russell 's viper ( daboia russelii ) is a species of venomous snake in the family viperidae .

daboia is a monotypic genus of venomous old world vipers .

the single member species , d. russelii , is found in asia throughout the indian subcontinent , much of southeast asia , southern china and taiwan .

the species was named in honor of patrick russell ( 1726 – 1805 ) , a scottish herpetologist who first described many of india 's snakes , and the name of the genus is from the hindi word meaning " that lies hid " , or " the lurker " .

apart from being a member of the big four snakes in india , daboia is also one of the genera responsible for causing the most snakebite incidents and deaths among all venomous snakes on account of many factors , such as their wide distribution , generally aggressive demeanor , and frequent occurrence in highly populated areas .

daboia russelli is commonly known as russell 's viper and chain viper , among other names .

russell ' s viper

russell ' s viper the ultimate viper in sri lanka ( ත . . .
before 2007 the siamese russell’s viper was considered a subspecies – daboia russelli siamensis – of the russell’s viper , daboia russelli .
urutu or yarara parker ' s pit viper andean pit viper terciopelo * barba amarilla * caissaca * barbour ' s pit viper barnett ' s pit viper bocourt ' s pit viper amazonian tree - viper brazil ' s pit viper st . lucia pit viper cotiara dunn ' s pit viper fonseca ' s pit viper godmann ' s pit viper island jararaca jararaca jararacussu fer - de - lance lansberg ' s hog nose viper yellow - lined pit viper black - tailed pit viper hog - nosed pit viper jararaca pintada or wied ' s lance - head black spotted pit viper jumping viper western hog - nosed pit viper peruvian pit viper piraja ' s pit viper , jararacucu eyelash viper yucatan pit viper
avri ' s sanath velarathna describes his bite from a russell ' s viper , daboia russelii . the russell ' s viper causes the most deaths due to snakebite in sri lanka .
baby russell viper rescued without touching with hands . . . . . d s
( serpentes : viperidae ) : russell ' s viper . hamadryad 23 , 33–40 .
in thailand , only one species of true vipers occurs , the western russell’s viper .
russell ' s viper is named after famous scottish herpetologist , patrick russell , who described this and many other indian snakes .
russell ' s viper can reach 3 . 3 to 5 . 5 feet in length .
snake venoms in science and clinical medicine 1 . russell’s viper : biology , venom and treatment
daboia russelii ( russell ' s viper ) male combat . bhopal van vihar , madhya pradesh .
russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii shaw and nodder , 1797 ) rescue & release odisha .
jayakody , rl . 2001 . russell of russell ' s viper fame . ceylon medical journal 46 ( 2 ) : 39 - 40
jayakody , rl . 2001 . russell of russell ' s viper fame . ceylon medical journal 46 ( 2 ) : 39 - 40 .
two types of russell ' s viper revealed by variation in phospholipases a2 from venom of the subspecies .
the venom of the slender russell ' s viper is very potent to humans and other animals alike .
the genus daboia long been represented by a single species , daboia russelii , the russell’s viper , formerly known as vipera russelii . recently the species was split up in two distinct species , daboia russelii from india ( the western russell’s viper ) and daboia siamensis from southeast asia ( the eastern russell’s viper ) .
the russell’s pit viper’s highly toxic venom kills thousands every year – but a bite from this sometimes vicious snake can also reverse puberty .
russell ' s viper , also known as daboia or chain viper , is venomous snake that belongs to the viper family . there are two subspecies of russell ' s viper that can be found in india , southeast asia , china and taiwan . russell ' s viper inhabits plains , forests , scrublands , grasslands and agricultural fields . major threats for the survival of russell ' s vipers are traffic accidents and organized killing . in some parts of asia , russell ' s viper is on a target of hunters because of its skin and meat . despite these factors , russell ' s vipers are widely distributed and numerous in the wild .
correlations between abdominal pain severity versus different clinical parameters of the 55 proven russell ' s viper bite patients .
not including the nominate subspecies , the indian russell ' s viper ( d . r . russelii ) , there is only one subspecies , the eastern russell ' s viper ( d . r . siamensis ) .
it ' s genus , daboia is monotypic , meaning it only comprises a single species , and the name derives from the hindi word meaning
the lurker
or
that lies hid
. the russell ' s viper is also known by several other common names like daboia , chain viper , indian russell ' s viper , common russell ' s viper , chain snake , scissors snake and
the numbers of antivenom vials and antivenom cycles received by the proven and probable russell ' s viper bite patients .
previously , other common names were used to described subspecies that are now part of the synonymy of this form : indonesian russell ' s viper for
limitis
, and formosan russell ' s viper for
formosensis
.
snake venoms in science and clinical medicine 1 . russell ' s viper : biology , venom and treatment of bites
sri lankan russell’s viper ( daboia russelii ) envenoming is reported to cause myotoxicity and neurotoxicity , which are different to the effects of envenoming by most other populations of russell’s vipers . this study aimed to investigate evidence of myotoxicity in russell’s viper envenoming , response to antivenom and the toxins responsible for myotoxicity .
the russell’s viper local name koriwala or daboia , is one of the most venomous snakes in all of india . after the krait , russell’s viper is another big killer snake in india , accounting for thousands of deaths each year .
clinical findings of the 55 proven and 154 suspected russell ' s viper bite patients . ( percentages within parenthesis ) .
systemic involvement of the proven russell ' s viper bite patients ( n = 55 ) ( percentages within parenthesis ) .
information on russell ' s viper ( vipera russellii ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
usually not fatal , any russell’s viper bite must be treated as quickly as possible with antivenom serum available in india .
a full grown russell viper , also called the chain viper is india’s deadliest snake accounting for thousands of deaths each year . ( source : medha deshmukh bhaskaran )
correlations between length of the snake versus different clinical parameters of 48 from the 55 confirmed russell ' s viper bite patients .
two types of russell ' s viper revealed by variation in phospholipases a2 from venom of the subspecies . - pubmed - ncbi
the russell ' s viper is found in open grassy and bushy areas , farmlands , coastal lowlands , plains and hills .
we thank ariaranee gnanadasan ( faculty of medicine–university of colombo ) for kindly supplying sri lankan russell’s viper venom for this study .
silva a , pilapitiya s , siribaddana s ( 2012 ) acute myocardial infarction following a possible direct intravenous bite of russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii ) . bmc res notes 5 : 500 .
from the russell ' s viper bite survivors , a third will suffer severe damage to their pituitary glands , resulting in hypopituitarism .
cases were authenticated by either positive identification of the snake specimen involved as a russell’s viper by as , who is a herpetologist , or by detection of the specific russell’s viper venom antigens in blood samples of the patients using enzyme - immunoassay ( eia ) .
there are several gaps in our understanding of the myotoxicity associated with sri lankan russell’s viper envenoming . it is unclear if sri lankan russell’s viper envenoming causes severe myotoxicity and whether any resultant myotoxicity can be treated with indian polyvalent antivenom . further , the in vitro myotoxicity of sri lankan russell’s viper venom has not been pharmacologically studied . this requires isolation and pharmacological characterisation of the myotoxins from the venom . the present study aims to investigate the clinical severity of myotoxicity from russell’s viper envenoming and isolate the toxins responsible for this activity .
the species was named in after patrick russell ( 1726–1805 ) , the scottish herpetologist that first described many of the indian snakes . the russell ' s viper is a member of the
russell ' s vipers reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years .
one of the deadliest snakes to humans worldwide , the russell ' s viper may kill as many as 25 , 000 people yearly .
in english they are known as the
russell ' s viper
, the
chain viper
, the
seven pacer snake
, and the
scissors snake
.
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avadhani , r . 2006 . vipera russelli - the dreaded russell’s viper . reptilia ( gb ) ( 46 ) : 50 - 53 .
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the green snake feed frogs , lizards and insects , it grows to a length of 2 . 5 feet . another species of pit viper is malabar pit viper , highly venomous snake found mostly at western ghat of india . other venomous snakes of india from viper species includes bamboo pit viper , malabar pit viper , hump - nosed pit viper and green tree viper . pit viper snakes found in india .
wüster w . , otsuka s . , malhotra a . , thorpe r . s . ( 1992 ) populaion systematics of russell’s viper : a multivariate study . biological journal of linnean society . 47 : 97 - 113 .
