phyllobates aurotaenia ( kokoe poison frog ) is a member of the frog family dendrobatidae , which are found in the tropical environments of central and south america .

first described by zoologist george albert boulenger in 1913 , p. aurotaenia is known for being one of the most poisonous frogs in the world .

it is the smallest of the poison dart frogs in the phyllobates genus and is endemic to the pacific coast of colombia .

wild specimens store batrachotoxin in glands in their skin , which can be fatal to humans in doses as small as 100 µg .

the unique lethality of their poison is a trait often exploited by certain native american peoples of colombia for hunting .

the members of this species are characterized by : black dorsums , sometimes covered by orange suffusions ; green , yellow , orange , or brownish gold dorsolateral stripes ; and black abdomens with blue or green dots .

the name phyllobates aurotaenia is currently applied to two forms : a smaller , large-stripe form and a larger , small-stripe form .

these forms are separated by a ravine yet retain the ability to interbreed .

the number and range of p. aurotaenia is declining , primarily due to loss of habitat , and is currently classified as near threatened by the iucn .

phyllobates aurotaenia

phyllobates ( phyllobates ) aurotaenia — bauer , 1988 , het paludarium , netherlands , november : 6 .
tropical poison frog phyllobates aurotaenia from the amazon rain . . stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 34571879 .
video of a 1 . 2 trio of p . aurotaenia with male calling .
tropical poison frog phyllobates aurotaenia from the amazon rain forest of colombia . a macro of a small poisonous amphibian from the rainforest . toxix and dangerous animal .
stock photo - tropical poison frog phyllobates aurotaenia from the amazon rain forest of colombia . a macro of a small poisonous amphibian from the rainforest . toxix and dangerous animal .
of the 300 - plus species in the frog family dendrobatidae , only three members of the phyllobates genus have been documented as having their poison used for hunting darts : phyllobates aurotaenia ( a . k . a . kokoe ) , phyllobates bicolor ( a . k . a . black - legged ) and phyllobates terribilis ( a . k . a . golden ) . while in the wild these frogs harbor poison sufficient to kill a grown man , after they have been held captive for a time , they lose their toxicity . so what’s going on here ?
species of this family are small , brightly colored , neotropical frogs . dart - poison frogs derive their name from the fact that the more derived genera in this group are brightly colored and produce toxic skin alkaloids , which are obtained through the insects they eat . three species ( phyllobates terribilis , phyllobates aurotaenia , and phyllobates bicolor ) have been documented as being used to poison blow - gun darts for hunting animals , in colombia . the most toxic species of any frog is phyllobates terribilis , which produces batrachotoxins and homobatrachoxins at a level approximately 20 - fold that of other dart - poison frogs .
general care : aurotaenia require temps to be at the low to mid 70 ' s and high humidity of at least 70 % . these frogs are susceptible to heat stress . p . aurotaenia climb more often than other phyllobates and should be provided some vertical space . they are easily kept in groups . aurotaenia consume larger prey than similarly sized frogs and can consume medium sized crickets . bromeliads should be provided as some individuals prefer to lay eggs on the leaves . the forest in which they live in the wild has mossy areas and vined plants on the forest floor and tree stumps . aurotaenia seem to enjoy sleeping in dark , enclosed areas such as coco huts bromeliad axils , dead leaves , or cork bark tubes .
these frogs entered the us hobby about the same time the first terribilis did . they attracted a bit of attention at first , but p . aurotaenia have always been a “minor” player , along with the other small phyllobates , but they are all fascinating . aurotaenia occur in two or three different color forms and variants , primarily orange and green , with the orange form being found in a “wide stripe” and “narrow stripe” form . the green form seems to be the most common form in the hobby today .
phyllobates is a genus of poison dart frogs native to south america , from nicaragua to colombia . phyllobates contains the most poisonous species of frog , the golden poison frog ( phyllobates terribilis ) . they are typical of the poison dart frogs , in that all species are colourful , and have varying degrees of toxicity . only species of phyllobates are used by natives of south american tribes as sources of poison for their hunting darts . the most toxic of the many poisonous alkaloids these frogs emit from their skins is batrachotoxin , but there are a wide number of other toxic compounds which are secreted by these frogs . recently there has been debate as to whether the species of the ranitomeya genus belong in the genus phyllobates .
decree inderena no . 39 ( july 9 , 1985 ) forbids the collection of phyllobates species from the wild in colombia ( iucn 2006 ) .
semantics aside , let’s examine the three ‘truly’ poisonous dart - frogs . phyllobates terribilis , as its scientific name suggest , is a terribly toxic frog . it has enough of a very special kind of toxin in its skin , batrachotoxin , that the toxin from a single individual could potentially to kill upwards of 20 , 000 mice or up to 10 humans 2 . this is a frog that in the wild , should be avoided or handled with extreme care . the other two species of true ‘dart poison frogs’ are phyllobates aurotaenia and phyllobates bicolor . these two species are about 27 times less toxic than the phyllobates terribilis , and the toxin of a single frog of these two species could potentially kill upwards of 1 , 000 mice , with potential to kill a human ( if sensitive to its toxins ) .
batrachotoxins ( btxs ) were discovered in the mid - 1960s in skin extracts from a colombian poison - dart frog ( family dendrobatidae ) ( 1 , 2 ) . the name for these unique steroidal alkaloids was derived from the greek “batrachos , ” meaning frog . during the following 25 years , btxs were detected only in frogs of the dendrobatid genus phyllobates and not in scores of other poison frogs ( 3 ) . only three species are toxic enough to be used by native americans for poisoning blow - dart tips : phyllobates terribilis , phyllobates bicolor , and phyllobates aurotaenia ( 4 ) where btxs are responsible for their toxicity . btxs bind with high affinity to voltage - gated sodium channels in nerve and muscle membranes , locking them in an open state ( 5 ) . because of their potency and specificity , batrachotoxins have been widely used to study the function of sodium channels ( 6 ) .
stewart , s . 2010 .
the true poison - dart frog : the golden poison frog phyllobates terribilis
( on - line ) . accessed february 20 , 2011 at urltoken .
to cite this page : alvarez , m . and m . wiley 2011 .
phyllobates terribilis
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
a dangerously toxic new frog ( phyllobates ) used by emberá indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning . bulletin of the amnh ; v . 161 , article 2
batrachotoxins are the principle toxins found in phyllobates species , potent inhibitors of sodium channel deactivation causing persistent ach release , and are used in columbian indian blowguns to poison darts for hunting . 225 , 226
dendrobates aurotaenia boulenger , 1913 , proc . zool . soc . london , 1913 : 1029 . holotype : bmnh 1947 . 2 . 15 . 13 , according to xxx . type locality :
peña lisa , condoto , 300 feet
, departamento chocó , colombia .
bolívar , w . , s . lötters . 2004 .
phyllobates terribilis
( on - line ) . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . accessed may 07 , 2011 at urltoken .
breeding & tadpole care : p . aurotaenia breeds easily in a highly humid vivarium . they tend to lay eggs inside a petri dish / cocohut combination or in horizontal film canisters during periods of high humidity . females can lay anywhere between 15 to 28 eggs . froglets are aggressive feeders and feed on springtails , drosophila melanogaster , or hydei when young .
content : eight genera , adelphobates ( 3 species ) , andinobates ( 12 species ) , dendrobates ( 5 species ) , excidobates ( 2 species ) , minyobates ( 1 species ) , oophaga ( 9 species ) , phyllobates ( 5 species ) , and ranitomeya ( 16 species ) .
myers , c . w . , and daly , j . w . a dangerously toxic new frog ( phyllobates ) used by embera indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning . bull . amer . mus . nat . his . 161 ( 2 ) : 1–72 . 1978 .
5 myers , c . w . , and daly , j . w . 1978 . a dangerously toxic new frog ( phyllobates ) used by embera indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning . bull . amer . mus . nat . his . 161 ( 2 ) : 1–72 .
- myers , c . w . , and daly , j . w . 1978 . a dangerously toxic new frog ( phyllobates ) used by embera indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning . bull . amer . mus . nat . his . 161 ( 2 ) : 1–72 .
whereas the birds always had h - btx > > btx , the situation is reversed in the beetles , where h - btx is scarcely detectable or absent . in frogs of the genus phyllobates , btx levels exceed those of h - btx by ≈2 - fold . the level of btx in one collection of three c . semiopaca was found to be 1 . 8 μg per beetle or roughly one - tenth the amount present in a complete skin of either p . bicolor or p . aurotaenia but far less than that found in a p . terribilis skin , which has ca . 1 mg . the amounts of btx in beetle collections were , however , extremely variable . our atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometer was sufficiently sensitive , even in the full scan mode ( m / z 50–900 atomic mass units ) , to detect btxs in a single beetle .
of over 175 species of poison dart frogs , only 3 are toxic enough to tip ‘darts’ for use by native peoples for hunting . these three species all belong to a small group of larger - sized poison frogs call phyllobates ( which is greek for “leaf - walkers” ) . to the surprise of most people , only one of the three species has enough toxicity that a simple rub of a dart on the frog will result in enough toxin to kill small monkeys and birds . meet the golden poison frog , known as phyllobates terribilis . for the toxin of the other two species to become useful on darts , the toxin needs to be more heavily concentrated . unfortunately these frogs die in the extraction process , which is done by of roasting the animal over a flame to stimulate poison extrusion .
