the brush-tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi or dasycercus hillieri ) is a large carnivorous australian marsupial species .

its body mass is over 100 g , with males being slightly larger than females .

their body length is 15 cm , and tail length is 9 cm .

the taxonomy of the mulgaras has been confusing , but as of 2006 , two species are recognized : this species and the crest-tailed mulgara .

brush - tailed mulgara

studies on the crest - tailed mulgara dasycercus cristicauda and the brush - tailed mulgara dasycercus blythi ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) .
both species inhabit arid regions of central australia . awc protects both species with brush - tailed mulgara found at newhaven sanctuary and crest - tailed mulgara found at kalamurina . it is likely that brush - tailed mulgara may be found at kalamurina as well
national : crest - tailed mulgara is vulnerable . brush - tailed mulgara is not listed as it has only recently been recently recognised as a distinct species . state : brush - tailed mulgara vulnerable in nt . crest - tailed mulgara vulnerable in wa , nt , qld , endangered in sa , extinct in nsw
the crest - tailed mulgara is one of two species within the genus dasycercus ( which means ‘hairy - tail’ ) , the other being the brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the crest - tailed mulgara can be distinguished from the brush - tailed mulgara by its thick tail with a crest of black hairs , unlike the thinner tail of the brush - tailed mulgara which simply ends in a tapering tip ( 5 ) . female crest - tailed mulgaras also have eight nipples , compared to the six of female brush - tailed mulgaras ( 3 ) .
woolley , p . a . 2006 . studies on the crest - tailed mulgara dasycercus cristicauda and the brush - tailed mulgara dasycercus blythi ( marsupialia ; dasyuridae ) . australian mammalogy 28 : 117 - 120 .
brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi or dasycercus hillieri ) is a large carnivorous australian marsupial species . its body mass is over 100grams… | pinteres…
woolley , p . a . ( 2006 ) . studies on the crest - tailed mulgara dasycercus cristicauda and the brush - tailed mulgara dasycercus blythi ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) . australian mammology . 28 ( 1 ) : 117 - 120 .
brush - tailed mulgara are mostly found in mature spinifex grasslands , where they feed on insects and other small animals at night . during the day , they shelter in burrows in the ground . in the northern territory brush - tailed mulgara are found at scattered locations from the simpson desert in the south to the tanami desert in the north .
there are two known species of mulgara - the brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) , and the crest - tailed mulgara ( d . cristicauda ) . you can pretty easily figure out what species a particular mulgara belongs to by checking how fluffy its tail is and how many teeth and nipples it has , but it ' s their range that really sets them apart .
field assistants required for fieldwork on brush - tailed mulgara at newhaven jenny molyneux is currently looking for 2 volunteers for her phd research work on brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) at newhaven sanctuary , nt . the project is looking at the effect of fire management on population dynamics and spatial ecology ( see project description and field plan for more details ) .
the crest - tailed mulgara is present in some conservation reserves , where it is protected from some threats .
unlike many other small dasyurids ( carnivorous marsupials ) , males do not die after breeding and captive crest - tailed mulgaras of both sexes have remained reproductive for 6 years , indicating they may be fairly long lived . another difference between the two species is that the crest - tailed mulgara has three upper premolars , whereas the brush - tailed mulgara has only two !
the brush - tailed mulgara enjoys a pretty extensive range running right through the middle of australia , where it thrives in the arid spinifex grasslands of south australia , western australia and the northern territory . the crest - tailed mulgara , on the other hand , is found only in a tiny pocket of the southern simpson desert in queensland .
the crest - tailed mulgara and brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) are known to co - occur in the simpson desert ( masters 2008 ) . pavey and colleagues ( 2011 ) successfully used tail morphology as the primary trait for identification where the species are sympatric . they are distinguished as follows ( masters 2008 ; woolley 2008a ) :
the conservation status , description ; distribution ; ecology ; conservation assessment ; and conservation objectives and management priorities for the brush - tailed mulgara dasycercus blythi in the nt , and provides a list of references . ( pdf file , 637 kb )
awc is engaged in an active management program to restore appropriate fire regimes and limit the depredations of feral animals to deliver a measurable improvement at newhaven in the health of the landscape and the populations of vulnerable species such as the brush - tailed mulgara .
woolley , p . a . ( 2008a ) . brush - tailed mulgara . in : van dyck , s . & r . strahan , eds . the mammals of australia . page ( s ) 47 - 48 . 3rd edition . new holland publishers .
the brush - tailed mulgara is a largish carnivorous pinkish - brown marsupial , with a white belly and chin , and a dark brown tail . males are significantly larger than females . it is one of several desert marsupials that stores fat in its plump tail .
aims : we compared the dynamics of two geographically distant populations of a medium - sized surviving desert mammal , the brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi , ~ 100 g ) , and tested the hypothesis that this species’ persistence can be explained by its demographic plasticity .
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woolley , p . a . 2008 . brush - tailed mulgara , dasycercus blythi . in : s . van dyck and r . strahan ( eds ) , the mammals of australia . third edition , pp . 47 - 48 . reed new holland , sydney , australia .
the crest - tailed mulgara is sparse but widespread in southern parts of the simpson desert , tirari and strzelecki deserts in the nt , sa and queensland ( masters 2008 ) .
active breeding burrows of the wedge - tailed shearwater in the capricorn group , great barrier reef .
the crest - tailed mulgara is endemic to australia . its range extends throughout the inland deserts of central australia , encompassing western australia , the northern territory , and northern south australia ( 2 ) . however , the exact range limits are uncertain as a result of the recent re - recognition of the brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) as a distinct species , requiring the identity of museum specimens to be re - checked before the true range limits of both species can be established ( 1 ) .
the crest - tailed mulgara is known to occur in at least one protected area , the simpson desert regional reserve in south australia . although not currently considered to be threatened with extinction , further research into the distribution , abundance , habitat requirements and threats to the crest - tailed mulgara would be beneficial , so that appropriate conservation strategies could be developed if necessary ( 1 ) .
mulgaras shelter in burrows up to 50cm deep during the day and emerge at night to hunt large invertebrates and small vertebrates , including mammals , reptiles and birds . they are found in a range of vegetation communities but crest - tailed mulgaras may prefer sand dunes with sand hill cane - grass ( zygochloa paradoxa ) , and the favoured habitat of brush - tailed mulgaras is spinifex grasslands . however it is possible that both species occur in close proximity to each other . both species are insectivorous and carnivorous and will feed on a range of insects , scorpions , centipedes , rodents , small marsupials and reptiles . mulgara breed in late winter . crest - tailed mulgara have a litter of up to 8 young , and brush - tailed mulgara litters are up to six ; the difference reflects the difference in nipple number between the two species . the young suckle for 12 to 15 weeks , hanging below the female’s body since the pouch is reduced to a pair of lateral flaps .
threatened species of the northern territory - crest - tailed mulgara ( ampurta ) dasycercus cristicauda ( pavey , c . , j . cole & j . woinarski , 2006 ) [ information sheet ] .
the crest - tailed mulgara occurs on sand dunes with a sparse cover of sandhill canegrass ( zygochloa paradoxa ) or areas around salt lakes with nitre bush ( nitraria billardieri ) ( masters 2008 ) .
) . active breeding burrows of the wedge - tailed shearwater in the capricorn group , great barrier reef .
movement patterns and spatial organisation of the mulgara , dasycercus cristicauda ( marsupialia : das . . .
the breeding cycle of the crest - tailed mulgara is attuned to the unpredictable and harsh conditions of the australian desert . when food and water are scarce , it will delay breeding , but during favourable conditions , such as brief wet spells , the mulgara produces and raises young relatively quickly ( 2 ) .
as of july 2013 , this profile has followed woolley ' s ( 2005 ) treatment of dasycercus cristicauda . this treatment is conventionally accepted ( afd 2013 ; masters 2008 ; woolley 2008a ) . woolley ( 2005 ) investigated the taxonomic status of mulgaras and concluded on morphological and genetic grounds that there are two species : the crest - tailed mulgara ( d . cristicauda ) and the brush - tailed mulgara ( d . blythi ) . d . hillieri is a synonym of d . cristicauda ( woolley 2005 ) . dasycercus blythi is not listed under the epbc act .
continued expansion of the wedge - tailed shearwater , puffinus pacificus , nesting colonies on rottnest island , western australia .
historically , the species was known from the canning stock route and near rawlinna on the nullarbor plain in western australia , ooldea on the eastern edge of the nullarbor plain and the musgrave ranges in south australia , and sandringham station in queensland ( woolley et al . , 2013 ) . the brush - tailed mulgara ( d . blythi ) has been misidentified as the crest - tailed mulgara in the little sandy desert ( start et al . 2013 , cited in woolley et al . 2013 ) and the pilbara ( thompson & thompson 2008 , cited in woolley et al . 2013 ) .
chris has an ongoing research interest in the diet of insectivorous vertebrates and the co - evolution of insects and their predators . this work is mostly carried out in collaboration with dr chris pavey from the northern territory government . recent work on this topic has focussed on the diet of endangered central australian mammals including the southern marsupial - mole , brush - tailed mulgara , and kowari .
