paramuricea clavata , the violescent sea-whip , is a species of colonial soft coral in the family plexauridae .

it is found in shallow seas in the northeastern atlantic ocean and the northwestern mediterranean sea .

this species was first described by the french naturalist antoine risso in 1826 .

paramuricea clavata

s1 fig . size frequency distributions of nine populations of paramuricea clavata in ibiza .
life history and viability of a long - lived marine invertebrate : the octocoral paramuricea clavata .
s1 dataset . individual genotypes of paramuricea clavata in ibiza for seven microsatellite loci ( n = 301 ) .
life history and viability of a long - lived marine invertebrate : the octocoral paramuricea clavata . - pubmed - ncbi
this facies is characterised by the high density of colonies of the gorgonian ( red sea - fan ) paramuricea clavata .
violescent sea - whip ( paramuricea clavata ) photographed by ronald werson off the coast of tuscany . photo licensed under cc by - nc - nc 4 . 0 .
spatial prediction of suitable habitat for the red gorgonian , < i > paramuricea clavata < / i > , across its full known distribution range : mediterranean sea and neighbouring eastern atlantic . prediction by boosted regression trees .
overall bacterial diversity and community structure associated with the purple gorgonian p . clavata in the mediterranean sea
citation : la rivière m , roumagnac m , garrabou j , bally m ( 2013 ) transient shifts in bacterial communities associated with the temperate gorgonian paramuricea clavata in the northwestern mediterranean sea . plos one 8 ( 2 ) : e57385 . urltoken
citation : vezzulli l , pezzati e , huete - stauffer c , pruzzo c , cerrano c ( 2013 ) 16srdna pyrosequencing of the mediterranean gorgonian paramuricea clavata reveals a link among alterations in bacterial holobiont members , anthropogenic influence and disease outbreaks . plos one 8 ( 6 ) : e67745 . urltoken
the violescent sea - whip ( paramuricea clavata ) is a sensitive , but important structuring octocoral species in the mediterranean and adjacent atlantic , threatened by fishing , recreational diving , pollution and climate change . little is known about the habitat requirements of the sea - whip and the factors limiting its distribution .
comparative analysis of the bacterial communities associated with p . clavata corals collected from different geographic areas and showing contrasting levels of anthropogenic disturbance and health status
( of paramuricea chamaeleon ( koch , 1887 ) ) weinberg , s . ( 1976 ) . revision of the common octocorallia of the mediterranean circalittoral . i . gorgonacea . beaufortia . 313 ( 24 ) : 63 - 104 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of paramuricea chamaeleon ( koch , 1887 ) ) carpine , c . ( 1963 ) . contribution à la connaissance des gorgones holaxonia de la méditerranée occidentale . bulletin de l ' institut océanographique , monaco . 60 ( 1270 ) : 1 - 52 . [ details ]
( of paramuricea chamaeleon ( koch , 1887 ) ) carpine , c . , greasshoff , m . ( 1975 ) . les gorgonaires de la méditerranée . bulletin de l ' institut océanographique , monaco . 7 ( 430 ) , 140 p . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
human impacted p . clavata population sampled at “cala levante” ( pantelleria island ) site in october 2011 at a depth of 63 m : ( a ) coralligenous assemblage with a rope and a fishing line ( arrows ) entangling sea fans . the abrasive effect on sea - fan coenechime expose the bare skeleton to fouling organisms . ( b ) sampling phase of a p . clavata colony with evident sign of necrotic tissue ( arrows ) .
( of paramuricea chamaeleon ( koch , 1887 ) ) l . p . van ofwegen , s . d . cairns & j . van der land ( eds ) . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
at “punta del faro” ( portofino promontory ) strong massive mortalities of p . clavata were reported in 1999 , 2003 [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] and albeit not observed during the course of the present study necrotic colonies are detectable very often at the end of each summer season .
to determine if the variations in the dominant peaks observed by t - rflp were associated with changes in the phylogenetic composition of the bacterial communities , bacterial 16s rdna clone libraries were constructed from the p . clavata colonies sampled in riou during winter 2007 and 2008 and in riou , medes and scandola during summer 2007 .
output of the three - way analysis of variance ( anova ) applied to test differences in average vai values among p . clavata samples collected in different geographic areas ( portofino promontory vs tavolara island vs pantelleria island ) at different depth ( photic vs mesophotic ) and showing different health status condition ( healthy vs diseased ) .
vibrio relative abundance index ( vai ) calculated on p . clavata samples collected in different geographic areas , at different depth and showing different health status condition . z values are obtained by subtracting the population mean and dividing the difference by the s . d . * anova p < 0 . 05 ; + presence of the species v . coralliilyticus .
alpha diversity metrics derived from 16s rdna pyrosequencing of bacteria associated with p . clavata samples : ( a ) rarefaction curves ; ( b ) number of otus predicted ( chao1 , ace , jackknife ) and observed ( sobs ) ; ( c ) shannon - weiner diversity of bacteria from each coral sample . otu’s were grouped at > 97 % similarity based on mothur classified results .