although they can be a little shy , they are recommended as tankmates for some other bolder frogs , and will do fine in a tank with a pair of d . azureus or something similar . at around one inch in length , several can be kept together . these frogs , as with all phyllobates , can be quite prolific , and will lay clutches of 15 to 25 eggs at a time .
this is where misinformation is rampant . first , unlike the frogs and toads in your backyard , dendrobatids do not innately make any of the toxins they have in their skin 3 . they acquire their toxins , called alkaloids , from a very specialized diet of ants , millipedes and mites , that themselves feed on a special diet of rainforest fungi and plants found in their natural habitats 4 . whereas , captive dendrobatid frogs feed on pet store diets of non - toxic fruit flies , crickets , and springtails . because of this , no captive dendrobatid frogs possess any alkaloids and therefore , they pose absolutely no risk to humans . this includes all frogs born in captivity and those taken from the wild , with one important exception : wild caught frogs of the genus phyllobates . given their extreme toxicity , wild caught frogs should always be handled with caution , as they can retain their toxins for up to two years after removal from the wild 5 , 6 . notably , the three true ‘dart’ frogs have not been exported as wild - caught frogs in almost 25 years . thus , unless illegally collected , there is no chance anyone will encounter a wild phyllobates ‘dart’ frog outside of their native habitat . again captive bred phyllobates frogs are completely safe .
to clarify , in order to acquire the lethal dose of poison frog toxin from these three species , as a medium sized human , you would have to ingest 1 / 10 the total toxin in a single adult phyllobates terribilis frog , or all of the toxin in an adult of the other two species . for this to happen , considerable and deliberate effort is required . an accidental encounter by touching or even holding these frogs would not yield nearly enough toxin to kill a human . these activities would only result in an immediate burning sensation . of course , no scientist would encourage reckless handling of these frogs , as they are really toxic and potentially dangerous . we only intend to put their toxicity into perspective . i close this section with a quote from the scientists who described phyllobates terribilis [ in reference to this species’ toxicity ] :
“our remarks are meant to be cautionary , not alarmist ( after all , the frogs do not bite ) . phyllobates terribilis is an interesting animal that can safely be maintained in the laboratory ; furthermore , escapees would soon die at normal room humidity and therefore pose no threat . if one of the frogs were casually picked up , any small scratch or cut on the hand would likely be noticed because of a prompt burning sensation . we would anticipate no ill effect from brief contact with a tiny wound , especially if soon washed”
removed from the synonymy of ameerega femoralis ( as phyllobates femoralis ) by silverstone , 1976 , sci . bull . nat . hist . mus . los angeles co . , 27 : 21 , where it had been placed by cochran and goin , 1970 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 288 : 40 . lötters , jungfer , henkel , and schmidt , 2007 , poison frogs : 418 - 420 , provided an account . see statement of geographic range , habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 614 .
descriptions & behavior : p . aurotaenia is one of the smaller members of the genus phyllobates at 24 and 34 mm long . they typically have a u - shaped band on the animal ' s back of varying width . on some adults , the band has joined into a solid patch of color . this band can be orange , green or gold . the body is black with white or sky blue spots . despite their size , they are very bold frogs with a loud call . in the us hobby there are currently three morphs : note : these morphs represent unique subpopulations in the wild that share general physical characterisitics , and for that reason different morphs should not be mixed . green - by far the most common of the auros , and often mistaken for the only morph of this species , they have a bright green
horseshoe
marking on their backs , and may have green spotting on the back as well . narrow banded - one of two yellow / gold morphs in the hobby , they have a narrow horseshoe yellow / gold marking on the back , with some individuals showing yellow / gold flecking on the back . these were imported with greens at the time , and some were accidently crossed , so beware of green x narrow hybrids that are still floating around the hobby . wide banded - similar looking to narrow banded as juveniles , the yellow / gold horseshoe marking gradually fills in as the animals mature , similar to p . terribilis / p . bicolor , leaving the back almost completely solid colored , while the legs remain black with blue flecking . orange / red animals have been reported in the wild but are not in captivity .
batrachotoxins are neurotoxic steroidal alkaloids first isolated from a colombian poison - dart frog and later found in certain passerine birds of new guinea . neither vertebrate group is thought to produce the toxins de novo , but instead they likely sequester them from dietary sources . here we describe the presence of high levels of batrachotoxins in a little - studied group of beetles , genus choresine ( family melyridae ) . these small beetles and their high toxin concentrations suggest that they might provide a toxin source for the new guinea birds . stomach content analyses of pitohui birds revealed choresine beetles in the diet , as well as numerous other small beetles and arthropods . the family melyridae is cosmopolitan , and relatives in colombian rain forests of south america could be the source of the batrachotoxins found in the highly toxic phyllobates frogs of that region .
phyllobates bicolor color patterning is very striking . the dorsum and sides are a uniform golden yellow or orange , as well as the dorsal surfaces of the upper arm and thigh ( myers et al . 1978 ) . in contrast , the dorsal surfaces of the forearm and calf are black , and may or may not have dense yellow ( or sometimes blue ) spotting ( myers et al . 1978 ) . the ventrum may be completely black , or washed with light orange , light gold , or bluish green ( myers et al . 1978 ) . there is occasionally a black patch on the throat ( silverstone 1976 ) . the tympanum is partly yellow - orange and partly black ( silverstone 1976 ) . in some individuals , the tip of the snout is black ( silverstone 1976 ) . irises are black or reddish - brown ( silverstone 1976 ) .
all three species of phyllobates are native to the rainforests of south america , where they are elusive and their lives are not well - documented . for example , it’s not clear precisely how each species breeds , although the general process is that the female apparently lays a clutch of eggs that the male or males “moisten” periodically , and their tadpoles hatch within two weeks or so . when this happens , the tadpoles swim onto the male’s back and then are more or less temporarily stuck there via a mucus secretion . the male then goes looking for a suitable place to deposit the tadpoles to finish their development . a good location is simply any small pool of water - even something like a coffee cup of water would be sufficient . once the location is found , the male leaves the tadpoles in the water and from this point on , they are on their own and take a few months to mature into frogs .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
it is considered a species complex ( colombia red list assessment workshop 2016 ) .
mejía , d . , gómez , d . , castro , f . , gonzalez duran , g . a . , guerrero , j . a . , bernal , m . h . , rivera , m . , gutierrez , p . , lötters , s . , grant , t . & bolívar , w .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large and stable population , successful ex situ breeding programs , and apparently localized threats .
this species occurs on the western slopes of the cordillera occidental in colombia , along the río san juan drainage south to the río calima , valle del cauca department , between 60 and 520 m asl ( silverstone 1976 , myers et al . 1978 , d . mejía pers . comm . 2016 ) .
it lives on the ground in humid lowland primary and secondary forest , but does not occur in degraded areas . the eggs are laid in leaf - litter and the male takes the larvae to slow - flowing water where they continue to develop .
the species is largely legally traded with most of the individuals born in captivity . legal exportation of this species out of colombia has been banned since 1985 . it is known to be traditionally used by native colombians , such as the chocó indians of the emberá group , to poison their blow - gun darts ( myers et al . 1978 ) .
localized threats include deforestation due to cultivation of illegal crops , logging and mining activities .
it is known from utría national park . decree inderena no . 39 of 9 july , 1985 , forbids the collection of
spp . from the wild in colombia for breeding ( or other ) purposes . it is listed on cites appendix ii .
more information is needed on this species ' distribution , population status , natural history , and threats . there is a need for monitoring the population status of this species given the threats of habitat loss due to agriculture , logging and human settlement , as well as invasive species .
taxonomic work is needed to determine if this form is a complex of more than one species .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
adults reach a maximum snout - vent length of 32 mm in males and 35 mm in females . the skin is slightly granular on the dorsum and smooth on the ventrum and limbs . the first finger is longer than the second , with all finger discs being narrow to moderately expanded . toes are webless . both maxillary and premaxillary teeth are present . testes are unpigmented ( silverstone 1976 ) .