effects of cover reduction on mulgara dasycercus cristicauda ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) , rodent and i . . .
the crest - tailed mulgara has been recorded in the southern simpson desert , where the borders of the northern territory , queensland and south australia ( sa ) converge , and the tirari and strzelecki deserts of sa ( masters 2008 ) . records since 1990 indicate that the crest - tailed mulgara has a more restricted contemporary range than previously known , although a lack of survey effort in suitable habitat may be a factor ( woolley et al . , 2013 ) .
this desert marsupial mouse is well - adapted to its arid habitat . having evolved kidneys capable of producing highly concentrated urine , contributing to water conservation , the crest - tailed mulgara does not even need to drink , with its food providing it with adequate water ( 2 ) . the crest - tailed mulgara is mostly nocturnal , foraging at night when the temperature is cooler , whilst residing during the day in a burrow it digs to escape the harsh desert sun ( 2 ) . the burrow has a complex architecture , featuring tunnels , grass - lined nests , and numerous entrance holes ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . the crest - tailed mulgara is territorial , and marks its territory and burrow with urine , while odours produced from the scent glands are used in communication ( 5 ) . when threatened , the crest - tailed mulgara responds aggressively with bared teeth , hissing , growls , and shrieks ( 2 ) .
most medium - sized native mammals in central australia have declined or become extinct , but the brush - tailed mulgara hangs on as a conspicuously successful survivor . in this study , populations at the northern and southern extremities of the species’ range behaved similarly and used a wide range of food and other resources to cope with changing conditions . the ecological and physiological flexibility of the mulgara may be the reason why it has survived whereas other , more specialised , native mammals have disappeared . photograph by chris dickman .
like almost all small native mammals in the desert regions of central australia , the decline of the crest - tailed mulgara is at least partly due to habitat degradation from changed fire regimes and grazing , and predation by cats and foxes .
a fast , efficient hunter , its small size and endearing appearance belie the crest - tailed mulgara’s aggressive nature , and it will even tackle prey bigger than itself ( 2 ) . moving with a bounding gait amongst the sand dunes ( 2 ) , the crest - tailed mulgara preys upon insects , spiders , and even scorpions and small vertebrates , such as lizards , birds and rodents ( 2 ) . it is also known to scavenge upon carrion ( 5 ) .
the brush - tailed mulgara is endemic to australia , where it is widely distributed in arid regions of the central and western parts of the country . because the re - recognition of d . blythi as a species has been so recent the identity of museum specimens must be re - checked before the true range limits of both it and d . cristicauda can be determined ( woolley 2005 , 2008 ) .
mulgara - profile ( nsw office of environment and heritage ( nsw oeh ) , 2013m ) [ internet ] .
their recent reclassification as two distinct species has made it difficult to map their distribution as older records did not distinguish between the two species . however , a number of records for the crest - tailed mulgara are known from the simpson desert and north of south australia . the brush - tailed mulgara also has records from the simpson desert , as well as the western desert , and parts of southern northern territory . historically there are widespread records across central desert regions of australia , with steep declines since the 1930s . whether this applies to one or both species is unclear but both have suffered significant population reduction and fragmentation over the past 80 years .
the brush - tailed mulgara currently occurs in scattered populations at fairly low density , but may be locally abundant ( d . pearson pers . comm . ) – such as in the tanami desert and uluru national park ( gibson and cole 1992 ; masters 1993 , 1998 ) . the density of brush - tailed mulgaras fluctuates depending on long - term climatic conditions ( gibson and cole 1992 ) . the population also fluctuates annually , declining during the breeding season ( june to october ) and increasing following the influx of juveniles in the spring ( masters 1993 , 1997 , 1998 ) . there have been no recent declines , as the species appears to be relatively secure within its present range ( masters 2005 ) .
spatial ecology of the mulgara in arid australia : impact of fire history on home range size and burr . . .
masters , p . ( 2008 ) . crest - tailed mulgara . in : van dyck , s . & r . strahan , eds . the mammals of australia . page ( s ) 49 - 50 . 3rd edition . new holland publishers .
the crest - tailed mulgara is a mostly nocturnal marsupial , with a diet comprising a broad range of invertebrates and small vertebrates ( masters 2008 ) . during the day it shelters in burrow systems , typically located at the base of grass clumps or bushes ( woolley 1990 ) . it mostly occurs in sand dunes , with sparse vegetation ( including the tall grass zygochloa paradoxa ) , and in herblands and sparse grasslands bordering salt lakes ( masters 2008 ; pavey et al . 2011 ) . in an area of sympatry , the brush - tailed mulgara occupied sand plain and gibber plain , and the crest - tailed mulgara occupied sand ridges with tussock grasses ( woolley 2005 ; pavey et al . 2011 ) . reproduction is seasonal , with births in winter and early spring ( wood jones 1949 ; masters 2008 ) . sexual maturity is reached in the first year ( wood jones 1949 ) ; generation length is taken here to be two years .
knowledge about the spatial ecology of small mammals in relation to fire history in arid zones in general and australia in particular is limited . here , we report data on the spatial ecology of the brush - tailed mulgara dasycercus blythi in the hummock grasslands of uluru – kata tjuta national park during winter 2006 , the beginning of the breeding season for this species . about 73 % of the study . . . [ show full abstract ]
mulgaras are small carnivorous marsupials with short round ears , sandy coloured hair on their backs , light grey hair on their underside and a short tapering tail with a reddish tinge near the body and black . brush - tailed mulgara tails taper to a round sharp point , but crest - tailed mulgaras have a prominent mohican fringe towards the ends of their tails . males are larger than females , and both appear to keep growing throughout their lives . the largest males reach about 22cm ( head and body ) with a 12cm tail and weigh up to 190grams . females reach about three quarters of these dimensions . mulgara store fat in their tails , which can be very thick at the base .
land management practices need to be based around minimising the impacts of introduced herbivores and predators ( masters 2012 ) . management recommendations of more appropriate fire regimes , feral animal control and regulation of tourist activity have been made for the brush - tail mulgara at uluru ( reid et al . 1993 ) .
the survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals ( dsewpac 2011j ) includes survey design principles when planning a mammal survey and includes recommendations for survey methods for the crest - tailed mulgara ( as dasycercus hillieri ) and habitat that it occurs in ( dsewpac 2011j ) .
masters , p . 2008 . crest - tailed mulgara , dasycercus cristicauda . in : s . van dyck and r . strahan ( eds ) , the mammals of australia . third edition , pp . 49 - 50 . reed new holland , sydney , australia .
habitat use , population dynamics and species identification of mulgara , dasycercus blythi and d . cristicauda , in a zone of sympatry in central australia
the crest - tailed mulgara inhabits the inland sandy deserts of central australia , primarily amongst spinifex bush ( 2 ) . it has also been found in dunes dominated by sandhill canegrass ( zygochloa paradoxa ) , nitre bush ( nitraria billardierei ) grasslands , and sandhill canegrass flats near salt lakes ( 1 ) .
the crest - tailed mulgara is a small , robust marsupial mouse , with fine soft fur that is light sandy - brown with a dark grey base on the upperparts , and greyish - white on the underparts ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it has a short tail , with a reddish base and a prominent crest of black hairs near the tip , from which it gets its common name ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the eyes are large and the ears are thin and sparsely furred ( 4 ) . the male crest - tailed mulgara is larger than the female ( 4 ) .
like the lovely little western pygmy possum , the mulgara whiles away much of its life in a state of torpor . in the mulgara ' s case , this energy - preserving period of reduced physiological activity can last anywhere from three to 12 hours a day , which is perfect for pregnant mulgara mums that don ' t want to deal with being pregnant all the time . it ' s tough carrying around all that extra weight !
impacts of introduced herbivores and predators on mulgara populations , with particular reference to possible threshold densities , which will allow the broader management of the landscape .
manipulation of fire and grazing can be used to improve the foraging resources of endangered herbivores . we tested burning as a conservation management strategy for brush - tailed rock - wallabies and found that fire improves food resources but benefits are negated by grazing from larger macropods . recommendations are made for small - scale mosaic burning , with care taken to account for potentially negative grazing impacts . photograph by katherine tuft .
the crest - tailed mulgara maintains complicated , extensive burrows with multiple entrances ( woolley 1990 ) . the burrows are predominantly on the eastern side of dunes ( foulkes & canty 2000 ) . latrines are commonly located near the burrow entrance , with scats being up to 90 mm long and 6 mm wide ( masters 2012 ) .
awc protects significantly large areas of habitat for both species . kalamurina is the largest non - government reserve in australia and one of the largest in the world ; it covers nearly 7 , 000 square kilometres , linking lake eyre national park and simpson desert regional reserve . the property is a stronghold for the crest - tailed mulgara .
presence of mulgara in spinifex grassland indicates a healthy environment in which fire is well managed , grazing is at sustainable levels , and predator numbers are under control .