a study aimed at increasing knowledge of p . clavata compiled all currently known occurrences from gbif and other sources , and added new underwater survey records to model the ecological niche of the species . the full distribution was best explained by ocean temperatures and , in particular , slope . when restricting the suitable habitat to hard bottom areas , where larvae are more likely to settle , the researchers estimated a total area of 36 , 000 km2 , consistent with known occurrences , but also identifying novel areas including algeria , alboran sea and atlantic coasts .
dgge analysis of bacterial communities associated with triplicate samples ( a , b and c ) of 3 p . clavata colonies ( pcla1 to pcla3 ) and the surrounding seawater sampled in riou in winter 2007 . 16s rdna was amplified with different sets of primers : 27f - gc / 536r ( lanes 1 to 10 ) , eub f933 - gc / eub r1387 ( lane 11 ) , 341f - gc / 907ra ( lane 12 ) and 341f - gc / 907r ( lane 13 ) . the sequenced dgge bands are indicated with a star .
this is the first spatiotemporal study to investigate the bacterial diversity associated with a temperate shallow gorgonian . our data revealed an established relationship between p . clavata and a specific bacterial group within the oceanospirillales . these results suggest a potential symbiotic role of hahellaceae in the host - microbe association , as recently suggested for tropical corals . however , a transient imbalance in bacterial associations can be tolerated by the holobiont without apparent symptoms of disease . the subsequent restoration of the hahellaceae - dominated community is indicative of the specificity and resilience of the bacteria associated with the gorgonian host .
bacterial 16s rdna were amplified from genomic dna extracted from p . clavata colonies and seawater using 4 different pairs of universal bacterial primers targetting various hypervariable regions ( v ) of 16s rrna gene : 27f / 536r ( v1–v3 ) [ 32 ] , eub f933 / eub r1387 ( v6–v7 ) [ 33 ] , 341f / 907r ( v3–v5 ) [ 34 ] and 341f / 907ra ( v3–v5 ) [ 35 ] . a 40 - bp gc - rich sequence ( gc - clamp ) was attached to the 5′ end of the forward primers to enhance separation in dgge [ 34 ] .
to evaluate the contribution of microbial communities to temperate gorgonian health and disease , a detailed knowledge of the structure of the bacterial assemblages in healthy colonies is required . the objective of the present study was to provide a baseline of the bacterial communities associated with p . clavata populations in the nw mediterranean basin . given the predicted increase in extreme climatic events in this region , new mortality outbreaks are expected [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] . thus , tracking potential modifications of this baseline during future high - temperature stress could greatly aid our understanding of the role of bacterial associations in maintaining gorgonian health .
the p . clavata samples were rinsed 3 times with sterile 0 . 22 µm - filtered seawater to remove loosely associated bacteria . tissues were detached from the central axis and gently crushed using sterile forceps and a scalpel blade in 3 ml of sterile seawater . the tissue slurry was homogenized and aliquoted into 3 microtubes . samples were then spun at 13 , 000 g , and the supernatant was removed before storing the tissue pellets at −80 °c . the surrounding seawater samples were immediately filtered through 0 . 22 µm sterivex® filter units ( merck millipore , billerica , ma , usa ) . the filters were stored at −80 °c for subsequent dna extraction .
pantelleria island is unprotected but is not easily accessible being situated 70 km from the african coast and 85 km from sicily . p . clavata populations show a scattered distribution , and are more common on the northward side of the island . at the study sites ( “cala levante” and “punta spadillo” ) coral populations have lower densities respect to portofino and tavolara sites . the highest frequency of lost fishing lines is in “cala levante” , one of the most accessible location of the island for local artisanal fishery . regarding diving activities about 1000 dives per year are estimated at “cala levante” and 500 dives per year at “punta spadillo” diving sites ( spaggiari and leonardi pers comm . ) .
the study sites of “secca del papa 1 and secca del papa 2” is a shoal facing the south - eastern side of tavolara island ( north sardinia ) . the site has a p . clavata distribution quite homogeneous , with a density ranging around 12 colonies / m 2 [ 5 ] . the site is included in the general reserve of mpa of tavolara and punta coda cavallo . professional fishing by residents of towns bordering the mpa within regulated weight limits by using environmentally sensitive equipment is permitted . trawling and similar fishing techniques , and sport fishing are prohibited . diving activities are here very frequent ( about 5000 dives per year are estimated at the “secca del papa” diving sites ) .
16s rdna pyrosequencing - based comparative analysis of dominant bacterial groups associated with p . clavata samples collected in different geographic areas , at different depth and showing different health status condition . ( a ) a comparative map is shown , where the numbers of normalised reads taken by each taxon ( the tree is collapsed to the ‘genus’ level ) in each year are represented as colour bar . the cumulative number of normalised reads across the different coral samples is also shown for each taxon [ 29 ] . genus shared across all samples are in bold ( b ) agglomerative hierarchical clustering ( cluster analysis ) and ( c ) non - metric multi - dimensional scaling ( nmds ) of the different sample datasets .