this species has a black ground color , with two thin golden , orange , or green dorsolateral stripes extending from the base of the thigh and meeting at the snout ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) . the dorsal surfaces of the limbs are covered in gold , orange , blue , or green dots , and the ventral surface is black with blue or green dots ( silverstone 1976 ) . dotting is relatively sparse on the venter and more concentrated on the limbs ( silverstone 1976 ) . the stripes are green or light yellow , and the ventral dots are always blue on individuals from serranía de baudó ( silverstone 1976 ) . on individuals from the upper san juan drainage , the stripes are yellow , light or dark yellow - orange , or light brownish gold ( silverstone 1976 ) . there is a second form ; some individuals , from above the playa de oro on the upper rio san juan , are larger and have broader dorsolateral stripes that are sometimes blended together by an orangish dorsal suffusion into one yellow - orange or red - orange stripe ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) .
, have an emarginate ,
normal
oral disc ( meaning the oral disc is not umbelliform ) . the larval vent tube is dextral ( grant et al . 2006 ) .
is found in the chocó region of colombia in the atrato and san juan drainages ( silverstone 1976 ) . it lives in low - elevation inland rainforest at an altitude of 60 to 520 meters , west of the cordillera occidental ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) .
are usually diurnal species due to the advantage of greater visibility of their color markings , which warn predators that they possess skin toxins ( silverstone 1976 ) . this species secretes skin batrachotoxins when under stress ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) . however , this species is secretive and can be hard to find even in areas where there are dense populations ( myers et al . 1978 ) .
calls are usually made from a concealed location under fallen leaves or logs , but occasionally while sitting on fallen leaves ( silverstone 1976 ) . the call has been described as a
loud , bird - like , whirring twitter , consisting of rapidly repeating notes
( silverstone 1976 ) , with a duration of 4 - 11 seconds ( silverstone 1976 ) . this call is repeated after intervals lasting from several seconds up to 45 seconds ( silverstone 1976 ) . the dominant frequency is higher than 2000 hz ( myers et al . 1978 ) .
this species does not occur in any protected areas and is rapidly losing its habitat .
) known to be used for poisoning darts ( myers et al . 1978 ) . various chocó tribes in western colombia have used these frogs to poison darts for dart - guns . the frogs primarily secrete the steroidal alkaloids batrachotoxin , homobatrachotoxin , and batrachotoxinin a , which cause depolarization of nerves and muscles , cardiac arrhythmias , and cardiac failure if taken internally and skin numbness when encountered externally . to extract the poison , the chocó impale
lengthwise on sticks , and may also heat the spitted frogs to increase the amount of skin secretions ; darts are then rubbed against the skin of the impaled frog . this is in contrast to the treatment of
which has much higher levels of skin toxins ; for this species , darts are simply rubbed across the back of the live frog ( myers et al . 1978 ) .
, or 1 . 3x as much toxin by equivalent skin weight . the third species of frog used for poisoning darts ,
, kökoé , is pronounced
kohng - kway
( silverstone 1976 ) .
, a narrow - striped , slightly smaller form , and a broad - striped , slightly larger form , which do not always occur in the same place ( silverstone 1976 ) . in the western atrato drainage , the broad - striped form is absent and the narrow - striped form occurs up to at least 500 m ( silverstone 1976 ) . in the playa de oro , it is not clear whether the narrow - striped form occurs at lower elevation than the broad - striped form ; the two forms may simply be separated by a deep ravine ( quebrada bochoramá ) and not by elevation ( silverstone 1976 ) .
, or hybridization , in the upper san juan drainage . the largest specimens , which have the broad , fused dorsal stripes , come from above playa de oro on the upper rio san juan ; these individuals more closely resemble
in both coloration and size ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) .
has a uniformly colored orange ( red - orange , orange , or yellow - orange ) dorsum lacking stripes .
is also slightly larger ( 38 . 2 mm average size ) than the broad - striped form of
( 32 . 1 mm average size ) , which is in turn larger than the narrow - striped form ( 26 . 3 mm average size ) .
grant , t . , frost , d . r . , caldwell , j . p . , gagliardo , r . , haddad , c . f . b . , kok , p . j . r . , means , d . b . , noonan , b . p . , schargel , w . e . , and wheeler , w . c . ( 2006 ) . ' ' phylogenetic systematics of dart - poison frogs and their relatives ( amphibia : athesphatanura : dendrobatidae ) . ' '
myers , c . w . , daly , j . w . , and malkin , b . ( 1978 ) . ' ' a dangerously toxic new frog (
) used by emberá indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning . ' '
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
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location & history found in colombia at the atrato and san juan drainages ( 1 ) . officially named in 1957 by dunn .
www . poison - frogs . com , dart poison frogs , vivaria , plants , together with lots of pictures , films and more . orchids , bromelia ' s , mosses , descriptions of dendrobates leucomelas , azureus , pumilio , tinctorius , auratus and how to breed frogs but also fruit
if you would like to see any updates or modifications to this care sheet please let myself or a moderator know .
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african dwarf frogs - true aquatic dwarf frog care guide . how to feed dwarf frogs .
poison dart frogs poison arrow frogs dart frogs & poison arrow dart frogs terrarium animals from saurian enterprises , inc .
while best results will probably be achieved in pairs , this frog often can be bred very well in groups .
the green form is currently fairly well established in the hobby , other color forms are less well established , if they are still in this country .
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* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
will find all uses of
hyl . . .
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .
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. . . hyla
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla
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interprets this as
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anywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .
kokoe poison frog ( walls , 1994 , jewels of the rainforest : 28 ; frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 51 ) .
wet forests of the chocoan region of western colombia ( chocó and valle del cauca departments ) in the atrato and san juan drainages , 90 - 1000 m elevation .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
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frost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
is found in the amazonian rainforest along the pacific coast of colombia . other members of the family
have been found in close proximity along the coast of south america into the southern part of central america .
population is concentrated along the upper rio saija drainage in the vicinity of quebrada guangui’ and at la brea in colombia . geographically isolated populations exist along the east and west banks along this river , dividing the population . overall
golden poison frogs thrive in lowland amazonian rainforests . this an extremely humid region that receives up to 5 m of rain per year and a minimum of 1 . 25 m . the region they inhabit is characterized by a hilly landscape , elevations varying from 100 to 200 m , and is covered by areas of wet gravel and small saplings and relatively little leafy debris . they are terrestrial animals that live on the forest floor , but they rely on freshwater to support their young .
golden poison frogs have a variety of bright vibrant colors that cover their entire bodies , from mint green to yellow to orange and sometimes white . yellow or deep yellow , is the most common color seen , giving them their common name .
is the most toxic species of frog . unlike most other members of the family
. they have dorsolateral stripes on dark bodies until they mature . by the time they reach adulthood , their coloration has changed to a single bright color .
an easy way to identify these frogs is by the odd protrusion from their mouth . this gives the false illusion that these frogs have teeth . instead , they have an extra bone plate in their jaw that projects outwards and gives the appearance of teeth . these frogs have three toes on each foot . each outside toe is almost equal in length but the middle toe is longer than the other two .
is thought to be a warning to predators that they are poisonous . their skin is saturated in an alkaloid poison that contains batrachotoxins . these toxins prevent nerves from transmitting nerve impulses and ultimately result in muscle paralysis . about 1900 micrograms of batrachotoxins can be found in these frogs . only 2 to 200 micrograms is thought to be lethal to humans .
adult females are typically larger than males . the average body length reaches 47 mm but females can reach 50 to 55 mm . compared to the 175 species of
does not have a wide range of sizes . other species can be as small as a human fingernail .
like most frogs , golden poison frogs go through complete metamorphosis . eggs are laid in small clutches of less than 20 and carried on the backs of males to small pools of water , where they develop and metamorphose into froglets .
is polygynandrous ; both males and females have multiple mates . courtship and egg laying have only been observed in captivity , with limited specimens . each breeding involved two or more male frogs and one female . males attract females by using a variety of high pitched calls . mating could be described as a frantic frenzy where individuals move quickly around each other during egg laying . this is hard to observe because the movement is so fast and done under cover of vegetation . specifics on mode of reproduction are unconfirmed but it is believed that there is some vent to vent contact between frogs during copulation . however , golden poison frog mating rituals have not been observed in their natural habitat . golden poison frogs are thought to mate year round .
golden poison frog eggs have not been found in the wild . in captivity , clutches of eggs usually do not exceed 20 . in captivity , once eggs are laid and fertilized in water ( by captive carers ) they hatch 11 to 12 days later , typically taking 2 to 4 days for all the eggs to be completely hatched . not even 10 days after leaving the water , they begin to feed on