masters , p . ( 2012 ) . crest - tailed mulgara dasycercus cristicauda ( krefft , 1867 ) . in : curtis , l . k . , a . j . dennis , k . r . mcdonald , p . m . kyne & s . j . s . debus , eds . queensland ' s threatened animals . csiro publishing .
woolley , p . a . ( 1995 ) mulgara . in : strahan , r . ( ed . ) the mammals of australia . reed books , sydney .
this is the native australian mulgara , a close relation of the tasmanian devil and the quoll . with a length of 20cm - half of which is taken up by its tail - the mulgara is much smaller than its carnivorous cousins , but don ' t be fooled ! it ' s just as vicious and just as toothy .
the crest - tailed mulgara occurs in higher densities in the central part of the simpson desert , where vegetation cover is low and surface water is scarce , compared with surrounding pastoral properties on the fringes of the simpson desert ( masters 2012 ) . population densities fluctuate seasonally and populations may persist at locations at very low densities during periods of depressed resource availability .
work will include : • pitfall and elliot trapping across newhaven sanctuary • animal handling ( training will be provided if needed ) • vegetation surveys • insect surveys • conducting spooling / chemi - tagging trials on mulgara • attaching gps transmitters to mulgara work will be predominantly conducted during early mornings and late afternoons / nights allowing for some free time during the day .
jesse the mulgara is the leader of the dusty gulch freedom fighters , and is one of its three original members , with the other two being alexis the quoll and grayson the quokka .
the extent and reasons for the decline of the crest - tailed mulgara are unclear ( masters 2012 ) . the cat ( felis catus ) and the fox ( vulpes vulpes ) may periodically exert excessive predation and decimate , and possibly extirpate , populations . predation pressure is probably greatest a few years after heavy summer rainfall when predators have increased in numbers and rodent populations begin to crash ( masters 2012 ) .
masters , p . ( 1998 ) . the mulgara dasycercus cristicauda ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) at ulu r u national park , northern territory . australian mammalogy . 20 : 403 - 407 .
if you ' ve been wondering this whole time what a mulgara would look like with a tiny cape on , wonder no more . and here ' s another one having its nipples counted :
systematic surveys have found evidence of the crest - tailed mulgara at 137 of 289 sites in the central portion of the simpson desert north of lake eyre in south - west queensland and north - east sa ( foulkes & canty 2000 ) . the species was recorded from purni bore and horses hill area in sa in 1990 . the
mulgara
population studied at ethabuka station ( wa ) may possibly be this species ( chen et al . 1998 ) . the species was last recorded in sandringham station ( queensland ) in 1968 and subsequent surveys in 1971 and the 1990s were unsuccessful ( woolley 1990 ; masters 2012 ) .
a lean mulgara who stands a little over three feet tall , jesse has a fairly short muzzle , relatively small , triangular ears , and a fairly long , slender tail that bristles out near the tip .
conclusions : the results provided little support for our initial expectation that populations of d . blythi would behave differently in disparate parts of the species’ geographical range , and suggested instead that this mulgara exhibits a predictable life history , with limited demographic flexibility .
the crest - tailed mulgara is a carnivorous marsupial with a distinctive fin - like crest of black hairs on the tail . the coat is tan to ginger above and creamy white on the belly . females have eight nipples in the pouch . the hindfoot has long hair that folds over a third of the sole from lateral side . males are up to 230 mm long with a 125 mm long tail and weigh up to 185 g . females are up to 170 mm long with a 110 mm long tail and weigh up to 120 g ( masters 2008 ) .
chen , x . , c . r . dickman & m . b . thompson ( 1998 ) . diet of the mulgara , dasycercus cristicauda ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) , in the simpson desert , central australia . wildlife research . 25 : 233 - 242 .
grazing by the rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) , the camel ( camelus dromedarius ) and livestock may cause declines at certain thresholds . research has found that the abundance of the crest - tailed mulgara declines as that of the camel increases , although not so with the rabbit ( reid et al . 1993 ) . cattle also damage dunes and vegetation , which may cause detrimental habitat change ( masters 2012 ) . a site’s cumulative grazing history has been observed to alter flora composition within arid dune systems ( frank et al . 2013 ) , which is detrimental to the species .
a 1994 study on crest - tailed mulgaras led by zoologist fritz geiser from the department of zoology at the university of new england in armidale found that during the species ' reproductive season - which runs from june to december - 75 percent of the pregnant females fell frequently into the deep sleep of torpor .
the crest - tailed mulgara breeds from mid - may to october ( 5 ) . as with all marsupials , newly born mulgara are helpless , being born blind and furless . following birth , the young must succeed in climbing to the mother’s ‘pouch’ , which is little more than two folds of skin on the abdomen . the young are carried around attached to a teat for the next five weeks , where they undergo most of their development ( 2 ) . it is ‘survival of the fittest’ from birth , as often females give birth to a greater number of young than her eight nipples can suckle . failure to securely attach to a teat is fatal , as not only is the newborn bereft of the energy and nutrients it requires to complete development , but in the relatively exposed pouch it is also at risk of being dislodged as the female forages ( 2 ) .
the crest - tailed mulgara is an opportunistic or non - specialist carnivore , feeding on a range of invertebrates , lizards and small mammals . it forages along the dune crests and flanks , with forays down onto swales . scat samples ( recorded as dasycercus hillieri ) contained remains of vertebrates ( reptiles , birds , mammals ) , centipedes and insects ( orthoptera , coleoptera , lepidoptera , formicidae ) ( queale et al . 2000 ) . birds and frogs are eaten less frequently ( chen et al . 1998 ) . they have also been observed eating plant food ( fruits and seeds ) ( anon . 2000b ; masters 1998 ) .
thompson , g . g . & s . a . thompson ( 2007 ) . shape and spatial distribution of mulgara ( dasycercus cristicauda ) burrows , with comments on their presence in a burnt habitat and a translocation protocol . journal of the royal society of western australia . 90 : 195 - 202 .
ascription of red list status to the crest - tailed mulgara is difficult , in part because previous taxonomic confusion has made assessment of historic changes in population size and distribution difficult to interpret . furthermore , there are no reliable estimates of population size or trends across the species geographic range , and the detection and interpretation of long - term trends may be complicated by substantial short - term fluctuations in numbers of individuals related to rainfall conditions . the distribution of the crest - tailed mulgara is restricted , but larger than relevant threshold values ( i . e . extent of occurrence ( eoo ) > 20 , 000 km 2 and area of occupancy ( aoo ) > 2 , 000 km 2 ) . its population size has not been reliably estimated but is probably not substantially > 10 , 000 individuals during low rainfall years ; its largest subpopulation may have < 1 , 000 individuals . the population size is inferred to be undergoing continuing decline in parts of its range , although there is recent evidence that numbers have increased in at least some parts of its range following reduction in numbers of european rabbit numbers . at present , the species could be close to eligibility for vulnerable under criterion c2a ( i ) . further survey work should be undertaken to establish recent trends across the entire range of the species .
greater bilbies ( macrotis lagotis ) have been described as ecosystem engineers and their burrows are significant structures across an often featureless and harsh arid landscape . remote cameras were deployed at bilby burrows to determine whether bilby burrows were important structures for other species . cameras detected two mammal species , brush - tailed mulgara ( dasycercus blythi ) and spinifex hopping mice ( notomys alexis ) , permanently occupying bilby burrows , and a further two species , short - beaked echidnas ( tachyglossus aculeatus acanthion ) and sand goannas ( varanus gouldii ) , regularly using bilby burrows for shelter . an additional suite of 16 mammal , bird , reptile , amphibian and invertebrate species were detected interacting with bilby burrows . there was no difference in the number of species using disused or occupied bilby burrows , indicating that even disused bilby burrows are important structures for other species . we show that bilby burrows are used by a range of species and are analogous to the traditional , mostly north american , and commonly provided text book examples of the gopher tortoise and kangaroo rat . the disappearance of bilbies across at least 80 % of their former range and thus the disappearance of their burrows as important structural resources in a harsh , arid environment may have had important consequences for a range of species .
this study investigates the effect of cover reduction on the mulgara , dasycercus cristicauda , a small marsupial classified as vulnerable to extinction , which occurs in areas of central australia dominated by hummock grasslands . loss or degradation of spinifex has been implicated in population declines of this species previously , but the importance of cover in maintaining quality habitat . . . [ show full abstract ]
pavey , c . r . , c . e . m . nano , j . b . cooper , j . r . cole & p . j . mcdonald ( 2011 ) . habitat use , population dynamics and species identification of mulgara , dasycercus blythi and d . cristicauda , in a zone of sympatry in central australia . australian journal of zoology . 59 : 156 - 159 .
