notoscopelus caudispinosus is a species of lanternfish in the family myctophidae .

it is found in the eastern and western atlantic ocean , the indian ocean and parts of the pacific ocean .

it spends the day below 1,000 m ( 3,300 ft ) , rising towards the surface to feed at night .

notoscopelus caudispinosus

( of notoscopelus ( notoscopelus ) caudispinosus ( johnson , 1863 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
otoliths from notoscopelus caudispinosus , with total length of a . 43mm ; b . 78mm ; internal side a1 ; b1 ; external side a2 ; b2 ; profile of the ventral region a3 ; b3 ; click the figures for larger version *
( of scopelus caudispinosus johnson , 1863 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of notoscopelus ( notoscopelus ) caudispinosus ( johnson , 1863 ) ) van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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scott , w . b . ; scott , m . g . ( 1988 ) . atlantic fishes of canada . canadian bulletin of fisheries and aquatic sciences . no . 219 . 731 pp . [ details ]
king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicoll , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , s . ; macadie , i . ( 2009 ) . phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 431 - 554 . [ details ]
mceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223–1316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of lampanyctus caudospinosus ( johnson , 1863 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of macrostoma caudospinosum ( johnson , 1863 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
habitat high - oceanic , mesopelagic species , occurs deeper than 1 , 000 m during the day and nyctoepipelagic at the surface and down to 175 m . [ details ]
greek , noton = back + greek , skopelos = a lantern fish ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; bathypelagic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 360 m ( ref . 86942 ) . deep - water ; 54°n - 58°s , 98°w - 154°w
eastern atlantic : morocco to namibia . western atlantic : usa to argentina ( up to 38°39 ' s ( ref . 47377 ) ) including the gulf of mexico and caribbean . indo - west pacific .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4479 )
high - oceanic , mesopelagic species ( ref . 4479 , 75154 ) . occurs deeper than 1 , 000 m during the day and nyctoepipelagic at the surface and down to 175 m ( ref . 4479 ) . probably spawns in autumn - winter in the western north atlantic ( ref . 4775 ) .
hulley , p . a . , 1990 . myctophidae . p . 398 - 467 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei ; paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4479 )
) : 13 . 3 - 27 . 4 , mean 21 . 1 ( based on 1569 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00537 ( 0 . 00247 - 0 . 01167 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 1 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 39 of 100 ) .
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eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 3 february 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 5 february 2015 ) .
is a widespread species that is not facing any known threats . more research on this species needs to be conducted to assess the population size and trend in the eastern atlantic . this species is listed as least concern .
this species is found in the eastern atlantic between 35°n and 0°s , but it is absent in the mauritanian upwelling region , gulf of guinea and eastern south atlantic . it can also be found in the gulf of mexico , caribbean and the western atlantic between 41°n–39°s , as well at the indian and pacific oceans , including japan , taiwan , the philippines , east australia , new caledonia , new zealand and hawaii ( hulley and paxton in press ) .
there are little data regarding the population size of this species in the eastern atlantic . it appears to be moderately common in museum collection records ( around 400 records on fishnet2 ) .
this species is oceanic , mesopelagic and performs diel migrations from below 1 , 000 m during the day , up to the surface to 175 m during the night for feeding purposes . spawning probably takes place in the autumn / winter ( hulley and paxton in press ) .
there are no known threats for this species , and it is not under pressure from fisheries .
there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range ( world database on protected areas 2010 ) .
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description of gerres chrysops sp . nov . from thailand and redescription of gerres setifer ( hamilton , 1822 ) and g . decacanthus ( bleeker , 1865 ) ( perciformes : gerreidae ) .
description of larvae and young of four species of flatfishes referable to subfamily bothinae .
description of larvae and young of four species of flatfishes referable to subfamily bothinae .
description of larval and juvenile yellowtail damselfish , microspathodon chrysurus , pomacentridae , and their osteological development . s .
description of larval jenkinsia lamprotaenia ( clupeidae , dussumieriinae ) and their distribution off barbados , west indies .
description of leptophidium cervinum and l . marmoratum , new fishes from deep water off the atlantic and gulf coasts .
description of leptophidium cervinum and l . marmoratum , new fishes from deep water off the atlantic and gulf coasts .
description of new fishes from lake candidius , formosa , collected by dr . a . moltrecht .
description of new fishes obtained 1907 to 1910 , chiefly in the philippine islands and adjacent seas .
description of new genus and species of clinid fish from the western caribbean , with comments on the families of the blennioidea .
description of new species of pachycara zugmayer , 1991 from the abyssal south - eastern pacific and redescription of p . thermophilum geistdoerfer , 1994 , with a new key to the species .
description of one new genus and three new species of blenniidae from the riu - kiu islands .
description of porkfish larvae ( anisotremus virginiicus , haemulidae ) and their osteological development .
motomura , h . , s . - i . dewa , k . furuta , and h . senou
description of pseudanthias rubrolineatus ( serranidae : anthiinae ) collected from take - shima island , kagoshima prefecture , southern japan .
description of six new species of fishes from the gulf of mexico , with notes on other species .
description of six new species of lantern - sharks of the genus etmopterus ( squaloidea : etmopteridae ) from the australasian region . .
description of some new or little - known species of fishes in the collection of the british museum .
description of the lateral - line system of the pirate perch , aphredoderus sayanus .
description of the neotype of repomucenus sagitta ( callionymidae ) with comments on the species .
description of the new lutijanid fish of the genus pristipomoides from the ryukyu islands .
description of the primitive family diplomystidae ( siluriformes , teleostei , pisces ) : morphology , taxonomy and phylogenetic implications .
description of three new cyprinoid fishes from yunnan , collected by mr . john graham .
description of three new species of elasmobranchiate fishes from deep waters of the east china sea .
description of three new species of fish from the sandwich islands , in the british museum . .
description of three new species of fish , including two undescribed genera , discovered by john reeves , esq . , in china . .
zhang , e . , x . qiang , and j . - h . lan
description of a new genus and two new species of labeonine fishes from south china ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .
description of a new genus of percoid fish , discovered by samuel stutchbury , in the pacific sea , and now in the british museum . .
description of a new gobiesocid fish from south - western australia , with a key to the species of aspasmogaster .
description of a new gobiid fish , glossogobius aureus , with notes on related species of the genus .
description of a new homalopterid fish , pseudogastromyzon tungpeiensis , with a synopsis of all the known chinese homalopteridae .
description of a new lutjanid fish of the genus pristipomoides from the ryukyu islands . bull . .
description of a new notidanoid shark from the philippine islands representing a new family .
description of a new plesiopid fish from south - western australia , with a discusion of the zoogeography of paraplesiops .
description of a new sandfish , [ kraemeria sexradiata ] , from japan , with special reference to its osteology .
description of a new scorpaenoid fish ( neomerinthe hemingwayi ) from off new jersey .
description of a new scorpionfish ( scorpaenoidei , sebastolobinae ) from the tropical eastern pacific .
description of a new skate ( dactylobatus armatus ) from deep water , off the southern atlantic coast of the united state .
description of a new species and genus of darter from the cape fear river basin of north carolina .
description of a new species bothragonus occidentalis ( agonidae pisces ) from the sea of japan .
description of a new species bothragonus occidentalis ( agonidae pisces ) from the sea of japan .
description of a new species in the species group myctophum asperum ( myctophidae ) with comments on this group .
description of a new species of echiodon ( teleostei : carapidae ) from antarctic and adjacent seas .
description of a new species of heteroclinus ( blennoidei : clinidae ) from southern autralia .
description of a new species of deep - sea fish from the cape ( lophotes fiski ) .
description of a new species of deep - water sculpin ( triglopsis ontariensis ) from lake ontario , with notes on related species .
description of a new species of fish ( apogon evermanni ) from the hawaiian islands , with notes on other species .
description of a new species of half - beak ( hemiramphus mioprorus ) from nagasaki , japan .
description of a new species of incubatory oyster from northern new zealand , with notes on its ecology and reproduction .
description of a new species of killifish , lucania browni , from a hot spring in lower california .
tshibwabwa , s . m . , m . l . j . stiassny , and r . c . schelly
description of a new species of labeo ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) from the lower congo river .
description of a new species of nemipterus ( pisces : perciformes ; nemipteridae ) from the western pacific , with re - descriptions of nemipterus marginatus ( valenciennes ) , n . mesoprion ( bleeker ) and n . nematopus ( bleeker ) . .
description of a new species of pranesus ( atherinidae : pisces ) from the capricorn group , great barrier reef .
description of a new species of pufferfish ( tetraodontiformes : tetraodontidae ) from the red sea and adjacent waters .
chu , y . - t . , q . - w . meng and j . - x . liu
description of a new species of serow from yun - nan province , china .
description of a new species of serranid fish from western australia , with a key to the australian species of acanthistius .
carvalho , m . r . de , u . l . gomes , and o . b . f . gadig
description of a new species of skate of the genus malacoraja stehmann , 1970 : the first species from the southwestern atlantic ocean , with notes on generic monophyly and composition ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) .
description of a new species of the fish genus acanthoplesiops regan ( teleostei : plesiopidae : acanthoclininae ) from tonga .
description of a new species of threadfin ( teleostei : perciformes : polynemidae ) , polydactylus longipes , from mindanao island , philippines .
description of a new species of thyrsitops ( t . violaceus ) from the fishing - banks off the new england coast .
description of a new species of tilapia smith , 1840 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) from ghana .
description of a new species of torquigener whitley ( pisces : tetraodontidae ) from south africa , with a key to the genus .
description of a new species of whitefish ( coregonus nelsonii ) , from alaska .
redescription of gilloblennius whitley and phillipps , 1939 ( pisces : tripterygiidae ) , and description of a new gensu and two new species from new zealand .
rivision of australian species of torquigener whitley ( tetraodontiformes : tetraodontidae ) , and two new generic names for australian puffer fishes .
relationships and taxonomy of the new zealand torrent fish , cheimarrichthys fosteri haast ( pisces : mugiloididae ) .
two further new species of galaxias ( teleostei : galaxiidae ) from the taieri river , southern new zealand .
fishes of the southern hemisphere genus [ neophrynichthys ] ( scorpaeniformes : cottoidei ) , with descriptions of two new species from new zealand and macquarie island .
studies on western australian sharks and rays of the families scyliorhinidae , urolophidae and torpedinidae .
high - oceanic species . found at 325 to deeper than 1 , 000 m during the day ; nyctoepipelagic at surface and down to 125 m ( ref . 4775 ) . epipelagic to bathypelagic . feeds on crustaceans ( ref . 58426 ) .
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the collection contains otoliths from 59 individuals of this species , ranging from 42 to 78 mm of total length . click here to see the map of the sampling area for the individuals of this species . the following summaries contains data from 20 analysed otoliths . see more detailed data here ( in portuguese ) .
lobed to sinuate ( 85 % ) , sinuate ( 10 % ) , lobed ( 5 % ) .
underdeveloped ( 45 % ) , absent ( 30 % ) , developed ( 25 % ) .
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high - oceanic , mesopelagic species . occurs deeper than 1 , 000 m during the day and nyctoepipelagic at the surface and down to 175 m .
off sotheastern taiwan waters . tropical atlantci and indian oceans , and southeast asian and hawaiian waters .
) : 13 . 3 - 27 . 4 , mean 21 . 1 ( based on 1569 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00537 ( 0 . 00247 - 0 . 01167 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .
) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2018 - 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 09 july 2018 .
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core subunit of the mitochondrial membrane respiratory chain nadh dehydrogenase ( complex i ) that is believed to belong to the minimal assembly required for catalysis . complex i functions in the transfer of electrons from nadh to the respiratory chain . the immediate electron acceptor for the enzyme is believed to be ubiquinone .
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publication
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palaeolagus ( ' ancient hare ' ) is an extinct genus of lagomorph .