in the wild , once the female lays the eggs , the male fertilizes them and attaches them to its back . only three male frogs have been captured with clutches of eggs on their backs . it seems that this period of carrying tadpoles on their backs is brief . it is a method of getting the eggs from their laying and fertilization site to the water to hatch . after fertilization and transfer to a small area of water for development , there is no further parental care .
in the wild golden poison frogs are believed to live up to 5 years or more . due to their high toxicity levels , these frogs have few predators , contributing to their long lifespan . lifespan in the wild has not been confirmed because these frogs have only been observed in captivity , where they have lived up to 5 years old .
golden poison frogs are diurnal and strictly terrestrial . both in captivity and when observed in the wild , golden poison frogs have not been seen climbing on any surfaces . they have only been observed sitting on the ground or sitting a few centimeters above the ground on a tree root or pieces of vegetation . most species of
is quite different . it is thought to be because of their extremely toxic nature that they are not afraid of predation . these frogs are also not often found in dense aggregations . captive golden poison frogs thrive in crowded conditions with little aggressive behavior . this differs from other closely related species which have been observed to be highly aggressive and territorial in nature . most aggression takes place between the same sex , where calling , chasing and wrestling can occur .
these frogs in captivity exhibit strong learning ability . they are quick to associate the opening of the terrarium with feeding and swiftly snap at anything presenting movement . even the slightest movement in front of the terrarium is enough to excite the frogs as they expect to be fed .
golden poison frog males engage females in courtship by singing a long , melodious trill . this trill lasts 6 to 7 seconds followed by a 2 to 3 second version . the trill is usually a uniform train of notes uttered at a rate of 13 beats per second . the frequency for this tune is 1800hz . this is a lower frequency when compared to related species of the family
. they also communicate through gestures . a push up movement of the body represents dominance while the lowering of the head implies submission . a sign of excitement usually seen during hunting and courting includes the tapping of their long middle toe .
. golden poison frogs use their long , sticky tongues to capture prey . they stalk and attack prey in one quick movement ; this movement is so fast it ' s hard to see the mechanics of it with the naked eye . an adhesive tongue enables the prey to stick to its mouth to aid in capturing . typically , they will not attack an insect bigger than a full grown cricket , approximately 1 inch . it has recently been discovered that feeding on a small
golden poison frogs are best known for their extremely potent poison . the toxins they produces are twenty times more powerful than any other poison dart frog toxin . their brightly colored bodies warn predators of their extreme toxicity . this serves as the frog’s main anti - predator adaptation . the toxins produced are steroidal alkaloids batrachotoxin , homobatrachotoxin , and batrachotoxinin a . these compounds are extremely potent modulators of voltage - gated sodium channels . they keep the channels open and depolarize nerve and muscle cells irreversibly . this damaging action may lead to arrhythmias , fibrillation , and eventually cardiac failure . when accidentally transferred onto human facial skin , these toxins have been reported to cause a burning sensation lasting several hours .
. this is a small snake that feeds on young frogs . the snake is immune to the toxins produced by golden poison frogs but since it is so small , it can only feed on juvenile frogs .
( daly , et al . , 1980 ; myers , et al . , 1978 ; stewart , 2010 )
golden poison frogs have only one natural predator . they usually sit out in the open . when approached they do not try to hide , but rather further their distance from the thing that approaches it . they are generalist feeders , preying on all types of
golden poison frogs are the most highly toxic of all frogs . colombian tribes , such as the embre and choco indians , use poison secreted from the frogs’ skin to poison their blowgun darts . after heating darts over a fire , they are wiped over the frogs’ backs . heat causes the back of the frog to moisten with poison which makes it easily accessible . poisoned darts can stay lethal for up to two years . the toxin enables these tribes to catch small animals for food . these frogs are also being captured , bred , and sold as pets . this is possible because of their decrease in toxicity once held in captivity for a certain period of time . medical research is also being done to see if these poisons can be developed into muscle relaxants , anesthetics , and heart stimulants . it is thought that it could even become a better anesthetic than morphine .
golden poison frogs do not display aggressive behavior towards humans . however , contact with their skin can prove fatal because of their extreme toxicity . this is not true of captive individuals , which tend to lose their toxicity in the absence of the wild prey that are the source of that toxin .
golden poison frog populations have been decreasing due to deforestation for agricultural purposes . they can be found in fewer than five areas . this species is listed as endangered according to the iucn red list of threatened species .
mariela c . alvarez ( author ) , radford university , mary wiley ( author ) , radford university , christine small ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
having coloration that serves a protective function for the animal , usually used to refer to animals with colors that warn predators of their toxicity . for example : animals with bright red or yellow coloration are often toxic or distasteful .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,
incomplete metamorphosis
is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and
complete metamorphosis
is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .
an animal which has a substance capable of killing , injuring , or impairing other animals through its chemical action ( for example , the skin of poison dart frogs ) .
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .
rainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
clarke , b . 1997 . the natural history of amphibian skin secretions , their normal functioning and potential medical applications .
darst , c . , p . menendez - guerrero , l . coloma , d . cannatella . 2005 . evolution of dietary specialization and chemical defense in poison frogs (
gratwicke , b . 2011 .
world association of zoos and aquariums waza / united for conservation
( on - line ) . golden poision frog . accessed april 04 , 2011 at urltoken .
jovanovic , o . , m . vences , g . safarek , f . rabemananjara , r . dolch . 2009 . predation upon mantella aurantiaca in the torotorofotsy wetlands , central - eastern madagascar .
) used by embera ' indians of western colombia , with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning .
. neptune city , new jersey : t . f . h . publications .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
is a small frog , with males reaching an adult size of 32 . 1 - 39 . 5 mm and females reaching 35 . 7 - 42 . 7 mm ( myers et al . 1978 ) . the skin is smooth ( silverstone 1976 ) . both premaxillary and maxillary teeth are present ( silverstone 1976 ) . the first finger is longer than the second , and the digits have expanded discs ( silverstone 1976 ) . toes lack webbing ( silverstone 1976 ) .
, exhibits an ontogenetic color change ; juveniles are dark brown to black in color , with two yellowish dorsolateral bands . as the frogs reach maturity , the dorsolateral stripes disappear , and the frogs become more brightly colored . in contrast , the juvenile pattern of light stripes on a dark background is retained into adulthood in other members of the
is smaller in size and has legs and venter of a different hue than the body color ( myers et al . 1978 ) .
the black leg poison dart frog lives in the tropical rain forests of colombia , on the western side of the northern part of the cordillera occidental , between 25 - 1 , 525 m above sea level . it occurs in the upper atrato and san juan drainages , the río raposo , and headwaters of the río sipí , in the cordillera occidental . this species inhabits the forest floor ( silverstone 1976 ; myers et al . 1978 ) . it is reported to survive in logged forest but not open habitat ( iucn 2006 ) .
are diurnal and are very active . little has been published on the reproductive behavior of this species in the wild . zimmermann ( 1989 ) has published sonograms of
, males initiate courtship by giving a
long - range
courtship call . the female then follows the male to a covered egg deposition site . once the female approaches within 8 cm , the male emits a
short - range
courtship croak call , ceasing before the female oviposits . circling and body - anal touching was observed but not amplexus . in captivity , a single female may lay up to three clutches of 12 - 20 eggs per month . the male moistens the clutch at irregular intervals ( hydric brooding ) . tadpoles hatch in about 14 days , after which the male transports them to a water - filled brooding site ( zimmermann 1989 ) .
it occurs in one protected area , the parque nacional natural farallones de cali . major threats include habitat alteration due to deforestation for agriculture and logging , and human settlement ; pollution from spraying illegal crops ; and introduction of non - native predatory fish . collection for the international pet trade occurs but it is difficult to assess the extent of this threat . chytridiomycosis may be a potential future threat ( iucn 2006 ) .
) that have been documented as used by humans to poison darts . all are from the pacific versant of colombia , and used by various tribes of the chocó indians in western colombia . all three species have high levels of batrachotoxins , with
by far the most toxic and the other two species approximately equal in toxicity to each other .
contains 17 - 56 micrograms of combined toxins per frog . batrachotoxin - containing skin secretions for poisoning dart tips are obtained either by simply rubbing the tip on the live frog ' s back (