this species occupies spinifex ( triodia spp . ) grasslands , and burrows in flats between sand dunes . it is generally a solitary species that hunts at night , although it is not strictly nocturnal ( woolley 2008 ) . this species has a wide ranging diet that includes various types of invertebrates , reptiles , and small mammals ( chen et al . 1998 , masters 1998 , turner 2004 ) . it produces one litter per year ( lee et al . 1982 ) with a maximum litter size of six and a sex ratio of 1 : 1 ( baker 1996 ; masters 1997 , 1998 ) . the breeding season is june to october ( masters 1997 ) . individuals of both sexes can survive for more than one breeding season , with only a very small proportion of the population surviving to the third year ( masters 1997 ) . in captivity brush - tailed mulgaras can live up to five years of age ( woolley 1971 ) . this species is solitary with a home range of 1 . 4 to 14 ha ( manson 1994 , masters 2003 ) .
pavey , c . r . , nano , c . e . m . , cooper , s . j . b . , cole , j . r . , and mcdonald , p . j . 2011 . habitat use , population dynamics and species identification of mulgara , dasycercus blythi and d . cristicauda , in a zone of sympatry in central australia . australian journal of zoology 59 : 156–169 .
information on the movements , social structure and burrow use of the mulgara , dasycercus cristicauda , was collected using radio - telemetry at two study areas in central australia , one located near the granites gold mine in the tanami desert and the other located on the edge of uluru kata tjuta national park . the average home - range size was not significantly different between the two study areas . . . [ show full abstract ]
the primary specialization among marsupial predators is that of size : prior to the massive environmental changes that came about with the arrival of humans about 50 , 000 years ago , there were several very large carnivores , none of them members of the dasyuromorphia and all of them now extinct . those marsupial predators among the dasyuromorphians that survived into historical times ranged from the wolf - sized thylacine to the tiny long - tailed planigale , which at 4 to 6 grams is less than half the size of a mouse . most present - day dasyuromorphians , however , tend towards the lower end of the size scale , typically between about 15 or 20 grams and about 2 kilograms , or from the size of a domestic mouse to that of a small domestic cat .
between the 1960s and early 2000s only one species , dasycercus cristicauda , had been recognised . during that time , there has been confusion about the names for the two genetically distinct forms identified on the basis of unpublished information by m . adams of the south australian museum in the 1990s . in the action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes , maxwell and colleagues ( 1996 ) called the two clades d . cristicauda ( mulgara ) and d . hillieri ( ampurta ) . woolley has now determined that d . hillieri is a synonym of d . cristicauda and that d . cristicauda sensu maxwell and colleagues ( 1996 ) is really d . blythi . woolley also notes that it is impossible to tell which species was known as ampurta by aboriginal people ( woolley 2005 ) . see also woolley ( 2006 ) .
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dasycercus blythi was originally described as distinct from d . cristicauda , but for more than thirty years it was assumed to be synonymous with that species ( e . g . , groves 1993 , 2005 ; woolley 1995 ; maxwell et al . 1996 ) . adams et al . ( 2000 ) conducted a limited molecular study of the genus dasycercus and determined that there were two species to which the names d . cristicauda and d . hillieri were assigned . it has since been established that the correct names for the two species are d . blythi and d . cristicauda ( woolley 2005 ) .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
there are no known major threats to this species . its habitat has been adversely affected by the grazing of introduced species ( e . g . , camels , rabbits , cattle ) , and changes to the fire regime . however , losses in spinifex cover probably do not adversely affect the species as long as at least 15 % cover is maintained ( masters et al . 2003 ) . it is also possible that predation by introduced feral cats and foxes may threaten this species . climate change is likely to pose a threat to this species in the future ( masters 2005 ) .
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waite , e . r . 1904 ,
description of a new phascogale from north western australia
, records of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 122 - 124
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 46b5fa20 - a062 - 4130 - b834 - e5e2c079d25c
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 84060de9 - 439f - 4cd8 - b83a - 4c1a89266794
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c2ae0640 - ba16 - 4daa - aebe - f2a4657c4ba2
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 740b3457 - cb72 - 4341 - aef2 - f235d9c8153e
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 324740
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
recovery plan required , included on the commenced list ( 1 / 11 / 2009 ) .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008 ) .
survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 5
( department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .
enhancing biodiversity hotspots along western queensland stock routes ( queensland department of environment and resource management ( qld derm ) , 2009a ) [ management plan ] .
listed as near threatened ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )
maxwell , s . , burbidge , a . a . , and morris , k . ( eds ) ( 1996 ) . the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
dasycercus hillieri was removed from the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act ) list of threatened species on 14 december 2013 .
home range and movement data are limited , but the species is probably sedentary .
the main threat to breeding success is lack of prey due to climatic variance , fire or disturbance . the species is more sedentary than many other desert insectivore / carnivores and therefore more sensitive to temporal fluctuation in food or habitat ( masters 1998 ) . the strict annual breeding cycle with only a single litter could make the species particularly sensitive to threatening processes such as fire or drought .
climate change could have catastrophic effects in the next 50 years , and may lead to higher mean temperatures , decrease in effective rainfall and increase in occurrence of extreme weather ( masters 2012 ) .
research and monitoring has focused on genetics , past and present distribution and habitat requirements ( masters 2012 ) . future research should focus on ( masters 2012 ) :
arid lands environment centre ( wa ) received $ 19 000 of funding through the threatened species network community grants in 2001 - 02 , part of which was for a three week survey along the canning stock route to gather information on the distribution , status and habitat requirements of the ampurta . information was to be used for formulation of a joint national recovery plan and to provide information on other nationally threatened species .
anon ( 2000b ) . ghost bat - macroderma gigas . species under threat - world conservation monitoring centre .
australian faunal directory ( afd ) ( 2013 ) . australian faunal directory . available from : urltoken .
department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2011j ) . survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 5 . epbc act policy statement : canberra , act : dsewpac . available from : urltoken .
foulkes , j . & p . canty ( 2000 ) . distribution and habitat description of the ampurta ( dasycercus
hillieri
) in the simpson desert . in : newsletter of the australian mammal society . november : 9 .
frank , a . s . k . , c . r . dickman , g . m . wardle & a . c . greenville ( 2013 ) . interactions of grazing history , cattle removal and time since rain drive divergent short - term responses by desert biota . plos one . 8 ( 7 ) : e68466 .
maxwell , s . , a . a . burbidge & k . morris ( 1996 ) . the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . wildlife australia , environment australia . available from : urltoken .
reid , j . r . w . , j . a . kerle & l . baker ( 1993 ) . mammals . reid , j . r . w . , kerle , j . a . & morton , s . r . , eds . uluru fauna . the distribution and abundance of vertebrate fauna of uluru ( ayers rock - mount olga ) national park , n . t . kowari . 4 : 69 - 78 . anpws : canberra .
woolley , p . ( 2005 ) . the species of dasycercus peters , 1875 ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) . memoirs of museum victoria . 62 ( 2 ) : 213 - 221 .
woolley , p . a . ( 1990 ) . mulgaras , dasycercus cristicauda ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) : their burrows and records of attempts to collect live animals between 1966 and 1979 . australian mammalogy . 13 : 65 - 70 .
woolley , p . a . , a . haslem & m . westerman ( 2013 ) . past and present distribution of dasycercus : towards a better understanding of the identity of specimens in cave deposits and the conservation status of the currently recognised species d . blythi and d . cristicauda ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) . australian journal of zoology . online : a - j . urltoken
commonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .
department of the environment and heritage ( 2006hc ) . dasycercus cristicauda in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . canberra : deh . available from : urltoken .
department of the environment and heritage ( 2006hd ) . dasycercus hillieri in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . canberra : deh . available from : urltoken .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008adh ) . threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by rabbits . canberra , act : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2008 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008zzp ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2008 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 23 - jul - 2015 .
environment australia ( ea ) ( 1999a ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation by the european red fox . biodiversity group , environment australia . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .
environment australia ( ea ) ( 1999b ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats . biodiversity group , environment australia . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .
environment australia ( ea ) ( 1999f ) . non - current threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by feral rabbits . biodiversity group , environment australia . canberra : environment australia biodiversity group . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .
van dyck , s . & r . strahan ( 2008 ) . the mammals of australia , third edition . page ( s ) 880 . sydney : reed new holland .
epbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .
this database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . dasycercus cristicauda in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 05 : 29 : 38 + 1000 .
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compiled by gabriel crowley & mark ziembicki based on woinarski j . c . z . , pavey c . , kerrigan r . , cowie i . & ward s . 2007 . lost from our landscape - threatened species of the northern territory . northern territory department of natural resources , environment and the arts , darwin .
and other species dependent on mature spinifex by managing fire . introduce a fire regime that ensures a mosaic of habitats burnt at different times , with no areas being burnt more frequently than every three to five years . to do this , some areas will need to be burnt most years in order to create breaks in the fuel load . fires should only be lit under mild weather conditions , when extent of burn can be controlled . discourage buffel grass , which increases fire hazard by filling in bare patches between spinifex clumps . spell some country from grazing each year to allow spinifex to mature into large clumps .
volunteers will be required to sleep in swags / mozzie domes ( which will be provided ) but will have access to full kitchen and bathroom facilities . all expenses , including travel , food and accommodation , will be covered ( ex . alice springs ) .
dates : fieldwork will run from sunday , 5th may until thursday , 16th may 2013 . this project will be conducting similar field trips every 3 months ( feb , may , aug , nov ) for the next 2 years , so if you are interested but are unable to make it this may please contact jenny to discuss future volunteer opportunities .
if you are interested or need any further information , please contact jenny molyneux : this e - mail address is being protected from spambots . you need javascript enabled to view it or 0407 364 806
fed on a rich supply of milk , the young grow rapidly and once they are too large to be carried beneath the female’s belly they then cling to the female’s back as she forages ( 2 ) . the juveniles are weaned within three to five months and reach sexual maturity at ten to eleven months . these hardy little animals live up to seven years , a considerable lifespan for a small marsupial ( 2 ) .