palaeolagus lived in the oligocene period which was about 33-23 million years ago .

the earliest leporids described from the fossil record of north america and asia date to the upper eocene some 40 million years ago .

palaeolagus

' archaeolagus striatus belongs to archaeolagus ' according to walker 1931 ' archaeolagus striatus is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' archaeolagus striatus is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to dice and dice 1935 ' hypolagus primitivus belongs to hypolagus ' according to schlaikjer 1935 ' hypolagus primitivus is recombined as palaeolagus primitivus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' hypolagus primitivus is recombined as palaeolagus primitivus ' according to a . wood 1937 ' lepus ennisianus is recombined as archaeolagus ennisianus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' lepus ennisianus is recombined as archaeolagus ennisianus ' according to schlaikjer 1935 ' palaeolagus agapetillus is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus brachyodon is recombined as megalagus brachyodon ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus burkei belongs to palaeolagus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus intermedius belongs to palaeolagus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus triplex is a subjective synonym of megalagus turgidus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus turgidus is recombined as megalagus turgidus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' palaeolagus turgidus is recombined as megalagus turgidus ' according to walker 1931 ' protolagus affinus belongs to protolagus ' according to walker 1931 ' protolagus affinus is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' tricium annae is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' tricium avunculus is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' tricium leporinum is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus haydeni ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' tricium paniense is a subjective synonym of megalagus turgidus ' according to a . e . wood 1940 ' tricium is a subjective synonym of palaeolagus ' according to a . e . wood 1940
palaeolagus haydeni det . by : edward l . troxell 1921 ; see : troxell , edward l . 1921 . palaeolagus , an extinct hare . american journal of science . ( 5 ) i : 340 - 348 .
the palaeolagus are found in the late eocene or oligocene period around 34 - 24 million years ago . during that period
this animal is known as its bionomial name palaeolagus haydeni or more commonly known as a palaeolagus which means ' ancient hares ' . its bionomial name refers to it being the ancestor of the modern - day rabbits and living during ancient times .
the picture shows the skull of a palaeolagus sp . which was an ancestor of the rabbit . the skull comes from the oligocene white river formation in dakota usa .
warming , compared to the european rabbit , the palaeolagus species live in a much cooler climate which may lead to the encounter of a very different set of animals .
in conclusion , the palaeolagus lives in a much cooler environment than the modern day european rabbit hence some of their unique adaptation have evolved throughout the long period of time within .
palaeolagus is essentially an eocene / oligocene version of today’s rabbits and hares ,  however ,  palaeolagus was quite a bit more primitive than modern forms .  the rear legs in particular are proportionately shorter that modern rabbits ,  which means that palaeolagus had less ‘spring’ in its step and therefore could not run anywhere near as fast as modern rabbits .  eocene and oligocene era carnivores such as creodonts ,  nimravids and early amphicyonids however were also slower runners than modern cats and dogs however .  while palaeolagus would have likely been hunted by all of these kinds of predators ,  the gap between top running speeds may have proportionately been the same as modern rabbits and their modern predators .  as the oligocene progressed however ,  the ecosystems were changing to more open grasslands rather than forests ,  and this drove a shift towards faster herbivores ,  and faster predators to hunt them .  just like so many other animals that were not adapted to fast running ,  palaeolagus seems to have gone extinct around the start of the miocene .
while palaeolagus was surely highly prevalent in the savanna environment of oligocene north america , the size and fragility of their fossils make them rare . this oligocene matrix from the badlands of wyoming contains two palaeolagus that are largely intact , an even more rare occurrence . perhaps this pair were lovers in life . the beautiful preparation has left them in matrix , perhaps as they expired together , snuggled for eternity in their rock grave .
det . by : edward l . troxell , 1921 ; see : troxell , edward l . 1921 . palaeolagus , an extinct hare . american journal of science . ( 5 ) i : 340 - 348 .
, warthog and many more . it is to be believed that many of these modern animals or their ancestors existed 34 - 24 million years ago . nonetheless , an animal that the palaeolagus certainly have encountered is the extinct sabertooth cat (
have disappeared . although the scientists do not know what is the significant reason why the palaeolagus species became extinct however during this period of time ( 15 million years ago ) earth encountered a sudden decrease of temperature reflected by the increase of ice caps in antarctica . the extreme cold climate affected life from the land and aquatic environment and may also be the most well - documented reason for the extinction of palaeolagus species and many others . the animals were not able to adapt to the rapid fluctuation in temperature .
the environment pressure would be the key to survival , being in the dark allowed the palaeolagus species to feed / eat in a less dangerous environment with the dark helping it to camouflage . basically it helps to increase the chance of survival for the species .
emry , r . j . & gawne , c . e . , 1986 : a primitive , early oligocene species of palaeolagus ( mammalia : lagomorpha ) from the flagstaff rim area of wyoming . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 6 , # 2 , pp . 271 - 280
name : palaeolagus  ( ancient hare )  . phonetic : pay - lee - oh - lay - gus . named by : joseph leidy  -  1856 . synonyms : archaeolagus striatus ,  palaeolagus agapetillus ,  protolagus affinus ,  tricium annae ,  tricium avunculus ,  tricium leporinum . classification : chordata ,  mammalia ,  lagomorpha ,  leporidae ,  palaeolagus . species : p .  burkei ,  p .  haydeni ,  p .  hemirhizis ,  p .  hypsodus ,  p .  intermedius ,  p .  philoi ,  p .  primus ,  p .  temnodon . diet : herbivore . size : about 25 centimetres long . known locations : canada ,  sekatchewan .  usa ,  california ,  colorado ,  idaho ,  montana ,  nebraska ,  oregon ,  north dakota ,  south dakota ,  washington ,  wyoming . time period : priabonian of the eocene through to the chattian of the oligocene fossil representation : remains of probably a few hundred individuals .