myrmecia varians is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus .

this species is native to australia .

the myrmecia varians is one of the most distributed ants in the country , with the species being observed in every single state and territory except for tasmania .

myrmecia varians was first described by mayr in 1876 .

myrmecia varians

senior synonym of myrmecia rufonigra : clark , 1943 pdf : 126 ; of myrmecia goudiei , myrmecia marmorata , myrmecia shepherdi , myrmecia wilsoni : brown , 1953j pdf : 15 .
the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia varians for further details
myrmecia varians : syntype , worker ( s ) , peak downs , queensland , australia .
myrmecia varians : syntype , 1 worker , locality unknown , australia , museum of comparative zoology .
how can i put and write and define myrmecia varians in a sentence and how is the word myrmecia varians used in a sentence and examples ? 用myrmecia varians造句 , 用myrmecia varians造句 , 用myrmecia varians造句 , myrmecia varians meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
myrmecia varians : syntype , 4 workers , rockhampton , queensland , australia , naturhistorisches museum wien , vienna .
rufonigra . myrmecia rufonigra crawley , 1921 : 87 ( w . ) australia . junior synonym of varians : clark , 1943 : 126 .
little separates m . varians from myrmecia michaelseni and myrmecia rugosa , but ogata and taylor ( 1991 ) use subtle differences in the length of the pronotal setae and the appearance of the mandibles to distinguish them .
myrmecia varians : syntype , 1 worker , rockhampton , queensland , australia , geoffrey , mrs . , anic32 - 017883 , australian national insect collection .
heterick ( 2009 ) - myrmecia varians , described from the eastern states , is represented by one specimen each from nerren nerren stn , just outside the boundaries of the swbp ( mckenzie , keighery et al . 2000 ) and from westonia .
combination in promyrmecia : clark , 1943 pdf : 126 ; in myrmecia : brown , 1953j pdf : 15 .
myrmecia rufonigra : syntype , worker ( s ) , townsville , queensland , australia , oxford university museum of natural history .
this species of turtle ant , cephalotes varians , harbors a diverse and co - evolved community of bacteria in their guts . photograph by gracen brilmyer… | pinteres…
marmorata . promyrmecia marmorata clark , 1951 : 188 , fig . 157 ( w . ) australia . junior synonym of varians : brown , 1953j : 15 .
: 94 - worker ; original localities : peak downs [ 22 / 148 ] et al . , queensland ( other combination ( s ) : promyrmecia varians ( clark ; 1943
wilsoni . promyrmecia wilsoni clark , 1943 : 127 , pl . 15 , fig . 66 ( w . ) australia . junior synonym of varians : brown , 1953j : 15 .
the term bull ant is often used in lay language to refer to other common ants which are neither true bull ants nor members of the genus myrmecia .
goudiei . promyrmecia goudiei clark , 1943 : 129 , pl . 15 , figs . 48 , 49 ( w . q . ) australia . junior synonym of varians : brown , 1953j : 15 .
shepherdi . promyrmecia shepherdi clark , 1943 : 128 , pl . 15 , figs . 50 - 52 ( w . q . m . ) australia . junior synonym of varians : brown , 1953j : 15 .
brown , w . l . , jr . 1953j . revisionary notes on the ant genus myrmecia of australia . bull . mus . comp . zool . 111 : 1 - 35 pdf
brown , w . l . jr . 1953a . 1953 132 revisionary notes on the ant genus myrmecia of australia . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 111 : 1 - 35 .
emery , carlo ( 1911 ) .
hymenoptera : fam . formicidae : subfam . ponerinae
. v . verteneuil & l . desmet . part 118 in wytsman ' s genera insectorum 2 : ( page 17 , myrmecia in ponerinae , myrmeciini ) .
brown , w . l . , jr . 1953j . revisionary notes on the ant genus myrmecia of australia . bull . mus . comp . zool . 111 : 1 - 35 ( page 15 , senior synonym of goudiei , marmorata , shepherdi and wilsoni )
myrmecia , often called bulldog ants , bull ants , inch ants , sergeant ants , jumper ants , or jack - jumpers ( although jack jumper only applies to members of the m . pilosula species group ) , is a genus of ants . bull ants can grow to over 40 mm ( 1 . 6 in ) in length , with the smallest species 15 mm ( 0 . 59 in ) long . almost all of the approximately 94 species are endemic to australia , with the single exception of myrmecia apicalis from new caledonia , where it is rare .
fabricius , johan christian ( 1804 ) .
systema piezatorum : secundum ordines , genera , species , adiectis synonymis , locis , observationibus , descriptionibus
. brunsvigae : carolum reichard : ( page 423 , myrmecia as genus ) . doi : 10 . 5962 / bhl . title . 10490 . oclc 19422437 .
taylor , robert w . ( november 1991 ) .
myrmecia croslandi sp . n . , a karyologically remarkable new australian jack - jumper ant ( hymenoptera : formicidae )
. australian journal of entomology 30 ( 4 ) : 288–288 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1440 - 6055 . 1991 . tb00438 . x .
gray , b . ; lamb , k . p . ( june 1968 ) .
some observations on the malpighian tubules and ovarioles in myrmecia dispar ( clark ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae )
. australian journal of entomology 7 ( 1 ) : 80–81 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1440 - 6055 . 1968 . tb00706 . x .
crosland , m . w . j . , crozier , r . h . ( 1986 ) .
myrmecia pilosula , an ant with only one pair of chromosomes
. science 231 ( 4743 ) : 1278 . bibcode : 1986sci . . . 231 . 1278c . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 231 . 4743 . 1278 . pmid 17839565 .
myrmecia dispar ( clark ) is found in the drier inland areas of new south wales and southern queensland in australia . its nests , which are situated adjacent to trees , have a distinctive structure of simple architecture . the composition of the colonies varies seasonally with little or no brood production during the colder months . colony founding probably takes place in march , april , and / or may . several myrmecophiles are found in nests of m . dispar , and some of these are present in relatively large numbers .
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
: brown , 1953j : 15 . see also : clark , 1951 : 181 .
promyrmecia goudiei : syntype , worker ( s ) , queen ( s ) , sea lake , redcliffs , hattah and lake hattah , victoria , australia , museum victoria , melbourne .
promyrmecia marmorata : holotype , worker , patho , victoria , australia , dixon , j . e . , anic32 - 017878 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia marmorata : paratype , 2 workers , lake hattah , victoria , australia , dixon , j . e . , anic32 - 017879 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia shepherdi : syntype , 1 worker , broken hill , new south wales , australia , shepherd , f . w . , anic32 - 017880 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia shepherdi : syntype , 1 queen , wimmera , victoria , australia , < collector unknown > , anic32 - 017881 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia shepherdi : syntype , 1 male , south australia , australia , < collector unknown > , anic32 - 017882 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia shepherdi : syntype , 1 worker , dubbo , new south wales , australia , museum of comparative zoology .
promyrmecia shepherdi : syntype , worker ( s ) , queen ( s ) , male ( s ) , broken hill and dubbo , new south wales ; finke river and murray bridge , south australia ; nhill , vict . , australia , museum victoria , melbourne .
promyrmecia wilsoni : syntype , 1 worker , mutchilba , queensland , australia , selby , a . d . , anic32 - 006654 , australian national insect collection .
promyrmecia wilsoni : syntype , worker ( s ) , mutchilba , queensland , australia , museum victoria , melbourne .
clark , j . 1943 . a revision of the genus promyrmecia emery ( formicidae ) . mem . natl . mus . vic . 13 : 83 - 149 ( page 127 , queen described ; page 126 , combination in promyrmecia , senior synonym of rufonigra )
clark , j . 1951 . the formicidae of australia . 1 . subfamily myrmeciinae : 230 pp . csiro , melbourne . [ ( 31 . xii ) . 1951 . ] pdf
heterick , b . e . 2009 . a guide to the ants of south - western australia . records of the western australian museum , supplement 76 : 1 - 206 . pdf
mayr , g . 1876 . die australischen formiciden . j . mus . godeffroy 12 : 56 - 115 ( page 94 , worker described )
wheeler , g . c . ; wheeler , j . 1971d . ant larvae of the subfamily myrmeciinae ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . pan - pac . entomol . 47 : 245 - 256 ( page 254 , larva described )
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clark , 1943 pdf : 127 ( q . ) ; wheeler & wheeler , 1971d pdf : 254 ( l . ) .
0 times found in dry sclerophyll , 0 times found in mallee , 0 times found in sclerophyll woodland , 0 times found in callitris - red gum sav . woodland , 0 times found in coastal mallee , 15