we sequenced 133 . 853 pcr amplicons spanning the v6 hypervariable region of 16srdna gene from p . clavata genomic dna extracted from different coral populations living in different geographic areas , at different depth and showing different health status condition ( table 1 ) . the number of reads per sample ranged from 10 . 642 to 15 . 240 sequences . to minimise the bias associated to random sequencing errors , a stringent trimming procedure was conducted , by eliminating reads that contained one or more ambiguous bases , had errors in the barcode or primer sequence , were atypically short ( < 70 bp ) , and had an average quality score < 30 [ 20 ] ; on average this step reduced the size of the data set by 15 % .
the dominant dgge bands obtained with 3 other universal bacterial primer pairs were also sequenced . the band obtained with the eub f933 / eub r1387 primer pair ( figure 2 , lane 11 ) was related to spongiobacter nickelotolerans 16s rdna ( 94 % similarity among 417 bp ) . the sequences recovered from the 341f - gc / 907ra and 341f - gc / 907r amplifications ( figure 2 , lanes 12–13 ) shared 91 to 92 % similarity with the 16s rdna of endozoicomonas elysicola ( ab196667 ) , a close relative of spongiobacter spp . this similarity indicated that the predominance of single bands observed in all the p . clavata dgge profiles was not caused by amplification biases but likely resulted from an abundant population of ribotypes belonging to the oceanospirillales order .
2 - d scatter plots of t - rflp profiles from p . clavata colonies sampled at 3 sites in winter and summer from 2007 to 2010 are based on the dice similarity matrix for the t - rflp data retrieved from the amplified bacterial 16s rdna digested with cfo i ( a ) and msp i ( b ) . each symbol represents the bacterial community of an individual sample from riou ( square ) , medes ( triangle ) or scandola ( circle ) , and the colors correspond to different sampling seasons . sample clusters are based on coordinates determined with the k - means method . dotted ellipses contain 50 % ( grey dots ) or 95 % ( dark dots ) of the points that contribute to the cluster . the centers of the confidence ellipses are identified with a cross .
at “secca del papa 1” ( tavolara island ) and “cala levante” ( pantelleria island ) sites sampled populations were affected by ongoing mortality episodes and showed early symptoms of disease ( table 1 ) . in particular , at tavolara island in october 2008 a mortality episode occurred between 20 m to 40 m depth with an high percentage of affected colonies , which was close to 100 % at a depth of 25 m [ 5 ] . at pantelleria island in october 2011 necrotic colonies were observed below 60 m depth . percentage of affected colonies at this site was estimated less than 10 % of the local population . at both sites disease symptoms observed on coral populations matched those previously recorded during p . clavata mortality episodes in the nw mediterranean sea [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] with coral colonies displaying necrotic coenenchyme ( pale pink to grayish colour contrasting the purple colouration of healthy tissue ) and patchy tissue loss exposing bare areas of the skeletal axis [ 7 ] .
samples of p . clavata were collected from 3 sites in the nw mediterranean sea , riou island ( france ) ( 43°10 . 345′ n , 05°23 . 319′ e ) , scandola ( france ) ( 42°22 . 793′ n , 8°33 . 000′ e ) and medes island ( spain ) ( 42°2 . 882′ n , 3°13 . 579′ e ) ( figure 1 ) , at an approximately 20 m depth in winter ( january to march ) and summer ( june to september ) from 2007 to 2010 . apical branch fragments ( 2 cm length ) of randomly chosen , apparently healthy colonies ( i . e . , with no visible signs of necrosis ) ( n = 3 ) were collected using shears and placed in plastic bags underwater . three liters of surrounding seawater were also collected in plastic bottles . the collected samples were then transferred to the mediterranean institute of oceanography within 2 h ( riou site ) or frozen on dry ice for subsequent transportation to the laboratory ( scandola and medes sites ) .
samples of the coral p . clavata were collected at the different geographic areas ( portofino promontory , tavolara island and pantelleria island ) at different depths ( euphotic and mesophotic ) ( fig . 1 , table 1 ) . in each area different coral populations were sampled at different sites showing contrasting level of anthropogenic influence ( human impacted versus pristine populations , table 1 ) . in particular , human impacted populations were defined as those locally subjected to direct impact such artisanal fishery leading to mechanical injuries of the coral colonies ( e . g . populations showing visible breakage of gorgonian branchings and high frequency of colonies entangled by fishing lines and nets ) ( fig . 2 ) . the level of anthropogenic influence on coral populations was quantified by measuring for each diving spot the number of coral colonies entangled by fishing lines and nets wrapped around and reported into three ranking categories : absent = 0 entangled colonies per dive site ( pristine populations ) ; occasional = 1–5 entangled colonies per dive and frequent = > 5 entangled colonies per dive ( impacted populations ) ( table 1 ) . for each site the number of dives per year was also evaluated and reported into two ranking categories : low = < 1000 dives / year ; high > 5000 dives / year ( table 1 ) .
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copyright : © 2013 vezzulli et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this work was promoted and funded by the committee for research and exploration of the national geographic society ( grant grant agreement 8876 - 11 ) , by the italy - israel joint research programme , directorate general political and affairs of the foreign affairs , italy ( contract number 3697760016 ) and by prin 2008 italian funds ( 2008ybe - 321 anx _ 002 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