the kihansi spray toad , nectophrynoides asperginis , is a small toad endemic to tanzania .

the species is live-bearing and insectivorous .

the kihansi spray toad is currently categorized as " extinct in the wild " by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , though the species persists in ex situ , captive breeding populations .

kihansi spray toad

a tiny toad of just two centimetres in length , the kihansi spray toad is endemic to a two - hectare area of kihansi gorge in tanzania .
activity patterns and fine - scale resource partitioning in the gregarious kihansi spray toad nectophrynoides asperginis in captivity .
female kihansi spray toad with her young toadlet . courtesy of the wildlife conservation society . photo : julie larsen maher
interestingly , the kihansi spray toad does not have a tadpole stage , with the female giving birth to live toadlets .
activity patterns and fine - scale resource partitioning in the gregarious kihansi spray toad nectophrynoides asperginis in captivity . - pubmed - ncbi
, kihansi spray toadthe kihansi spray toad , a dwarf toad , lives only in the fine mist created by the cascading waters of the kihansi falls in the southern udzungwa mountains of tanzania . it is threatened with extinction by the diversion of water for a hydroelectric plant , and in spite of attempts to install artificial spray systems to preserve its habitat , a captive breeding programme in us zoos may be the toad’s only hope for survival
the kihansi spray toad has yellow or golden skin speckled with yellow and brown marks on the upperparts and with translucent - white skin on the underside .
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the kihansi spray toad was first discovered in 1996 , living in a five - acre micro - habitat created by the spray of nearby waterfalls in the kihansi gorge . in 1999 , the construction of a hydroelectric dam was predicted to dramatically change the kihansi spray toad’s habitat . the micro - habitat where the toad lived was dependent on the mist created by the waterfalls in the gorge . the dam , generating nearly one - fourth of tanzania’s electrical supply , reduced the flow of the kihansi falls by 90 percent , drastically lessening the mist zone .
once considered to be extinct in the wild , the kihansi spray toad has been the subject of intensive conservation measures and has now been successfully reintroduced to the wild .
a newborn kihansi spray toad clings to the back of an adult female at the bronx zoo in new york . photograph : julie larsen maher / wildlife conservation society / ap
the kihansi spray toad is a diurnal species ( 6 ) which is known to feed on small insects ( 3 ) , including flies and fly larvae . it also eats some mites and springtails ( 2 ) . in captivity , the kihansi spray toad has been known to feign death or eject water from its bladder when disturbed ( 2 ) .
krajik , k . ( 2006 ) . ' ' the lost world of the kihansi toad : newsfocus . ' '
the lifespan of the kihansi spray toad in the wild is unknown , but in captivity this rare species has been recorded living to about three years of age ( 3 ) .
interestingly , the kihansi spray toad is reported to have flaps over its nostrils , which are thought to be a special adaptation for surviving in the amphibian’s waterfall spray zone habitat . the toes of this species are partially webbed ( 2 ) .
the kihansi spray toad is classified as extinct in the wild ( ew ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and is listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) .
lee , s . , zippel , k . , ramos , l . , and searle , j . ( 2006 ) . ' ' captive - breeding programme for the kihansi spray toad
the call of the kihansi spray toad is described as being soft and simple , consisting of short call notes , parts of which are out of the range of human hearing ( 6 ) .
text to add : kihansi spray toad ( nectophrynoides asperginis ) have declined due to the desiccation of their habitat due to a dam which has resulted in reduced water spray leading to a drying out of the vegetation and mist on which this species is dependent .
when we look back at the lessons learned from our decades - long work in biodiversity conservation , the kihansi catchment conservation and management project ( kccmp ) and its central character , the tiny kihansi spray toad , stand out as an unprecendented success story .
this toad is known only from one location encompassing about 2 hectares , the kihansi river gorge upper falls spray wetland in the udzungwa mountains , tanzania . it has been found at several sites within the spray zone along the escarpments of the gorge , in rocky , mist - shrouded wetland spray meadow . vegetation includes club moss (
other conservation measures put into place included implementing various field studies , such as assessments of the kihansi spray toad’s diet , studying the microclimate and vegetation of the gorge , screening toads for the chytrid fungus , and constructing bridges and walkways within the toad’s habitat to prevent trampling damage . work was also undertaken to establish the required water flow levels in the gorge . all of these measures provided invaluable data for the long - term conservation of the kihansi spray toad ( 3 ) .
as its name suggests , the kihansi spray toad is endemic to the kihansi falls of the kihansi river gorge in the udzungwa mountains of eastern tanzania ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . this species was previously known only from a two - hectare area ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .
the kihansi spray toad is a highly specialized species . it has adapted to giving birth to fully formed live young to avoid having eggs washed away by the spray from the powerful waterfalls of the gorge . it has the smallest range of any tetrapod ( four legged vertebrate ) in the world – restricted to about five acres . a kihansi spray toad can sit comfortably on a dime and weighs only a few grams . meanwhile , its young can fit on the head of a pin .
the kihansi spray toad , nectophrynoides asperginis , is listed as ‘extinct in the wild’ on the iucn redlist of threatened species . it was only known from one locality : in the spray zone of the kihansi falls in the kihansi gorge , of the udzungwa mountains , of eastern tanzania . currently , an experimental reintroduction is being undertaken in the wild and the species breeds in captivity in the toledo zoo and bronx zoo .
the kihansi spray toad is about the size of a human thumbnail and is gold in coloration . it is unique among toads in that it does not have a free swimming tadpole stage . females give birth to froglets .
observations of the kihansi spray toad’s social interactions indicate that this species has adapted to the high volume of ambient noise produced by the waterfalls by communicating at short - range when in visual contact with a conspecific ( 6 ) .
the kihansi spray toad gets its name from living in the mist zone produced by a single high water fall , upon which it depends to survive . back in 2000 , the opening of hydropower dam upstream seriously affected the flow of water from the kihansi gorge waterfalls , cutting it by 90 % . the reduction in the volume of spray , particularly in the dry season , and the subsequent alteration of vegetation composition led the toad’s population to plummet .
while the toledo zoo and bronx zoo have managed the assurance populations of kihansi spray toads , the tanzanian government has managed the lower kihansi environment management project ( lkemp ) in the gorge . a gravity - fed misting system was installed after construction of the dam to artificially replicate the waterfall’s spray that maintained the toad’s verdant , moist five - acre microhabitat in the gorge .
this species is thought to reproduce at about nine months old ( 3 ) , breeding by internal fertilisation ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . it is thought that the male kihansi spray toad may produce pheromones in glands located under patches between the thighs and the body , and in captivity males have been observed stretching their hind legs out behind them to display the patches as they call . as in many amphibians , the kihansi spray toad mates in amplexus ( 2 ) .
also in 2010 , a team of conservation experts including the iucn ssc amphibian specialist group and the iucn ssc re - introduction specialist group came together to develop a plan to reintroduce the kihansi spray toad back into its natural habitat . by this time , the sprinkler system that had been installed in 2000 to recreate the spray of the river was working properly and had helped restore the habitat to conditions suitable for the kihansi spray toad . bridges and walkways were also built to allow long term monitoring of the reintroduced species without causing further disturbance to the habitat .
channing , a . , finlow - bates , k . s . , haarklau , s . e . and hawkes , p . g . ( 2006 ) . ' ' the biology and recent history of the critically endangered kihansi spray toad
for nine years , a team of herpetologists at the wcs’s bronx zoo has been working behind the scenes on a conservation program intended to save the kihansi spray toad from disappearing altogether by propagating the species for eventual reintroduction into its natural habitat .
once abundant in a tiny area , a population of around 17 , 000 kihansi spray toads lived in vegetation that was soaked by the spray of the kihansi falls . a serious population decline occurred after a dam was built upstream on the kihansi river which reduced the flow of water to the gorge by 90 % and altered the habitat . a sprinkler system was constructed in 2000 which restored much of the vegetation and the population of the kihansi spray toad recovered . however the toad population declined dramatically in 2003 and although chytrid fungus has been implicated as a potential factor given that it was confirmed in deceased toads , the contributions of each threat factor towards this species’ demise in the wild are still not fully understood .
the original gef - funded project aimed to protect the biodiversity of the kihansi area in the udzungwa mountains of tanzania – part of one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots . a central activity of the project , and a historical accomplishment , is the reintroduction of the kihansi spray toad , a species that was extinct in the wild , back to the kihansi gorge . conserving the toad and its habitat has been a long and technically challenging process , involving a wide range of national and international partners .