one of the most significant difference between the modern day european rabbit and the palaeolagus species is the hind legs . the european rabbits ' hind legs is the most important part of their body , helping it in every aspect of their daily life such as travelling ( hopping ) , digging burrows etc . . . however the palaeolagus species ' short hind legs is incapable of hopping instead they ran on all on its four limps just like a rodent in a creeping fashion much like the ground squirrel . being so close to the ground level , the palaeolagus species was very agile and was able to travel swiftly through the grasslands . when they are being chased by predators , they tend to press their bodies against the ground as close as possible to enable their run to be smoother dashing through the grasslands . also , because of their short hind legs carrying its corresponding small body they tend to outrun their predators enabling them to find a place to hide ( eg . burrows ) before the predators could get to it . in short , their short hind legs ' advantage is allowing it to run swiftly through the grasslands before their predators could launch attack . the environment pressure would be the disadvantage of the palaelagus being so small and under threat by other large animals that roam the grasslands hence having short hind legs allow them to run swiftly and increase the chance of survival .
being so small it gives an advantage of being capable to travel swiftly through the rich grasslands despite its short hind legs which leads to its incapability of hopping . also its small size makes it hard to spot within the grasslands with grass growing up to 3 meters tall , if it was any larger it may simply become an easy target for larger predators especially those that roams in the sky . their sizes promise a decrease in chance to be spotted , consequently means it has an increase of chance for better survival and assure the survival of the palaeolagus species . furthermore , because its body is so close to ground level it is easy to chew on the root of the grass . the environment pressure of this adaptation is mostly due to its grassland habitat , being around so many variety of predators its small size gives it an advantage of being less likely to be spotted and higher chance of survival .
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averianov , a . o . , 1995 : osteology and adaptations of the early pliocene rabbit trischizolagus dumitrescuae ( lagomorpha : leporidae ) . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 15 , # 2 , pp . 375 - 386
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
mckenna , m . c . & bell , s . k . , ( eds . ) 1997 : classification of mammals – above the species level . –columbia university press , new york , 1997 , xii - 631
meng , j . , hu , y . & li , c . , 2005 : gobiolagus ( lagomorpha , mammalia ) from eocene ula usu , inner mongolia , and comments on eocene lagomorphs of asia . –palaeontologia electronica : vol . 8 , # 1 , pp . 7a : 1 - 23 [ urltoken ]
miller , w . e . & carranza - castañeda , o . , 1982 : new lagomorphs from the pliocene of central mexico . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 2 , # 1 , pp . 95 - 107 .
nowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 1 . –the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xlviii - 642 - lxiii
nowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 2 . –the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xii - 643 - 1629
voorhies , m . r . & timperley , c . l . , 1997 : a new pronotolagus ( lagomorpha : leporidae ) and other leporids from the valentine railway quarries ( barstovian , nebraska ) , and the archaeolagine - leporine transition . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 17 , # 4 , pp . 725 - 737
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full reference : j . leidy . 1856 . notice of remains of extinct mammalia , discovered by dr . f . v . hayden in nebraska territory . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 8 : 88 - 90
full reference : e . douglass . 1902 . fossil mammalia of the white river beds of montana . transactions of the american philosophical society 20 : 237 - 279
average measurements ( in mm ) : p3 2 . 09 x 2 . 99 , p4 2 . 17 x 3 . 29 , m1 1 . 92 x 3 . 18 , p3 2 . 40 x 2 . 40 , p4 1 . 95 x 2 . 10 , m1 2 . 47 x 2 . 48
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mammals have a bone skeleton and characteristic teeth and first appear in the triassic period , but remain very rare until after the end of the cretaceous period .
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the oligocene period was described by many scientists as a connector between ' the archaic world of the eocene and a more modern ecosystem ' . in the 21st century of today , many animals inhabit in the grasslands such as african lion ,
just like the modern day european rabbit , they accommodate the terrestrial ecology and habitat . but due to factors such as global
corresponding body length is much shorter too . this structural adaptation would help the animal to live in its grassland environment helping it to survive where larger animals such as ancestors of lions , bisons and warthogs may have lived .
after the oligocene epoch , the geological epoch of miocene followed . during the miocene epoch , scientists acknowledged that many varieties of animals were fairly modern and well - developed and also within the period of time was when the event of middle miocene disruption occurred . scientists believed that in this occurrence , a large number of land and aquatic species were swiped and some even reckoned up to approximately 30 % of animals uniquely from the genus of
leporids ( mammalia , lagomorpha ) from the diamond o ranch local fauna , latest middle eocene of southwestern montana .
a . e . wood . 1940 . the mammalian fauna of the white river oligocene : part iii . lagomorpha .
nuralagus is also morphologically peculiar compared to many other rabbits and hares . relatively small eyes and small auditory bullae suggest that its senses weren’t as acute as those of continental lagomorphs , and its spreading digits , the nature of its limb bone articulations , and the low degree of flexibility in its spine all indicate that it was a relatively slow - moving walker , not a jumper or sprinter ( quintana et al . 2011 ) .
however , you may well have heard all of this before , and it’s not why i’m here . i see two other things relevant to nuralagus that are worth commenting on .
firstly , fossil lagomorph diversity is reviewed all too infrequently in my opinion , so here are a few comments . according to quintana et al . ( 2011 ) , the closest relative of nuralagus seems to be alilepus , a widespread fossil rabbit , the different species of which are known from the miocene , pliocene and pleistocene of europe , asia and north america . both taxa share various detailed tooth characters , and it seems that nuralagus is more similar in some respects to eurasian alilepus species than to north american ones ( does this mean that alilepus might be paraphyletic with respect to nuralagus ? ) .
for the record , note that all rabbits and hares are united within the group leporidae . leporids are the sister - group to ochotonidae , the pikas ( pikas had their heyday in the miocene , it seems , when they far outnumbered leporids in number of species ) . a small number of fossil taxa from the paleocene and eocene ( eurymylids , gomphos and the mimotonids ) appear to be stem - lagomorphs , and all of these taxa just mentioned have been united in the clade duplicidentata ( wyss & meng 1996 , asher et al . 2005 ) .