in the above scenario , data coming from scleractinian corals suggest that alterations in bacterial holobiont members due to environmental stressors can disrupt coral’s immune system and enhance coral susceptibility to bacterial infections and diseases [ 8 ] . in fact , symbiotic bacteria are considered an important component of the “coral’s immune system” by preventing the colonization of nonresident , possibly pathogenic , bacteria [ 9 ] . studies conducted on tropical corals have shown that , under stressful conditions , resident microbes critical to the healthy functioning of the coral organism are outcompeted by pathogenic microbes and usually in the context of environmental disruptions such as ‘heat waves’ during the warm summer months [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] .
the sampling in the mediterranean sea was performed in accordance with italian laws . in particular for sampling in the portofino and tavolara marine areas permissions were granted by the “marine protected area of portofino ( urltoken ) ” and the “marine protected area tavolara - punta coda cavallo ( urltoken ) , respectively . for sampling in pantelleria local competent authorities ( coast guard and municipality of pantelleria ) were informed and allowed the sampling of biological material in non protected areas of the island for research purpose only . italian laws do not ask for permissions for sampling in case of scientific purposes . this study did not involve endangered or protected species” .
tavolara island ( 40°54′19′′n ; 9°42′28′′e , sardinia , nw mediterranean sea , italy ) .
after removing rna later solution approximately 1 g ( wet weight ) of coral tissue was detached from coral skeleton by scraping and crushed . dna was extracted from tissue using the high pure pcr template preparation kit ( roche diagnostics , mannheim , germany ) following the manufacturer’s instructions . the amount of dna extracted was determined fluorimetrically with quantifluor™ dsdna system using a quantifluor™fluorometer ( promega italia srl , milano , italy ) .
) were used . pcr conditions were set as on the above with annealing temperature of 59°c ( dnaj primers ) or 60°c ( vcpart primers ) . amplicons generated were also checked by agarose [ gel ] electrophoresis , purified with spin columns ( roche diagnostics , mannheim , germany ) and sequenced using the automated abi prism 3730 dna sequencer ( applied biosystems ) .
to assess taxonomic diversity sequences were clustered as operational taxonomic units ( otus ) at 97 % similarity . otu diversity was examined using biodiversity indices and rarefaction analysis by the mothur software .
accordingly , the study of the vibrio community in our samples clearly showed that vai index was significantly higher in diseased than in healthy corals concomitant with the decrease of endozoicomonas spp . ( anova , p < 0 . 05 , table s1 ) . in addition , bacterial taxa such as bacteroidetes , bdellovibrionales , campylobacterales as well as unclassified environmental bacteria were only found in diseased animals although their possible role in coral pathogenesis is unknown ( fig . 4 ) .
the authors would like to thank the staff of the mpas of tavolara - capo coda cavallo and portofino for sampling permission , of portofino divers ( urltoken ) and pantelleria divers ( urltoken ) for technical help and support with trimix deep dives and samples collection in the mesophotic zone . we are particularly grateful to bmr genomics srl ( padova , italy ) for help with pyrosequencing analysis and to dr . laura stagnaro for help with molecular laboratory analyses . we would also like to thank the two anonymous referees for providing us with constructive comments and suggestions .
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bacterial communities that are associated with tropical reef - forming corals are being increasingly recognized for their role in host physiology and health . however , little is known about the microbial diversity of the communities associated with temperate gorgonian corals , even though these communities are key structural components of the ecosystem . in the northwestern mediterranean sea , gorgonians undergo recurrent mass mortalities , but the potential relationship between these events and the structure of the associated bacterial communities remains unexplored . because microbial assemblages may contribute to the overall health and disease resistance of their host , a detailed baseline of the associated bacterial diversity is required to better understand the functioning of the gorgonian holobiont .
copyright : © 2013 la rivière et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this work was supported by the french national agency for research ( anr ; urltoken ) ( medchange anr project ) and the total foundation ( urltoken ) ( magic3 project ; urltoken ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
map of the northwestern mediterranean basin ( a ) and an enlargement showing the location of the study sites ( b ) .
to isolate dna from seawater samples , sterivex® filter units were filled with 500 µl of lysis buffer ( 50 mm tris - hcl ph 8 , 100 mm nacl , 1 % sds ) and 12 . 5 µl proteinase k ( 20 mg·ml −1 ) . after an overnight incubation at 55 °c , the cell lysate was recovered from the filter unit , and total dna was extracted by standard phenol - chloroform extraction procedures . the dna in the liquid phase was then precipitated with ethanol and concentrated by centrifugation at 16 , 000 g for 10 min at 4 °c . the dna pellets were washed with 70 % cold ethanol , resuspended in 100 µl sterile ultra - pure water and stored at −20 °c until analysis .
