millipedes are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments ; they are known scientifically as the class diplopoda , the name being derived from this feature .

each double-legged segment is a result of two single segments fused together .

most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments , while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a ball .

although the name " millipede " derives from the latin for " thousand feet " , no known species has 1,000 ; the record of 750 legs belongs to illacme plenipes .

there are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families , making diplopoda the largest class of myriapods , an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures .

most millipedes are slow-moving detritivores , eating decaying leaves and other dead plant matter .

some eat fungi or suck plant fluids , and a small minority are predatory .

millipedes are generally harmless to humans , although some can become household or garden pests , especially in greenhouses where they can cause severe damage to emergent seedlings .

most millipedes defend themselves with a variety of chemicals secreted from pores along the body , although the tiny bristle millipedes are covered with tufts of detachable bristles .

reproduction in most species is carried out by modified male legs called gonopods , which transfer packets of sperm to females .

first appearing in the silurian period , millipedes are some of the oldest known land animals .

some members of prehistoric groups grew to over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) ; the largest modern species reach maximum lengths of 27 to 38 cm ( 11 to 15 in ) .

the longest extant species is the giant african millipede ( archispirostreptus gigas ) .

among myriapods , millipedes have traditionally been considered most closely related to the tiny pauropods , although some molecular studies challenge this relationship .

millipedes can be distinguished from the somewhat similar but only distantly related centipedes ( class chilopoda ) , which move rapidly , are carnivorous , and have only a single pair of legs on each body segment .

the scientific study of millipedes is known as diplopodology , and a scientist who studies them is called a diplopodologist .

