perochirus is a genus of geckos endemic to the philippines , oceania and japan , commonly known as micronesian geckos , polynesian geckos , or tropical geckos .

perochirus

hemidactylus ateles duméril 1856 hemidactylus ateles var . articulatus fischer 1882 hemidactylus ateles var . depressus fischer 1882 perochirus ateles — boulenger 1885 : 154 perochirus depressus — boulenger 1885 : 155 perochirus articulatus — boulenger 1885 : 156 hemidactylus ateles var . depressa — müller 1885 perochirus ateles — taylor 1922 : 65 perochirus ateles — wermuth 1965 : 125 perochirus klugei — wermuth 1965 ( nom . nov . pro h . a . depressus ) perochirus ateles — kluge 1993 perochirus ateles — rösler 1995 : 141
goldberg , s . r . 2018 . perochirus ateles ( micronesian speckle - bellied gecko ) reproduction . herpetological review 49 : 120 .
buden dw . 1998 . morphological variation and distributional ecology of the giant micronesian gecko ( perochirus scutellatus ) of kapingamarangi atoll . pac sci 52 ( 3 ) : 250 - 258 .
mccoid m j . hensley r a . 1994 . distribution and abundance of perochirus ateles ( gekkonidae ) : in the mariana islands . herpetological review 25 ( 3 ) : 97 - 98 - get paper here
distribution : the populations on guam may now be extinct as a result of predation by the introduced snake boiga irregularis . perochirus articulatus has been treated as valid species by sabath ( 1981 ) . the philippine record is “from a single taylor record from zamboanga” ( collected by duméril 1856 ? ) which has not been confirmed for more than 150 years , ( welton et al . 2010 ) , so the presence of this species in the philippines is doubtful . type species : hemidactylus ateles duméril 1856 is the type species of the genus perochirus boulenger 1885 .
the 1971 record is of a specimen collected from inside a tent in a lumber camp ( cranbrook 1985 ) . nothing further is known about the habitat and ecology of the species , although perochirus species are arboreal and other species have been found in coconut palms and arboreal ferns in a breadfruit tree ( brown 1976 ) .
threats to this species , and the cause of its possible extinction , are unknown . erromango is one of vanuatu ' s major centres of logging operations , however , there is no information on this species ' ecological requirements or sensitivity to disturbance . invasive species have been implicated in declines and local extinction in the related species perochirus ateles .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
depressus : fenfan island , truk group , micronesia ; type locality : insul ruk , carolinen” .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
type : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 25 . 38 ( and possibly additional specimens ) .
bauer , a . m . & günther , r . 1991 . an annotated type catalogue of the geckos ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) in the zoological museum , berlin . mitt . zool . mus . berlin 67 : 279 - 310
boulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here
buden , donald w . 2015 . reptiles of lukunor atoll , mortlock islands , chuuk state , federated states of micronesia . pacific science 69 ( 1 ) : 117–124 doi : 10 . 2984 / 69 . 1 . 9 - get paper here
buden , donald w . 2015 . reptiles of uman district islands ( southeastern chuuk lagoon and kuop atoll ) , federated states of micronesia . pacific science 69 ( 2 ) : 271 - 279 - get paper here
buden , donald w . & danko taboroši 2016 . reptiles of the federated states of micronesia . island research and education initiative , 311 pp . - get paper here
duméril , a . h . a . 1856 . description des reptiles nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus de la collection du muséum d’histoire naturelle et remarques sur la classification et les charactères des reptiles . archives du muséum hist . nat . paris , 8 : 438—588 . - get paper here
fischer , j . g . 1882 . herpetologische bemerkungen . i . bemerkungen über einzelne stücke der schlangensammlung des kön . zoologischen museums in dresden . . ii . neue eidechen aus australien und polynesien . archiv für naturgeschichte 48 : 281 - 302 - get paper here
goris , r . c . & maeda , n . 2004 . guide to the amphibians and reptiles of japan . krieger , malabar , 285 pp .
rösler , herbert 1995 . geckos der welt - alle gattungen . urania , leipzig , 256 pp .
sabath , m . 1981 . gekkonid lizards of guam , mariana islands : preproduction and habitat preference . journal of herpetology 15 ( 1 ) : 71 - 75 - get paper here
taylor , e . h . 1922 . the lizards of the philippine islands . department of agriculture and natural resources , bureau of science , government of the philippine islands , manila , publication no . 17 : 269 pp . - get paper here
wermuth , h . 1965 . liste der rezenten amphibien und reptilien . gekkonidae , pygopodidae , xantusiidae . das tierreich ( 80 ) : 1—246
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
listed as vulnerable because it has an area of occupancy below 2 , 000 km 2 , there is an ongoing decline in the number of mature individuals as a result of competition and predation from invasive species , it occurs as a severely fragmented population , and subpopulations in guam and minamitorishima have probably become extinct .
japan ( marcus i . - possibly extinct ) ; marshall islands ; micronesia , federated states of ; northern mariana islands
this species does not seem to be uncommon across most of its range , although subpopulations are thought to be declining through much of its range , and due to its occurrence on a series of small islands between which dispersal is not possible , it is considered to occur as a severely fragmented population . in the marianas islands it appears to be an uncommon to very rare and localized species , apparently as a result of population declines ( g . rodda pers . comm . october 2011 ) . this species may already have been lost from minamitorishima , as it was described as being abundant everywhere on the island in 1903 but no individuals were recorded in surveys in 1952 or 2007 . it is common on minamiiwojima , an uninhabited island , and although there is no quantitative data the population is presumed to be stable ( ota 2014 ) .
this species has been collected from palm leaf axils , in shrubs and bushes , and under loose flaking bark on standing trees ( buden 1998 ) . it is apparently highly arboreal and appears to be somewhat adaptable , occurring on islands where the only vegetation consists of coconut and breadfruit trees , as well as in natural forest ( a . allison pers . comm . 2012 ) . it is oviparous .
appears to be a serious threat to this species , and has led to substantial declines in abundance most especially in the marianas islands ( g . rodda pers . comm . october 2011 ) . this species is probably extinct on guam through predation by the introduced brown tree snake (
) . it is also food for cats , rats and other introduced predators . this , along with competition from
, is presumed to be the cause of its loss from minamitorishima . populations on low - lying atolls are inherently susceptible to increases in sea level .
minamiiwojima is designated as a natural monument by ministry of environment , japan , and landing is restricted ( ota 2014 ) . ex situ conservation and where feasible reintroduction may be important for safeguarding this species , which is secure in only a minority of its range .
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justification : listed as data deficient as this species is known from only four specimens collected over a period of over a century , it has not been recorded since 1971 , its distribution is uncertain , and there is no information on its population status , natural history or threats . recent surveys have failed to record it on either erromango or aneityum and it is unknown to local people near the presumed collecting locality on the former island . it is consequently unclear whether this site has been misidentified , whether this is an extremely rare species , or whether it is genuinely extinct .
this species has only been collected on three occasions : in 1859 or 1860 , in 1971 , and reportedly between these dates in 1937 ( boulenger 1885 , cranbrook 1985 ) . it has not been reported since 1971 , and was not found in a week - long 2004 survey conducted close to the presumed site of the only named locality ( a . hamilton pers . comm . 2013 ) . the species does not appear to be familiar to local people and it is thought that the gecko may be extinct ( a . hamilton pers . comm . 2011 ) .
surveys during 2004 failed to locate any specimens ( a . hamilton pers . comm . 2011 ) . there is a need for additional surveys of erromango island to confirm the continued survival of this species and , if found , to determine its distribution , population status , natural history and its exposure and sensitivity to any threats .
justification : listed as least concern on the basis that , while this species has a restricted range , it is currently common , has adapted well to habitat modification on islands with a long history of human occupation , and appears not to be subject to any immediate threats . rising sea levels resulting from climate change likely represent a long - term future threat .
this species is endemic to the kapingamarangi atoll , federated states of micronesia , where it has been recorded from 18 of 31 islands ( buden 1998 ) . wiles ( 2004 ) has reported this species ( or at least a species tentatively referred to
) from ulithi atoll over 900 km away and its presence here requires verification . it is only known to occur a few metres above sea level .
it is very common within its limited range . encounter rates as high as 150 animals per hour and 25 per tree have been reported .
trunks ( buden 1998 ) . there is no remaining primary forest on kapingamarangi atoll , and this species has adapted well to occurrence on coconut and breadfruit trees ( a . allison pers . comm . 2012 ) . it is an oviparous species .
there are no significant threats to the species at present , although sea level rise resulting from global warming seems a probable future threat to these low - lying islands .
it is not present in any protected areas . there appear to be no conservation measures in place .
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banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada , draft ( 2004 )
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
continent : oceania asia distribution : micronesia , mariana islands , ruk island ( = fenfan island , truk group , caroline islands ) , guam [ p . articulatus ] , marcus , cocos , truk , kapingamar , japan ( bonin islands ) . articulatus : type locality : “ponape” [ = pohnpei , caroline islands ] depressus : fenfan island , truk group , micronesia ; type locality : insul ruk , carolinen” . type locality : near samboangan , mindanao , philippine islands .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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aaron bauer , ph . d . . professor , gerald m . lemole endowed chair in integrative biology
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner 1987 - 01 - 01 . resource publication , no . 166 . united states department of the interior fish and wildlife service . washington , d . c . , usa . 79 . . .
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes 2004 - 12 - 31 . checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada , draft ( 2004 ) . . . . . as - yet ( 2004 ) unpublished manuscript from 1998 .