pcr ( 35 cycles ) was performed on a mastercycler® thermocycler ( eppendorf ) in a total volume of 50 µl containing 1 x taq® flexi buffer ( promega , fitchburg , wi , usa ) , along with 1 . 5 mm mgcl 2 , 200 µm of each deoxynucleoside triphosphate ( dntp ) , 1 µm forward and reverse primer , 0 . 3–3 µl ( approximately 100–300 ng ) of bacterial dna template , 1 u of gotaq® flexi dna polymerase ( promega ) , and sterile ultra - pure water . after an initial denaturation of 1 min at 96 °c , a touchdown pcr protocol was performed in which the primer annealing temperature was initially set at 53 °c ( 27f / 536r ) , 62 °c ( eub f933 / eub r1387 ) or 58 °c ( 341f / 907r and 341f / 907ra ) and was decreased by 0 . 5 °c with each cycle of the next 20 cycles . the final annealing temperature was then maintained for the remaining 15 cycles of the reaction . for each cycle , denaturation was performed at 94 °c for 1 min , followed by annealing for 1 min and extension at 72 °c for 1 min . the pcr products were evaluated by electrophoresis on 1 % agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide .
dgge of the pcr products was performed using the dcode® system ( bio - rad , hercules , ca , usa ) on a 6 % ( wt / vol ) polyacrylamide gel with a linear denaturing gradient of 35 % to 60 % in 1 x tris - acetate - edta buffer ( tae ) . electrophoresis was performed for 17 h at 60 °c at a constant voltage of 80 v . the gels were stained with gelstar® ( cambrex bioscience , east rutherford , nj , usa ) in 1 x tae and visualized under uv light with a gel doc 2000® image system ( bio - rad ) .
to identify the 16s rdna bacterial sequences , selected dgge bands were excised from the gels and eluted overnight at 4 °c in 50 µl sterile ultra - pure water . pcr re - amplification was performed with the corresponding primer set . the pcr products were purified with wizard® pcr clean - up minicolumns ( promega ) , and the recovered 16s rdna gene fragments were sequenced ( eurofins mwg operon , ebersberg , germany ) .
the consistency between the identified ribotypes in the libraries and the major trfs in each community ' s peak profiles was confirmed by t - rflp analysis of representative 16s rdna clones of dominant ribotypes . partial sequence reads obtained from the excised dgge bands were taxonomically assigned by blast analysis against the genbank database .
the nucleotide sequence data for the partial 16s rrna genes reported in this paper were deposited in genbank under the accession numbers jx874190 - jx874360 ( medes ; summer 2007 library ) , jx874361 - jx874536 ( riou ; summer 2007 library ) , jx874537 - jx874629 ( riou ; winter 2007 library ) , jx874630 - jx874713 ( riou ; winter 2008 library ) and jx874714 - jx874889 ( scandola ; summer 2007 library ) .
representative denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis ( dgge ) profiles of the bacterial community composition .
each row represents a trf generated by cfo i digestion of pcr amplicons from samples that were collected from the different sites ( riou ( ri ) , medes ( me ) and scandola ( sc ) ) during the seasons indicated in columns . trfs were designated by their size ( in bp ) after binning . the filling colors represent the relative fluorescence of the trfs according to the range presented in the color key .
overall , peak diversity was significantly higher in the summer 2007 profiles , with an average of 8 . 9 ± 2 . 5 cfo i trfs versus 5 . 9 ± 1 . 6 for other profiles and 9 . 3 ± 2 . 2 mspi trfs versus 3 . 8 ± 2 . 8 for other profiles ( p < 0 . 001 ) . the t - rflp profiles of the bacterial communities in the surrounding seawater were compared with the profiles of colonies sampled on 3 occasions in riou ( winter 2007 and 2008 and summer 2007 ) . none of the detected trf peaks were common to the seawater and gorgonian tissue profiles ( data not shown ) .
pie charts illustrating the composition of bacterial communities in the winter 2007 and winter 2008 samples from riou ( a ) and the summer 2007 samples from riou ( b ) , medes ( c ) and scandola ( d ) . the large pies represent the clone library composition at the family level ( a ) and at the phyla or class levels ( b–d ) . the smaller pies in b–d represent the affiliations of actinobacteria and firmicutes sequences at the genus level . the relative abundances of the bacterial groups retrieved from the libraries are indicated as percentages .
we gratefully acknowledge j . m . dominici ( réserve naturelle de scandola ) ; the staff of parc natural del montgrí , illes medes i baix ter ; b . de ligondes , c . marschal and f . zuberer ( diving staff , observatoire des sciences de l ' univers - institut pythéas ) ; e . cebrian ( centre d ' estudis avançats de blanes - csic ) ; c . linares and n . teixido ( ecology department , university of barcelona ) ; and o . bianchimani ( septentrion environnement ) for assistance with sample collection . we also thank c . rocher ( institut méditerranéen de biodiversité et d ' ecologie marine et continentale - umr 7263 ) for technical assistance with the molecular work . finally , we thank y . eynaud , k . j . soda and g . meisterhans for assistance with statistical analyses .
conceived and designed the experiments : mlr mr jg mb . performed the experiments : mlr mr mb . analyzed the data : mlr mr mb . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : mlr mr jg mb . wrote the paper : mlr jg mb .
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it was described by meyrick in 1918 .