so – we know that nuralagus is close to alilepus … . but what sort of leporid is alilepus ? quintana et al . ( 2011 ) don’t include a phylogenetic analysis in their article , but a few preceding studies allow us to get a rough handle on leporid phylogeny .
again , let’s note that both the mckenna and dawson trees are what we call hand - cranked : this means ( it’s a very much informal term ) that these workers constructed their trees ‘by hand’ , following their assessment of a relatively small number of characters . history has shown us that hand - cranked trees are ( generally ) approximately right , but because ( normal ) humans aren’t able to assess the hundreds or even thousands of data points that need to be compared simultaneously whenever organisms are examined in detail , you need computers that run parsimony algorithms to best assess the data you collect . you know all this already : it’s phylogenetics 101 .
and thanks much to brian kraatz for his help and sage advice on leporid phylogeny , by the way . he has big plans for fossil rabbits – hopefully they’ll pan out .
the second thing i wanted to say about nuralagus is a little more arcane than its phylogenetic position , and there might not be that many people who have the required overlapping fields of interest to even think it worthy of note , but here i go .
quintana et al . ( 2011 ) include a very nice reconstruction of nuralagus in their paper on the animal : you might already have seen it online . it’s really very good : it shows the animal to scale with a european rabbit , and portrays it in nice , realistic fashion . but . . . they almost certainly have the neck horribly wrong .
regardless of whatever preconceptions you might have , we really should assume by default that the neck of this weird , giant , island - endemic rabbit was also s - shaped , with a strong curvature just like seen in extant rabbit species . and it’s no use saying that the fossil bones won’t allow this sort of posture , since one of the things that’s obvious from x - rays of living animals is that the postures their necks maintain during life aren’t readily reproducible from dry bones either . the soft tissues present in the living animal make the neck skeleton more flexible that is the case in the dry skeleton , not less .
so , there we have it . my initial plan here was just to make a quick observation on nuralagus and tie it into work i and colleagues have done on neck posture , but it seems there’s an awful lot to say about fossil lagomorphs . as usual , i’ve barely touched on the many neat things you could say about these animals : i think we’ll definitely be coming back to them in time .
asher , r . j . , meng , j . , wible , r . r . , mckenna , m . c . , rougier , g . w . , dashzeveg , d . & novacek , m . j . 2005 . stem lagomorpha and the antiquity of glires . science 307 , 1091 - 1094 .
dawson , m . r . 2008 . lagomorpha . in janis , c . m . , gunnell , g . f . & uhen , m . d . ( eds ) evolution of tertiary mammals of north america . volume 2 : small mammals , xenarthrans , and marine mammals . cambridge university press , 293 - 310 .
kraatz , b . p . , meng , j . , weksler , m . & li , c . 2010 . evolutionary patterns in the dentition of duplicidentata ( mammalia ) and a novel trend in the molarization of premolars . plos one 5 ( 9 ) : e12838 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0012838
quintana , j . , köhler , m . & moyà - solà , s . 2011 . nuralagus rex , gen . et sp . nov . , an endemic insular giant rabbit from the neogene of minorca ( balearic islands , spain ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology 31 , 231 - 240 .
taylor , m . p . , wedel , m . j . & naish , d . 2009 . head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals . acta palaeontologica polonica 54 , 213 - 220 .
vidal , p . p . , graf , w . & berthoz , a . 1986 . the orientation of the cervical vertebral column in unrestrained awake animals . experimental brain research 61 , 549 - 559 .
wible , j . r . 2007 . on the cranial osteology of the lagomorpha . bulletin of carnegie museum of natural history 39 , 213 - 234 .
wyss , a . r . & meng , j . 1996 . application of phylogenetic taxonomy to poorly resolved crown clades : a stem - modified node - based definition of rodentia . systematic biology 45 , 559 - 568 .
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darren naish is a science writer , technical editor and palaeozoologist ( affiliated with the university of southampton , uk ) . he mostly works on cretaceous dinosaurs and pterosaurs but has an avid interest in all things tetrapod . his publications can be downloaded at darrennaish . wordpress . com . he has been blogging at tetrapod zoology since 2006 . check out the tet zoo podcast at tetzoo . com !
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size : skulls are about 50 mm ; stretched bodies would be some 50 cm .
in the museum’s armory , see excellent examples of historic weaponry , dating from 1750 to the twentieth century , with uses that ranged from military to more personal applications such as hunting and dueling .
in the historic textiles gallery , the museum features regularly rotating exhibits from its rich historic textiles and clothing collection , one of the finest in the southeastern united states .
in city under siege , discover how charlestonians endured the greatest conflict in american history .
in the charleston museum : the early days gallery , see exotic collections from around the world , representative of the museum’s nineteenth century cosmopolitan collecting focus .
in the lowcountry history hall , see materials relating to the native americans who first inhabited the lowcountry and the african american and european settlers who transformed the region into an agricultural empire .
in becoming americans , explore charleston’s important role in the american revolution , from protest to independence .
in the natural history gallery you will see an extraordinary array of birds , reptiles and mammals that have called the south carolina lowcountry home since prehistory , including contributions from noted naturalists .
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in the loeblein gallery of charleston silver discover the impressive work of the south’s finest craftsmen and women , from the colonial era through the victorian age .
for inquiries regarding visits to the collection or specimen loans , please contact the vertebrate and trace paleontology collections manager , toni culver at toni . culver @ colorado . edu .
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lagomorphs from the zia sand miocene of new mexico . american museum novitates ; no . 2608
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there are animals that look like rabbits in star wars ? or are you referring to the brontops in that pic ? edit : i replaced the op pic with another one so there won ' t be any confusion whatsoever . here ' s ( hyperlinked ) the original pic .
what if the whole universe is flat ? all the stars , planets , etc .


baronnites is an ammonoid cephalopod from the upper valanginian stage of the lower cretaceous .

baronnites is represented by a single species , baronnites hirsutus found in marine silty to sandy limestone and marl in morocco , associated with another ammonoid , busnardoites campylotoxus , brachiopods , bivalves , and other invertebrates .