sri lankan russell ' s viper bites manifest as different combinations of system involvement as well as mono - system involvement , commonly isolated coagulopathy . it is felt that existing paradigms of syndromic approaches towards identifying russell ' s viper envenoming needs careful re - assessment . abdominal pain is a common , yet neglected early clinical feature in russell ' s viper envenoming . presence of abdominal pain and its severity is well correlated with the severity of coagulopathy , neurotoxicity and the severity of overall systemic envenoming , suggesting its use as a potential early clinical feature in russell ' s viper bite envenoming in sri lanka .
found throughout south east asia , the russell’s viper is normal fairly docile , but can become aggressive if an attempt is made to pick it up .
wüster , wolfgang 1998 . the genus daboia ( serpentes : viperidae ) : russell ' s viper . hamadryad 23 ( 1 ) : 33 - 40
russell ' s viper is terrestrial snake ( adapted to the life on the solid ground ) . it moves slowly and sluggishly unless it is threatened .
the russel ' s viper or daboia russelii is responsible for a high morbidity ( symptoms indicating russel ' s viper bite ) and fatalities . one of the drawbacks of its bites is that it potentially causes acute renal failure . full recovery from bites from a russel ' s viper is rare , as the kidney ' s are severely damaged by the snake ' s venom .
avadhani , r . 2006 . vipera russelli - the dreaded russell’s viper . reptilia ( gb ) ( 46 ) : 50 - 53 - get paper here
wüster w . ( 1998 ) the genus daboia ( serpentes : viperidae ) : russell ' s viper . hamadryad 23 ( 1 ) : 33 - 40
jeyarajah r ( 1984 ) russell ' s viper bite in sri lanka . a study of 22 cases . am j trop med hyg 33 : 506–510 .
here is a small introduction to the sri lankan russell ' s viper done by animal venom research international . big thumbs up for them for the information .
) . the time to clot formation depends on activation of fx by the venom of a russell ' s viper . this test is not routinely used .
take a look at this video , you will see the power of russell ' s vipers venom .
rvv - v shows hydrophobic s - 1 and hydrophilic s1 whereas thrombin shows hydrophilic s - 1 and hydrophobic s 1 . trp215 almost covers s - 1 in thrombin .
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arkive species - russell ' s viper ( vipera russellii )
> < img src =
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the indian saw - scaled viper is a small viper from one of the eight species of small viper venomous snakes family . the saw scaled viper is famous for being one of the most dangerous snakes anywhere it is found .
citation : yadav pk , antonyraj cb , basheer ahamed si , srinivas s ( 2017 ) understanding russell’s viper venom factor v activator’s substrate specificity by surface plasmon resonance and in - silico studies . plos one 12 ( 7 ) : e0181216 . urltoken
fenton , l . l . 1905 . the russell ' s viper . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 : 173 - get paper here
russell ' s viper is nocturnal animal ( active during the night ) , except during the cool periods of year , when it becomes active during the day .
a monovalent antivenin , called
russell ' s viper antivenin
, is made in thailand by the thai red cross to counteract the venom of this species .
esmon ct , jackson cm . the factor v activating enzyme of russell ' s viper venom . thrombosis research . 1973 ; 2 ( 6 ) : 509–24 .
production of high titre antibody response against russell ' s viper venom in mice immunized with ethanolic extract of fruits of piper longum l . ( piperaceae ) and piperine
wüster , wolfgang . 1998 . the genus daboia ( serpentes : viperidae ) : russell ' s viper . hamadryad 23 ( 1 ) : 33 - 40 .
boiga multomaculata – many - spotted cat snake has a very similar pattern and coloration as the russell’s . however the body shape is totally different . much more slender and would normally not exceed the thickness of a finger . relatively the eye is larger in the cat snake , and the scales are smooth while in the siamese russell’s viper the scales are strongly keeled . the cat snake is arboreal , while the russell’s viper is terrestrial
the russell ' s viper eats just about everything ; it eats rodents like rats , mice , and squirrels , land crabs , lizards , shrews , scorpions and other arthropods . young russell ' s vipers are said to be cannibals , meaning they eat each other .
khloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting
habib b . , cheda b . ( 2010 ) ninety - six young ones born to russell’s viper daboia russelii . reptile rap ( 10 ) , pp20 - 21
the siamese russell’s viper is quite easy to distinquish from other snakes , but if we have to name a few that might cause confusion it would be the following .
the study shows that myotoxicity in sri lankan russell’s viper envenoming is mild and non - life threatening , and due to two pla 2 toxins with weak myotoxic properties .
russell ' s viper can be often found in urban and rural areas because they provide plenty of food ( rodents ) . consequently , russell ' s viper often gets in touch with people and induces more snakebites than other types of venomous snakes . it has very strong venom which induces strong bleeding , paralysis of neck muscles , permanent renal damage and death in the case that antivenin is not available . russell ' s viper coils the body in numerous s - shaped loops , elevates upper third of the body and loudly hisses before the attack .
research support , u . s . gov ' t , p . h . s .
indraprusit , s . and boonpucknavig , v . : acute interstitial nephritis after a russell ' s viper snake bite ( letter ) . clin . nephrol . , 25 ( 2 ) : 111 , february 1980 .
toxin which has been previously characterised biochemically and found to be the major neurotoxin ( with a relative abundance of 19 . 2 % ) in sri lankan russell’s viper venom [
russell ' s vipers can grow up to the length of 166 centimeters ( 5 . 5 ft ) , but they are usually around the length of 120 centimeters ( 4 ft ) . the russell ' s viper is usually dark yellow or brown in color with many black spots .
the moorish viper is the largest viper in africa . it has a zig - zag pattern on its body . read more
habib , bilal & bharat cheda 2010 . ninety - six young ones born to russell’s viper daboia russelii . reptile rap ( 10 ) : 20 - 21 - get paper here
narayan rao , c . r . 1918 . notes on the russell ' s viper . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 25 : 307 - get paper here
wuster , wolfgang ; otsuka , satoko ; thorpe , roger s . ; malhotra , anita 1992 . morphological variation in russell ' s viper in burma and thailand . the herpetological journal 2 ( 3 ) : 99 - 101
the dilute russell viper venom test is a commonly used screening test for la . it is called the dilute russell viper venom time test because the phospholipid reagent is diluted such that its concentration becomes rate limiting ; thus , it becomes a sensitive assay . the principle of the assay is that russell’s venom directly activates factor x , which then activates prothrombin ( factor ii ) in the
wuster , wolfgang ; otsuka , satoko ; thorpe , roger s . ; malhotra , anita . 1992 . morphological variation in russell ' s viper in burma and thailand . herpetological journal 2 ( 3 ) : 99 - 101 .
suzuki m , itoh t , anuruddhe bm , bandaranayake ik , shirani ranasinghe jg , et al . ( 2010 ) molecular diversity in venom proteins of the russell ' s viper (
russell ' s viper is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on rodents and small mammals . birds , lizards and frogs are occasionally on the menu .
for most poisonous snakes the percentage of dry - bites is relatively high but the russell viper always goes for the maximum venom dose .
wüster w . , otsuka s . , thorpe r . s . , malhotra a . ( 1992 ) morphological variation in russell’s viperin burma and thailand . herpetological journal , vol . 2 , pp . 99 - 101
this study demonstrates that russell ' s viper envenoming in sri lanka affects multiple systems in various combinations as well as mono - systemic involvement , leading to a variety of clinical syndromes . it also shows that abdominal pain is a common clinical feature of russell ' s viper envenoming and its severity has a significant correlation to the severity of systemic envenoming with coagulopathy and neurotoxicity .
patel , h . and s . k . tank . 2014 . cases of unusual colour morph in russell’s viper daboia russelii ( shaw & nodder , 1797 ) from gujarat , india . reptile rap # 16 : 27 - 30 .
the russell ' s viper feeds primarily rodents and small mammals , especially murid species , they also feed on squirrels , shrews , land crabs , scorpions , birds , lizards or frogs .
phillips re , theakston rd , warrell da , galigedara y , abeysekera dt , et al . ( 1988 ) paralysis , rhabdomyolysis and haemolysis caused by bites of russell ' s viper (
plasma ck concentrations in anaesthetised rats ( n = 4 ) intramuscularly injected with 250 μg / kg sri lankan russell’s viper venom compared to the saline injected rats ( n = 4 ) .
russell ' s viper is an old world viper , in other word , a true viper . true vipers doesn ' t have loreal pits between the eye and nostrils , which means they cannot see through heat vision . many people might think the large opening in the snout are heat receptors but actually it ' s the nostril of the russell ' s viper . still there is a mystery remains with it ' s nostril . many herpertologists described a supernasal sac in this daboia species , this sac has nerve endings which means it could act as some kind of a sensory organ . this nostril helps people to easily identified the snake as it ' s the only viper out there with such a big and kinda ugly nostril .
the anti - venom is active against number of venomous snakes . the first test batch will be effective against venom from the cobra , russell’s viper , saw - scaled viper and the hump - nosed viper ( kunakatuwa ) . anti - venom properties for the krait will , in time , be included in this serum .
known by its triangular head . the venom from the russel ' s viper causes renal failure within hours . read more