it is found in india .

the wingspan is about 15 mm .

the forewings are fuscous with small blackish spots on the base of the costa and dorsum .

the stigmata are blackish , partially edged pale ochreous , the first discal forming a roundish spot , the plical a dot slightly beyond it , the second discal a transverse bar enlarged at the lower extremity and connected with the dorsum by a transverse bar of blackish suffusion .

there are indications of cloudy blackish almost marginal dots around the apex .

the hindwings are grey .

kertomesis indagata

this is the place for indagata definition . you find here indagata meaning , synonyms of indagata and images for indagata copyright 2017 © urltoken
kertomesis indagata is a moth in the autostichidae family . it was described by meyrick in 1918 . it is found in india . [ 1 ]
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word indagata . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word indagata and , of course , indagata synonyms and on the right images related to the word indagata .
kertomesis gozmány , 1962 ; acta zool . acas . sci . hung . 8 ( 1 - 2 ) : 39 ; ts : paradoris anaphracta meyrick
symmoca indagata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 155 ; tl : kanara , dharwar
paradoris acatharta meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 736 ; tl : india , n . coorg , 3500ft
symmoca amblycryptis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 516 ; tl : kanara , sirsi
paradoris amphicalyx meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 735 ; tl : india , cuddapah , 4000ft
paradoris anaphracta meyrick , 1907 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 ( 3 ) : 740 ; tl : bhotan , 4500ft
anthracosema ( meyrick , 1933 ) ( symmoca ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 359 ; tl : kashmir
symmoca corymbitis meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 292 ; tl : bombay , surat
symmoca dolabrata meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 589 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , 7000ft
symmoca oxycryptis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 516 ; tl : kanara , bhatkal
paradoris palacta meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 736 ; tl : india , n . coorg
paradoris rhodota meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 735 ; tl : india , cuddapah , 4000ft
paradoris stesichora meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 735 ; tl : india , palni hills ; nilgiris , 3500ft
symmoca thyrota meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 516 ; tl : sudan , wad medani
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
sattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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paragomphus is a genus of dragonfly in the family gomphidae .

they are commonly known as hooktails .

the genus contains the following species : paragomphus abnormis ( karsch , 1890 ) paragomphus alluaudi ( martin , 1915 ) paragomphus aquila martin , 1921 paragomphus aureatus pinhey , 1971 paragomphus balneorum ( needham & gyger , 1937 ) paragomphus bredoi ( schouteden , 1934 ) paragomphus capitatus ( martin , 1909 ) paragomphus capricornis ( förster , 1914 ) paragomphus cataractae pinhey , 1963 - cataract hooktail paragomphus cognatus ( rambur , 1842 ) - rock hocktail paragomphus crenigomphoides clausnitzer & dijkstra , 2005 paragomphus echinoccipitalis ( fraser , 1922 ) paragomphus elpidius ( ris , 1921 ) - corkscrew hooktail paragomphus flavohamatus ( martin , 1921 ) paragomphus fritillarius ( selys , 1892 ) - clubbed hooktail paragomphus frontalis ( selys , 1878 ) paragomphus genei ( selys , 1841 ) - common hooktail , green hooktail , corkscrew hooktail paragomphus henryi ( laidlaw , 1928 ) - brook hooktail paragomphus hoffmanni ( needham , 1931 ) paragomphus kiautai legrand , 1992 paragomphus lacustris ( karsch , 1890 ) paragomphus lindgreni ( fraser , 1923 ) paragomphus lineatus ( selys , 1850 ) - lined hooktail paragomphus longiventris fraser , 1955 paragomphus machadoi pinhey , 1961 paragomphus madegassus ( karsch , 1890 ) paragomphus magnus fraser , 1952 paragomphus mariannae legrand , 1992 paragomphus maynei ( schouteden , 1934 ) paragomphus nigroviridis cammaerts , 1969 paragomphus nyasicus kimmins , 1955 paragomphus pardalinus needham , 1942 paragomphus pumilio ( rambur , 1842 ) - small hooktail paragomphus reinwardtii ( selys , 1854 ) paragomphus simplex ( lieftinck , 1934 ) paragomphus sinaiticus ( morton , 1929 ) paragomphus tachyerges ( lieftinck , 1934 ) paragomphus tournieri legrand , 1992 paragomphus viridior pinhey , 1961 paragomphus wuzhishanensis liu , 1988 paragomphus xanthus pinhey , 1966 paragomphus zambeziensis pinhey , 1961 paragomphus z-viridum fraser , 1955