tortricodes alternella is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in most of europe , except most of the balkan peninsula .

the wingspan is 19 – 23 mm .

adults are on wing from february and april .

the larvae feed on various trees and bushes , including quercus and carpinus species .

they spin together the leaves of their host plant and feed within .

tortricodes alternella

valter jacinto marked
borboleta nocturna / / moth ( tortricodes alternella )
as trusted on the
tortricodes alternella
page .
tortricodes alternella ( winter shade ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
one of the earliest of the tortricids to be on the wing , this species can be found between february and april , in woodland habitats throughout england , wales and southern scotland . it is local in ireland .
) , but often also other species . the larva spins together leaves to feed within .
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approx length ( c . 11 . 5mm ) wingspan ( 19 - 23 mm . )
recorded in 41 ( 59 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2018 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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wingspan 19 to 23 mm . this is a highly variable sometimes sooty looking species that has an unusually narrow wing shape for a tortrix .
one of the earliest of the tortricids to be on the wing , this species can be found between february and april , and even appearing in january when conditions are favourable .
the foodplants are a range of trees and bushes , chiefly oak and hornbeam , but often also other species . the larva spins together leaves to feed within .
quite common throughout england , wales and southern scotland . it is local in ireland . in the butterfly conservation’s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .
quite common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = a ( common and resident ) .
all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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for the county , we have a total of 338 records from 114 sites . first recorded in 1883 .
: widespread and fairly common , especially in woodland , and recorded from all five vice - counties .
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the final instar larva is blackish brown with a whitish narrow dorsal line and subdorsal lines that are wider . there are white wart like marks which have a central black dot . below the spiracular line is white whilst above is brownish black with spiracles highlighted in white . the prothoracic plate has a narrow white central line with an orange band either side . the head is black .
this moth is one of the earliest tortricids to be on the wing in early spring making confusion with any other moth highly unlikely .
the male is highly variable in colours ranging from silvery grey to pale yellowish brown with markings in brown to blackish brown . the basal area ranges from yellowish brown to brown . the median area has cross lines which are both concave and convex opposed and are variably marked with a median area in brown to light brown . there is a brown wedge shaped mar at the costa adjacent to the apex . the female markings are less distinct in blackish brown . there is a grey form of this moth .
the moth can be found during the day resting on tree trunks and is attracted to light .
website where further information like photos , physical characteristics , habitats , edible uses , medicinal uses , cultivation , propagation , range , height etc . are clearly listed .
plant families - in bold red below takes the visitor to the relevant
lepi - plants
page where other butterflies & moths using the plants below are listed .
, herausgegeben von einigen lehrern am k . k . theresianum . - pp . [ 1 ] , 1 - 322 , [ 1 ] , tab . 1a - 1b . wien :
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sujeevan ratnasingham , paul d . n . hebert , barcode of life data systems ( bold )
chandler , peter j . ( 1998 ) . checklists of insects of the british isles ( new series ) part 1 : diptera . handbooks for the identification of british insects . new series 12 ( 1 ) ( london : royal entomological society of london ) . pp . 1–234 . isbn 0 - 901546 - 82 - 8 .
belshaw , robert ( 1993 ) .
tachinid flies diptera tachinidae
. royal entomological society handbooks ( royal entomological society of london ) 10 ( 4ai ) : 170 .
van emden , f . i . ( 1954 ) .
ditera cyclorrhapha calyptrata ( i ) section ( a ) tachinidae & calliphoridae
. royal entomological society handbooks ( royal entomological society of london ) 10 ( 4a ) : 133 .
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faecal pellets collected from a hibernation site in southern england during two winters ( december - march 2009–10 and 2010–11 ) , indicated that m . nattereri forages throughout winter at least in a location with a mild winter climate . through morphological analysis , arthropod fragments from seven taxonomic orders were identified . a high proportion of these was non - volant ( 67 . 9 % of faecal pellets ) and unexpectedly included many lepidopteran larvae . molecular analysis identified 43 prey species from six taxonomic orders and confirmed the frequent presence of lepidopteran species that overwinter as larvae .
the winter diet of m . nattereri is substantially different from other times of the year confirming that this species has a wide and adaptable dietary niche . comparison of dna derived from the prey to an extensive reference dataset of potential prey barcode sequences permitted fine scale taxonomic resolution of prey species . the high occurrence of non - volant prey suggests that gleaning allows prey capture at low ambient temperatures when the abundance of flying insects may be substantially reduced . interesting questions arise as to how m . nattereri might successfully locate and capture some of the non - volant prey species encountered in its faeces . the consumption of lepidopteran larvae such as cutworms suggests that m . nattereri eats agricultural pest species .
the onset of winter with associated decreases in ambient temperature leads to increased energetic challenges for mammals in many temperate regions . small insectivorous mammals face two key challenges . first , their high surface area - to - volume ratio renders them vulnerable to high levels of heat loss and energy expenditure at low temperatures [
to obtain a net energetic gain from foraging , insect prey need to be available in sufficient quantities to offset the costs of activity . insect flight activity declines dramatically as ambient temperature drops below 6 - 10°c [
in temperate locations where winter temperatures are relatively mild , bat activity outside of the hibernacula occurs frequently during winter . for instance , in new south wales , australia , tree - roosting bats ,
] in cold continental climates do not appear to be synchronised with zeitgebers such as photoperiod or temperature .
] . consequently , during the last five years , molecular diet analyses , which can yield great taxonomic resolution of prey if the reference database is comprehensive , have increased in popularity . initially , such molecular studies of bat diet were typically conducted by pcr amplification of prey dna followed by molecular cloning so as to enable subsequent sanger sequencing of the composite prey sequences ( e . g . [
] increased sequencing power while decreasing the cost of metabarcoding , and were therefore rapidly adopted for bat diet analyses . to our knowledge , at the time of writing , the current study is the first time the illumina miseq platform is used as a data generation source for bat dietary analyses .