o’shea m . , de silva a . , kularatne s . a . m . ( 2004 ) daboia russelii russelii ( sri lankan russell’s viper ) , large prey . natural history notes , herpetological review , 35 ( 1 ) : 64
schiffman s , theodor i , rapaport si . separation from russell ' s viper venom of one fraction reacting with factor x and another reacting with factor v . biochemistry . 1969 ; 8 ( 4 ) : 1397–405 . pmid : 5817155 .
wuster , wolfgang , satoko otsuka , anita malhotra , and roger s . thorpe . 1992 . population systematics of russell ' s viper : a multivariate study . biological journal of the linnean society 47 ( 1 ) : 97 - 113 .
wall , f . 1905 . the breeding of russell ' s viper ( vipera russellii ) . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 : 374 - 375 - get paper here
russell ' s viper likes to bask in the sun during the day . when it is not basking , it hides in the caves , cracks in the soil or under the leaf litter .
kisiel w . molecular properties of the factor v - activating enzyme from russell ' s viper venom . j biol chem . 1979 ; 254 ( 23 ) : 12230–4 . pmid : 500708 .
, based on the ability of the venom of the russell ' s viper to induce thrombosis . the coagulant in the venom directly activates factor x , which turns prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of factor va and phospholipid . in the drvvt assay , low concentrations of both russell ' s viper venom and phospholipid are used to give a standard clotting time of 23 to 27 seconds .
isbister gk , maduwage k , shahmy s , mohamed f , abeysinghe c , et al . ( 2013 ) diagnostic 20 - min whole blood clotting test in russell ' s viper envenoming delays antivenom administration . q j med 106 : 925–32 .
washing the bite site ( 62 % , 51 % ) and application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site ( 42 % , 57 % ) were the commonest first aid measures practiced prior to hospital admission in proven bites and suspected russell ' s viper bites respectively . no first aid had been administered to 22 % of the proven russell ' s viper bite victims and 0 . 65 % of the others . the median time interval between the snakebite and hospital admission was 28 and 30 minutes ( range 10–180 minutes ) in proven and suspected russell ' s viper bite victims respectively .
dowling , h . g . 1993 . the name of russel ' s viper . amphibia - reptilia 14 : 320 .
wuster , wolfgang , satoko otsuka , anita malhotra , and roger s . thorpe 1992 . population systematics of russell ' s viper : a multivariate study . biological journal of the linnean society 47 ( 1 ) : 97 - 113 - get paper here
thus was german naturalist gerd heinrich’s encounter with a deadly russell’s viper , a true viper of deadly repute , in the 1930s . since this snake will often not attempt to flee when approached by humans — instead , it may hiss loudly and be ready to strike — heinrich lacked the good luck for obtaining its beautiful skin .
warrell da ( 1989 ) snake venoms in science and clinical medicine . 1 . russell ' s viper : biology , venom and treatment of bites . trans r soc trop med hyg 83 : 732–40 .
kularatne sam , gawarammana ib ( 2001 ) monosystemic effects of russell ' s viper envenoming in sri lanka : isolated neurotoxicity , nephrotoxicity and haematotoxicity . abstracts of the fourth world congress of herpetology : 58 .
russell ' s viper has flattened , triangular head , blunt snout , two long fangs , large nostrils and medium - sized eyes with vertical pupils . it has stout , cylindrical body and short tail .
thorpe , r . s . , c . e . pook , and a . malhotra . 2007 . phylogeography of the russell’s viper ( daboia russelii ) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming . herpetol j 17 : 209–18 .
in russell ' s viper bite , the reported incidence of dry bite has been low , with most bites resulting in significant envenoming [ 8 ] . at the same time there were situations where , in proven cases of russell ' s viper bite , acute renal failure was the sole manifestation of envenoming developing many hours after the bite [ 18 ] . from the clinicians ' perspective , early recognition of significant systemic envenoming is of great importance as it would enable taking an early decision regarding antivenom therapy . at present there is no early sign or symptom that has been identified in russell ' s viper bite that could be considered a clinical predictor of significant systemic envenoming . abdominal pain has been documented as a clinical feature in some studies of russell ' s viper envenoming [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] . but abdominal pain is also a known clinical feature of envenoming by other snakes , particularly by the common krait [ 21 ] . however , epidemiology of common krait bite is unique that it happens exclusively at night when victims are in sleep causing neuromuscular paralysis . nevertheless , many practicing clinicians believe that abdominal pain is a feature of systemic envenoming in russell ' s viper bite ( personal communication , dr . w p dissanayake , consultant physician ) . this observation is strengthened by the fact that in a comparative study of the patients of russell ' s viper and hump - nosed pit viper ( hypnale spp . ) bites , abdominal pain was present only among the russell ' s viper bite patients [ 20 ] .
in conclusion , myotoxicity in sri lankan russell’s viper envenoming is mild and non - life threatening , as evident from the low frequency of generalized myotoxicity and low concentrations of serum creatine kinase in envenomed patients . the whole venom of sri lankan russell’s viper has weak myotoxic properties in - vitro . two pla 2 toxins , u1 - viperitoxin - dr1a and u1 - viperitoxin - dr1b that make 42 % of the whole venom , are the major myotoxins in the venom , but display weak myotoxicity . there is a small possibility that myotoxicity may occur in patients with severe sri lankan russell’s viper envenoming in which antivenom is delayed .
date , a . and shastry , j . c . m . : renal ultrastructure in acute tubular necrosis following russell ' s viper envenomation . j . pathology , 137 : 225 - 241 , 1982 .
pe , t . , and cho , k . a . : amount of venom injected by russell ' s viper ( vipera russelli ) toxicon , 24 ( 7 ) : 730 - 733 , 1986 .
( 1 ) in : wüster , wolfgang , 1998 . the genus daboia ( serpentes : viperidae ) : russell’s viper . hamadryad , 23 ( 1 ) : 33 - 40 ( p . 33 ) .
hung , d . - z . , m . - l . wu , et al . 2002 . russell’s viper snakebite in taiwan : differences from other asian countries . toxicon 40 : 1291 - 1298 .
russell ' s vipers are distributed throughout sri lanka except at higher elevations ( > 1500 m ) and are abundant in agricultural lands in the rural areas of the island ' s dry zone .
skin of the russell’s viper at midbody , showing the keeled scales and the three rows of round and ellipsoid blotches with smaller spheroid blotches in between . the specimen was from khao chakan district , sa kaeo province .
thorpe , s roger , pook , e catharine , malhotra , anita 2007 . phylogeography of the russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii ) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming . the herpetological journal 17 ( 4 ) : 209 - 218
when threatened it forms multiple s - loops and emits a hiss that’s said to be the loudest of any snake .
laboratory : cbc , sugar , urea , s . creatinine , bt , ct , pt , s . electrolyte ,
here , the arg1018 ( p 0 ) falls above s 0 and the residue at p - 2 in s - 1 and p 2 and p 3 in s 1 .
calloselasma rhodostoma – malayan pit viper is another brown terrestrial and dangerous viper . however the malayan pit viper has heat - sensing pits , large scale plates on the head , a sharp pointed nose , and a different body pattern .
kularatne k , budagoda s , maduwage k , naser k , kumarasiri r , et al . ( 2011 ) parallels between russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii ) and hump - nosed viper ( hypnale species ) bites in the central hills of sri lanka amidst the heavy burden of unidentified snake bites . asian pac j trop med 4 : 564–7 .
adler , k . , hobart m . smith , s . h . prince , p . david & d . chiszar 2000 . russell ' s viper : daboia russelii not daboia russellii , due to classical latin rules . hamadryad 25 ( 2 ) : 83 - 85 .
belt p . j . , malhotra a . , thorpe r . s . , warrell d . a . , wüster w . ( 1997 ) russell’s viper in indonesia : snakebite and systematic . symp . zool . soc . lond . ( 70 ) , 219 - 234
, but if pushed beyond their limit they can become very aggressive . on the other hand , juveniles are generally much more nervous . when disturbed russell ' s viper forms a series of
s
shaped loops raising one - third of the body and will hiss loudly .
thorpe , s roger , pook , e catharine , malhotra , anita . 2007 . phylogeography of the russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii ) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming . herpetological journal 17 ( 4 ) : 209 - 218 .
jeyerajah , r . : russell ' s viper bite in sri lanka : a study of 22 cases . am . j . trop . med . hyg . 33 ( 3 ) : 506 - 510 , 1984 .
ariaratnam ca , meyer wp , perera g , eddleston m , kularatne sa , et al . ( 1999 ) a new monospecific ovine fab fragment antivenom for treatment of envenoming by the sri lankan russell ' s viper (
unlike other oviparious reptiles which lay eggs , the russell ' s viper gives birth to live young ones and litters of 40 - 60 snakelets are quite common with this prolific breeder . “but 75 snakelets in one litter is something uncommon , ” claimed mysuru - based snake enthusiast m s balasubramniam alias snake shyam ( in pic ) , who rescued the viper .
dowling , h . g . 1993 . the name of russel ' s viper . amphibia - reptilia 14 : 320 - get paper here