millipede

er , based on the abundance of the millipede species . e millipede assemblages formed
hungarian millipede fauna ( bogyó et al . 2012 ) . e majority of the millipede species
quent millipede ( 54 . 9 % of the millipede individuals ) in the edge habitat . e highest
this was caused by an american millipede . the child put on her shoe and crushed the millipede which had crawled in her shoe the night before .
the portuguese millipede ' s eyes become larger and more complex with age . we can use these changes to determine approximately how old a particular millipede is .
although the name millipede means “thousand - feet , ” the giant african millipede only has about 300 to 400 legs . the largest of the 10 , 000 species of millipede , these gentle giants call the rain forests of africa home .
the millipede is found all over the world but is more common in the southern hemisphere where the millipede has been known to get to nearly 40cm long . some
antennal sensory organs in the female millipede orthomorphella pekuensis ( polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) .
once a millipede hatches , it is on its own . there is no parental involvement , and it’s up to the new millipede to find food and shelter .
the female millipede reproductive system and its dynamical changes , with a partial review .
dcca analysis for the millipede species of the study area . squares represent the sampled
can signicantly aect millipede assemblage composition ( stašiov et al . 2012 ) . e
k . nakamura and j . taira , “distribution of elements in the millipede ,
ancestral character state reconstructions of features relating to millipede gonopods , ozopores , and spinnerets .
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it is so fun to learn about the millipede . man are class will learn so much about the millipede . so lucky to be a 4th grader .
white millipede close up of her head . eyes and mouth visible . macro photography .
variation in millipede ( diplopoda ) assemblages in oak woodlands of the eastern european plain .
the lowest number of millipede individuals ( 31 ) was found in the grassland habitat .
drawing of a millipede from manual of vegetable - garden insects . p . 344 .
figure 3 : spirostreptid millipede from kou . s . tchibozo phot . , 2012 .
this general description for keeping millipedes holds for most millipede species , but not all . but sure to check the specific requirements for your species of millipede before you buy one .
those type descriptions include some pretty spectacular images of the millipede ' s junk . female millipede genitals are housed in a sealed , vulvular box . males use pointy , spiky gonopods (
sex legs
) to poke that box open and insert sperm into a female millipede ' s neck . male millipede sex - tackle can be a little alarming looking :
detailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the millipede .
number of millipede species descriptions in countries as a correlate of land area and human population .
enghoff h , petersen g , seberg o . phylogenetic relationships in the millipede family julidae .
from the millipede global diversity estimation analyses . values in parentheses are 95 % confidence intervals .
millipede ( diplopoda ) communities in mixed oak - hornbeam forest stands–effect of selected site factors .
millipede ( diplopoda ) communities in an arboretum : influence of tree species and soil properties .
signicantly the highest number of millipede individuals in the forest edge . ere were dierences in the
composition of the millipede assemblages of the three habitats . e results of the dcca showed that
j . m . dangerfield and s . r . telford , “aggregation in the tropical millipede
the larva of the phengodid beetle , phengodes laticollis , feeds on the millipede , floridobolus penneri , without risking exposure to the repellent benzoquinones ordinarily ejected by the millipede from its defensive glands when attacked . the phengodid subdues the millipede by piercing the millipede’s integument with its hollow sickle - shaped mandibles and apparently injecting gastric fluid . the infusion abruptly paralyzes the millipede , which thereby is prevented from discharging its glands . as the phengodid then imbibes the liquefied systemic contents of the dead millipede , the millipede’s benzoquinones remain harmlessly confined to the glands , prevented from diffusing into the millipede’s body cavity by the glands’ impervious cuticular lining . at the end of the meal only the millipede’s skeletal armor and glandular sacs remain uneaten . analysis of such discarded sacs showed these to contain benzoquinones in amounts commensurate with those present in replete glands of living millipedes .
in early 2015 , researchers reported that they had named a newly discovered species of millipede after the egyptian god anubis . the millipede , they said , was shaped like the jackal god’s head . well , part of the millipede , anyway : from certain angles , you can just make out a jackal’s head in the shape of the male millipede’s gonopod telopodite , or sex organ .
results from the millipede global diversity estimation analyses . values in parentheses are 95 % confidence intervals .
um . the millipede genitals . but you knew that ' s what i meant , right ?
bbc . 2006 . most leggy millipede rediscovered . bbc news . retrieved april 1 , 2007 .
number of ovipositions and fecundity in the millipede polydesmus angustus latzel ( polydesmida : polyd . . .
hierarchical cluster analysis of millipede assemblages of the studied habitats using hellinger distance and ward fusion method .
read 1992 , stašiov et al . 2012 ) . previous studies of edge eect on millipede abundance
one of the fascinating aspects of the black portuguese millipede is the way they grow and reproduce .
this is the stomach - churning moment a millipede crawls out of a man ' s ear .
figure 2 : gomphodesmid millipede from kou after boiling . s . tchibozo phot . , 2012 .
the millipede theory involves other trains — how many , who knows — passing over millipede - infested section of the track and squashing them into a slimy - slick paste . imagine…well , okay , don’t , but yes , traction definitely sounds like a problem if the pulverized millipede theory proves accurate .
the african millipede is a large arthropod that grows 8 to 11 inches in length . the giant african millipede has a long body structure , and it has around 10 . . . full answer >
. the average millipede has between 80 and 400 legs , not a thousand as the name suggests .
geoballus caputalbus crabill , 1969 ( millipede ) named after its collectors , george ball and donald whitehead .
quarters , cindy .
the body structure of a millipede
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
the female millipede reproductive system and its dynamical changes , with a partial review . - pubmed - ncbi
periods of dormancy and cohort - splitting in the millipede polydesmus angustus ( diplopoda : polydesmid . . .
first evidence for photoperiodic regulation of the life cycle in a millipede species , polydesmus ang . . .