rainfall , 0 times found in dry flat sclerophyll , 0 times found in paddock , 0 times found in dry sandy sclerophyll , 0 times found in red mallee , 1 times found in red soil , . . .
2 times ground nest , 0 times on tree , 7am , 0 times on tree , 5pm , 0 times on tree , 10am , 0 times on tree trunks , 0 times on tree trunk , 11am , 0 times on tree , 0 times on mallee stems , 1 times on box trees , 0 times on box tree , 0 times no mound . hole in ground , . . .
0 times by hand , 0 times on red gum near murry r . , 1 times search , 1 times wet pits .
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clark , j . 1943 ,
a revision of the genus promyrmecia emery ( formicidae )
, memoirs of the national museum of victoria , melbourne , vol . 13 , pp . 83 - 149 pls 12 - 17
crawley , w . c . 1921 ,
new and little - known species of ants from various localities
, annals and magazine of natural history , ser . 9 , vol . 7 , pp . 87 - 97
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 315231
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) : 127 - worker ; type locality : mutchilba [ 17 / 145 ] , queensland ( promyrmecia wilsoni ) ( synonymy : w . l . brown ; 1953a
) : 128 - worker , queen , male ; original localities : broken hill [ 31 / 141 ] et al . , new south wales , south australia , victoria ( promyrmecia shepherdi ) ( synonymy : w . l . brown ; 1953a
) : 129 - worker , queen ; original localities : sea lake [ 35 / 142 ] et al . , victoria ( promyrmecia goudiei ) ( synonymy : w . l . brown ; 1953a
) : 188 - worker ; type locality : patho [ 36 / 144 ] , victoria ( promyrmecia marmorata ) ( synonymy : w . l . brown ; 1953a
clark , j . 1943 . 1943 302 a revision of the genus promyrmecia emery ( formicidae ) . memoirs of the national museum of victoria 13 : 83 - 149 pls 12 - 17 .
clark , j . 1951 . 1951 303 the formicidae of australia . volume i . subfamily myrmeciinae . melbourne : csiro , 230 pp .
mayr , g . l . 1876 . 1876 1923 die australischen formiciden . journal des museum godeffroy 5 : 56 - 115 .
crawley , w . c . 1921 . 1921 3635 new and little - known species of ants from various localities . annals and magazine of natural history ( 9 ) 7 : 87 - 97 .
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urltoken
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
, 1946 . — daily fluctuations in aboveground activities of three species of ants .
mandibles elongate , porrect , serrated on the inner edge alternately with large and small teeth , tips curved inwards and acute at the apex ; maxillary palpi 6 - jointed , the labial palpi 4 - jointed ; antennae filiform , as long as the head and thorax ; eyes large , ovate , prominent , situated forwards at the sides of the head , nearly touching the base of the mandibles ; ocelli present in all the sexes . thorax elongate ; anterior wings with one complete marginal , three complete submarginal , and two discoidal cells . abdomen with two ovate nodes in the petiole . pupae enclosed in cocoons .
this genus of ants appears to be confined to the continent of australia and to tasmania .
' s are around 21 millimetres long on average , and they have normally have a red head , and a black abdomen . their mandibles are long , strongly toothed , and appears in a yellow palish colour .
subgenus , and these ants of the new subgenus were characterised by their jumping behaviour .
the whole subfamily was later revised by clark in his 1951 publication , which includes 118 species and sub - species .
bull ants are among the oldest of all ants , first appearing around 100 million years ago .
multiple observations of the ant were recorded in 1948 and 1965 , but there has been no report of the ant in new zealand for over 20 years , so it is presumed the ant has been eradicated .
in allergic sting victims . as with most severe allergic reactions , the reaction may be lethal if left untreated . these large , alert ants have characteristic large eyes and long , slender mandibles . some bull ants , such as
they have superior vision , able to track and even follow intruders from a distance of 1 m .
. because they mostly live exclusively in bushland , they are rarely exposed to a human - influenced diet . the adult ants mainly eat nectar and honeydew , but the ant larvae are
that eat small insects brought back to them by hunting worker ants . the workers can also regurgitate food back in the nest so other ants can consume it .
) are fed on by bull ants , but this is a dangerous quarry as carpenter ants are able to release chemical signals to bring further reinforcements , which bull ants lack , nor do they have any scent trails as they forage independently .
predators of the bull ant are other ants , spiders , lizards , birds and other animals .
, which means that colonies have multiple queens in one colony . some species can have from a single queen and up to six queens in a single colony , and during
an observed nuptial flight shows nuptial flight occur after a storm with high temperatures , around in january . at least 1 , 000 or more alates can gather in a single nuptial flight , with as many as five to six males trying to mate with a single queen .
, female worker ants which are able to mate and reproduce , thus sustaining the colony after the loss of the queen . a colony of
without queen was collected in 1998 and kept in captivity , during which time the gamergates produced viable workers for three years .
queens are semi - clasutral , meaning that queens of the new established colony will forage for food in order to feed and raise her brood .
colonies take a long time to form . queens will typically lay around eight eggs , which less than half will survive .
colonies can take between four months to eight months for the first workers to be born . in comparison to other ant colonies unrelated to
, they are rather small , with some only consisting of a few hundred individual or even 2 , 000 individuals .
egg clumping is common in nests , although some species would not clump eggs together , and would be dispersed from one another .
queens will generally live the longest of the entire colony , some being at least 10 years of age before dying while the workers will only live for around one year .
genome is being studied to compare it to other species closely related to the ant with a higher chromosome count .
the bull ant famously appears in the philosopher arthur schopenhauer ' s major work , the world as will and representation , as a paradigmatic example of strife and constant destruction endemic to the
will to live
.
but the bulldog - ant of australia affords us the most extraordinary example of this kind ; for if it is cut in two , a battle begins between the head and the tail . the head seizes the tail in its teeth , and the tail defends itself bravely by stinging the head : the battle may last for half an hour , until they die or are dragged away by other ants . this contest takes place every time the experiment is tried .
. melbourne : commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation , australia . p . 230
archibald , s . b . ; cover , s . p . ; moreau , c . s . ( 2006 ) .
bulldog ants of the eocene okanagan highlands and history of the subfamily ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmeciinae )
. annals of the entomological society of america 99 ( 3 ) : 487–523 . doi : 10 . 1603 / 0013 - 8746 ( 2006 ) 99 [ 487 : baoteo ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .
lester , philip j . ; keall , john b . ( january 2005 ) .
the apparent establishment and subsequent eradication of the australian giant bulldog ant forel ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) in new zealand
. new zealand journal of zoology 32 ( 4 ) : 353–357 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 03014223 . 2005 . 9518423 .
tepper , otto ( 1882 ) .
observations about the habits of some south australian ants
. transactions and proceedings of the royal society of south australia 5 : 24–26 .
dietemann , v . ; peeters , c ; hölldobler , b . ( 2004 ) .
gamergates in the australian ant subfamily myrmeciinae
. naturwissenschaften 91 ( 9 ) : 432–435 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00114 - 004 - 0549 - 1 . pmid 15278223 .
haskins , caryl p . ; haskins , edna f . ( december 1950 ) .
hölldobler , bert ; wilson , edward o . ( 1990 ) . the ants . cambridge , mass . : belknap press of harvard university press . isbn 0 - 674 - 04075 - 9 .
baillie , j . ; groombridge , b . ( 1996 ) . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . international union for conservation of nature , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . p . 378 .
douglas , athol ; brown , w . l . ( march 1959 ) .
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key words : worker polymorphism , queen - worker dimorphism , reproduction , trophic eggs , allometry .
received 7 january 2002 ; revised 24 april 2002 ; accepted 29 april 2002 .