unfortunately in 2005 , there was an outbreak of the amphibian disease called chyrtid fungus that has devastated amphibian populations around the world . the kihansi spray toad population crashed from 20 , 000 to zero , and the species was declared extinct in the wild .
the kihansi spray toad has very specific habitat requirements , being found only in rocky wetland spray meadows of upper waterfalls ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . these areas are moistened by natural mists from the rapid waterfalls ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , which create conditions of high humidity and low temperature ( 3 ) . the preferred habitat of the kihansi spray toad is dominated by moss - covered rocks and mossy vegetation ( 3 ) , including club moss ( selaginella kraussiana ) ( 2 ) , and occurs at elevations between 600 and 940 metres ( 1 ) .
in 2000 , the construction of a hydroelectric dam in the kihansi gorge of tanzania was predicted to dramatically change the kihansi spray toad’s habitat . the micro - habitat where the toad lived was dependent on the mist created by the waterfalls in the gorge . although this dam is vital to the tanzanian economy in that it generates one - third of tanzania’s total electrical supply , its construction reduced the original size of the kihansi falls to 10 percent of its former flow , drastically lessening the mist zone in which the toads thrived .
the construction of a dam on the kihansi river is the most likely cause of the kihansi spray toad’s extinction . the dam cut off 90 % of the water flow to the gorge , so an artificial sprinkler system was built to restore the spray zone wetlands . however , failures of this sprinkler system in 2003 combined with an outbreak of chytridiomycosis in the toads , or possibly other factors , were enough to cause serious decline and extinction .
bronx , ny – february 2 , 2010 – the wildlife conservation society’s bronx zoo announced today the opening of a new exhibit featuring the kihansi spray toad , a species listed as extinct in the wild last year by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) .
this species lived only in soaked herbaceous vegetation in the spray zone of the kihansi falls . an artificial gravity - fed sprinkler system is currently in place to mimic the original conditions of the spray zone . the toad breeds by internal fertilization , with females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born . clutch size varies from 5–13 offspring ( channing
rija , a . a . , khatibu , f . h . , kohi , e . m . and muheto , r . ( 2011 ) status and reintroduction of the kihansi spray toad nectophrynoides asperginis in kihansi gorge : challenges and opportunities . proceedings of the 7th tawiri scientific conference , 2 - 4 december 2009 , arusha , tanzania : 11 - 20 .
the story of the kihansi gorge and its protagonist , the tiny kihansi spray toad , show how people working together from around the world can find solutions to conserve biodiversity for multiple benefits . this project is just one of thousands the gef has supported to protect and conserve the wealth of animals and plants found on earth in the places that need help the most .
said dr . cristián samper , wcs president and ceo : “the reintroduction of the kihansi spray toad to the kihansi gorge is a momentous achievement in conservation . it clearly shows how zoos can play an important role in conservation . this has been a truly global effort to save a species . this project proves that through partnership and science – wildlife can prevail . ”
newly hatched kihansi spray toads are dark grey ( 2 ) or purplish ( 3 ) on the upperparts and have white undersides , developing blue - grey streaks on the sides and head as they develop ( 2 ) . in captivity , young kihansi spray toads develop the yellow skin colouring and brown striping at about six to eight weeks of age ( 2 ) .
the kihansi spray toad ( nectophrynoides asperginis ) , a small tanzanian toad that was declared extinct in the wild in 2009 , has made a comeback due in part to breeding programs at the toledo and bronx zoos . the zoos were able to breed more than 2 , 500 toads , all which were released into their native habitat this week , according to a press release put out by global wildlife conservation .
arch , v . s . , richards - zawaki , c . l . and feng , a . s . ( 2011 ) acoustic communication in the kihansi spray toad ( nectophrynoides asperginis ) : insights from a captive population . journal of herpetology , 45 ( 1 ) : 45 - 49 .
( anura : bufonidae ) from the kihansi gorge , udzungwa mountains , tanzania . ' '
the kccmp project demonstrated the adoption of a collaborative , experimentally - driven , and adaptive approach to conserving the kihansi spray toad . the third phase of the kccmp project , worth $ 5 . 95 million , extends between 2014 and 2018 and involves the dissemination of knowledge on conservation of the environment to further extend and enhance the conservation of critically endangered species and their habitat in the kihansi catchment .
stomach content analysis indicates that wild kihansi spray toads prefer to feed on dipterids and dipterid larvae , but also consume some acarine mites as well as springtails ( lee et al . 2006 ) .
lower kihansi hydropower project : immediate rescue and emergency measures . final specialist report : amphibian studies .
in addition , the construction of the dam is believed to have reduced the water quality in the region ( 3 ) . from an estimated 20 , 000 or more kihansi spray toads in 1999 in the upper spray wetland alone , the population suffered a devastating decline and by january 2004 only 3 individuals were seen in the wild ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . no further kihansi spray toads were sighted after this ( 1 ) , and the species was declared extinct in the wild in 2009 ( 2 ) .
a key factor in the dramatic decline of the kihansi spray toad is believed to be the construction in 2000 of a dam upstream of the toad’s habitat as part of the lower kihansi hydropower project to produce electricity . this development cut off 90 percent of the original water flow in the area , reducing the volume of spray being produced by the falls , particularly during the dry season ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the reduction in available moisture led to a change in the composition of the wetland vegetation ( 1 ) ( 3 ) , enabling the overgrowth of other plant species which previously remained in the forest ( 3 ) .
first discovered and described in the mid - to late 1990s ( 3 ) ( 5 ) , the kihansi spray toad is a tiny amphibian with yellow or golden skin speckled with yellow and brown marks on the upperparts . some individuals of this species may have dark bands along the sides which are bordered by paler striping ( 2 ) .
recently more than 2 , 000 kihansi spray toads ( nectophrynoides asperginis ) , an amphibian species that was declared extinct in the wild in 2009 , made the long journey from toledo , ohio , and bronx , new york , to africa . they were returning to their native habitat in the kihansi gorge in tanzania .
in 2010 , 100 kihansi spray toads were returned to tanzania , where a propagation center at the university of dar es salaam allowed for the establishment of a third assurance population and preparations for the species’ eventual repatriation .
the underside of the kihansi spray toad is translucent - whitish , and organs such as the liver and intestines can be seen through the skin . in gravid females , the developing larvae press up against the skin of the toad’s underside , giving it a bluish - green hue ( 2 ) . male and female kihansi spray toads are generally similar in appearance , although the females are usually slightly larger than the males ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , and are typically more rotund when gravid ( 2 ) . the male sometimes has more dark pores around its head and shoulders , and may develop dark patches at the tops of its thighs during the breeding season ( 2 ) .
the toad was discovered in 1996 in the spray meadows at the base of tanzania ' s kihansi falls . the construction of the lower kihansi hydropower project dam led to the near destruction of the meadows , which is the toad ' s primary habitat . in 2000 , 499 toads were transferred to zoos in the united states in an effort to start a breeding program . the toledo zoo in ohio and the bronx zoo in new york were the only zoos that were able to successfully breed the toads . in 2010 , tanzania received its first captive colony from the zoos .
one hundred extremely rare kihansi spray toads , a species last seen in tanzania in 2004 after their habitat was destroyed by a new hydroelectric dam , have been flown home from the bronx and toledo zoos in the us .
“the biggest challenge is to establish a long - term sustainable kihansi spray toad population in the gorge , ” continued dr . newmark . “the best predictor of success for amphibian reintroductions is the number of animals which are reintroduced . thus , our objective over the next four years is to reintroduce as many toads back to the gorge as possible . ”
three years later construction of the hydroelectric dam drastically reduced the waterfall ' s flow , and the blanket of mist that gave the kihansi spray toads their name disappeared . soon , so too did the amphibians . with no sightings for five years , the toad was declared to be extinct in the wild by the international union for the conservation of nature last year .
these tiny toads are unique in that they live in a micro - habitat—it was created by the spray of nearby waterfalls in the kihansi gorge and covers only five acres . this is the smallest range of any known vertebrate species .
other factors implicated in the kihansi spray toad population crash include the arrival of the deadly chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , which may have been introduced by construction workers when building the dam , as well as the encroachment of non - native plants ( 3 ) and the use of pesticides upstream ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .
in 1990 , a hydroelectric dam was constructed that reduced the spray of the falls by 90 percent and so lessened the mist zone that the toads needed for survival . the toad population was also devastated by the chytrid fungus , which has devastated amphibian populations worldwide .
an ovoviviparous species , the kihansi spray toad gives birth to live young , bypassing the tadpole stage ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the toad larvae are retained internally by the female , and little toadlets are born ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , which are usually about five millimetres in length ( 2 ) . clutch size usually varies between 5 and 13 offspring ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , although may be as large as 24 in the wild and 28 in captivity ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
new york – dec . 11 , 2012 – the wildlife conservation society’s bronx zoo , the toledo zoo , tanzanian government , world bank and other partners have reintroduced 2 , 000 kihansi spray toads into the kihansi gorge in tanzania . this is the first example of an amphibian species that had been declared extinct in the wild being reintroduced into its native habitat .