ber of woody plant species ) . green circles and the four - letter abbreviations indicate the millipede species
ested areas ( oak forests with more than 2m high trees ) . similarly , high millipede abun -
2006 ) . on the other hand , riutta et al . ( 2012 ) showed signicantly higher millipede
golovatch si , kime rd ( 2009 ) millipede ( diplopoda ) distributions : a review . soil organisms
the millipede is a dark brown , worm - like creature with up to 400 very short legs .
to avoid these risks , do not pick up a millipede with your bare hands . after you handle a millipede , wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water until any odor or residue is gone .
wu x , buden dw , attygalle a . hydroquinones from defensive secretion of a giant pacific millipede ,
figure 21 . ventral views of the head of a centipede ( a ) and millipede ( b ) .
millipede predators include a variety of invertebrates , particularly glowworm beetle larvae , and such vertebrates as hedgehogs , shrews , frogs , turtles and box terrapins , and the african mongoose . some african beetles bury millipede carcasses .
pitz km , sierwald p . phylogeny of the millipede order spirobolida ( arthropoda : diplopoda : helminthomorpha ) .
janssen r , prpic nm , damen wgm . gene expression suggests decoupled dorsal and ventral segmentation in the millipede
quarters , cindy .
the body structure of a millipede .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / body - structure - millipede - 6756 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
adis , j . ( 1986 ) . an ' aquatic ' millipede from a central amazonian inundation forest .
the number of millipede individuals was significantly higher in the forest edge than in the grassland and forest interior . furthermore , the number of millipede individuals was significantly higher in the forest interior than in the grassland ( chi
resented 41 . 6 % of the total millipede catch . e same species was also the most fre -
quarters , cindy . ( n . d . ) . the body structure of a millipede . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / body - structure - millipede - 6756 . html
) . despite the lack of sexual characters on which to base species level identifications , these millipede orders still appear overinflated at higher taxonomic levels with respect to the included non - millipede taxa that also lack diagnostic sexual structures .
bond j , sierwald p . cryptic speciation in the anadenobolus excisus millipede species complex on the island of jamaica .
is the number of species in the tree . this metric was assessed for each order of millipede in the r
fortunately , however , there are other millipede species , e . g . the members of juliformia ( fig .
figure 1 : live gomphodesmid millipede ( tymbodesmus falcatus ) from kou . s . tchibozo phot . , 2011 .
the results of the study revealed that millipede assemblages altered in a short distance along the grassland - forest edge - forest habitat complex . our study showed a positive edge effect on millipede abundance and assemblage composition in the studied natural habitats . we found significant edge - associated millipede species by indval method . on the other hand there was no edge effect on millipede species richness and diversity . our results support the former findings that some millipede species may be specialized to natural forest edge habitats . forest edges may have key habitats in the conservation of millipedes during the next decades .
s . , amy .
how - life - cycle - millipede .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / how - life - cycle - millipede - 3155239 . html . 19 october 2017 .
figure 7 . polyxenus sp . , a common millipede throughout north america . photo by d . l . tiemann .
marek pe . a revision of the appalachian millipede genus brachoria chamberlin , 1939 ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae : apheloriini ) .
janssen r , prpic n - m , damen wgm . gene expression suggests decoupled dorsal and ventral segmentation in the millipede
s . , amy .
how - life - cycle - millipede
last modified october 19 , 2017 . urltoken
) . there was no significant difference between the diversity of millipede assemblage in the forest edge and forest interior habitats .
there are currently 6 , 500 millipede species identified worldwide , at least 600 of which are found in north america .
kuwahara y , mori n , tanabe t . detection of a neotropical frog alkaloid spiropyrrolizidine 236 from a japanese polyzoniid millipede
s . , amy . ( 2017 , october 19 ) . how - life - cycle - millipede . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / how - life - cycle - millipede - 3155239 . html
in 1953 , a new pest was discovered in port lincoln , south australia - the black portuguese millipede . and there wasn ' t just one millipede found - there was a plague of them ! in big numbers this introduced species is a real problem , and over time the millipede has marched into many areas of australia , bringing its irritating habits with it .
though it may seem small , the millipede is very important to the ecosystem ! since it is a scavenger , a millipede cleans up dead matter from the environment . the millipede is like a garbage man for the earth ! occasionally , the millipede can be a pest as it eats plant stems or leaves . the creature may seem creepy with all those legs , but most won ' t do any harm at all . be careful though , all those legs may tickle your skin !
( neither group has the number of legs their name suggests , although one species of millipede does have 375 pairs . )
radford , a . 1975 . millipede burns in man . trop geogr med 27 ( 3 ) : 279 - 287 .
a red - legged millipede - a familiar scenery along the route of the salkantay trek in the cuzco region of peru .
evans , m . e . g . and blower , j . g . ( 1973 ) . a jumping millipede .
some millipede species secrete sticky substances that bind to and trap any intruders , such as ants . others are less passive .
i ' m a new one to millipede . its really a great plugin ! but when i try to open the example file in grasshopper , it popped up a message
this version of millipede has expired . please download a newer version at … continue
laboratory observations on the behavior of two troglobitic millipede species in the genus causeyella ( chordeumatida : trichopetalidae ) from the southern ozarks .
enghoff h , petersen g , seberg o ( 2011 ) phylogenetic relationships in the millipede family julidae . cladistics 27 : 606–616 .
millipede communities ( diplopoda ) of oak - hornbeam ecosystems ( the malé karpaty mts , trnavská pahorkatina hills , sw slovakia ) .
a reassessment of apheloriine millipede phylogeny : additional taxa , bayesian inference , and direct optimization ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) . zootaxa : 27–39
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the millipede article in your website content , school work and other projects .
adaptive radiation of the millipede genus cylindroiulus on madeira : habitat , body size , and morphology ( diplopoda : iulida : iulidae ) .