] collected during two winters . the overall aim was to investigate the winter diet of
at this hibernation site , while comparing the scope of the two analytical techniques . we find that quantitative representation of diet scored by morphological and molecular analyses are significantly positively correlated at the order level , and that
feed on a high proportion of non - flying invertebrates in winter , indicating a gleaning foraging strategy . we discuss the potential challenges that
amplified cyt b sequences were successfully obtained from 73 ( 81 % ) of the 90 extracted faecal samples . a match to bat species ( using the criteria set out in methods ) was obtained for 71 ( 79 % ) of these , with 62 identified as myotis nattereri sensu stricto and the remainder as myotis daubentonii ( genbank accession numbers : kj719267 - kj719283 ) . samples that yielded no positive match to a single bat species were discarded . all subsequent dna and morphological analyses were conducted using only the m . nattereri samples . of these 62 analysed droppings , 25 ( 40 % ) were collected in december , 21 ( 34 % ) in january and february and 16 ( 26 % ) during march . each period included samples collected during both winters ( 2009–10 and 2010–11 ) of the study .
) , though a high proportion of these remains were attributed to lepidopteran larvae . araneae was the next most frequently encountered order in pellets , followed by isopoda and diptera . coleoptera , hymenoptera and hemiptera were less frequently encountered over the entire winter period . by proportion of pooled data ( % f ) , 67 . 9 % of taxa recorded were either non - volant invertebrates or identified as being in a non - volant stage of their life cycle ( i . e . lepidopteran larvae ) .
percentage occurrence ( % o ) of prey orders in m . nattereri faecal pellets gathered in greywell tunnel during winters ( december - march ) 2009–10 and 2010–11 . also shown are the proportions ( % f ) of prey orders in the diet . † otus identified to species using bold then assigned to individual pellets .
the percentage frequency ( % f ) of adult lepidoptera was highest during january and february ( 26 % ) , while the proportion of lepidopteran larvae increased as winter progressed from 18 % in december , to 26 % in january / february up to 34 % in march . the percentage frequency ( % f ) of diptera was highest during december ( 20 % ) , and then dropped to its lowest value during january and february ( 2 % ) . the proportion ( % f ) of non - volant invertebrates was at its highest during january / february ( 70 % ) .
faecal droppings sequenced on the illumina miseq platform . the assigned otus were divided into three main groups : arachnida , insecta , and malacostraca ; which contained 297 , 968 , and 897 collapsed haplotypes respectively . furthermore , 1 , 834 collapsed haplotypes could be assigned to species level . the number of prey taxa ( otus ) per faecal sample ranged between one and 21 with a mean of 8 . 1 ( sd ± 3 . 9 ) . we successfully identified arthropod dna from six taxonomic orders ( table
) . dna analysis failed to identify only one order ( hemiptera ) that had been identified through morphological analysis .
faecal pellets collected within greywell tunnel between december–march 2009–10 and 2010–11 . confidence levels follow razgour et al . [
] and are based on the bold identification system , whereby confidence level 1 = solid match to one species or genus ( > 98 . 5 % ) ; level = 2 match to more than one species ( 98 . 5 % ) , only one of which was a uk species ; level 3 = matched to two uk species of the same family ( > 98 . 5 % ) and level 4 = match to several species of different genera , or to reference sequences only identified to family ( > 98 % ) . superscript indicates families where species are known to possess tympanate hearing organs
the percentage frequency of arthropod orders shows a similar seasonal trend to the morphological results . the proportion ( % f ) of lepidoptera remained relatively stable over the winter ( december : 30 % ; january / february : 32 % ; march : 33 % ) , while the proportion ( % f ) of arachnids decreased in early spring ( december : 23 % ; january / february : 20 % ; march : 6 % ) . the proportion ( % f ) of diptera decreased from december ( 18 % ) to 13 % in january / february then increased again during march ( 18 % ) .
isopods comprised a substantial part of the diet throughout the sampling period and were recorded in all but three ( n = 59 ) of the faecal samples . the large numbers of isopods found conflicts with the results from the morphological analysis where this order was recorded in less than one - third ( n = 20 ) of all faecal samples . coleoptera , hymenoptera and hemiptera formed a very small component part of the winter diet of m . nattereri making up < 4 % of morphological and < 6 % of molecular dietary composition .
b ) suggest a higher proportion of larvae in december and march compared to adults .
results from molecular analysis , whereby adults or larvae are determined by the proportion of otus allotted to either adult or larval stages according to the known phenology of species encountered .
results from morphological analysis where adult or larvae are determined from lepidopteran body fragments recovered from faecal pellets .
from dna analysis of faecal pellets collected from within greywell tunnel in december - march 2009–10 and 2010–11 combined .
comparison between percentage frequency ( % f ) of prey orders in faecal pellets found by using morphological and molecular analyses ( otus identified to species using bold then assigned to individual pellets ) . labels identify the taxonomic orders as follows , a ) hymenoptera , b ) coleoptera , c ) diptera , d ) araneae , e ) isopoda and f ) lepidoptera .
] . despite the data generation power of second generation sequencing and the ability to present results at a much higher taxonomic resolution , it does have its shortcomings compared to microscopic analysis . for example , molecular approaches are unable to identify different life stages of prey , as the dna of e . g . a moth will be the same no matter if the moth is a larva or an adult . also , identification of the noctuid parasite , the tachinid fly (
) in 11 . 3 % of analysed pellets shows that second generation sequencing can even detect internal prey parasites . for both parasites and secondary predation , molecular ( and to a lesser extent morphological ) analyses of diet can make it difficult to discern between prey , which were eaten directly and prey that were consumed because they were in turn eaten by prey [
] . subsequently , the primers have been used in molecular bat diet studies where they have amplified insect dna across orders e . g . [
] . in the current study , each extract was amplified twice with a unique barcode combination and during subsequent analyses only sequences appearing in both pcrs were computationally retained . as pcr and sequencing errors arise independently , this approach was chosen in order to minimise the occurrence of artefacts in the final results . this conservative approach has the drawback that sequences originating from rare templates which might not be amplified in both pcrs due to pcr stochasticity [
] or templates which the primers are less likely to amplify due to primer preferences , might be discarded alongside sequences with pcr and / or sequencing errors . therefore , many metabarcoding studies take the opposite approach when dealing with mixed templates . that is , after amplifying each extract a given number of times , all sequences originating from these amplifications are retained e . g . [