paragomphus

katja schulz selected
paragomphus genei
to show in overview on
paragomphus genei selys 1841
.
paragomphus lineatus is widespread in northern india and nepal and occurs west to the turkish mediterranean coast .
in southern africa , this species is locally common with large subpopulations , as typical for most paragomphus species .
the habitat of paragomphus lineatus is poorly known although it does include open , sluggish and often seasonal streams .
hans - martin braun added the german common name
afrikanische sandjungfer
to
paragomphus genei selys 1841
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
zwerg - flussjungfer
to
paragomphus genei selys 1841
.
clausnitzer , v . 2005 . paragomphus genei . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .
one of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of paragomphus lineatus is the production of crops and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species .
justification : paragomphus lineatus has a large range ; it is common in parts of its range and can occur in moderately degraded habitats and is therefore listed as least concern . research is required to fully understand its preferred habitats and the threats it may be experiencing .
justification : paragomphus genei is a widespread species with no known major threats and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . it is therefore assessed as least concern . however , some disjunct subpopulations in europe and arabia deserve conservation attention .
melanic insular subpopulations from the anjouan island have been described as a distinct subspecies , paragomphus genei ndzuaniensis levasseur , 2007 . as similar subpopulations are known in mainland africa , more genetic research should be done before validating such subspecific division , which was done based on very weak criteria and without taking the variability of other subpopulations into account .
paragomphus genei is widespread in africa ( except in dense forests ) , the levant , arabia and southern europe . it probably occurs in most of the afrotropical countries , although records from many are still wanting . there are aggregates of localities in southern europe in iberia , sardinia and sicily , as well in the maghreb , the levant and southern arabia , plus scattered records in time and space in algeria , morocco , corsica and chad ( testard 1975 ) . no records are available from libya but this species is likely to be present there . a single old record from egypt probably refers to paragomphus pumilio . insular melanic subpopulations are known from the comoros archipelago ( levasseur 2007 ) .
justification : paragomphus cataractae has been encountered in rapids and may be restricted to such habitat types . the expected area of occupancy and the number of subpopulations are therefore likely to be small and due to its restricted habitat it is likely to be at risk from human activities . plans for dam construction at cataracts are known to exist , however these have not yet been realized . it is assessed as near threatened because the area of occupancy is likely to be relatively small , and although habitat is not known to be declining at present , the threat of habitat loss is of future concern .
paragomphus genei reproduces in open streams , rivers and pools , including man - made pools created for sheep drinking in southwest europe , that contributed recently to expansion of its range in southwest iberia . it is also found in natural and man - made lakes in southern europe and in oases . this species is even found in temporary waters , where it is able to complete its development before drying thank to a short larval development ( about two months ) . it is multivoltine ( has two or more broods of offspring per year ) in northern africa and further south the emergences occur continuously during the year .
paragomphus genei is a species of dragonfly in family gomphidae . it is found in algeria , botswana , cameroon , central african republic , the democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , egypt , ethiopia , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , malawi , morocco , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , sierra leone , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , zambia , zimbabwe , and possibly burundi . also lives in the south of iberian peninsula in europe . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , dry savanna , moist savanna , subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , rivers and intermittent rivers in the mediterranean area , freshwater lakes , and freshwater marshes .
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justification : this is a widespread species with no known major threats and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . it is therefore assessed as least concern .
this species is known from southern and eastern africa . in malawi it is known from nkatha bay and near mount mulanje . in southern africa , this species is known from the larger tropical rivers : zambezi , okavango and limpopo rivers .
this species is found around rivers or large streams in woodland . larvae burrow in sandy patches of the river bottom .
water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats for agriculture are threats to this species .
no information is available on conservation actions in place for this species . research is required into the population size and range , and monitoring of population trend is recommended .
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in central , eastern and southern africa , this species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square metre in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers . the same situation is known in tunisia but the abundance of this species is generally much variable in northern africa and southern europe . the population size is unknown in the arabian peninsular .