a contribution on the south african millipede genus , nematozonium verhoeff , 1939 ( siphonophorida : siphonorhinidae ) . african entomology 12 : 217–222 .
wojcieszek jm , simmons lw . evidence for stabilizing selection and slow divergent evolution of male genitalia in a millipede ( antichiropus variabilis ) .
furthermore , millipedes with brighter bioluminescence have larger cyanide glands , suggesting that millipede toxicity may be linked to the intensification of their bioluminescence .
adaptive radiation of the millipede genus cylindroiulus on madeira : habitat , body size , and morphology ( diplopoda , julida : julidae ) .
there are millipedes all over the world . the largest species is giant african millipede ( archispirostreptus gigas ) . one species of millipede ( pneumodesmus newmani ) was the first known land creature ! it lived around 428 million years ago , that ' s a long time !
besides ignoring readily available sources of diagnostic characters , millipede systematists have neglected many parts of the world , namely the tropics . in both the new and old worlds , millipede taxonomic endeavors have focused on temperate , northern hemisphere taxa . the diversity of europe and north america is better understood than anywhere else in the world . this continues today despite the acknowledgement among experts that a rich tropical millipede fauna remains woefully understudied
] when using full mitochondrial genomes to investigate millipede ordinal phylogenetics ( stemmiulidans were not included in their analysis ) . both sierwald and bond [
i have been playing with millipede for some time now , but keep running into an issue with units . specifically , most of the rhino models i work with are in mm . i have converted the models into meters to use millipede , but i find that my deflections… continue
phylogenetics of the millipede genus brachycybe wood , 1864 ( diplopoda : platydesmida : andrognathidae ) : patterns of deep evolutionary history and recent speciation .
29 . 10 . 13 a giant millipede explores a carved pumpkin at folly farm , pembrokeshire west wales . pic by : james davies .
brooks , c . h . and willoughby , j . ( 1978 ) . an investigation of the ecology and life history of the millipede
) , while there was no difference between the number of millipede species in the forest edge and forest interior . a similar result was found for the shannon diversity of the millipede assemblage which was significantly lower in the grassland habitat than in the forest edge and forest interior ( chi
defense mechanisms of arthropods . xi . the structure , function , and phenolic secretions of the glands of a chordeumoid millipede and a carabid beetle
. however , all millipedes are made up in a similar way with the first sections of the millipede ' s body having one pair of legs and the later sections of two pairs of legs . the legs of millipede all work together and move in a wave - like motion .
pleistocene glacial refugia across the appalachian mountains and coastal plain in the millipede genus narceus : evidence from population genetic , phylogeographic , and paleoclimatic data .
pitz km , sierwald p ( 2010 ) phylogeny of the millipede order spirobolida ( arthropoda : diplopoda : helminthomorpha ) . cladistics 26 : 497–525 .
the term millipede comes from two latin words - mil , meaning thousand and ped meaning feet . some people refer to these critters as
thousand leggers .
but both names are misnomers , because scientists have yet to find a millipede species with 1 , 000 legs . most actually have less than 100 legs . the millipede that holds the record for most legs has a mere 750 , far short of the thousand leg mark .
millipede abundance , species richness and shannon diversity at the studied habitats . mean values ( ±sd ) of the overall millipede abundance ( a ) , species richness ( b ) and shannon diversity ( c ) per samples at the studied habitats . different letters indicate signiﬁcant differences by tukey test .
millipede literally means one thousand feet . this is however not the case , most species have in the region of 200 - 300 when they are adult . they are fairly easy to keep as pets and the exotic forms of millipede make appealing pets . millipedes belong to the class diplopoda .
detritivores are organisms that eat detritus , or dead organic matter . a millipede is a detritivore that feeds on particles of detritus on the ground .
a redescription of the leggiest animal , the millipede illacme plenipes , with notes on its natural history and biogeography ( diplopoda , siphonophorida , siphonorhinidae ) .
is unknown . given the shape of its mouthparts , the typical millipede diet in which decaying organic matter is mechanically fragmented is unlikely for the species .
marek pe , bond je . a reassessment of apheloriine millipede phylogeny : additional taxa , bayesian inference , and direct optimization ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) .
bond j , sierwald p ( 2002 ) cryptic speciation in the anadenobolus excisus millipede species complex on the island of jamaica . evolution 56 : 1123–1135 .
an amateur fossil - hunter in scotland has unearthed the oldest known air - breathing land animal : a tiny millipede that lived 428 million years ago .
radford , a . 1976 . giant millipede burns in papua new guinea . p n g med j 18 ( 3 ) : 138 - 141 .
although millipede means ' thousand feet ' , they don ' t really have that many - the numbers range from 30 pairs to about 350 pairs .
in addition , the infestation of houses , bedding , gardens and backyard fruit and vegetable crops have made this millipede a very unwelcome visitor to australia .
other names : giant millipede , african black millipede , and tanzanian giant black millipede . * please note that all millipedes can secrete a liquid that may be dangerous to some people . although most people are not affected by this species , some people may be allergic to the liquid , or just more sensitive , making it potentially dangerous , especially if put into the eyes or mouth . effects of these natural defences may vary from person to person .
another conclusion that could be drawn from the taxonomic productivity - based diversity estimation is that , instead of the total number of millipede species worldwide , the x - intercept represents the point at which the field of millipede taxonomy will effectively end . given the current trends of fewer species being described each year (
that is found under rocks and in decaying logs all around the world . the millipede has a long and narrow body which is made up of segments .
we clearly lack a robust estimate of just how many millipede species exist . our species estimates were surprising given the often - quoted number of 80 , 000
tanabe t , sota t . complex copulatory behavior and the proximate effect of genital and body size differences on mechanical reproductive isolation in the millipede genus parafontaria .
wojcieszek jm , simmons lw ( 2012 ) evidence for stabilizing selection and slow divergent evolution of male genitalia in a millipede ( antichiropus variabilis ) . evolution .