baronnites

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neocomites neocomiensiformis zone , also with two subzones , the baronnites hirsutus subzone below ( characterized by the appearance of
busnardoites
subcampylotoxus and olcostephanus guebhardi ) and the valanginites dolioliformis subzone above (
busnardoites
campylotoxus is restricted to this subzone ) .
the n . neocomiensiformis zone is featured by a strong diversification of the olcostephanids ( with the appearance of the genera baronnites , saynoceras and valanginites , together with several new species of olcostephanus ) , the emergence of the first oosterellids ( genera paquiericeras and julianites ) and a nearly complete renewal of the neocomitid stock .
figure 9 : a :
thurmanniceras
pertransiens ( y . cl 2 . 26 . 1 , section y . cl 2 ,
th .
pertransiens zone , v . salinarium subzone ) . b : vergoliceras salinarium ( y . t . 19 . 32 , section y . t , n . neocomiensiformis zone , b . hirsutus subzone ) . c : neocomites neocomiensiformis ( y . v . r ' . 1 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . d : baronnites hirsutus ( y . n . 5 . 19 , section y . n , n . neocomiensiformis zone , b . hirsutus subzone ) . e : neocomites subtenuis ( y . t . 8 . 2 , section y . t , n . neocomiensiformis zone , b . hirsutus subzone ) . f :
busnardoites
subcampylotoxus ( y . v . 5 . 38 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . g :
busnardoites
campylotoxus ( y . v . 6 . 14 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . h : olcostephanus guebhardi ( y . v . 5 . 6 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . i : valanginites dolioliformis ( y . v . 6 . 47 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . j : valanginites fuhri ( y . v . r ' . 17 , section y . v , n . neocomiensiformis zone , v . dolioliformis subzone ) . k : karakaschiceras inostranzewi ( y . v . 12 . 75 , section y . v , k . inostranzewi zone , k . inostranzewi subzone ) . l : saynoceras contestanum ( y . p . 6 . 45 , section y . p , k . inostranzewi zone , s . contestanum subzone ) .
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contents [ 1 . introduction ] [ 2 . geological setting and studied sections ] [ 3 . material and methods ] [ 4 . ammonite succession and zonation ] [ 5 . conclusions ] and . . . [ bibliographic references ]
departamento de estratigrafía y paleontología , facultad de ciencias , universidad de granada , campus de fuentenueva s / n . e - 18002 granada ( spain )
a new zonation for the lower valanginian in the betic cordillera is presented . it is based on the study of 16 sections located near caravaca and cehegín ( region of murcia ) . from bottom to top , the following interval zones , defined by the first appearance of the index - species , are distinguished :
thurmanniceras
pertransiens zone , which can be subdivided into two subzones , a lower
th .
pertransiens subzone and an upper vergoliceras salinarium subzone . the latter is characterized by the disappearance of olcostephanus drumensis and the appearance of luppovella superba .
karakaschiceras inostranzewi zone , subdivided as well into two subzones , a lower karakaschiceras inostranzewi subzone and an upper saynoceras contestanum subzone .
the assemblages characterizing each of these biozones can be recognized throughout the mediterranean region .
j . m . ( 2015 ) . - lower valanginian ammonite biostratigraphy in the subbetic domain ( betic cordillera , southeastern spain ) . -
biostratigraphie par ammonites du valanginien inférieur du domaine subbétique ( cordillères bétiques , se de l ' espagne ) . - une nouvelle zonation pour le valanginien inférieur de la cordillère bétique est présentée . elle est fondée sur l ' étude de 16 coupes localisées près de caravaca et de cehegín ( région de murcie ) . de bas en haut , définies par la première apparition de l ' espèce - index , les zones d ' intervalle suivantes ont été reconnues :
une zone à
thurmanniceras
pertransiens , qui peut être subdivisée en deux , une sous - zone inférieure à
th .
pertransiens et une sous - zone supérieure à vergoliceras salinarium . cette dernière est caractérisée par la disparition d ' olcostephanus drumensis et l ' apparition de luppovella superba ;
une zone à karakaschiceras inostranzewi , aussi subdivisée en deux , une sous - zone inférieure à karakaschiceras inostranzewi et une sous - zone supérieure à saynoceras contestanum .
les associations qui caractérisent chacune de ces unités biostratigraphiques peuvent être reconnues sur l ' ensemble de la région méditerranéenne .
knowledge of the lower valanginian ammonite biostratigraphy in the mediterranean region has evolved little during the last two decades . indeed , the current standard zonation for this interval until very recently (
) in se france . these proposals , however , differed significantly from the zonal scheme developed , around the same time , by
in order to resolve these discrepancies , we undertook a detailed analysis of the ammonite stratigraphic distribution throughout the lower valanginian . to this end , we carried out a systematic sampling of 16 sections in the eastern subbetic domain ( betic cordillera , southeastern spain ) , some of them previously not studied . this enabled us to accurately identify the sequence of ammonite bioevents and propose a more precise zonation for this interval in the betic cordillera . an outline of these results was previously presented (
) . in this paper , we develop this zonal scheme giving a detailed account of the bioevents that define and characterize the different units that compose it and discussing its correlation with the schemes previously proposed by other authors .