there are no threats at the global scale , although local declines may occur due to habitat modification ( dams , water extraction , agriculture ) and water pollution . climate change may be a threat in the future .
this species is widespread with no threats at the global scale and therefore does not need any conservation actions . on a regional scale , protection of the habitat is needed , particularly in the mediterranean basin . as this species is highly variable in terms of its colour pattern , from the quasi - absence of melanin to entirely black subpopulations , additional research in the field of genetic variability and taxonomy would be welcomed .
the species is common in parts of its range and can occur in moderately degraded habitats although no detailed data exists on population numbers and trends .
there is no information available on whether there are conservation measures in place , or if they are needed . detailed research into population size , trends and threats are needed .
dijkstra , k . - d . b . , clausnitzer , v . , suhling , f . , samways , m . , samraoui , b . , boudot , j . p . , kipping , j . ( odonata red list authority ) & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )
this species is known from the zambezi river , from katima mulilo ( namibia ) to the rapids downstream victoria falls ( zimbabwe , zambia ) , and one zambezi river tributary ( pinhey 1984 , suhling et al . in press ) . also from the okavango river at popa falls in namibia , and from the kunene river at epupa falls in namibia ( suhling et al . in press ) , and therefore is most likely also occur in angola . the majority of the global range falls within the southern africa region , however there is also one locality recorded from the congo river basin in northern zambia ( pinhey 1984a ) . all known localities are from rapids or waterfalls .
population size and trends are unknown , but records are only of single specimens at one time and place , therefore the species may be rare .
large river cataracts and rapids . the larval stage occurs in sandy patches in rapids .
human - induced habitat loss is the main inferred threat . plans for dam construction for hydroelectric power plans at cataracts are a potential threat ( e . g . , at epupa falls and popa falls ) .
since the species appears to be a specialist of rapids and cataracts , these habitats should be protected from destruction . more data should also be gathered on range and current population status .
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map data based on j . - p . boudot & v . j . kalkman ( eds . ) , atlas of the european dragonflies and damselflies
linedrawing : the male ' s head , thorax and abdomen , and the male ' s and the female ' s appendages in lateral view .
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audrey on a private trip week - long to the strait of gibraltar . while focussed on the bird migration as thousands of raptors , storks and other smaller birds funnel across to africa over the shortest stretch of water between w europe and africa , given the wonderful wildlife opportunities present , we also looked at everything we could !
for the first time . . . my sincere thanks to teresa for suggesting that i concentrate on looking for the skipper in flowery patches , especially in the lower areas ( this might sound daft , but in late summer most areas are bone dry and flowers very thin on the ground ! ) and also
to fernando , a local guide in the straits , who very generously gave me an exact site for the hooktail .
walking into a quite heavily grazed pasture occupied by a couple of horses , and adjacent to a small river fringed by dense tree cover on a windy afternoon was not really what i ' d expected to produce results . but within just 10 - 15 minutes we ' d found a superb male green hooktail , and then shortly afterwards a rather more obliging female sitting about mid - height on the stems of scruffy umbellifers and other plant stalks . the photos of the male were against the light , hence the poor colour rendition , but the female allowed approach at different angles and gave me very pleasing results .
the zeller ' s skipper was an altogether entirely different experience . working a classic birding area visited by numerous people daily , everyone was concentrating on the birds and a few on a few dragonflies as well , including a flighty male long skimmer
. but i also noticed some patches of flowers in a couple of wet spots and we decided to take a look . a mediterranean skipper
flicked up from the path just in front and dropped down onto its sunning stone again . this was followed by at least two more , allowing us to ' get our eye in ' , while another was feeding on the nearby flowers . working round to get a better look , another darker and very flighty skipper came in , and then promptly disappeared . it had some spots on the wings , but there was no time for a picture or to even see it properly . . . a short wait and again , it nipped in , this time perching long enough to see spots on the
under hindwing and get a couple of confirmation snaps - a zeller ' s skipper ! but again it disappeared off , this time for good .
the following day we repeated a visit to the site and during a quieter moment i again went down to some flowers , this time several hundred metres away . two zeller ' s skippers were feeding , occasionally skipping out onto the adjacent vegetation to sunbathe and rest , and despite being in a very tricky location , allowed a few more pix . i even managed a poor shot of one being stalked by a large mantis , with the skipper fortunately escaping literally by the width of the scales on its wings !
the same area as the skipper also finally yielded my first rüppell ' s vulture in spain , and the first of three on the trip ! ok , so there may have been five different birds in the general area at the time , but seeing them is often a neck - breaking task . . .
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