] . future metabarcoding bat diet studies might benefit from a combination of these two approaches , i . e . by performing a study - dependent number ( > 2 ) of pcr replicates per extract , based on the number of replicates in which a sequence should appear , in order to be retained can be determined . this might help balance the trade - offs between detecting true biological sequences from low - templates and eliminating pcr artefacts .
amplified cyt b sequences were successfully obtained from 81 % of extracted faecal samples . this is lower than that reported by boston et al . [
] who successfully amplified a larger fragment size ( ca . 1200 ) with a greater degree of success 89 % . our lower amplification success of a shorter fragment may be due to differences in extraction protocol or higher dna degradation due to non - optimal storage conditions .
) . for example , isopoda were more highly represented in the molecular analysis , and arachnids and lepidopterans were relatively more represented in the morphological analysis . both molecular and morphological methods for dietary analysis have biases [
] . controlled feeding experiments in which bats are fed measured amounts of known prey types and their faecal droppings are analysed with both methods would be informative for better understanding these biases .
) . since the microscopic analysis was not able to go beyond family level , we cannot compare the molecular and morphological results at either genus or species level and without having performed controlled feeding experiments , we can only assume that the obtained number of otus gives an accurate representation of the insect species present in the analysed faecal pellets .
] found that insects in the winter diet were broadly similar in type ( but not importance ) to those found in their summer diet . as during summer , there was variation in prey species taken between study sites [
] . however , prey species taken at sites ( but not proportions ) remained consistent across years .
poorly equipped for capturing adult tympanate moths . this is largely supported by dietary studies of
during the summer where lepidoptera make up a relatively small component ( 5 . 4 % [
] ) of the diet . however , in contrast with previous studies , our findings showed that at least at this particular study site , adult lepidoptera make a relatively high proportion ( > 16 % ) of the diet of
] ( though the threshold may be lower in species that fly during winter ) . during our study periods , ambient temperatures ranged from −13 . 0–18 . 3°c . the ability of an insect to fly occurs abruptly at a critical temperature [
] . therefore , moths grounded by a drop in temperature to below their flight threshold may become vulnerable to gleaning bats . furthermore , many moth species flutter their wings when warming up , and the sound of wing - fluttering is exploited by gleaning bats [
] and there is no published work on the presence of tympanic organs in the ypsolophidae .
] . it seems unlikely , though , that larvae would be hanging from threads during winter nights . we have not identified where the
in our study caught the larvae identified in the diet nor the foraging strategy used to gather them . however , the larvae we encountered in the diet of
which were identified in 80 . 6 % of the pellets in the molecular analysis , and the large yellow underwing ,
. of these , approximately half are web - building while the others are non - web - building or hunting spiders . the species identified are found on the leaves of herbs , shrubs and trees both within the canopy and close to the ground ( m . nyffeler , personal communication ) . the lycosid species (
sp ) can usually be found on the ground or on low herbs in woodlands , grassland and agricultural fields ( m . nyffeler , personal communication ) . arachnids have been recorded frequently in the diet of
] where they may be obvious targets for echolocating bats . linyphiid spiders have also been observed ‘ballooning’ in favourable weather conditions during winter [
] so the capture of some species by aerial hawking cannot be ruled out . the possibility of some arachnid species appearing in the diet as a result of secondary predation must be considered [
] . however , analysis of the contents from individual faecal samples shows that although some arachnids were found within the same sample , many were not ; also morphological results confirm prey remains from different arachnid families . if secondary predation was involved , it might be expected that the prey were digested completely by the predatory spider and therefore not visible under the microscope .
isopod fragments were recorded in both the morphological and molecular analysis . molecular analysis identified fragments as belonging to the common striped woodlouse (
] , and they were commonly observed to be active on winter nights within our study area ( p . hope , unpublished observations ) .
woodlice appeared in a higher proportion in the dna results than in morphological findings , which may be caused by a number of factors . it is possible that faecal pellets may have been contaminated with woodlice dna prior to collection . however , the fact that woodlouse body parts were identified in faecal pellets during the microscopic analysis , verifies that they are consumed during winter . the lower proportion of woodlouse remains identified in the microscopic analysis may be because certain body parts are discarded ( e . g . the pereon ) by bats due to difficulty in digestion or have low nutritional value or energy content . this is supported by the fact that we only found woodlouse leg parts , antennae and mouthparts during the microscopic analysis of the faecal pellets .
we identified eight species from six families and over the whole winter period , diptera made up 11 . 5 % ( morphological ) and 16 . 4 % ( molecular ) of the bats’ diet . there was a tenfold decrease in diptera between december and january - february ( 2 % ) in the morphological findings , with a less pronounced decrease in the molecular findings ( 18 % and 13 % respectively ) . in the particularly mild maritime climate of cornwall , uk , williams et al . [
may have selected alternative prey items that may be easier to capture or have greater nutritional value ( e . g . lepidoptera adults and larvae ) .
the majority of dipteran species identified within our study are known to be active during winter . dung flies (
) among the prey . it is a known parasite of noctuid moth caterpillars [
was identified molecularly in seven of the bat faecal samples and was always found in conjunction with noctuid larvae or an unidentified lepidopteran species , which suggests that it was consumed indirectly .
the ability to detect stationary or slow moving prey on or close to surfaces using echolocation would be highly advantageous for foraging in winter when low temperatures reduce insect activity . our finding that
eats a high proportion of non - volant prey concurs with studies conducted between the months of may and september . shiel et al . [
were non - volant . differences in sensory ecology among gleaning bat species contributes to niche differentiation [
] . the detection of stationary prey amongst dense vegetation ( e . g . leaf litter ) , however , would be more difficult due to the effects of increased acoustic clutter [
is able to detect sufficient textural detail with its echolocation calls to distinguish slow moving or stationary prey from background clutter .
] . this behaviour may also be used to locate and capture non - volant or immobile prey during winter .