as the spray toad population rapidly declined , an agreement between wcs and the tanzanian government was reached . bronx zoo scientists and tanzanian officials collected an assurance colony of 499 kihansi spray toads from the gorge . the small colony was brought back to the u . s . to initiate the off - site conservation program . special microhabitats meeting all the environmental parameters necessary for the toads to survive were replicated in bio - secure facilities at the bronx zoo and later the toledo zoo . both zoos were successful in breeding .
in 2012 , 2 , 500 kihansi spray toads were flown from captive breeding facilities in the usa to tanzania , where some individuals were released into the wild after a period of acclimatisation . more releases are expected in the future ( 7 ) .
following an agreement between wcs and the government of tanzania , wcs scientists and tanzanian officials collected an assurance colony of 499 kihansi spray toads from the gorge . the small colony was brought back to new york to initiate the off - site conservation program .
the serious decline and extinction of this species appears tp be related to the lower kihansi hydropower project , which involved the construction of a dam upstream on the kihansi river in 2000 . the dam cut off 90 % of the original water flow to the gorge , thereby hugely reducing the volume of spray , particularly in the dry season , as well as altering the vegetational composition .
this species was a micro - endemic of the kihansi falls , in the kihansi gorge , in the udzungwa mountains , eastern tanzania , at 600 - 940 m asl . its global range covered an area of less than two hectares around the kihansi falls , and searches for it around other waterfalls on the escarpment of the udzungwa mountains have not located any additional populations ( channing
for the first time at wcs’s bronx zoo , visitors will be able to see and learn about the kihansi spray toad . the exhibit is as unique as its inhabitants . keeping the toads comfortable necessitated the construction of a specialized system that filters , cools , and treats the water with ozone . the treated water is then delivered to the animals through a series of nozzles that create a fine mist within the enclosure .
in an attempt to save the dwindling wild population of kihansi spray toads , a special sprinkler system was developed and deployed during 2000 and 2001 at three wetland meadows to try and mimic the natural mists previously produced by the rapid waterfalls ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .
following successful trials , the first release of the kihansi spray toad back into the wild took place on 29 october 2012 . a total of 2 , 500 toads had been flown from the usa to tanzania four months before and acclimatized to their new surroundings before being released back into their native habitat . more releases are expected in the future as researchers work towards the goal of establishing a population that is able to sustain itself .
reference : rija , a . , khatibu , f . & mwamende , k . ( 2010 ) reclaiming the lost world : kihansi spray toad re - introduction in tanznaia . in p . s . soorae ( ed . ) , global re - introduction perspectives : additional case - studies from around the globe . ( pp . 66 - 71 ) . abu dhabi : iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group & environment agency , abu dhabi .
in collaboration with the national environment management council ( nemc ) , the gef supported a series of activities to re - establish good habitat conditions in the kihansi gorge and maintain captive breeding populations , with the goal of eventually re - introducing it into the wild . among other activities , the project supported the captive breeding of the toad at the bronx and toledo zoos in the us and two captive breeding facilities in tanzania . it also supported genetic sequencing of the strain of chytrid fungus found in kihansi , and the ecological monitoring of water quality and quantity in the kihansi gorge .
in 2000 , as part of an effort to stop the extinction of the kihansi spray toad , the tanzanian government invited the wildlife conservation society to collect some of these toads and take them to the usa where they were bred in captivity at both bronx zoo and toledo zoo . this population grew from an initial 499 toads to over 6 , 000 today . in 2010 a captive colony was established in tanzania by the university of dar salaam and national environmental management council researchers .
the small , yellowish toad once occurred in large numbers but was only found in a verdant , moist five - acre microhabitat in the kihansi gorge of tanzania . this species is unusual among toads ; females give birth to live , fully - formed young , rather than laying eggs that hatch into free - living tadpoles .
in a multi - pronged approach involving partnerships across sectors , the kccmp project began its work . the gef - funded project , implemented by the world bank , took measures to set up an artificial gravity - fed sprinkler system to mimic the natural spray of the kihansi ecosystem with the remaining water flow .
making sure species have suitable habitat to return to is also necessary for successful outcomes . creating a robust captive population doesn’t do much good if the animal’s natural home is bulldozed over during its stint in the zoo . another challenge is artificially replicating very specific habitats , such as that of the kihansi spray toad , a tiny amphibian whose survival requires the light mistings of a single waterfall in tanzania . it can be done , but figuring out when to invest in such strategies is key .
quinn , c . h . , ndangalasi , h . j . , gerstle , j . , and lovett , j . c . ( 2005 ) . ' ' effect of the lower kihansi hydropower project and post - project mitigation measures on wetland vegetation in kihansi gorge , tanzania . ' '
the decline of this species was unintentionally caused by human alteration of the environment . efforts to keep the toad from going extinct have illustrated just how difficult it is to reverse a near extinction .
future work to be done also includes maintaining critical gorge infrastructure ( spray irrigation systems , walkways and bridge , research station ) , continuing support for international and national collaboration among scientists and organizations with expertise in amphibian reintroductions and conservation , and developing a strategy for enhancing the long - term financial sustainability for managing the kihansi gorge ecosystem .
scientists who worked on the project suspect that a combination of habitat loss , exposure to pesticide , and the emergence of infective chytrid fungus led to the toad ' s original demise in the wild .
luckily , before they could completely disappear from the kihansi gorge , 499 remaining individuals were moved from the wild to us zoos for captive breeding . zoo staff had to learn how to raise and successfully grow a population of this toad in captivity , and with hard work , the populations grew and the species was released into its native habitat with the new sprinkler system .
“the wcs bronx zoo has been working with our partners for more than a decade to save the kihansi spray toad with the ultimate goal of reintroducing it back into the wild , ” said jim breheny , executive vice president and general director of wcs zoos & aquarium and director of the bronx zoo . “the curators in the bronx zoo and in the toledo zoo – whose expertise allowed them to develop a successful husbandry and propagation program for these unique little toads – have helped to ensure the reintroduction of an important living component back into the tanzanian ecosystem . ”
organizations involved in reintroducing the kihansi toad to the wild include the wildlife conservation society’s bronx zoo , the toledo zoo , tanzanian government , world bank , university of dar es salaam , international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , wildlife division and tanzania wildlife research institute , sokoine university of agriculture , tanzania electric supply company , and local tanzanian villagers all took part .
a misting system designed to mimic the spray of the kihansi falls prior to the dam ' s construction was built in 2000 and has been running ever since . this system enabled the return of the vegetation and the invertebrates that the toads relied on to survive . a successful soft release of the toads involved keeping them in mesh cages in the meadows at the base of the falls .
after being propagated at wcs’s bronx zoo for nine years , the project is entering the repatriation stage where wcs is working with the government of tanzania and several international partners to return a small population to a facility at the university of dar es salaam within the next year . the tanzanian government has also been managing the lower kihansi environment management project in the gorge . a system of sprinklers , replicating the toad’s habitat , has been installed in preparation for the species’ return . the ultimate goal of wcs and partners is to return the toads to the kihansi gorge when habitat conditions can be assured for their long - term survival .
scientists are still debating the ultimate cause of extinction of this species in the wild , but it was probably a combination of habitat change and the emergence of infective chytrid fungus , which is responsible for alarming crashes and extinctions of amphibian species in many parts of the world . the only remaining population of kihansi spray toads consists of more than 4 , 000 individuals residing at wcs’s bronx zoo and the toledo zoo .
“the wildlife conservation society is taking a leading role to ensure this toad does not disappear from the planet by playing an active role in its conservation , ” said jim breheny , wcs senior vice president of living institutions and director of the bronx zoo .
