between these fishes .
a full list of the species groups as currently recognised can be found here .
like others in the suborder anabantoidei this species possesses an accessory breathing organ known as the labyrinth . so - called due to its maze - like structure this organ allows the fish to breathe atmospheric air to a certain extent .
comprising paired suprabranchial organs formed via expansion of the epibranchial ( upper ) section of the first gill arch and housed in a chamber above the gills , it contains many highly - vascularised , folded flaps of skin which function as a large respiratory surface . its structure varies in complexity between species , tending to be better - developed in those inhabiting harsher environments .
kottelat , m . and p . k . l . ng , 1994 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 5 ( 1 ) : 65 - 78 diagnoses of five new species of fighting fishes from banka and borneo ( teleostei : belontiidae ) .
tan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 13 : 115 - 138 the labyrinth fishes ( teleostei : anabantoidei , channoidei ) of sumatra , indonesia .
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males are more intensely colored . males also have pointed dorsal and anal fins whereas females are rounder .
kottelat , m . and ng , p . k . l . 1994 . [ 56 ]
kottelat , m . and a . j . whitten , 1996 . [ 114 ] hilton - taylor , c . , 2000 . [ 48 ] froese , r . and d . pauly , 2002 . [ 126 ]
km - mark 99 . 4 south of pangkalpinang on road to toboali , 41 . 4 km south of koba , bangka [ banka ] , indonesia .
greek ; chloros meaning green and pharynx meaning throat , in allusion to the green throat .
occurs in a secondary forest area in a pool among leaf litter . [ 126 ]
last modification submitted by gerald griffin 07 . 05 . 08 ( mm . dd . yy )
size : about 12 - 14cm / 4 . 7 - 5 . 5 \
in males , females may stay a bit smaller .
aquarium : needs a medium sized tank due to its size . a small group of five can be kept in a 60 x 30 x 30 cm / 24 \
x 12 \
x 12 \
tank , but it might be better to have at least a tank measuring 75cm / 30 \
. the height of the tank is not terribly important .
diet : eats most foods , as long as it \ ' s not flake ; bloodworm , glassworm , artemia , krill , mysis , house crickets and other insects . live and frozen foods will be readily taken .
breeding : as far as i know , i am the only person to have spawned this species to date . they are paternal mouthbrooders , meaning the male will brood the eggs . during the embrace , the male wraps himself around the female and eggs and sperm are released . the female gathers the eggs and shoots them towards the male \ ' s mouth . if he is fast enough he \ ' ll catch them ; if not , the female quickly takes possession over the eggs again , the next attempt not far away .
once the male has all the eggs in his mouth he \ ' ll find a quiet place . amazingly , both fish will continue to feed during mouthbrooding . after about 19 days , depending on the temperature , the male will release the fry . these are not eaten by the parents . my first spawning resulted in over 110 fry - not a small number . these are large enough to accept brineshrimp nauplii and other small foods . the young should grow up pretty quickly , resembling their parents in colour patterns in a small matter of months .
availability : extremely rare in shops and in hobbyist circles . these fish were on sale at bas in bolton and might be the very first european import .
© 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .
kottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .
baillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( eds ) . 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . pp . 378 . international union for conservation of nature , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .
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