our study site was in greywell tunnel , which is a 1 , 125 m - long canal tunnel on the basingstoke canal , hampshire , southern england , united kingdom ( uk ) ( 51 . 266380 , −0 . 988030 ( wgs1984 ) ) . greywell tunnel has not been used for navigation since the 1930s when a roof fall blocked a central section [
] . both east and west portals of the tunnel have been grilled to prevent unauthorised human access , though grilles are designed to allow bats to freely use the site . the tunnel was designated a site of special scientific interest ( sssi ) in 1985 in recognition of its importance as a bat hibernation site [
average , minimum and maximum daily temperature readings from december 1 to march 31 2009–10 and 2010–11 were measured at a weather station at a royal air force ( raf ) base ( raf odiham ) 2 km from greywell tunnel . mean daily temperatures ( with sd and range in parentheses ) between december 1 and march 31 were : in 2009–10 , 3 . 4 ±3 . 6°c ( −8 . 6–16 . 0°c ) and in 2010–11 , 4 . 3 ±4 . 1°c ( −13 . 0–18 . 3°c ) .
bat faecal samples were collected from within the western end of greywell tunnel during the winters of 2009–10 and 2010–11 . over the collection period , the number of visible
ranged from ten ( february 2011 ) to 63 ( january 2011 ) . a radio telemetry study conducted during 2008–09 and 2009–10 [
] showed that there were changes in the hibernating population with new individuals coming to and leaving the site over the winter . bats are also known to roost in cavities behind the tunnel’s brick lining [
] , so counts of visual bats may underestimate the total number of bats present .
heavy - gauge white polythene sheeting ( 3 . 9 m × 4 . 9 m ) was laid down on a clay surface close to the roof fall at approximately 130 m from the western portal . faecal samples were collected between december - march , to minimise disturbance to hibernating bats samples were collected at the end of each month . during collection , each faecal sample was placed in a sterile 1 . 5 ml tube . after sample collection , the sheeting was cleared of bat faeces to avoid any mixing of faecal material between survey months . fewer samples were collected during january and february of both study years so the samples from these months were pooled to produce a mid - winter sample size sufficiently large for comparison with december and march samples . samples were stored at room temperature .
= 90 ) . dna was extracted from each faecal pellet using qiaamp dna stool mini kits ( qiagen ltd . , crawley , west sussex , uk ) following the methodology as set out by zeale et al . [
] , all extractions were conducted during a single , two week period . after dna extraction , faecal pellet remains were placed in 2 ml tubes and frozen for later morphological analysis .
to identify bat species to pellets , faecal extracts were amplified using forward ( r3 . 1 - f 5′ - tga aaa acc atc gtt gta ttt caa cta caa - 3′ [
master mix kit ( qiagen ltd . , crawley , west sussex , uk ) was used . pcr mix for each sample ( 20 μl ) was as follows : 1 μl of extracted faecal dna , 1 μl each of forward and reverse primers ( final concentration in reaction 0 . 1 μm ) , 2 μl of loading buffer ( coraload ) , 10 μl hotstartaq master mix ( hotstar taq plus dna polymerase , pcr buffer ( with 1 . 5 mm mgcl
o . pcrs were carried out on a ptc - 200 thermo cycler ( mj research , reno , nevada ) with the following conditions : 95°c for 5 minutes followed by 34 cycles of 94°c for 30 seconds , 50°c for 30 seconds , 72°c for 1 minute , followed by a final extension at 72°c for 10 minutes . six blank negative controls were included in the pcr . pcr products were visualised on a 1 . 5 % agarose gel stained with web green dna stain ( web scientific ) . sanger sequencing of pcr products was performed in one direction ( using the primer mvz04 ) and carried out by a commercial laboratory ( lgc genomics , germany ) .
sequences were compared with reference sequences deposited in genbank using the basic local alignment tool ( blast ) to obtain ‘closest match’ identifications . matches were classed as positively identified to bat species if maximum identity was at ≥98 % and query coverage ≥70 % .
] . faecal material was re - suspended in a 90 mm diameter petri dish ; a 2x2 mm piece of graph paper was fixed to the bottom of the dish to aid judgement of fragment size . one drop of glycerol , then one drop of alcohol ( 70 % ) were added to help spread prey fragments evenly over the petri dish . fragments were examined using a binocular microscope ( mx3 , 20x and 40x magnifications , brunel , chippenham , wiltshire , uk ) . all fragments considered suitable for identification were mounted on a microscope slide in glycerinated gelatine under an 18x18 mm cover slip .
] and attempts were made to identify fragments to insect order , or where possible family . the relative importance of different prey orders in the diet was quantified in two ways . first , we calculated the percentage occurrence ( % o ) of prey orders , which is the number of pellets that an order was found in / total number of pellets in samples x 100 [
] . whereas % o produces values that exceed 100 % when all taxa are combined ( as pellets can contain more than one taxon ) , % f gives a proportional representation of the relative importance of prey taxa rounded to 100 % .
in order to identify insect - prey in the bat droppings , amplifications of ca . 157 bp prey - insect - coi fragments were performed on the faecal extracts following a modification of the methods described in bohmann et al . [
] . the assay described here was customised for illumina miseq sequencing as opposed to gs flx sequencing used by bohmann et al . [
) , producing a final amplicon size of 227 bp ( 157 bp insert , 70 bp primers ) . subsequently , all pcrs performed on the dna extracts were performed using different combinations of the 5′ barcoded forward and reverse primers , ensuring that all resulting positive amplicons from each pcr reaction were uniquely labelled . to aid downstream bioinformatics processing of the data , and in particular to enable discrimination of pcr and / or sequencing artefacts from true biological sequences , each extract was subjected to pcr twice , in each case incorporating a unique barcode combination to each reaction . pcr reactions were performed in 25 μl reactions using the amplitaq gold enzyme system ( roche , basel , switzerland ) . for every eight reactions , a pcr blank was included as negative control . furthermore , extraction blanks were amplified . each 25 ul reaction contained : 1 μl dna , 1x pcr gold buffer , 2 . 5 mm mgcl
solution , 0 . 2 mm dntps , 0 . 2 μl amplitaq gold , and 0 . 4 μm of each primer . amplifications were performed on a 2720 thermal cycler ( applied biosystems ) with the following conditions : 95°c for 5 minutes , then 40 cycles of 95°c for 15 seconds , 52°c for 30 seconds and 72°c for 30 seconds , followed by a final extension at 72°c for 7 minutes . 5 μl of each of the pcr products were transferred to a tube under a flow hood before being visualised with gelred nucleic acid stain ( biotium ) on 2 % agarose gels against a 50 bp ladder . negative controls were negative and were not included in further analyses .