the sulawesi forest turtle ( leucocephalon yuwonoi ) is a critically endangered species of turtle in the geoemydidae family .

it is monotypic within the genus leucocephalon .

it is endemic to sulawesi in indonesia .

sulawesi forest turtle

the riverview park & zoo ' s latest addition is a recently hatched sulawesi forest turtle .
information on the sulawesi forest turtle is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
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forsten ' s tortoise ( indotestudo forstenii ) – another threatened turtle endemic to sulawesi , indonesia .
riyanto , awal 2006 . notes on exploitation , population status , distribution , and natural history of the sulawesi forest turtle ( leucocephalon yuwonoi ) in north - central sulawesi , indonesia . chelonian conserv . biol . 5 ( 2 ) : 320 - 323 .
the sulawesi forest turtle is a part of the asian river turtle family , geoemydidae . it lives half on land and half in the water . it easily blends into its environment with colours of brown , cream , and orange . males are larger than females . males measure up to 28 cm ; females , 24 cm .
wwct has selected sulawesi as one of its regional conservation programmes due to the area’s extraordinary biodiversity and because the captive breeding programme for the critically endangered sulawesi crested black macaque is managed by paignton zoo . this amazing monkey is a great flagship species for the island and is the focus of our conservation project in sulawesi , selamatkan yaki ( save the sulawesi crested black macaque ! ) .
wallacea is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots due to its high number of endemic plants and animals . sulawesi has the greatest endemism in indonesia and it is estimated that 25 % of its bird species and 62 % of its mammal species ( 98 % excluding bats ) are unique to the island . some of the unique but highly threatened sulawesi vertebrates include the babirusa , anoa ( which can be seen at paignton zoo ) , maleo and sulawesi forest turtle . despite the importance of this island for biodiversity conservation , funding has been low relative to other areas in indonesia .
they are still caught for food in large numbers on sulawesi as well so they are certinely in trouble .
this is not necessarily the case for the sulawesi forest turtle . the lack of any substantial ecological research on the species has hindered ex situ conservation efforts and breeding success has been limited to only a very few individuals and institutions , thus greatly limiting the development of a substantial assurance colony . they are considered a protected species within indonesia , but this does not guarantee that illegal poaching and trade aren’t still extremely prevalent .
mccord , w . p . ; iverson , j . b . & boeadi , ? 1995 . a new batagurid turtle from northern sulawesi , indonesia . chelonian conserv . biol . 1 ( 4 ) : 311 - 316 - get paper here
buhlmann , k . , rhodin , a . & van dijk , p . p . ( tortoise & freshwater turtle red list authority )
artner , h . 2008 . the world ' s extant turtle species , part 1 . emys 15 ( 3 ) : 4 - 32
as part of the wallacea biodiversity hotspot , sulawesi is home to many species found nowhere else in the world , like the anoa , babirusa , crested black macaque , speckled tarsier and maleo as well as over 1 , 000 endemic plant species and more than 75 freshwater fish species . while there has been a significant push toward protecting some of these species over the last few years , the lack of research or conservation efforts focused primarily on the forsten’s tortoise and the sulawesi forest turtle are driving these two species toward extinction . combined with severe deforestation , with more than 80 percent of the island’s forest degraded and the pressure of unsustainable collection for the pet and bushmeat trades , time is running out , not only for these two species , but for this amazing island and all its inhabitants .
sulawesi in indonesia is the largest island in the wallacean region , an area of amazing wildlife where asian and australasian flora and fauna meet .
mccord , w . p . , j . b . iverson , p . q . spinks & h . b . shaffer 2000 . a new genus of geoemydid turtle from asia . hamadryad 25 ( 2 ) : 20 - 24
continent : asia distribution : indonesia ( sulawesi ) type locality : “near gorontalo ( 0° 33’ n , 123° 05’ e ) , on the minahassa peninsula” , n celebes ( indonesia ) .
hagen , chris ; and ching , iwalani y . s . 2005 . distributions , natural history , and exploitation of leucocephalon yuwonoi in centra sulawesi , indonesia . chelonian conserv . biol . 4 ( 4 ) : 948 - 951 .
koch , a . 2012 . discovery , diversity , and distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of sulawesi and its offshore islands . edition chimaira , 374 pp . [ isbn 978 - 3 - 89973 - 432 - 4 ] - get paper here
ericivans : yes my concerns is that they will so be gone from the wild , in a decade or so unless the current trade decrease significantly . they are still caught for food in large numbers on sulawesi as well so they are certinely in trouble .
wow , i did not expect the number to be as high as 150 in the us alone , but that good news and i assume they are in the hands of knowledable people that will be able to do some great work with them which is well needed . the low number of hatchlings is not as good however and with such a large number one would expect there to be more , any particulae reason for that or are they simply veru difficult to get succesfully reproducing ? i dont have any knowledge with this species but a freind of mine over in sorong got 5 . 9 of these sulawesi forest turtles in a old big aviary in optimal conditions but he has never managed to get any hatchlings .
wanger , t . c . , i . motzke , s . saleh & d . t . iskandar 2011 . the amphibians and reptiles of the lore lindu national park area , central sulawesi , indonesia . salamandra 47 ( 1 ) : 17 - 29 - get paper here
picture in draco 13 ( 4 ) : 94 ( 2003 ) . conservation : this is one of the most endangered turtle species according to a 2003 assessment by the iucn . type species : geoemyda yuwonoi mccord et al . 1995 is the type species of the genus leucocephalon mccord et al . 2000 : 86 . habitat : freshwater ( rivers , swamps )
they are being caught for food on sulawesi ? are you sure about that ? during my surveys and interviews with locals within yuwonoi range on sulawesi i could not find much evidence of local consumption . virtually all are collected for the pet trade . i was told some local people would eat them if they were hungry and they had nothing else . i get the same information from the only other biologists who have visited the region . i ' ve also been told that the chinese don ' t even really care for the meat if they have other species to choose from .
platt , steven g . ; lee , robert j . ; klemens , michael w . 2001 . notes on the distribution , life history , and exploitation of turtles in sulawesi , indonesia , with emphasis on indotestudo forstenii and leucocephalon yuwonoi . chelonian conserv . biol . 4 ( 1 ) : 154 - 159 .
ives , ian e . ; steven g . platt , johny s . tasirin , iwan hunowu , stephan siwu , and thomas r . rainwater 2008 . field surveys , natural history observations , and comments on the exploitation and conservation of indotestudo forstenii , leucocephalon yuwonoi , and cuora amboinensis in sulawesi , indonesia . chelonian conservation and biology 7 ( 2 ) : 240
ttwg ( turtle taxonomy working group : rhodin , a . g . j . , iverson , j . b . , bour , r . fritz , u . , georges , a . , shaffer , h . b . and van dijk , p . p . ) . 2017 . turtles of the world : annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy , synonymy , distribution , and conservation status ( 8th ed . ) . in : rhodin , a . g . j . , iverson , j . b . , van dijk , p . p . , saumure , r . a . , buhlmann , k . a . , pritchard , p . c . h . , and mittermeier , r . a . ( eds ) , conservation biology of freshwater turtles and tortoises : a compilation project of the iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group , pp . 1 - 292 . chelonian research monographs .
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this was an exciting announcement for the zoo as it is only their second successful hatching ( and they think only the second in canada ) of this critically - endangered species .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
was treated under the generic name geomyda in the 1996 iucn red list . genus was changed to heosemys in the 2000 iucn red list . now reassigned to a new monotypic genus , leucocephalon ( a . rhodin , pers comm . )
trade in the species in east asian markets , discovered among shipments in the early 1990s , peaked at an estimated annual level of 2 , 000–3 , 000 animals in 1998 and collapsed to 100 animals in 1999 .
an errata assessment is required to generate a revised pdf without the range map which had been included in error ; no range map was available when this assessment was originally published .
( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2000 : e . t40761a97369570 .
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geoemyda yuwonoi mccord et al . 1995 : 311 heosemys yuwonoi — fritz & obst 1996 leucocephalon yuwonoi — mccord et al . 2000 : 86 leucocephalon yuwonoi — platt et al . 2001 heosemys yuwonoi — obst 2003 : 17 leucocephalon yuwonoi — obst 2003 : 18 leucocephalon yuwonoi — mccord & joseph - ouni 2003 notochelys yuwonoi — artner 2008 : 10 leucocephalon yuwonoi — ttwg 2014
type locality : “near gorontalo ( 0° 33’ n , 123° 05’ e ) , on the minahassa peninsula” , n celebes ( indonesia ) .
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
bour , r . 2008 . global diversity of turtles ( chelonii ; reptilia ) in freshwater . hydrobiologia 595 : 593–598
fritz u ; obst f j 1996 . zur kenntnis der celebes - erdschildkröte , heosemys yuwonoi ( mccord , iverson & boeadi , 1995 ) . herpetofauna 18 ( 102 ) : 27 - 34 - get paper here
mccord , w . p . & joseph - ouni , m . 2003 . chelonian illustrations # 10 . monotypic genera of the family geoemydidae . reptilia ( gb ) ( 30 ) : 34 - 38 - get paper here
meier , e . 2004 . das internationale zentrum für schildkrötenschutz ( izs ) füllt sich mit leben . elaphe 12 ( 2 ) : 60 - 64
schilde , m . 2004 . asiatische sumpfschildkröten - die familie geoemydidae in südostasien , china und japan . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 192 pp . - get paper here
ttwg [ peter paul van dijk , john b . iverson , anders g . j . rhodin , h . bradley shaffer , and roger bour ] 2014 . turtles of the world , 7th edition : annotated checklist of taxonomy , synonymy , distribution with maps , and conservation status . 000 . v7 . chelonian research monographs ( issn 1088 - 7105 ) no . 5 , doi : 10 . 3854 / crm . 5 . 000 . checklist . v7 . 2014 - get paper here
werning , h . 2003 . eine arche für asiatische schildkröten - eröffnung des internationalen zentrums für schildkrötenschutz ( izs ) im allwetterzoo münster . reptilia ( münster ) 8 ( 44 ) : 5 - 14 - get paper here
werning , h . 2007 . das internationale zentrum für schildkrötenschutz nimmt immer weiter fahrt auf . reptilia ( münster ) 12 ( 63 ) : 3 - 5 - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
james h . harding instructor / herpetology specialist dept . of zoology / msu museum 205a museum west circle drive michigan state university east lansing mi 48824 united states of america hardingj @ urltoken
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twenty - one of the species occur in 11 of the world ' s 25 biodiversity hotspots , areas which house the greatest number of species yet face the most severe threats .
critical to the turtles ' survival , the tcf statement said , will be protection of these hotspots where small populations still remain : indo - burma , sundaland , the philippines , wallacea , succulent karoo , cape floristic region , madagascar & indian ocean islands , mediterranean basin , southwestern australia , choco - darien - western ecuador , and mesoamerica .
turtles have been around since before many dinosaurs walked the planet and have survived relatively unchanged for about 250 million years ,
said ci president russell mittermeier .
but mankind ' s actions have brought them to the brink of extinction . it ' s our responsibility to bring them back .
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the following species can be found in the genus leucocephalon . click on the small photo below to see the full size image .
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there is a species which has a restricted distribution in the wild and which is extensively traded throughout indonesia , for food but also for the domestic and international pet trade .
been travelling to java once a month for the past 5 years and i have noticed a heavy increase in the numbers of l . yuwonoi at markets and in the hands of delear holding facilities in jakarta . now in april 09 i did spend 2 weeks on ambon and visited a wildlife
dealer
facility holding estimated 50 - 60 + l . yuwonoi which had been in holding for 20 days already to wait to be transported over to java for commercial sale . have probably seen 300 + l . yuwonoi circulating in the indonesian trade for the past 5 years , deeply concerning and also wonder what impact this does on the wild population .
to not promote further collectinon from the wild i have personally decided not to buy any l . yuwonoi i have come across even if i have been tempted sometimes to do so to try and get a large breeding group going , the indonesian government does not have much interest in nature conservation and could not care less about endangered species so i guess its up to us citizens to try and do something about it
buy them up now and get a group established . thats all i can say . . . . . . . . . . soon they won ' t be available at all . i understand trying to not support the trade in sft ' s , but once they are gone , they ' re gone . i beleive live export quotas are at zero for these guys .
there are approximately 150 alive and thriving in the u . s . ( about half of those are held in 2 collections ) , 10 or fewer in europe , and i don ' t have any good estimates for japan .
they have been bred in captivity in europe and the u . s . only a few times . at this point and time less than 10 documented / reported hatchlings have been produced overall . a single female has produced 5 of these known hatchlings . the 1 hatchling produced in europe died after about 3 months . the females only lay 1 egg ( rarely 2 ) at a time about every 4 months or so .
an up - to - date species account that i wrote with steve platt and dr . charles innis should be published sometime soon through chelonian conservation and biology .
thank you for your trade estimates . i will include them in our data for this species .
just out of curiosity , your screen name is swede . are you from sweden ?
barry : yes aim from sweden , but been in indonesia for many years now .
i really wish i could get my hands on some of these , but unless you get them from the indonesian wildlife trade it will be difficult .
because adults have traditionally been very difficult to acclimate . they are extremely stress prone . we ' ve only been keeping this species in captivity for just over 10 years now . the very few acclimated , thriving , long term pairs and groups are producing a few hatchlings . incubation is far from fully understood with this species and hatching eggs is hit and miss for those that have accomplished it . it seems that more eggs are successfully hatching as time goes on .
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as the ssp coordinator and aza regional studbook keeper for the forsten’s tortoise , my main responsibility is to document the pedigree and demographic history of each tortoise within a managed , ex situ population . luckily , this species does very well in captivity . because many individuals and institutions have successfully bred the species , we have been able to maintain a large and healthy ex situ assurance colony . despite this success , the tortoises are still being regularly imported into the united states , as they are not listed as a protected species within indonesia , and most have perished due to stress and disease - related issues .
shantanu kundu & kulendra ch das / assam univ . & mizoram univ . / india via arkive )
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trade in the species in east asian markets , discovered among shipments in the early 1990s , peaked at an estimated annual level of 2 , 0003 , 000 animals in 1998 and collapsed to 100 animals in 1999 .
phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update : annotated checklist . extinct turtles not included .
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the many-eyed snake-eel ( ophichthus polyophthalmus , also known as the large-spotted snake eel , the manyeyed worm eel , the ocellated worm eel , or the yellow-spotted snake eel ) is an eel in the family ophichthidae ( worm/snake eels ) .