a venomous snake , russell’s viper or chandrobora ( daboia russelii ) , shows a behavior altogether different . when i released a captured russell’s viper , it did not flee . it stands its ground and hissed loudly . it was so loud that if you hear it once , you wont forget it . and never pick up a viper with hand . even if you survive after medication , it will leave a permanent damage on your body . but if you leave it alone , given enough time , it will go away .
- russell ' s vipers have a taned brownish or yellow color along with three raws of elliptical spots beside the body and on top scales .
bannermann , w . b . 1907 . note on the breeding of russell ' s viper ( vipera russelli ) in captivity . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 808 - 811 - get paper here
kavitha , k . t . , b . r . latha , et al . 2014a . sparganosis in russell’s viper snake : a case report . j parasit . dis . 38 ( 4 ) : 394 - 395 .
differences in venom composition between sri lankan and northern indian russell ' s vipers have been used to support separation into two subspecies [ 14 ] . an attempt at developing a monospecifc antivenom against the venom of the sri lankan russell ' s viper was successful , but it did not go beyond clinical trials [ 15 ] . the only antivenom available for russell ' s viper bites in sri lanka is indian - made polyvalent antivenom which has been raised against the venoms of four indian snakes including russell ' s vipers . this indian polyvalent antivenom has been shown to be poorly effective in treating sri lankan russell ' s viper bites [ 10 ] . it is noteworthy that this clinico - epidemiological information which lays the foundation for further clinical research as well as affecting clinical management , relies heavily on a few studies only , the latest being published ten years ago [ 8 ] , [ 10 ] . based on the observation that the clinical profile of russell ' s viper bites in sri lanka presented as unique clinical syndromes , epidemiological tools for the syndromic identification of russell ' s viper bite envenoming have been developed [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] . the availability of offending snake specimens in snakebite instances has been less than 30 % [ 8 ] , therefore this method has been useful in making a presumptive diagnosis of russell ' s viper bite envenoming . the incidence of recognised clinical features of russell ' s viper envenoming are local envenoming 92 % , coagulopathy 77 % , neurotoxicity 78 % and renal failure 18 % , either in various combinations or as isolated manifestations [ 8 ] . when the combinations of clinical features do not follow a described pattern , the application of the syndromic diagnosis method to identify the offending snake could lead to an erroneous conclusion . to overcome this possibility more precise clinical evidence should be established by prospective clinical studies looking for variations of clinical manifestations .
adler , k . , hobart m . smith , s . h . prince , p . david & d . chiszar . 2000 . russell ' s viper : daboia russelii not daboia russellii , due to classical latin rules . hamadryad , 25 ( 2 ) : 83 - 85 .
syndromes of sri lankan russell ' s viper envenoming consist of local swelling , incoagulable blood and spontaneous bleeding , acute renal failure and neurotoxicity in various combinations [ 8 ] , [ 19 ] . based on this observation , ariaratnam et al . [ 17 ] developed an algorithm for identification of russell ' s viper envenoming when the offending snake was not available . the signs included in the algorithm were combinations of neurotoxicity , incoagulable blood and renal failure . however , in our study , only 2 ( 4 % ) of the proven russell ' s viper bite patients had all three systems involvement , raising a concern about the validity of the algorithmic approach as described above . systemic involvement in russell ' s viper envenoming seen in our study in rank order of frequency was as follows : coagulopathy and neurotoxicity ; coagulopathy alone ; coagulopathy and nephropathy ; coagulopathy , neurotoxicity and nephropathy ; neurotoxicity and nephropathy . based on the results of our study , we emphasize the necessity of anticipating mono - systemic and possible combinations of multiple systemic effects in russell ' s viper bite patients and it should be taken into consideration when making a clinical decision using syndromic approach .
ariaratnam ca , sjöström l , raziek z , kularatne sa , arachchi rw , et al . ( 2001 ) an open , randomized comparative trial of two antivenoms for the treatment of envenoming by sri lankan russell ' s viper (
kavitha , k . t . , b . r . latha , et al . 2014b . kalicephalus sp . in a captive russell’s viper : a case report . j parasit . dis . 38 ( 3 ) : 293–296 .
wall , f . 1907 . a popular treatise on the common indian snakes . part v . the russell ' s viper ( vipera russellii ) . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 1 - 18 .
patients who were admitted to the hospital with a history of snakebite were screened and those with confirmed russell ' s viper bites authenticated with the positive identification of the offending snake and suspected russell ' s viper bite patients were enrolled in the study . data collection was prospective using investigator administered questionnaires . information regarding patients with altered consciousness and about children was obtained from relatives , parents or those in attendance . ibm spss version 20 . 0 was used for the data analysis .
this study shows that russell ' s viper bites are common among young and middle aged male farmers in sri lanka . the bite rates are high during the chena cultivation and paddy harvesting seasons , with the vast majority of these bites occurring in agricultural lands . these factors together make russell ' s viper bites a definite occupational health hazard of farmers in sri lanka . however , the large number of patients representing a range of occupations other than farming highlights the burden of russell ' s viper bites on sri lanka . involvement of the lower limbs in nearly 90 % of the patients emphasizes the preventability of these bites by wearing protective footwear during agricultural work and when walking on foot paths . very high antivenom reaction rates observed in these patients highlights the vexed question of the safety of indian polyvalent antivenom for use in sri lankan russell ' s viper bite patients and the desperate , urgent need of safe and effective antivenom for use in sri lanka .
russell ' s viper has deep yellow , beige or brown body covered with dark brown , almond - shaped , spots surrounded with black rings . belly is white , yellow or pinkish in color and usually covered with irregular dark markings .
the russell ' s viper is viviparous , meaning they give live birth . they mate early in the year and a female is pregnant for around six months before giving birth to her young in may to november , but usually in june or july . a female gives birth to around 20 - 40 young at a time , and the young are around 215 - 260 millimeters long when they are born . a russell ' s viper becomes mature after around 2–3 years .
s4 fig . the hydrophobic surface for rvv - v ( a ) and open form of thrombin ( b ) showing the position of subsite s - 1 , s 0 , s 1 .
there are 37 , 000 snakebite admissions to sri lankan hospitals every year [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] . the russell ' s viper ( figure 1 ) is responsible for 30–40 % of the snake bites , and to the most number of severe envenoming and fatalities compared to other snakes in sri lanka [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . sri lankans have been well aware of the aggressive nature and the lethality of the russell ' s viper over many generations . in 1910 , abercromby [ 7 ] noted “…they [ native sri lankans ] consider the russell ' s viper ( tic polonga ) as a personification of the devil . ” bites by russell ' s vipers commonly occur in paddy ( rice ) fields and on footpaths at dusk and at dawn , affecting a large number of agricultural workers and so considered an occupational hazard in sri lanka [ 8 ] .
viper venom kills and digests . photo : janaki lenin | photo credit : mail pic
wall , f . 1907 . a popular treatise on the common indian snakes . part v . the russell ' s viper ( vipera russellii ) . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 1 - 18 - get paper here
haemotoxins ; d . russelii is known to have neurotoxins , some scientific papers state the d . siamensis has similar components , though other sources seem to deny that the queen saovabha memorial institute ( thai red cross ) produces a monovalent “russell’s viper” antivenin
the plasma ck concentrations of rats injected with sri lankan russell’s viper venom 250 μg / kg ( i . m . ) were not different tocontrol rats and were within the normal range until 6 h of the venom injection ( s1 fig ) .
there are many gaps in our knowledge of muscle damage caused by snake venoms . russell’s vipers are more medically important than any other snake in asia . sri lankan russell’s viper ( daboia russelii ) bites have been reported to cause muscle damage in humans , which is not reported for other russell’s vipers . the aim of the present study was to investigate the onset , severity and resolution of the muscle damage and to identify the toxins responsible for myotoxicity . for this , we studied muscle damage in 245 patients with confirmed sri lankan russell’s viper bites . patients reported local muscle pain in 72 % of cases and generalised muscle pain in 15 % . none had severe muscle damage and the symptoms resolved in 80 % of patients within 4 days . measurement of biomarkers of muscle damage in patient blood was consistent with only mild muscle injury , even in patients with symptoms . two toxins were isolated from sri lankan russell’s viper venom that had similar myotoxic activity to whole venom in chick muscle preparations . both toxins were weak myotoxins , consistent with what was seen in patients .