all pcr products were pooled into a single pool before library building , at approximately equimolar ratios ( as determined by gel band strength ) . specifically , bands were visually discriminated into three categories : bright , semi - bright and faint , from which pcr products were added to the pool with 1 μl , 5 μl and 15 μl , respectively . the pools of pcr products were purified using the minelute pcr purification kit ( qiagen ) following the minelute handbook 03 / 2008 minelute pcr purification kit protocol ( using a microcentrifuge ) with the following modifications : in step 4 , the sample was centrifuged at 6000 g . in step 6 , 700 μl buffer pe was added , and the column was centrifuged at 10 , 000 g . in step 7 , the empty column was centrifuged at 13 , 000 g for 2 minutes . in step 9 , after buffer eb was added to the centre of the membrane , the column was incubated for 5 minutes at 37°c . the column was centrifuged for 1 minute at 13 , 000 g , and the tube was turned and the spin repeated before dna was collected .
the purified pcr pool was size - selected ( 227 bp + / −10 % ) on a labchip xt ( caliper ) , before being purified using minelute columns following the above - mentioned protocol and eluted in 42 . 5 μl qiagen buffer eb . the concentration of the purified , size - selected pcr pool was measured using a qubit flourometer ( invitrogen ) . the pool was subsequently converted into an illumina sequencing library , using the nebnext dna library prep master mix set for 454 ( # e6070l ) although using blunt end illumina adapters [
] in place of roche / 454 flx adaptors . the nebnext end repair module protocol was followed with the following modifications : end repair was performed in a 50 ul reaction using 42 . 5 μl size - selected , purified pcr pool . a control library blank was constructed in which 42 . 5 μl h
o was added in place of dna . they were incubated in a 2720 thermal cycler ( applied biosystems ) for 20 minutes at 12°c and 15 minutes at 37°c , before being purified on minelute columns following the above - mentioned protocol . in the quick ligation module procedure , 0 . 5 μm illumina sequencing adaptors [
] were included in the 50 μl reaction , and the mix was incubated on a 2720 thermal cycler ( applied biosystems ) for 20 minutes at 20°c before being purified on minelute column following the above - mentioned protocol and eluted in 42 μl buffer eb . in the fill - in reaction procedure , only step 8 was performed in which 5 μl adapter fill - in reaction buffer and 3 μl bst dna polymerase was added to the 42 μl dna eluted above . this was incubated in a 2720 thermal cycler ( applied biosystems ) for 20 minutes at 65°c , followed by 20 minutes at 80°c to inactivate the enzyme .
the library was subsequently subjected to index pcr in 50 μl reactions using the amplitaq gold enzyme system ( roche , basel , switzerland ) : the library was amplified in five separate reactions each containing 5 μl library , alongside a reaction containing 5 μl of the library blank and one pcr blank in which 5 μl h 2 o was added . furthermore , each reaction contained 1x pcr gold buffer , 2 . 5 mm mgcl 2 solution , 0 . 25 mm dntp’s , 5x purified bsa ( biolabs ) , 0 . 4 μl amplitaq gold , 29 . 6 h2o , 0 . 2 μm forward index primer paired end ( inpe 1 . 0 ) and 0 . 2 μm reverse index primer paired end . the five reactions containing the library were amplified with the same reverse index , while the library blank and the pcr blank were amplified with different reverse index primers . the index pcr was run on a 2720 thermal cycler ( applied biosystems ) at the following conditions : 95°c for 5 minutes , then 15 cycles of 95°c for 30 seconds , 60°c for 30 seconds and 72°c for 30 seconds , followed by a final extension at 72°c for 7 minutes . the five 50 μl indexed libraries were combined to a total of 250 μl before the library , library blank and pcr blank were purified on qiagen qiaquick columns following the above - mentioned minelute purification protocol and eluted in 30 μl buffer eb . the library , the library blank and the pcr blank were visualised on a 2100 bioanalyzer ( agilent technologies ) . as no target fragments were detectable in either the library blank or the index pcr blank , only the library was sequenced . sequencing was performed on the illumina miseq platform where tagged amplicons were sequenced 150 bp paired - end , taking up ca . 15 % of a run .
] . first , the quality of the paired - end reads was assessed with fastqc v 0 . 10 . 0 [
] and then low quality bases were trimmed at the 3′ end ( q < 20 ) with prinseq v0 . 15 [
] . although q < 30 is commonly used in studies with modern dna ( good quality material ) , the dna in our study showed more damage so we used q < 20 which is normally used for ancient dna which is more degraded . afterwards , using customized perl scripts ( program available upon request ) the corresponding paired reads ( 363 , 844 ) were merged if the overlap was 100 % identical producing 140 , 009 sequences . in order to discriminate pcr and sequencing artefacts from true biological variation , only sequences present with 100 % identity in both pcrs from the same extract were kept ; this step yielded 114 , 345 sequences .
also , the sequences were collapsed so that each sequence was only present once and reads shorter than 157 bp were filtered out . this gave a final filtered total of 1130 unique sequences that were used for the rest of the pipeline .
] public data portal to create a database and its corresponding taxonomy map to be used for qiime v1 . 6 . 0 [
species identification was made with qiime with the uclust _ ref otu ( operational taxonomic unit ) picking method ( uclust v1 . 2 . 22q ) , using 98 . 5 % identity ( two mutations ) , with max _ accepts and max _ rejects set to 0 to force a search of the entire database with every query , thus guaranteeing that the best hit will be found if one exists . the biom table obtained from the otu picking was summarised through plots with qiime . 267 sequences failed to be assigned to a cluster ( 11 % ) , and 2162 ( 89 % ) were assigned an otu .
after the sequence data were obtained , we made the taxonomic assignments . otus were matched to most likely arthropod species using the identification tool within the bold database , using four confidence levels based on sequence similarity largely following razgour et al . [
] , whereby confidence level 1 = solid match to one species or genus ( > 98 . 5 % sequence similarity ) ; level = 2 match to more than one species ( 98 . 5 % ) , only one of which was a uk species ; level 3 = matched to two uk species of the same family ( > 98 . 5 % ) and level 4 = match to several species of different genera , or to reference sequences only identified to family ( > 98 % ) . see zeale et al . [
] for justification of the use of these levels of sequence similarity to taxonomic levels . as
only differ by one base pair yielding a 99 . 4 % similarity , these were clustered together at level 3 . since
additional file 1 : zbjart _ short primers . xls . primers . 20 forward and 20 reverse primers , illumina sequencing . ( xlsx 15 kb )
prh conceived the study , conducted the morphological analysis , dna extraction , amplification of bat dna and drafted the manuscript . kb conducted the amplification and second generation sequencing of arthropod dna and drafted part of the manuscript . mtpg supervised the amplification and second generation sequencing of arthropod dna and commented on the manuscript . mlzm conducted the initial bioinformatics analysis of the second generation sequencing results and drafted part of the manuscript . or assisted with extraction and pcr of bat dna and commented on the manuscript . gj conceived and supervised the study and assisted in drafting the manuscript . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .
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the rhinohorn goby , girdled goby or skunk goby ( redigobius balteatus ) is a species of goby native to the sri lanka , philippines , malaysia , indonesia , japan , new guinea , madagascar , and mozambique .