all the studied sections belong to the subbetic zone , a tectonic domain which corresponds roughly to the pelagic realm of the southern paleomargin of iberia during the alpine cycle ( mesozoic and paleogene ) . the lithologic successions are made of marl - limestone rhythmites of the miravetes formation (
) , in which ammonites are , by far , the main components of the macrofauna . some slumped intervals are present in the sections of the sierra de quípar - peña rubia - mai valera area , which behaved as a relative topographic high during the jurassic and the early cretaceous (
the sections sampled , all of them located near caravaca and cehegín ( region of murcia , se spain ) , are the following ( fig . 1 ) :
section y . o ( coordinates : 38º4 ' 26 ' ' n 1º57 ' 59 ' ' w ) , on the left bank of the river argos , 10 km wsw of caravaca , and 250 m n of the las oícas holiday cottage . it corresponds to the uppermost part of section m in
section y . mv ( coordinates : 38º5 ' 29 ' ' n 1º53 ' 43 ' ' w ) , on the right bank of the ravine called rambla curiana , 3 km sw of caravaca , and 500 m of the miravetes farmhouse . data on lower valanginian ammonite biostratigraphy from this classic section were previously published by
sections y . b ( coordinates : 38º4 ' 53 ' ' n 1º50 ' 53 ' ' w ) and y . b 1 ( coordinates : 38º4 ' 51 ' ' n 1º51 ' w ) , on a gentle slope , 2 . 7 km sse of caravaca , and 300 m s of the prado borda farmhouse ;
section y . t ( coordinates : 38º5 ' 12 ' ' n 1º51 ' 14 ' ' w ) , on the eastern side of a small hill , 2 . 1 km sse of caravaca , and 300 m east of the nueva caravaca residential area ;
section y . n ( coordinates : 38º4 ' 16 ' ' n 1º48 ' 48 ' w ) , at the southwestern end of the peña rubia mountain , 2 . 7 km sw of cehegín , near a site known as puente de la virgen ;
sections m . cl ( coordinates : 38º3 ' 55 ' ' n 1º48 ' 43 ' ' w ) and y . cl
( coordinates : 38º4 ' n 1º48 ' 48 ' ' w ) , along the ravine named cañada luenga , 3 . 1 km ssw of cehegín and , respectively , 1 . 3 and 1 . 1 km ese of the cañada luenga farmhouse . these sections were formerly studied by
( coordinates : 38º3 ' 51 ' ' n 1º48 ' 24 ' ' w ) , along a small gully on the left bank of cañada luenga , 3 . 2 km ssw of cehegín and 300 m sw of the peña rubia farmhouse . this section was reported upon by
sections y . g ( coordinates : 38º2 ' 32 ' ' n 1º49 ' 12 ' ' w ) and y . q
( coordinates : 38º2 ' 42 ' ' n 1º49 ' 03 ' ' w ) , in the environs of the barranco del garranchal , on the northwestern slope of sierra de quípar and , respectively , 5 . 5 and 5 . 8 km ssw of cehegín . these sections were previously analyzed by
section y . v ( coordinates : 38º9 ' 36 ' ' n 1º41 ' 8 ' ' w ) , at the northern foothills of the cerro cambrones mountain , 12 . 5 km ne of cehegín , and 450 m sw of the fuente farín farmhouse ;
( coordinates : 37º56 ' 36 ' ' n 1º51 ' 55 ' ' w ) , y . j
( coordinates : 37º56 ' 35 ' ' n 1º52 ' 2 ' ' w ) , and y . j
( coordinates : 37º56 ' 34 ' ' n 1º52 ' 11 ' ' w ) , on the northern slope of the tornajo mountain , 18 km s of caravaca and 8 . 3 km nnw of la paca . some biostratigraphic data of this valanginian outcrop were provided by
the sections y . cl 2 , y . qp 2 , y . b , y . t , and y . p have been taken as reference sections and are represented , respectively , in figs . 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 .
figure 1 : geographic location of the sections studied . ( 1 ) las oícas ( section y . o ) ; ( 2 ) miravetes ( section y . mv ) ; ( 3 ) prado borda ( sections y . b , y . b 1 and y . t ) ; ( 4 ) mai valera ( section y . p ) ; ( 5 ) puente de la virgen ( section y . n ) ; ( 6 ) cañada luenga ( sections m . cl , y . cl 2 and y . qp 2 ) ; ( 7 ) barranco del garranchal ( sections y . g and y . q 2 ) ; ( 8 ) cerro cambrones ( section y . v ) ; ( 9 ) tornajo ( sections y . j 1 , y . j 2 and y . j 3 ) .
figure 2 : distribution of the most significant ammonite species in section y . cl 2 .
figure 3 : distribution of the most significant ammonite species in section y . qp 2 .
figure 4 : distribution of the most significant ammonite species in section y . b .
figure 5 : distribution of the most significant ammonite species in section y . t .
figure 6 : distribution of the most significant ammonite species in section y . p .
the ammonite material is housed at the paleontological collections of the university of granada . the specimens studied have been numbered following the usual method in these collections . thus , each specimen is identified with a reference code composed of four elements separated by periods (
) , the second and third elements indicate respectively the section ( t ) and the bed ( 19 ) where the specimen was collected . the last element is a series number ( 32 in the example ) for each specimen coming from the same bed .
) has been followed in this paper . nevertheless , some generic names will be cited in quotation marks ( namely
) indicating that the assignment of the species to that genus is provisional and requires a thorough review . furthermore , the interpretation of some problematic species ( such as
the analysis of the stratigraphic distribution of the species identified in the studied sections has enabled us to distinguish three interval biozones for the lower valanginian in the betic cordillera ( figs . 7 - 8 ) . these biozones are , from bottom to top , the
thurmanniceras
pertransiens zone , the neocomites neocomiensiformis zone , and the karakaschiceras inostranzewi zone , all of them defined at their base by the fad of the index species . each of these zones has been , in turn , subdivided into two subzones : a lower one whose base obviously coincides with that of the zone , and an upper one defined at their base by the fad of its index - species .
figure 7 : stratigraphic range of the most significant ammonite species in the framework of the zonation proposed for the lower valanginian in the betic cordillera .
figure 8 : correlation of the zonation proposed for the lower valanginian in the betic cordillera with other zonal schemes .
, for a different interpretation ) . it is well known that the fad of
the base of this zone coincides with a conspicuous faunal renewal . species that characterized the uppermost berriasian beds , like
the significant differences between the assemblages from the lower and upper parts of this zone allow it to be subdivided into two subzones : a lower
thurmanniceras
pertransiens subzone and an upper vergoliceras salinarium subzone . the
th .
pertransiens subzone is characterized by an abundant and highly diverse fauna dominated by the index species .
thurmanniceras
gratianopolitense , kilianella roubaudiana , neocomites premolicus and olcostephanus drumensis are also frequent , while kilianella lucensis and sarasinella eucyrta are less common and seem to disappear in this interval .