it was described by pieter bleeker in 1864 .

it is a tropical , marine and freshwater-dwelling eel which is known from the indo-pacific , including east africa and the hawaiian islands .

it dwells at a depth range of 2 to 25 metres ( 6.6 to 82.0 ft ) , and inhabits sand and rubble sediments near coral reefs .

males can reach a maximum total length of 62.5 centimetres ( 24.6 in ) .

many - eyed snake - eel

also known as snake eels , many - eyed snake eel , many - eyed worm eel , ocellated snake eel , ocellated worm eel , yellow - spotted snake eel .
many - eyed snake eel stock photo . image of tropical , ocellated - 62308172
many - eyed snake eel ophichthus polyophthalmus , aka large - spotted snake eel , sticking up its head from the sand . padang bai , bali , indonesia
many - eyed snake eel ( ophichthus polyophthalmus , aka large - spotted snake eel ) , sticking up its head from the sand . padang bai , bali , indonesia
stock photo - many - eyed snake eel ophichthus polyophthalmus , aka large - spotted snake eel , sticking up its head from the sand . padang bai , bali , indonesia
many - eyed snake eel ophichthus polyophthalmus , aka large - spotted . . stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 48585072 .
also known as snake eels , many - eyed snake eel , many - eyed worm eel , ocellated snake eel , ocellated worm eel and yellow - spotted snake eel . found singly usually buried in the sand near coral reefs , with just the head showing . they feed on small fish and invertebrates . length - 35cm depth - 1 - 25m widespread indo - pacific snake eels resemble snakes or worms because they have virtually no fins . their pointed snouts and tails allow them to burrow beneath the sand . they can usually be found with just their head showing above the sand waiting for their prey , a few species prowl around the sands at night . some mimic banded sea snakes and can be found in the open during the day .
photo
many - eyed snake eel
can be used for personal and commercial purposes according to the conditions of the purchased royalty - free license . the image is available for download in high resolution quality up to 4681x3121 .
this snake eel is distinctive because of its relatively large , yellow spots across its entire body . it feeds on small fish and invertebrates , and grows to a length of about 35cm . also known as large - spotted snake eel .
spotted this eel at a depth of about 40 feet , off the coast of talikud island ( dive site : dayang beach ) .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
greek , ophis = serpent + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; freshwater ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 2 - 25 m ( ref . 90102 ) . tropical
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 62 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 55073 )
vertebrae : 141 - 148 . pale red salmon in color , yellow spots on head , yellowish ocelli with dark margins on body ( ref . 3972 ) . gill opening ventral ( ref . 37816 ) .
inhabits sand near coral reefs ( ref . 37816 , 48635 ) . also found in rubble bottoms in 2 - 25 m ( ref 90102 ) .
mccosker , j . e . and p . h . j . castle , 1986 . ophichthidae . p . 176 - 186 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 3972 )
) : 24 . 4 - 29 . 2 , mean 28 ( based on 2461 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00151 ( 0 . 00061 - 0 . 00373 ) , b = 2 . 91 ( 2 . 70 - 3 . 12 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 ±0 . 7 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 35 of 100 ) .
inhabits sand near coral reefs ( ref . 37816 , 48635 ) . also found in rubble bottoms in 2 - 25 m ( ref 90102 ) .
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found singly , usually buried in the sand or rubble near coral reefs , with just the head showing . it can be found across the indo - pacific region .
thanks , ava ! i actually spotted it almost halfway out of its hidey - hole . . . too bad i wasn ' t quick enough to have taken its picture then !
nice picture of it hiding out among the rocks and blending in a bit .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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