the millipede’s head is on one end of his body and is about the same diameter as the adjacent segment . springing out from his head are antennae that help the millipede to sense what’s around him , though these are so short they can be hard to spot . the jaws are on the front of his head and the millipede’s eyes are set above his jaws . most millipedes have simple eyes that provide basic vision , but not all types of millipedes have eyes .
, millipedes are prey to a number of parasites such as fungi , protozoa , nematoda , and acanthocephalan worms however the best studied millipede parasite is sciomyzid fly .
o ' neill , r . v . 1968b . population energies of the millipede , narceus americanus ( beauvois ) . ecology , 49 : 803 - 809 .
m . forthman and c . weirauch , “toxic associations : a review of the predatory behaviors of millipede assassin bugs ( hemiptera : reduviidae : ectrichodiinae ) , ”
shimizu n , kuwahara y , yakumaru r , tanabe t . n - hexyl laurate and fourteen related fatty acid esters : new secretory compounds from the julid millipede
arab a , zacarin gg , fontanetti cs , camargo - mathias mi , dos santos mg , cabrera ac . composition of the defensive secretion of the neotropical millipede
the forest edge and forest interior habitats were more species rich ( 9 species ) than the grassland . 5 species of millipedes was found in the grassland habitat . glomeris tetrasticha , julus terrestris , kryphioiulus occultus , leptoiulus cibdellus and megaphyllum unilineatum were recorded in all studied habitats . the following millipede species were the most frequent : glomeris tetrasticha ( 416 individuals ) , kryphioiulus occultus ( 269 individuals ) and mastigona bosniensis ( 142 individuals ) , while brachyiulus bagnalli ( 8 individuals ) and brachydesmus superus ( 11 individuals ) had the lowest total abundance in the studied habitats . the most abundant millipede species , glomeris tetrasticha represented 41 . 6 % of the total millipede catch . the same species was also the most frequent millipede ( 54 . 9 % of the millipede individuals ) in the edge habitat . the highest total abundance of millipedes was found in the edge habitat ( 696 individuals ) , while the lowest number of millipede individuals ( 31 ) was found in the grassland habitat .
a redescription of the leggiest animal , the millipede illacme plenipes , with notes on its natural history and biogeography ( diplopoda , siphonophori . . . - pubmed - ncbi
millipede and centipede ( myriapoda : diplopoda , chilopoda ) assemblages in secondary succession : variance and abundance in western german beech and coniferous forests as compared to fallow ground .
a millipede ' s back is covered by hardened plates called tergites , but its underside is soft and vulnerable . millipedes aren ' t fast , so they aren ' t going to outrun their predators . instead , when a millipede feels it is in danger , it will coil its body into a tight spiral , protecting its belly .
the female millipede can lay up to 1 , 000 sticky eggs at once although the number of millipede eggs laid is usually closer to 500 . when the baby millipedes hatch they only have 3 pairs of legs but they shed their skin as they grow . each time the baby millipedes shed their skin they develop more body segments and legs .
tasmaniosoma anubis mesibov 2015 ( millipede ) so named because the tip of the male genitalia resembles popular depictions of the jackal - headed god . [ zookeys 488 : 31 ]
miley , h . h . ( 1927 ) development of the male gonopods and life history studies of a polydesmid millipede . ohio journal of science , 27 , 25–43 .
you can handle a millipede with no danger . but , it is unwise to handle centipedes . the bite from a centipede can be painful , though not medically important .
borrell , b . j . 2004 . mechanical properties of calcified exoskeleton from the neotropical millipede , nyssodesmus python . journal of insect physiology , 50 : 1121 - 1126 .
wilson , h . m . 2005a . a new genus of archipolypodan millipede from the coseley lagerstätte , upper carboniferous , uk . palaeontology , 48 : 1097 - 1100 .
the millipede assemblages of the studied habitats clearly separated from each other , based on the abundance of the millipede species . the millipede assemblages formed two main clusters : the first included the grassland habitat , the second included the two forested habitats . however , forested habitats ( forest edge and forest interior ) also showed a clear separation from each other . it is known , that saprophagous macroarthropod assemblages are changing with the change of vegetation structure on a landscape scale , or on a smaller scale ( david et al . 1999 , wytwer et al . 2009 , david and handa 2010 , foster and claeson 2011 ) . moreover , even the tree species composition can significantly affect millipede assemblage composition ( stašiov et al . 2012 ) . the influence of the habitat type on millipede assemblages can override the effect of the successional stage also ( schreiner et al . 2012 ) .
still , even something smaller like the innocuous - looking black portuguese millipede can have a titanic impact in sufficient numbers — say , causing one passenger train to crash into another .
where millipede descriptions per square kilometer increase at a much faster rate in the tropics than in nontropical countries . this is further evidence that the tropics need more attention from diplopodologists .
marek pe , bond je ( 2007 ) a reassessment of apheloriine millipede phylogeny : additional taxa , bayesian inference , and direct optimization ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) . zootaxa 27–39 .
evidence for this idea includes the particular chemical reaction that m . bistipita uses to create light . this reaction neutralizes potentially harmful chemical byproducts , such as peroxides , which the millipede ' s body produces when it metabolizes oxygen in hot weather . bioluminescence by m . bistipita thereby protects the millipede from what would otherwise potentially threaten it in a hot habitat .
a female millipede lays eggs inside a nest underground where they undergo an incomplete metamorphosis . once the eggs hatch , the baby millipedes remain in t . . . full answer >
blum , m . s . , and j . p . woodring . 1962 . secretion of benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide by the millipede pachydesmus crassicutis . science 138 : 513 .
mason , g . , h . thompson , p . fergin , and r . anderson . 1994 . the burning millipede . med j aust 160 : 718 - 726 .
both being susceptible to desiccation , a centipede seeks out stony crevices , fallen leaves , rotting logs , and the damp nooks in your home ; the millipede favors decaying vegetation .
the 3d cyberportrayal of a newfound millipede looks like it hopped from the screen of james cameron ' s
avatar ,
with a blue body and alien appearance to boot .
golovatch , s . i . and kime , r . d . 2009 . millipede ( diplopoda ) distributions : a review . soil organisms , 81 : 565 - 597 .
. the temperate areas of the southern hemisphere , such as much of australia , have received little attention in recent years . if millipede taxonomic expertise is in danger of extinction , as