daboia is a monotypic genus of old world venomous vipers . this genus was made for the species
daboia russelii
, also known as the
russell ' s viper
. it was named after patrick russell ( 1726 - 1805 ) . patrick russell was a scottish herpetologist , who studied many indian snakes . the name , daboia , is a hindi ( the main language of india ) word meaing
that lies hid
. the russell ' s viper is not only one of the four most venomous snakes in india , but it also causes the most deaths out of all the venomous snakes . there is currently one subspecies found , not including the nominate subspecies .
bauer , aaron m . 2015 . patrick russell ' s snakes and their role as type specimens . hamadryad 37 ( 1 - 2 ) : 18 - 65
campbell , patrick d . 2015 . the acquisition of dr . patrick russell ' s snakeskin collections . hamadryad 37 ( 1 - 2 ) : 66 - 72
the russell ' s viper is terrestrial ( lives on the ground ) and is usually nocturnal , but in cool weathers it is diurnal . when threaten it raises its head and makes a hissing noise which is said to be louder than other snakes . their bite may sometimes be a simple snap , or sometimes the jaws hang on to the enemy for a few seconds . adults are said to be slow and sluggish but when disturbed they become aggressive . since of its aggressiveness and venom many animals and people are scared of this snake . that is why another snake , rough - scaled sand boa , mimics the color pattern of the russell ' s viper so it looks like the russell ' s viper , but it is actually harmless . adult ' s venom glands hold around 21–268 mg of venom , while young one ' s venom glands hold around 8–79 mg of venom .
moore , g . , dewling , h . , minton , s . , and russell , f . : poisonous snakes of the world . u . s . government printing office , washington , d . c . , 1968 .
jill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death
gutiérrez jm , ponce - soto la , marangoni s , lomonte b , alberto ponce - soto l , marangoni s , et al .
true vipers such as the russell’s viper lack the heat - sensing pit - organ of the pit vipers ( crotalidae ) . until recently it was known as vipera russelii , a name indicating a close relationship with such species as the common european viper ( vipera bera ) . its seclusion into a separate genus , however , seems to be justified .
a study in the lancet showed that 29 per cent of people who survived russell’s viper bites later suffered from hypopituitarism , which results in men losing facial and pubic hair , women their curves – from weight loss - and both sexes their sex drive and fertility .
the russell ' s viper will take shelter in rodent burrows , old termite mounds , rock crevices , piles of leaves , or other debris . they are also found near human dwellings in search of prey , but not as common as the cobras or kraits .
distribution of the confirmed and suspected cases of russell ' s viper bites admitted to the teaching hospital , anuradhapura from january to december , 2010 . note the high rate of admissions during february – april and september – november representing paddy harvesting and chena cultivation seasons .
reproduction take place once a year . usually in early months of a year russell ' s vipers mate . after five or six months female viper gives birth to 20 - 40 live juveniles . ( russell ' s vipers do not lay eggs ) this process takes hours . in one case , a female took 4 . 5 hours to deliver 11 babies . here is a image of a female russelii giving birth to live young .
recently , the reliability of the 20wbct performed in sri lankan hospitals for detecting russell ' s viper bite induced coagulopathy has been questioned and reliance on clinical diagnosis of envenoming or the use of more accurate clotting studies over the 20wbct suggested [ 22 ] . prompt administration of antivenom following a bite resulting in systemic envenoming has the best chance of neutralising free venom and preventing the development of life - threatening situations . delay in administration of antivenom , for example because the overt manifestation of clinical signs of systemic envenoming is delayed , reduces the chances of rapid venom elimination . in this situation the identification of early clinical features of severe russell ' s viper envenoming would enable the early identification of the need for antivenom therapy . abdominal pain , at present considered a non - specific symptom , is a likely candidate . it has long been neglected as a useful clinical sign of envenoming in russell ' s viper bite patients in sri lanka . in developing the scoring system for syndromic identification of russell ' s viper bite envenoming , abdominal pain has been taken as an unlikely clinical feature [ 16 ] . however , the results of the present study suggest the need of recognizing abdominal pain as an indicator of systemic envenoming due to russell ' s viper bites , and an important observation on which to base the clinical decision regarding antivenom administration .
‘russell’s’ and ‘ russelii ’ refer to dr patrick russell ( 1727 - 1805 ) , the ‘father of indian ophiology’ who at the end of the eightteenth century studied the dentition of harmless and poisonous snakes and conducted experiments on the toxicity of venoms . in 1796 , russell was the first who focused attention on this dangerous viper . the correct spelling of the name is still a matter of debate . shaw and nodder ( 1797 ) , in their account of the species coluber russelii , apparently misspelled his name , using only one “l” . some authors favor the original , wrong spelling ( 4 ) , others favor russellii . at present , this transgression on spelling only concerns the western russell’s viper which occurs in india and pakistan .
“both ratsnakes and russell’s vipers eat the same thing — rats . but why is one species venomous and the other not ? ” asked 11 - year - old abhinav .
these issues indicated that there was justification for revisiting the clinico - epidemiology of russell ' s viper bites in sri lanka , using a well designed prospective clinical study in order to broaden the present understanding of the clinical profile and analysing the place of abdominal pain as an early feature of significant envenoming . the objectives of the present study therefore are to re - evaluate the clinico - epidemiology of russell ' s viper envenoming in sri lanka and to examine the place of abdominal pain as a possible early clinical feature of significant envenoming .
the russell ' s viper ( daboia russelii ) is responsible for 30–40 % of all snakebites and the most number of life - threatening bites of any snake in sri lanka . the clinical profile of russell ' s viper bite includes local swelling , coagulopathy , renal dysfunction and neuromuscular paralysis , based on which the syndromic diagnostic tools have been developed . the currently available indian polyvalent antivenom is not very effective in treating russell ' s viper bite patients in sri lanka and the decision regarding antivenom therapy is primarily driven by clinical and laboratory evidence of envenoming . the non - availability of early predictors of russell ' s viper systemic envenoming is responsible for considerable delay in commencing antivenom . the objective of this study is to evaluate abdominal pain as an early feature of systemic envenoming following russell ' s viper bites . we evaluated the clinical profile of russell ' s viper bite patients admitted to a tertiary care centre in sri lanka . fifty - five patients were proven russell ' s viper bite victims who produced the biting snake , while one hundred and fifty - four were suspected to have been bitten by the same snake species . coagulopathy ( 159 , 76 . 1 % ) , renal dysfunction ( 39 , 18 . 7 % ) , neuromuscular paralysis ( 146 , 69 . 9 % ) and local envenoming ( 192 , 91 . 9 % ) were seen in the victims , ranging from mono - systemic involvement to various combinations . abdominal pain was present in 79 . 5 % of these patients , appearing 5 minutes to 4 hours after the bite . the severity of the abdominal pain , assessed using a scoring system , correlated well with the severity of the coagulopathy ( p < 0 . 001 ) and the neurotoxicity ( p < 0 . 001 ) . its diagnostic validity to predict systemic envenoming is – sensitivity 81 . 6 % , specificity 82 . 4 % , positive predictive value 91 . 2 % . thus , abdominal pain is an early clinical feature of systemic russell ' s viper bite envenoming in sri lanka . however , it is best to judge abdominal pain together with other clinical manifestations on decision making .
the dense and dark forest of india are best habitat for the reptiles , these forest offers a wide range of area for giant snakes and abundant prey . there are 270 species of snakes in india , out of which about 60 are highly venomous . the big four dangerous snakes of india includes indian cobra , krait , russell’s viper and saw - scaled viper .
kularatne , s . a . m . , a . silva , k . weerakoon , et al . 2014 . revisiting russell’s viper ( daboia russelii ) bite in sri lanka : is abdominal pain an early feature of systemic envenoming ? plos one 9 ( 2 ) : e90198 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0090198
the horned viper is a typical ambusher . usually , its bite is not deadly . read more
gowda d . c . , jackson c . m . , hensley p . , davidson e . a . ( 1994 ) factor x - activating glycoproteionf russell’s viper venom . the journal of biological chemistry , vol . 269 ( 14 ) , pp . 10644 - 10650
by the russell ' s viper is considerable , with adult specimens injecting from 130 mg to 268 mg in a single bite . necrosis isn ' t usually very deep and stays limited to the area of the bite , but in some cases , it may be severe .