) , marks the base of the upper subzone . in contrast to the underlying subzone , the assemblage of this unit is little diversified and overwhelmingly dominated by the index species .
have been recorded in this interval accompanied by other not yet described neocomitid taxa .
beds as an independent zone . nevertheless , the first formal definition of the
) , who drew its base at the fad of the index species . it is in this sense that this unit has been employed by most subsequent authors .
is a well - known species that has been reported throughout the mediterranean region . it is frequent in basinal facies , especially in the lower part of the zone , but becomes rare or even absent in outer shelf paleoenvironments , where
as index of the basal zone of the valanginian in the western high atlas . this species has also been employed by
marks the base of the upper subzone of this zone , coinciding with the start of a marl - dominated interval in the lithologic succession . according to the data of
) has also recognized this subzone in southeastern france . the index species , present all over the mediterranean area , has a broad stratigraphic range , reaching the upper valanginian . it has also been occasionally reported from the berriasian (
) , but in the specimens figured by these authors the keel is only present on the adapertural part of the body chamber , suggesting that they belong to a different species .
) marks the base of this zone . a new sharp faunal change takes place around this level , with the extinction of
) have their first records in higher levels within this stratigraphic interval . in addition , some undescribed neocomitid and olcostephanid forms have also been recorded , and the holdover species
as index species for the middle zone of the lower valanginian . their proposal was accepted by the kilian group and incorporated into the current version of the standard mediterranean zonation (
) . indeed , most authors have given this name to several late valanginian and early hauterivian forms . however , as pointed out by
) from the upper teschen shales clearly corresponds to the early valanginian . despite it , this species has rarely been properly reported from this age (
to be a more appropriate index for the middle part of the lower valanginian . its total range entirely covers this stratigraphic interval , and its known paleogeographic distribution spreads over a large part of the mediterranean region , from morocco to romania ( see references above ) .
, fig . 3n , 3o ) does not appear to belong to this species . second , the markedly cadicone morphology of this species favors a strong dorsoventral crushing by diagenetic compaction in marly sediments ( dominant in our sections ) , which considerably complicates its identification .
) . for all these authors , the extension of this unit nearly coincided with the total range of the index species . as defined in the present paper , however , it occupies a broader stratigraphic extension corresponding to both the
) mentioned the presence of this species in a few particular beds in two platform margin sections ( carajuan and preynes ) , but reported only some uncertain juvenile specimens from the vocontian basin sections . as can be seen , the records of
are scarce and scattered , hindering the accurate estimation of its real stratigraphic range , and therefore it does not seem , for the moment at least , advisable to use this species to characterize any stratigraphic unit .
has been previously used as index species for several biostratigraphic units with a quite different sense , which is explicitly against the recommendations of the international stratigraphic guide .
horizon , the extent of which would coincide with the total range of the index species . nevertheless , as pointed out by
not only the adult calcareous specimens that matched the original description of the species and that came from two beds situated just below the ' plaquettes rousses ' in the la charce section , but also a handful of strongly bituberculate , pyritized nuclei collected in the vergol section . thanks to the kindness of our colleague stéphane
, we have had the opportunity to examine resin casts of some of these bituberculate nuclei . in fact , they are quite different from the inner stages of true
) . a distinct turnover in the ammonite fauna also occurs around the base of this zone . as mentioned above , most of the species present in the underlying
at the top of formation 7 in some north - provençal platform sections . however , we have never found
two subzones can be distinguished within this zone . the lower karakaschiceras inostranzewi subzone is characterized by the association of the index species with
busnardoites
meganae and belbekiceras belbekii . a few specimens attributable to
busnardoites
makariopolskii have also been recorded in the upper part of this unit .
no species has been found to be restricted to the upper saynoceras contestanum subzone . the index species , together with neocomites platycostatus , sabbaiceras beaumugnense and julianites mourrei appear at the base of this subzone and range into the upper valanginian . valanginites n . sp . 1 and saynoceras n . sp . 2 , which are already present in the previous subzone , have their last records in this interval .
to characterize the uppermost unit of their lower valanginian biostratigraphic scheme . this option was subsequently followed by
unsuitable to characterize this stratigraphic interval . actually , we have collected no specimen strictly attributable to
, do not show the very high whorl expansion rate that is characteristic of this species . the same can be said of most of the specimens coming from this level and assigned in the literature to
, as index of the lower horizon of this subzone ) . in any case , the difference would have little significance since , as stated above , the fo of
as index for this stratigraphic interval . firstly , we have serious doubts on the taxonomic status of
zone , are still extremely rare in the uppermost lower valanginian beds in our sections . something similar seems to happen elsewhere , as some authors have found these forms only in the
the analysis of the vertical distribution of more than 10000 specimens from 16 sections in the subbetic domain has provided an accurate record of the succession of ammonite bioevents occurring during the early valanginian in the mediterranean region . we have identified in this interval three significant faunal turnovers that allow us to distinguish the three biozones , each of them with two subzones , composing the new zonal scheme proposed here .
further changes , mainly at the species level , take place at the base of the karakaschiceras inostranzewi zone , with the disappearance of most of the species present in lower stratigraphic levels and their replacement by new taxa , such as karakaschiceras inostranzewi , neohoploceras provinciale , neocomites gr . neocomiensis - teschenensis , neocomites platycostatus , sabbaiceras beaumugnense , paquiericeras paradoxum and others that already herald the late valanginian assemblages .
although the zonation proposed is intended only for the betic cordillera , the assemblages characterizing each of the units can be recognized throughout the mediterranean region .
for his review of the first english version of this paper . we are also grateful to the reviewers ( maría b .
) for their very constructive comments . our work has been co - financed by project cgl2011 - 23759 ( spanish ministry of economy and competitiveness ) and research group rnm - 178 ( junta de andalucía ) .
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