wesener t , raupach mj , decker p . mountain refugia play a role in soil arthropod speciation on madagascar : a case study of the endemic giant fire - millipede genus aphistogoniulus .
marek pe ( 2010 ) a revision of the appalachian millipede genus brachoria chamberlin , 1939 ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae : apheloriini ) . zool j linn soc - lond 159 : 817–889 .
as the name suggests , the black portuguese millipede is a native of portugal . it has been introduced from portugal to several atlantic islands as well as to south africa and australia .
with the results of this ' millipede mayhem ' experiment , dr baker hopes to learn more about the effect they are having on our natural ecosystems and how best to control them .
o ' neill , r . v . 1968a . adaptive responses to desiccation in the millipede , narceus americanus ( beauvois ) . american midland naturalist , 81 : 578 - 583 .
a single apheloria millipede weighing about 1 gram can produce up to 600 micrograms of hcn , 18 times the lethal dose for a 300 gram pigeon and six times that for a 25 gram mouse . even being confined in a small space with certain types of millipede , such as a collecting jar , can prove fatal to many species of insect and even small vertebrates .
the body of the giant african millipede has anywhere from 30 to 40 segments , with four legs per individual segment . all together , this adds to a total of up to 400 legs per millipede . that’s a lot of feet ! almost every segment of their body also has two pairs of internal organs . instead of breathing with lungs like mammals , millipedes breathe through tiny pore - like holes located down the length of their body , called spiracles . because of this special breathing adaptation , if a millipede gets too wet , it could potentially drown .
evolution of dorsal - ventral axis formation in arthropod appendages : h15 and optomotor - blind / bifid - type t - box genes in the millipede glomeris marginata ( myriapoda : diplopoda ) .
the precise localization of the metamorphic event eventually giving rise to the millipede male gonopods , with the accompanying changes in the overall arrangement of the internal organs in the corresponding segments [ fig .
many people in southern australia share dr baker ' s opinion . the portuguese millipede isn ' t harmful to humans , but plagues of them year after year have made them serial pests .
australia has hundreds of native millipede species , but not much is known about them . of the 15 orders of millipedes in the world , only nine have been recorded here so far .
the distribution and abundance of the portuguese millipede ommatoiulus moreletii ( diplopoda : iulidae ) in australia , baker gh , ( 1985a ) australian journal of ecology , 10 : 249 - 259 .
i also have no idea of the age of this millipede , so i wouldn ' t know if she ' s just old and grumpy and doesn ' t want to come out .
internal structure . spirobolid millipede burrows are constructed using excavation and compaction and may have a compressed lining depending on the substrate . burrows are passively filled , but may also contain fecal pellets .
i haven ' t had too much experience with millipede care , but i have two of my own , so i thought i ' d give my little bit of knowledge to you .
williams lad , singh pda , caleb - williams ls . biology and biological action of the defensive secretion from a jamaican millipede . naturwissenschaften . 1997 ; 84 : 143–144 . pmid : 9167183
gc - fid profiles of a ) male and b ) female secretions of the millipede pachyiulus hungaricus ( karsch , 1881 ) with chemical structure of most dominant quinone and non quinone compounds .
the centipede male deposits sperm bundles , entrusting females to find them and impregnate themselves . by contrast , the millipede male and female join in mating . centipede and millipede females both typically lay their eggs in underground nests . the females of some centipede species abandon their eggs , leaving the broods to manage on their own ; the females of other species nurtures their broods until the offspring can manage on their own . the females of all the various millipede species remain with their eggs until they hatch , and they nurture the offspring until they can manage on their own .
shear , w . a . , ferreira , r . l . , iniesta , l . f . m . and marek , p . 2016 . a millipede missing link : dobrodesmidae , a remarkable new polydesmidan millipede family from brazil with supernumerary rings ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) , and the establishment of a new suborder dobrodesmidea . zootaxa 4178 ( 3 ) : 371 - 390 .
mathews , p . l . & bultman , t . l . ( 1993 ) mating behavior of a parajulid millipede , aniulus bollmani . canadian journal of zoology , 71 , 2297–2300 . urltoken
evolution of dorsal - ventral axis formation in arthropod appendages : h15 and optomotor - blind / bifid - type t - box genes in the millipede glomeris margin . . . - pubmed - ncbi
myriapods in the diplopoda (
double legs
) include the millipedes , like the one pictured at the top right of this page . millipede segments are formed in early development by fusion of two adjacent embryonic segments ; thus , each adult segment of a millipede bears two pairs of legs . unlike the predatory chilopoda , most millipedes feed on decaying vegetation , although some are carnivorous .
hudson , b . , and g . parsons . 1987 . giant millipede ' burns ' and the eye . trans r soc trop med hyg 91 ( 2 ) : 183 - 185 .
dangerfield , j . m . and chipfunde , l . 1995 . stress tolerance and burrowing behavior in the southern african millipede alloporus uncinatus . journal of zoology , 236 : 17 - 27 .
sattman , d . a . 2006 . the biology of the florida scrub endemic millipede : floridobolus penneri . unpublished ms thesis , university of missouri - columbia , columbia , mississippi , usa .
stašiov , s . 2009 . millipede ( diplopoda ) communities in mixed oak - hornbeam forest stands – effect of selected site factors . polish journal of ecology , 57 : 785 - 792 .
eisner t , eisner he , hurst jj , kafatos fc , meinwald j . cyanogenic glandular apparatus of a millipede . science . 1963 ; 139 ( 3560 ) : 1218–1220 . pmid : 17757915
order glomeridesmida ( 1 family ) - flattened species with 22 segments , unable to roll into balls ; similar in general configuration to the presumptive ancestral millipede . occurrence : tropical , absent from africa .
millipedes are long , slender creatures . some people call them “thousand - leggers” because they have so many legs . in fact , almost every segment of the millipede’s body has two pair of legs .
has bifurcate claws on anterior legs and two separate claws , coterminal on the tarsal apex ( in lieu of the abifurcation ) , on posterior legs . in several millipede species , e . g .
golovatch , s . i . 2013 . a reclassification of the millipede superfamily trichopolydesmoidea , with descriptions of two new species from the aegean region ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . zookeys 340 : 63–78 .