trinchesia was a genus of sea slugs , aeolid nudibranchs , marine gastropod molluscs in the family tergipedidae .

all species were transferred to tenellia as a result of a dna phylogeny study in 2016 .

trinchesia species feed on hydroids .

trinchesia

figure 2 . size of trinchesia sp . in comparison to a petri - dish
the aquarium tank at the university of queensland where trinchesia sp . was found . photo taken by angela upton .
even though the internal anatomy of the various genra varies , i have generalised the information below as there appears to be no studies on the internal anatomy of the trinchesia genra .
as this species is undescribed and unknown to the scientific community , there is restricted amount of information or knowledge available on the phylogeny of the genus trinchesia and the family tergipedidae .
taxonomy miller ( 2004 ) restricted the genus cuthona alder & hancock , 1855 to the type species , c . nana ( alder & hancock , 1842 ) , and transfered to the genus trinchesia the rest of the species previously included in cuthona . miller has been followed by some authors , and has not been followed by others - and there is currently much instability on the extension and contents of these two genera . cella et al . , 2016 hypothesised that the genus tenellia should include many former cuthona and trinchesia species , with others being placed in new genera . until the species listed here are re - investigated they are left in the genus trinchesia . they also showed that the type taxon of trinchesia is a species complex . [ details ]
trinchesia is a genus within the family tergipedidae , which are composed mainly of small species which have distinct cerata and elongated bodies , taping towards the tail . ( beesley , et . al . 1998 ) . trinchesia sp . belongs to this infraclass opistobranchia , a diverse group characterised by the loss of their protective , calcified shell . the secondarily loss of a shell has occurred numerous time through the evolution of the mollusca .
the use and misuse of the names cuthona , trinchesia , catriona and many others for species of the tergipedidae has had a very tortured history . i have discussed earlier the continued use of trinchesia for some tergipedids by some workers on the west coast of north america [ message # 20011 ] . as i mentioned there until the family is studied in more depth , using all available characters , i think we should use cuthona for them all .
dear bill , while thumbing through the new book by debelius and kuiter , ( nudibranchs of the world ) , i noticed that cuthona species , save cuthona nana , are now named trinchesia . is this a commonly accepted reclassification ?
( of toorna burn , 1964 ) burn , r . f . ( 1964 ) . descriptions of australian eolidacea ( mollusca : opisthobranchia ) 2 . the genera nossis , eubranchus , trinchesia and toorna . journal of the malacological society of australia . 1 ( 8 ) : 10 - 22 . [ details ]
( of toorna thelmae burn , 1964 ) burn , r . f . ( 1964 ) . descriptions of australian eolidacea ( mollusca : opisthobranchia ) 2 . the genera nossis , eubranchus , trinchesia and toorna . journal of the malacological society of australia . 1 ( 8 ) : 10 - 22 . [ details ]
brown , g . h . ( 1980 ) . the british species of the aeolidiacean family tergipedidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) with a discussion of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 69 : 225 - 255 . - note : supports treatment of trinchesia as a synonym of cuthona until definitive characters are established
miller , m . c . ( 2004 ) . an appraisal of the identity of the new zealand species of the aeolid nudibranch family tergipedidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) . journal of natural history 38 : 1183 - 1192 . note : proposes to restore trinchesia as valid genus , against prevailing treatment as synonym of cuthona [ details ]
brown , g . h . ( 1980 ) . the british species of the aeolidiacean family tergipedidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) with a discussion of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 69 : 225 - 255 . note : supports treatment of trinchesia as a synonym of cuthona until definitive characters are established [ details ]
. remains unidentified . given the limited knowledge on the species it is assumed that the species distribution is likely indo - pacific ( coral sea ) , with other species of this genus having been found in the bass strait region ( burn & wilson2011 ) . their distribution should correlate with coral reefs and hydroid communities , as the trinchesia genus of nudibranchs feed sand live on reef systems . ( beesley , et . al . 1998 )
the defining characteristic of the trinchesia species is the colouration of the body . the animal is an opaque white , with a small , light , orange patch located behind its embedded , simple eyes and another orange coloured marking between the rhizophores and oral tentacles . on the dorsal surface there are small appendages , known as cerata , that run in single oblique rows on either side of the body . through the centre of these ceratal structures , runs a light brown tubular structure ( digestive glands ) . a white band is found at the apex , which separates a grey sac ( cnidosac ) . the opaque white rhinophores and oral tentacles display no distinctive bands ( fig . 1 )
to keep a rather confusing nomenclatural problem as simple as i can , greg brown ( 1980 ) showed that precuthona peachii , a tergipedid which had been placed alone in the genus precuthona odhner , 1929 , was just a large form of cuthona nana . the genus precuthona had been proposed on the basis of some secondary branching to some of the digestive gland ducts to the cerata . miller agrees with odhner in thinking that the branching of the ducts is sufficiently distinct to keep cuthona nana ( = precuthona peachii ) separate from all the other species we at present place in cuthona . however this leads to a complicated nomenclatural problem because cuthona nana is the type species of the genus cuthona [ that is the species on which the name cuthona is based ] . if we accept miller ' s argument that the branching of the ducts is important , then all the other species placed in cuthona need to be moved to another genus and trinchesia is the next oldest available name .
which brings me to my final point . if debelius and kuiter have not explained why they have accepted this significant change to existing nomenclatural practice , then they have done us all a disservice . as i have said often before , nomenclature and taxonomy advances in small steps . it requires research to be conducted and published , and like all fields of scince it requires any new hypotheses to be tested and accepted by other scientists . it is vital to realise that the latest published name or taxonomic decision is not correct just because it is the most recent . if we had a system where the most recent work was accepted just because it was the most recent we would reduce out science to a meaningless race where research meant nothing and publication meant everything . michael miller may be right , but i don ' t think the case for using trinchesia has been justified as yet . i suspect cuthona is a polyphyletic group , but until we have a comprehensive revision , tinkering like this just leads to further confusion .
ihering h . von . ( 1879 ) . einiges neue uber mollusken . zoologischer anzeiger . 2 : 136 - 138 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 137 [ details ]
taxonomy miller ( 2004 ) restricted the genus cuthona alder & hancock , 1855 to the type species , c . nana ( alder & hancock , 1842 ) , and . . .
( of narraeolida burn , 1961 ) burn , r . f . ( 1961 ) . two new species and a new genus of opisthobranch molluscs from new south wales . proceedings of the royal zoological society of new south wales . 1958 - 59 : 131 - 135 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 134 [ details ]
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i haven ' t seen the book you refer to but i assume there is no discussion on any changes to accepted nomenclature found in the book . i therefore assume they have based their decision on michael miller ' s ( 2004 ) proposal in his reappraisal of new zealand tergipedids . considering that michael was the one who helped clarify the nomenclatural mess the family was in 30 years ago ( miller , 1977 ) it is rather ironic that his latest proposal is likely to throw us back into an era of confusion .
brown , g . h . ( 1980 ) the british species of the aeolidiacean family tergipedidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) with a discussion of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society 69 : 225 - 255
miller , m . c . ( 1977 ) aeolid nudibranchs ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) of the family tergipedidae from new zealand waters . zoological journal of the linnean society 60 : 197 - 222 .
miller , m . c . ( 2004 ) an appraisal of the identity of the new zealand species of the aeolid family tergipedidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) . journal of natural history 38 : 1183 - 1192 .
rudman , w . b . ( 1981 ) the anatomy and biology of alcyonarian - feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae . zoological journal of the linnean society 72 : 219 - 262 .
rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 : 167 - 203 .