) and pesticides used upstream , but these factors are considered secondary to the effects of the dam cutting off the waterfall spray . these topics are discussed in quinn et al . ( 2005 ) and summarized in krajik ( 2006 ) .
the species was first discovered in 1996 during an environmental impact study for a large new hydroelectric dam in the udzungwa mountains , in southern tanzania . the toads lived exclusively in a five - acre zone under the spray of a waterfall .
this toad is not known from any protected areas . sufficient minimum bypass flow from the dam is required to maintain the spray habitat and an artificial sprinkler system is in place to provide these conditions - this is especially important in the dry season . captive breeding is ongoing in toledo and new york bronx zoos , and a captive population was established at the university of dar es salaam in 2010 . soft - release experiments , as well as full re - introduction , are ongoing and the reintroduced population is under regular monitoring . it is listed on cites appendix i .
we are very optimistic that they will acclimatise soon and be taken to their homeland in kihansi gorge in the near future ,
said anna maembe , of the tanzanian government , which collaborated on the project with the world bank and the two zoos .
as the toad populations were declining , the wildlife conservation society’s ( wcs ) bronx zoo , and later the toledo zoo , in agreement with the tanzanian government ( and with the help of numerous organizations—see below ) , removed 500 toads from the gorge and brought them to the us . special microhabitats were created for the toads and both zoos were able to breed them successfully .
the toad was last seen in the wild in 2005 , and in 2009 , it was declared extinct in the wild by the iucn . although the ultimate cause for extinction is still debated , it is likely a combination of habitat change and the emergence of chytrid fungus , a virulent pathogen which is responsible for alarming population crashes and extinctions of amphibian species across the world .
the tiny yellow toads—which reach a length of 2 . 9 centimeters at their largest—were first described by scientists in 1999 , the year before the kihansi dam went online . the hydroelectric facility now generates nearly a quarter of tanzania ' s electric supply , but it also reduced the flow of water going over the kihansi gorge waterfalls by 90 percent . before that happened , the waterfalls produced a mist zone that created the toads ' unique habitat , just 20 , 000 square meters of wet vegetative territory—the smallest known range for any known vertebrate species . after the dam was completed , the waterfall no longer produced the mists on which the toads depended .
breeding programme . in june 2012 1 , 000 toads were involved in release experiments ( where some were retained in a captive facility at kihansi and a few were sent to the gorge ) . in october 2012 2 , 000 toads were re - introduced back to the gorge . in october 2013 2 , 000 toads were involved in several activities ( where some were kept at kihansi captive breeding facility , some were used for release experiments and some were re - introduced back to the gorge ) . there is a plan to re - introduce another 2 , 000 toads to the wild probably in october 2014 ( w . ngalason pers . comm . july 2014 ) .
, wyoming toadthis toad was a common sight on the laramie plains of albany county , wyoming , until the 1970s , when its population crashed due to a combination of factors such as the spraying of insecticides to control mosquitoes , changes in agricultural practices , an increase in predators and climatic changes . it now exists only in captivity and within mortenson lake national wildlife refuge in wyoming , and is classified as being extinct in the wild
representatives from each of the partnering organizations joined wcs for the release in the kihansi gorge at the end of october : the toledo zoo , world bank , university of dar es salaam , international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , tanzania wildlife research institute , sokoine university of agriculture , tanzania electric supply company , and local tanzanian villagers all took part .
releasing animals born in captivity into their natural habitat can also be tricky . songbirds , for example , are very difficult to reintroduce to their natural habitat , because their peers teach them the local “language” in the wild . they can’t learn the songbook in captivity . reintroduction can also place the wild population at risk , as it did in 1991 , when a once - captive toad brought the deadly chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to the island of mallorca .
the bronx and the toledo zoos will continue to maintain an assurance population of the spray toads and have them on exhibit for visitors to see . the released toads and habitat will be closely monitored to ensure that environmental conditions remain favorable and to evaluate the progress of the animals . additional releases may occur periodically to bolster the number of toads with the hope of having a viable , self - sustaining population .
another major challenge is reducing the likelihood of re - introduction of chytrid fungus back to the gorge . in order to address this , the project will support the construction of new concrete foot baths for sterilizing workers and visitors’ boots at the entrance of each of the spray wetlands . the project is also supporting the development of an integrated pest management program to reduce pesticide use in the areas upstream and is supporting micro projects that enhance water quantity and quality for people and nature .
to try to save the toads in the wild , a sprinkler system was deployed over about 1 / 4 of their habitat between july 2000 and march 2001 to mimic the natural spray from the waterfall . despite the artificial sprinkler system , the plant species assemblage changed and within 18 months the marsh and streamside plants had retreated , with weedy species proliferating ( quinn et al . 2005 ) . thus the habitat was irreversibly altered by the dam ( lee et al . 2006 ) .
getting to this point was a long journey that required work in tanzania and in the u . s . one challenge was repairing the toads ' habitat at kihansi gorge . the world bank funded the installation and refinement of a gravity - fed misting system that replicated the original habitat conditions . the tanzania electric supply company limited ( tanesco ) , which operates the dam , monitors the system to make sure it receives the water it needs , and the tanzanian government has committed to maintaining the misting system .
in 1999 , over 20 , 000 toads were estimated to be present in the upper spray wetland region alone , but by january 2004 , only three were seen in the wild with another two males heard calling ( lee et al . 2006 ) . there was an unconfirmed report from may 2005 ( cbsg 2007 ) , but none have been seen since despite surveys of its very limited range ( channing et al . 2009 ) . this species was classified as extinct in the wild in 2009 ( channing et al . 2009 ) . captive populations are being maintained in zoos .
successful captive breeding at the toledo zoo in toledo ohio , the bronx zoo in new york city and at the university of dar es salaam in tanzania lead to the reintroduction of 2 , 500 individuals in tanzania in 2012 . in the past , captive populations have fluctuated due to some infections and nutritional deficiencies , but those problems have since been addressed . only with effective monitoring of the reintroduced animals will we be able to determine the ultimate success of the reintroduction of the species back to kihansi falls . a variety of factors , including the status of the habitat , the effectiveness and reliability of the sprinkler system , presence of diseases , and reproductive rate of the toads , and others , will determine long - term success .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : this species was listed as extinct in the wild ( ew ) in 2009 because no self - sustaining population existed in the wild at that time . the 2014 assessment is observing the five year rule set out in section 2 . 2 . 1 of the guidelines for using the iucn red list categories and criteria , which requires a species to remain in its original category for a time period of five years from the time it no longer meets the criteria for that category ( iucn standards and petitions subcommittee 2014 ) . as reintroductions began in 2013 , the species will require reassessment in 2018 . this five - year time period will allow for monitoring of the species ' recovery and the viability of its re - introduced population .
formerly it was abundant in a tiny area , with a population of around 17 , 000 individuals . reports indicate that the species fluctuated naturally in its population size . the population appeared to be at a high in may 1999 , dropping to lower numbers in the course of 2001 and 2002 [ total population estimates oscillated at around 11 , 000 individuals up until march 2002 ; see channing
2006 ] . however , subsequently the population went into steep decline , and by mid - january 2004 , only three individuals could be seen and just two males were heard calling . there were a few records of calling animals during the rest of 2004 , and an unconfirmed report from may 2005 ( cbsg 2007 ) , but there were no records of any individuals in subsequent years , despite surveys , leading to the species being listed as extinct in the wild in may 2009 .
in 2000 , at the invitation of the tanzanian government , the bronx zoo collected 499 individuals to establish an ex - situ breeding programme in view of creating an assurance population .
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gascon , c . , collins , j . p . , moore , r . d . , church , d . r . , mckay , j . e . and mendelson iii , j . r . ( 2005 ) amphibian conservation action plan . the world conservation union ( iucn ) , gland , switzerland . available at : urltoken
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as the mist zone disappeared , so did the toads , which were also starting to suffer from the dreaded chytrid fungus , the rapidly spreading blight that has already been responsible for dozens of amphibian extinctions around the globe . the last wild toads were observed in 2005 , and the species was declared extinct in the wild in 2009 .
luckily scientists saw this disappearance coming . in 2000 , at the invitation of the tanzanian government , the bronx zoo collected 499 toads from the gorge to create a captive assurance population . some of those toads were later transferred to the toledo zoo . after more than a decade of breeding efforts , each zoo contributed 1 , 000 toads toward this month ' s reintroduction effort .
that reintroduction , which took place on december 11 , was a full - scale event , attended by representatives from the wcs , toledo zoo , world bank , international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , tanzania wildlife research institute , the university of dar es salaam , sokoine university of agriculture , and local tanzanian villagers .
in a press release , wcs president and ceo cristián samper called the reintroduction
a momentous achievement in conservation . it clearly shows how zoos can play an important role in conservation . this has been a truly global effort to save a species .
now that the toads have returned , tanzanian biologists will take up the task of monitoring the population .
they will continue to visit the wetlands on a regular basis and conduct survey work ,
boyer says . meanwhile , the populations at the bronx and toledo zoos continue to grow , as does the collection at the university of dar es salaam , which might also be used for future reintroductions .
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females are slightly larger than males but morphologically difficult to distinguish unless gravid , when the females become more rotund ( lee et al . 2006 ) . males have somewhat more dark pores dorsally , especially around the head and shoulders ( lee et al . 2006 ) . breeding males in captivity have been observed to develop dark patches of interfemoral glands , in the inguinal cavities ( on the lateral surfaces of the body and thighs , where they meet ) ( poynton et al . 1998 ) .
no free - living tadpole stage is present since this species is a direct developer . newly hatched froglets are 5 mm in svl , and are dark gray dorsally with white ventral skin . as juveniles grow , lateral blue - gray streaks develop , along with striations on the head . in captivity , the yellow ground color and brown striping develop at about 6 - 8 weeks of age , along with sacral v - shaped marks ( poynton 1998 ) .
this species is ovoviviparous and a direct developer , meaning that there is no free - living tadpole stage ; fertilization is internal and larvae are retained within the female , with juvenile toadlets being born through the female ' s cloaca ( lee et al . 2006 ) . eggs are 2 . 4 mm in diameter ( poynton et al . 1998 ) . although lee et al . ( 2006 ) reported that the clutch size may be as large as 24 - 28 eggs , channing et al . ( 2006 ) state that clutch size varies from 5 - 13 offspring .