tanabe t , sota t ( 2008 ) complex copulatory behavior and the proximate effect of genital and body size differences on mechanical reproductive isolation in the millipede genus parafontaria . am nat 171 : 692–699 .
kuwahara , y . , h . omura , and t . tanabe . 2002 . 2 - nitroethenylbenzenes as natural products in millipede defense secretions . naturwissenschaften 89 ( 7 ) : 308 - 10 .
shpall , s . , and i . frieden . 1991 . mahogany discoloration of the skin due to the defensive secretion of a millipede . pediatr dermatol 8 ( 1 ) : 25 - 27 .
bailey , p . t . and kovaliski , j . 1993 . summer quiescent behavior of the millipede ommatoiulus moreleti ( julida : julidae ) . journal of zoology , 231 : 523 - 532 .
these data used here to reconstruct the relationships between millipede taxa will likely also prove to be useful in many other ways . the relative completeness of transcriptome recovery in brachycybe lecontii ( 93 . 95 % ) and other taxa will allow us to address many questions regarding millipede molecular evolution . characterizations of the proteins found in various taxa including tests for selection , alternative splicing , and gene duplications are some of the additional areas we will address . as we continue to amass genomic - scale data , we will be able to investigate questions central to millipede character evolution , both morphological and molecular . for example , millipede defense secretions have been suggested to contain phylogenetic signal [ 4 ] and may show very interesting patterns of gain and loss in a complex set of characteristics . future genomics based studies will continue to address important questions concerning millipede life history , physiology , and behavior , and a more taxonomically diverse phylogeny will be integral to studying the evolution of one of the planet’s oldest and most diverse land animal lineages .
golovatch , s . ( 2013 ) a reclassification of the millipede superfamily trichopolydesmoidea , with descriptions of two new species from the aegean region ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . zookeys , 340 , 63–78 . urltoken
stoev , p . , sierwald , p . & billey , a . ( 2008 ) an annotated world catalog of the millipede order callipodida ( arthropoda : diplopoda ) . zootaxa , 1706 , 1–50 .
) . thus , according to the correlation scheme derived from the study of ring - forming millipedes , the millipede trunk has three
haplosegments
followed by a number of
diplosegments
( fig .
as a predator , the centipede feeds on animals as diverse as insects , spiders , reptiles and birds ; as scavengers and herbivores , most species of millipede feed on decaying plant material and sprouting seedlings .
sp . were up to 1 . 8 metres or 6 feet long and 0 . 45 metres or 1 . 6 feet wide ( though there is some discrepency about whether they actually were a millipede )
purchasing a millipede can be done from local breeders or in a reputable exotic pet store , wild caught animals should be avoided as many die in captivity and the pet trade is a major strain on wild populations . when you get your millipede you may notice many small mites crawling on its exoskeleton , contrary to popular belief these are harmless and actually help maintain the millipedes ‘skin’ so do not remove them .
millipedes ( sometimes called thousand - leggers ) are brownish , elongated , and cylindrical to slightly flattened creatures with two ( more common ) or four pairs of tiny legs per body segment . millipedes don’t really have a thousand legs ; even the largest ones have somewhat fewer than a hundred . when they walk , their legs move in an undulating , wavelike manner . adult millipedes vary from 1 / 2 to 6 1 / 2 inches in length . when prodded or at rest , most millipedes curl up . the three species found in california are the common millipede , the bulb millipede , and the greenhouse millipede .
walker mj , stockman ak , marek pe , bond je . pleistocene glacial refugia across the appalachian mountains and coastal plain in the millipede genus narceus : evidence from population genetic , phylogeographic , and paleoclimatic data .
simonsen , a . ( 1990 ) phylogeny and biogeography of the millipede order polydesmida , with special emphasis on the suborder polydesmidea . thesis in systematic zoology 1990 , university of bergen , norway , 114 pp .
the technique also allowed the researchers to get an unprecedented look at the millipede ' s genital appendages , known as the gonopods . gonopod anatomy varies in millipedes , and it can help scientists identify new species .
raising millipedes is much easier than raising other types of exotic arthropods since the babies require little special care . however , the life cycle of a millipede from egg to mature adult can take time and patience .
wilson , h . m . , 2006b . juliform millipedes from the lower devonian of euramerica : implications for the timing of millipede cladogenesis in the paleozoic . journal of paleontology , 80 : 638 - 649 .
the extent of their chemical warfare is revealed in a new study published in the journal biological systematics and ecology by biology professor and millipede expert william shear of hampden - sydney college in virginia , the us .
millipedes are some of the oldest known land animals . diana and i found this one in north west province , south africa during the summer of 2015 / 16 . # millipede # defense # spiralshapedcircle # millipedeprimarydefensemechanism
the phylogeny obtained from phylobayes imported into mesquite and states were reconstructed under a parsimony model . squares correspond to gonopods ( red = none , green = ninth and tenth legs pairs , blue = eighth and ninth leg pairs , black = ambiguous ) . circles correspond to the presence of millipede ozopores ( red = none and blue = present ) . pentagons correspond to millipede spinnerets ( red = none and blue = present ) .
dr baker has carried out numerous studies of the black portuguese millipede , looking at topics such as patterns in their activity , their life cycle and whether they have any natural predators , either here or in portugal .
orthoporus ornatus ( the sonoran desert millipede ) is present in soils of the dry grasslands of the southwestern united states . sonoran desert millipedes are considerably smaller than the giant african millipedes , reaching only 10–13 cm long .
i was in an art show , recently , and one of my works was this : other than the millipede looking a bit like a giant turd on the bottom , i thought everyone here might like this .
farfan , m . 2008 . ecological effects of the installation of an underground oil pipeline on millipede communities in hocking county , ohio . unpublished bs thesis , the ohio state university , columbus , ohio , usa .