i got this specimen from gulf of kachchh [ gulf of kutch ] , feeding on hydroid . i counted 4 to 5 .
locality : coastal reef , 20cm , gujarat , india , gulf of kachchh , nw india , 10 february 2010 , intertidal rockpool . length : 21 mm . photographer : vinod gajjar . wishes vinod
thanks for filling another gap in its known distribution . it is clearly widespread throughout the tropical west pacific and indian oceans
cuthona yamasui from tioman island from : asther m . lau , march 9 , 2004
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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tenellia yamasui , a fine aeolid nudibranch , was photographed for the first time by us in march 2013 . once again we found them when diving at one of our koh phangan local dive sites . they were chomping on their favourite
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chaloklum diving , 25 / 29 - 30 moo 7 , chaloklum village , koh phangan , suratthani 84280 . thailand .
the distal portion of the cerata have a subapical black band , below this is a yellow to gold band followed by a terrific blue to grey blue band . the lower portion of the cerata is covered with clusters of opaque white dots
the dorsal surface of the body have scattered patches of opaque white while in other specimens there is a solid colouring of white .
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burn , r . f . ( 2006 ) . a checklist and bibliography of the opisthobranchia ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of victoria and the bass strait area , south - eastern australia . museum victoria science reports . 10 : 1–42 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of cuthona thelmae ( burn , 1964 ) ) coleman , n . ( 2001 ) . 1001 nudibranchs - catalogue of indo - pacific sea slugs . neville coleman ' s underwater geographic pty . ltd . : springwood , queensland . [ details ]
( of catriona catachroma burn , 1963 ) burn , r . f . ( 1963 ) . descriptions of australian eolidacea . 1 . the genera catriona and herviella . journal of the malacological society of australia . 1 ( 7 ) : 12 - 20 . [ details ]
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
ihering h . von . ( 1879 ) . einiges neue uber mollusken . zoologischer anzeiger . 2 : 136 - 138
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the tergipedidae is a family of mostly small species , with the measurements taken of the collected individual found in the laboratory aquarium being in agreement . the total body width measured approximately 1 mm in width and 5 mm in length . the cerata length ranged between 1 mm to 0 . 5 mm nearest the anterior end ( fig . 2 . ) .
the family tergipedidae are characterised by their uniseriate ( arranged in a single row ) radula . the radula teeth have central cusps , fringed by smaller denticles on either side ( beesley , et . al . 1998 ) . two small , black dots located behind the rhinophores on the dorsal side represent the eyes of the
these small vestigial eyes are able to determine variation in light levels . the animals anus is located on the right hand side on the dorsal side in the inter - hepatic space ( beesley , et . al . 1998 ) ( fig . 3 . ) .
the rhinophores and oral tentacles are elongated , rod shaped with a smooth appearance .
rhinophores . the opaque foot extends slightly wider than the body , with a rounded anterior and tapering towards the posterior tail ( fig . 3 . ) .
the animal was found in an aquarium tank located at the university of queensland , biological sciences building . all the specimens from the aquarium were sampled from the reefs surrounding heron island in the great barrier reef . the tank in which the animal was found , housed a variety of corals and other organisms including a hydroid species
as there are no records of the species we will assume they are found on subtidal rock walls , hydroids , sea grass and laminaria algae in large groups in the warmer waters of the reefs surrounding heron island , where other members of the tergipedidae family have been found . ( beesley , et . al . 1998 ) .
map of heron island where the aquarium specimen was collected . yellow dot is heron reef .
the physical size and colouration of the species makes it difficult to locate however with a more concentrated search of the aquariums it is possible that more specimens could be located .
opisthobranchs are all functional hermaphrodites , however they are unable to self - fertilise therefore must find another sexually mature adult for successful reproduction ( king & fraser 2002 ) . all opisthobranchs undertake internal fertilisation and copulation takes place with the mating pair lining up head to tail . in this position the sperm is exchanged through insertion of penes between the two mating partners and stored in a seminal receptacle . on maturity the eggs are passed through the seminal receptacle and are then fertilised . the eggs are usually laid in a spiral shape and deposited on substrates of coral , algae or sediment . the encapsulated eggs are coated in a thick layer of mucus which helps provide protection for the developing embryos .
is an undescribed species , knowledge of the life cycle and development of the species remains is unknown . however , knowledge from the family and order suggest that the species has planktotrophic ( veligers ) larvae and are not direct developers ( lecithotrophic larvae ) . these free swimming larvae drift with currents until they are prompted by the attraction to a food source , to settle and metamorphose ( king & fraser 2002 ) .
2008 ) . during the development process from larval into adult form there is a secondarily loss of their hard protective shell , mantle cavity and gills .
the life span of a nudibranch varies anywhere between a month up to a year , the animal has adapted to this uncertain life span , allowing individuals to develop extremely quickly , reaching sexual maturity within days or weeks .
slender tubular - shaped appendages called cerata , found in single oblique rows on either side of their body contain blood from the haemocoel and tubular branches of digestive glands . due to the lack of gills in the suborder aeolidoidea , respiration and gas exchange takes place through their cerata ( king & fraser 2002 ) .
these orders of nudibranchia are defined by the lack of an external shell , with this secondarily loss of their larval stage , leaving these “naked”animals without any form of protection from threatening predators ( king & fraser 2002 ) . throughout the course of evolutionary time they have evolved elaborate defensive methods , including chitonous spicules and stinging nematocyst cells , to protect themselves ( morton 1967 ) ( fig . 4 , 5 & 6 ) .
all the members of the suborder aeolidacea ( aeolid ) have specialised cerata , which contain small muscular sacs called cnidosacs , in which specialised stinging cells know as nematocysts are stored . these nematocysts , obtained from the nudibranch food source of coelenterates / hydroid , are believed to be used as a defensive mechanism against predators ( greenwood2009 ) .
the taxonomy of nudibranchia remains relatively unknown and remains subjected to agreement and further investigation . the nudibranchia are the most diverse and largest order of the infraclass opistobranchia , and commonly dived into two types’ aeolid and dorid ( beesley , et . al . 1998 )
within this infraclass lie four suborders doridina , dendronotina , armininia and aeolidoidea . aeolidoidea is the second largest suborder , and differ from other with their distinct comb - like radula teeth , ( carmona et . al . 2013 ) . the superfamily fionoidea having adapted to harvest and uses nematocysts from their cnidarian prey as a defensive mechanism . ( fraser 2010 ; venkataraman & sivaperuman 2014 )
the conservation status remains unknown , as this species is undescribed and knowledge on the family and genus is limited .
climate change , urbanisation and pollution are ever increasing threats to all marine species including the nudibranchs . monitoring and future research on all nudibranchs is vital to fully understand factors that affect their biology , population size and global distribution . another alternative collecting specimens is photographing and document nudibranchs , without alarming , harming or killing the animal
vonnemann . v . , schrödl . m . , klussmann - kolb . a . and wägele h . , 2005 , reconstruction of the phylogeny of the opisthobranchia ( mollusca : gastropoda ) by means of 18s and 28s rrna gene sequencesj . journal of molluscan studies , vol . 71 , no . 2 , pp . 113 - 125
king , d . and fraser , v . ( 2002 ) . more reef fishes & nudibranchs : east and south coast of southern africa . cape town : struik . pp . 113
hutchings , p . , kingsford , m . and hoegh - guldberg , o . , 2008 . the great barrier reef : biology , environment and management . collingwood , australia : csiro pub .
venkataraman , k . and sivaperuman , c . , 2014 . marine faunal diversity in india : taxonomy , ecology and conservation . academic press
cobb , g . and willan , r . c . , 2006 . undersea jewels : a colour guide to nudibranchs . canberra : australian biological resources study .
rudman , w . b . , 1999 ( march 25 ) rhinophore innudibranchs . [ in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . available from
greenwood , p . g . ( 2009 ) . acquisition and use ofnematocysts by cnidarian predators . toxicon : official journal of theinternational society on toxinology , vol . 54 , no . 8 , pp . 1065–1070 .