this species inhabits coastal estuaries , lakes and freshwater streams .

it can reach a length of 3.8 centimetres ( 1.5 in ) sl .

redigobius balteatus

froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2013 ) .
redigobius balteatus
in fishbase . june 2013 version .
redigobius balteatus . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 23 september 2013 .
( of acentrogobius balteatus ( herre , 1935 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of redigobius balteata ( herre , 1935 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of redigobius balteatops ( smith , 1959 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
larson , h . k . 2010 ,
a review of the gobiid fish genus redigobius ( teleostei : gobionellinae ) , with descriptiions of two new species .
, ichthyological explorations of freshwater , vol . 21 , no . 2 , pp . 123–191
distinguished by the following characteristics : moderate - sized redigobius ; single black band extending down and back from tip of first dorsal fin ; distinct black band extending from eye diagonally across opercle to lower edge of pectoral fin base ; first dorsal fin tall and elongate , third or fourth spine longest ; opercle with small ctenoid scales ; 14 circumpeduncular scales ; second dorsal rays modally i , 7 ; anal rays i , 6 ; pectoral rays 16 - 17 ; longitudinal scales 23 - 25 ; trb 9 - 11 ; predorsal scales 9 - 12 ( ref . 84480 ) .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 7 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 6 . distinguished by the following characteristics : moderate - sized redigobius ; single black band extending down and back from tip of first dorsal fin ; distinct black band extending from eye diagonally across opercle to lower edge of pectoral fin base ; first dorsal fin tall and elongate , third or fourth spine longest ; opercle with small ctenoid scales ; 14 circumpeduncular scales ; second dorsal rays modally i , 7 ; anal rays i , 6 ; pectoral rays 16 - 17 ; longitudinal scales 23 - 25 ; trb 9 - 11 ; predorsal scales 9 - 12 ( ref . 84480 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
marine ; freshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; dh range : ? - 8 ; amphidromous ( ref . 59012 ) ; depth range 0 - 5 m ( ref . 86942 ) . tropical ; 25°c - 28°c ( ref . 2060 )
asia : sri lanka , philippines , malaysia and indonesia ( ref . 13235 ) ; japan ( ref . 43239 ) . oceania : new guinea . reported from new caledonia ( ref . 13235 ) , micronesia ( ref . 59012 ) . africa : mozambique . indian ocean : madagascar , mayotte ( ref . 55749 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 44894 )
adults inhabit coastal estuaries , lakes ( ref . 48637 ) , and entering lower reaches of freshwater streams ( ref . 44894 ) . also ref . 43716 . also found in quiet mangrove estuarine habitats ( ref . 84480 ) .
keith , p . , g . marquet , p . valade , p . bosc and e . vigneux , 2006 . atlas des poissons et des crustacés d ' eau douce des comores , mascareignes et seychelles . muséum national d’histoire naturelle , paris . patrimoines naturels , 65 : 250p . ( ref . 57749 )
) : 25 . 4 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 6 ( based on 1307 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00392 - 0 . 01936 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .
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the taxonomy of this species has recently been reviewed by larson ( 2010 ) .
justification : this species is widespread and common throughout its range , with no known major threats . it is listed as least concern . however , research is necessary on the harvest size and potential impacts of the aquarium trade , as well as subpopulation sizes and trends .
this species is known from east africa and madagascar to southern japan , micronesia and south to new caledonia .
the species is widespread and appears to be common but not abundant ( larson 2010 ) .
this species is often sought as an aquarium fish and is
imported sporadically
( monks 2006 , larson 2010 ) .
there are currently no major threats to this species . potential threats include damage to coastal waterways and mangrove habitats through clearing , and possibly trade .
information is required as to the number of individuals removed from the wild for the aquarium trade . although the species is common and widespread , it is not abundant and could be locally extirpated by collectors . in australia , it is afforded some protection in that part of the population is on aboriginal land and islands ( thus largely excluding aquarium collectors ) . it is likely that the species occurs in other protected areas throughout its range and it is known to occur in protected areas in madagascar .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
adults inhabit coastal estuaries , lakes ( ref . 48637 ) , and entering lower reaches of freshwater streams ( ref . 44894 ) . also ref . 43716 . also found in quiet mangrove estuarine habitats ( ref . 84480 ) .
this species is known from east africa and madagascar to southern japan , micronesia and south to new caledonia .
asia : sri lanka , philippines , malaysia and indonesia ( ref . 13235 ) ; japan ( ref . 43239 ) . oceania : new guinea . reported from new caledonia ( ref . 13235 ) , micronesia ( ref . 59012 ) . africa : mozambique . indian ocean : madagascar , mayotte ( ref . 55749 ) .
3 . 8 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 44894 ) )
depth range based on 17 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 6 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 . 3 - 10 temperature range ( °c ) : 28 . 723 - 28 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 050 - 0 . 099 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 131 - 34 . 213 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 459 - 4 . 525 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 113 - 0 . 162 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 305 - 1 . 579 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 . 3 - 10 temperature range ( °c ) : 28 . 723 - 28 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 050 - 0 . 099 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 131 - 34 . 213 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 459 - 4 . 525 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 113 - 0 . 162 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 305 - 1 . 579 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .
benthopelagic ; amphidromous ( ref . 59012 ) ; freshwater ; brackish ; marine ; dh range : 8
amphidromous . refers to fishes that regularly migrate between freshwater and the sea ( in both directions ) , but not for the purpose of breeding , as in anadromous and catadromous species . sub - division of diadromous . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km . characteristic elements in amphidromy are : reproduction in fresh water , passage to sea by newly hatched larvae , a period of feeding and growing at sea usually a few months long , return to fresh water of well - grown juveniles , a further period of feeding and growing in fresh water , followed by reproduction there ( ref . 82692 ) .
this species is widespread and common , with no known major threats . it is listed as least concern . however , research is necessary on the harvest size and potential impacts of the aquarium trade , as well as population size and trends .
the species is widespread , and appears to be common but not abundant ( larson 2010 ) .
there are currently no major threats to this species . potential threats include damage to coastal waterways and mangrove habitats through clearing , and possibly through trade .
information is required as to the numbers removed from the wild for the aquarium trade . although the species is common and widespread , it is not abundant and could be locally extirpated by collectors . in australia , it is afforded some protection in that part of the population is on aboriginal land and islands ( thus largely excluding aquarium collectors ) . it is likely that the species occurs in other protected areas throughout its range .
and freshwater streams . it can reach a length of 3 . 8 centimetres ( 1 . 5 in )
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koumans , f . p . 1940 ,
results of re - examination of types and specimens of gobioid fishes , with notes on the fish fauna of the surroundings of batavia
, zoologische mededelingen ( leiden ) , vol . 22 , pp . 121 - 210
whitley , g . p . 1952 ,
figures of some australian fish types
, proceedings of the royal zoological society of new south wales , vol . 1951 - 52 , pp . 23 - 31 figs 1 - 8
herre , a . w . 1935 ,
new fishes obtained by the crane pacific expedition
, publications . field museum of natural history . zoology series , ser . zool . , vol . 18 , no . 12 , pp . 383 - 438 figs 31 - 33
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1319e303 - fe64 - 4a99 - 86f6 - 41d614fe6c85
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cdc33b3a - 5866 - 4bff - a031 - e3f39fbd603e
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 387087
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of acentrogobius balteatops smith , 1959 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of vaimosa balteata herre , 1935 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of acentrogobius balteata ( herre , 1935 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
having trouble finding info on their temperament . are they not aggressive , mildly , medium , very ? how active are they and do they tend to stay at the bottom ?
you ' re not kidding on having trouble finding info on their temperament . i ' ve been looking around on the web for this and i ' m not having much luck either
if you don ' t stand up for something you ' ll fall for anything . . .
i saw them for sale at the pet place . i was thinking of adding some on to my order , but when i tried to research them , i found no info . i did not want to buy something i did not know how to care for . they are cute little fish though . if you get some , you will have to let us know how it works out .
lol , i was also on urltoken and wanted to buy some but i also did not want to get them not knowing how to take care of them , or their temperament , etc .
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urltoken ' type = ' text / javascri according to this it is 25 - 28c which is about 77 - 82f
well , from that article , i am guessing they do better in brackish water . you may want to call the store and see what info they give you . i just got done doing a fishless cycle on a brackish tank and orderd some night gobies and some orange chromides from the pet place . the person i talked with on the phone from there was friendly and helpful . i think night gobies would eat the rhinohorns , so i am glad i did not order any !
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .


pupilla pupula is a species of minute air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family pupillidae .

this species is endemic to the island of réunion in the indian ocean .

pupilla pupula

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pupillidae » pupilla pupula , id : 840512 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
gibbulinopsis pupula ( deshayes , 1863 ) : griffiths & florens ( 2006 ) : plate 20 . [ illustration ] griffiths , o . l . & florens , v . f . b . 2006 . a field guide to the non - marine molluscs of the mascarene islands ( mauritius , rodrigues and réunion ) and the northern dependencies of mauritius . bioculture press , mauritius . 185 pp .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
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the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
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réunion . les bains . la saline . in leaf litter under ficus on edge of ravine cutting the old part of chemin bruniquel . 250 m .
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griffiths & florens ( 2006 ) : 83 . [ statut pour la réunion ] griffiths , o . l . & florens , v . f . b . 2006 . a field guide to the non - marine molluscs of the mascarene islands ( mauritius , rodrigues and réunion ) and the northern dependencies of mauritius . bioculture press , mauritius . 185 pp .
national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
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camptophallus botti is a species of crab in the family pseudothelphusidae , and the only species in the genus camptophallus .

it is endemic to the nicaraguan departments of matagalpa and jinotega .

camptophallus

this is the place for camptophallus definition . you find here camptophallus meaning , synonyms of camptophallus and images for camptophallus copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word camptophallus . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word camptophallus and , of course , camptophallus synonyms and on the right images related to the word camptophallus .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is known only from two localities in nicaragua . it is listed here as data deficient in view of the absence of further information on its extent of occurrence , ecological requirements , population size , population trends , and long - term threats .
there is no information on the population size , abundance , or population trends of this species .
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database contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families
search for ' pseudothelphusa ' returned 122 matching records , showing records 1 - 100 . click on one of the taxon names listed below to check the details . [ new search ] [ direct link ]
pseudothelphusa angusta rathbun , 1905 accepted as fredius denticulatus ( h . milne edwards , 1853 )
pseudothelphusa carsevennensis rathbun , 1904 accepted as fredius denticulatus ( h . milne edwards , 1853 )
pseudothelphusa cobanensis rathbun , 1905 accepted as raddaus bocourti ( a . milne - edwards , 1866 )
pseudothelphusa dentata ortmann , 1893 accepted as hypolobocera chilensis ( lucas in h . milne edwards & lucas , 1844 )
pseudothelphusa geayi nobili , 1904 accepted as fredius denticulatus ( h . milne edwards , 1853 )
pseudothelphusa grallator rathbun , 1905 accepted as raddaus bocourti ( a . milne - edwards , 1866 )
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