a final method used to estimate global millipede species richness relies on an ad hoc extrapolation based on taxa whose species diversity is considered nearly completely described ( e . g . , mammalia and aves ) . the global species diversity of birds [ 41 ] and mammals [ 42 ] were taken as a ratio of the species richness in the united states and europe because these taxa are considered nearly fully described . the european data millipedes , mammals and birds were taken from fauna europaea [ 43 ] to standardize the countries included in the analysis . the resulting values of global species per us species were each multiplied by the us millipede diversity to obtain estimates of global millipede richness . we used us millipede species diversity because it is the most thoroughly described fauna , perhaps equitable to the european fauna , and the data for mammals and birds are considered relatively complete and available .
many millipedes are quite docile and may safely be kept as pets and handled without risk of injury . the giant african millipede ( archispirostreptus gigas ) is a common pet millipede . sometimes you can buy very similar millipedes under the name lophostreptus rutilans but in most cases it is just archispirostreptus gigas . with the proper caging and feeding , pet millipedes can live up to about seven years and grow to be as long as 15 inches .
the new version of millipede includes the surface reparameterization module that enables the generation of vector field aligned patterns over any mesh . this functionality is particularly useful for the creation of principal stress aligned grid shells and reinforcement patterns .
, though the oldest centipedes come from the devonian - age gilboa forest of new york . a few more myriapod are known from the devonian and carboniferous ( like the fossil millipede shown below , from the pennsylvanian - age
bulldozers are your typical millipede , they are long and thin and use their flattish heads as a bulldozer blade . their numerous legs supply the oomph which allows them to push themselves through the soil and leaf - litter .
cover photo : sigmocheir maculifer ( chamberlin ) , a beautiful millipede of the order polydesmida ( family xystodesmidae ) occurring in the foothills of the sierra nevada , fresno county , california . photo by d . l . tiemann .
wesener t , raupach mj , decker p ( 2011 ) mountain refugia play a role in soil arthropod speciation on madagascar : a case study of the endemic giant fire - millipede genus aphistogoniulus . plos one 6 : e28035 .
golovatch , s . i . & vandenspiegel , d . ( 2015 ) the millipede genus koponenius golovatch & vandenspiegel , 2014 found in myanmar ( diplopoda : polydesmida : haplodesmidae ) . tropical natural history , 15 , 81–86 .
millipede eyes consist of a number of simple flat lens ocelli arranged in a group on the front / side of the head . millipedes have very poor eyesight which is sometimes nonexistent . they sense their way around by using their antennae which continually taps the ground as the millipede moves along . the head contains a pair of sensory organs found just behind their antennae and are oval shaped . they are probably used to measure the humidity in the surroundings .
millipedes are widely distributed , therefore , their ichnofossils would likely be found in all soil types except for gelisols . their preference for calcic environments may mean that calcium - rich soils would be the most likely habitat . waterlogged and ever - wet soils , however , are unlikely to contain millipede burrows . being detritivores , millipedes require decomposing plant material for consumption meaning that , along with millipede burrows , rhizoliths should be common . the long temporal range of millipedes places them in time periods with all other terrestrial macrofauna . the co - occurrence of millipede burrows with many other soil - dwelling annelid , insect , arachnid , reptile , amphibian , and mammal burrows is very likely .
a few weeks after mating occurs , the female millipede will dig into the soil of the tank and will lay her eggs . the eggs can be nearly impossible to see because they blend into the soil . however , the female usually will protect the area where she has buried her clutch of eggs so this behavior is a good indicator that baby millipedes are on the way . millipede females can lay up to 100 eggs at a time so you may need to increase the amount of soil to make sure the babies will have enough room to molt . however , the process is slow so you will have time . on average , millipede eggs take three months to hatch .
micro - ct is essentially the same as a medical computerized tomography ( ct ) scanner , except that it ' s more detailed , with a resolution down to a few micrometers , akkari said . the researchers placed the jar containing the millipede in the machine , which then took x - rays of the specimen from different angles . when the x - rays were compiled , the researchers created a detailed 3d avatar of the millipede , named ommatoiulus avatar .
marek , p . , tanabe , t . and sierwald , p . 2014 . a species catalog of the millipede family xystodesmidae ( diplopoda : polydesmida ) . virginia museum of natural history special publication 17 : 1 - 117 .
citation : brewer ms , sierwald p , bond je ( 2012 ) millipede taxonomy after 250 years : classification and taxonomic practices in a mega - diverse yet understudied arthropod group . plos one 7 ( 5 ) : e37240 . urltoken
head region of an unidentified millipede found in decatur , georgia , revealed in the 112x magnified scanning electron microscopic ( sem ) image , 2005 . image courtesy centers for disease control ( cdc ) / janice haney carr . ( )
galanes , i . t . and thomlinson , j . r . 2011 . soil millipede diversity in tropical forest patches and its relation to landscape structure in northeastern puerto rico . biodiversity and conservation , 20 : 2967 - 2980 .
) . as mentioned above , this is expected in a classification that is focused on the erection of new species and higher taxonomic groups in the absence of large - scale revisions . however , some millipede groups show evidence of cryptic diversity
name is
avatar ,
and it ' s virtual . but it ' s not a 10 - foot - tall humanoid alien ; it ' s a new millipede species , and the first to be a
cybertype .
akkari , n . , enghoff , h . & minelli , a . ( 2014 ) segmentation of the millipede trunk as suggested by a homeotic mutant with six extra pairs of gonopods . frontiers in zoology , 11 , 1–22 . urltoken
according to my explanation for the origins of bioluminescence in millipedes , as their evolution progressed and motyxia colonized higher elevations that support more predators , the millipede repurposed and intensified its glow as a way to warn predators of its greater toxicity .
okay , i ' ve just googled . now i understand that ムカデ ( centipede ) has mostly one pair of legs to each body segment while ヤスデ ( millipede ) has two pairs of legs to each body segment . i never knew the difference ! now , my question is , which one of these in english is more common to refer to
these creatures
? as you point out ムカデ is far more common a word , and i think most people don ' t bother to call ヤスデ ヤスデ . instead , most japanese would probably call ヤスデ ムカデ . i have a feeling that millipede as an english word is more common and people might use the word millipede to refer to a centipede .