trophocosta conchodes is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in new guinea .

the wingspan is about 9 mm .

the forewings are light ochreous-yellowish , with violet-silvery iridescence .

the basal patch has a rather oblique edge and a moderately broad rather oblique central fascia .

there is also a moderate fascia from three-fourths of the costa to the tornus and a narrow terminal fascia formed by yellow-ochreous suffusion .

it is indistinct and marked with small tufts of scales , some of which are sprinkled with blackish .

the hindwings are light grey .

trophocosta conchodes

v . 35 = no . 137 - 140 ( 1910 ) - proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . - biodiversity heritage library
list of contributors v . 1 - v . 10 ( 1 . . .
contribution to a knowledge of australian hirudinea . part vi . the distribution of the hirudinea , with special reference to australian forms , and remarks on their affinities , together with reflections on zoogeography
a new species of lepidosperma [ n . o . cyperaceae ] from the port jackson district ; with some miscellaneous botanical notes
the ore - deposits of borah creek , new england district , n . s . w
the permanency of the characters of the bacteria of the bac . coli - group
contributions to a knowledge of the anatomy and development of the marsupialia . no . i . the genitalia of sarcophilus satanicus ( female )
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confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
brachiolia is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
panegyra is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
pareboda is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
apotoforma kakamegae is a species of moth of the tortricidae family that is endemic to kenya .
beryllophantis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
elaeodina is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
herotyda is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
anameristes is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae .
pseudocroesia is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
aleimma is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
apotoforma is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
archigraptis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
sanguinograptis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
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