hulitherium tomasetti ( meaning " huli beast " , after the huli people ) is an extinct zygomaturine marsupial from new guinea during the pleistocene .

the species name honours bernard tomasetti who brought the fossils to the attention of experts .

hulitherium

hulitherium is a genus of diprotodont wombat that lived in new guinea during the pleistocene .  not much is known about hulitherium ,  though the arm structure suggests that this genus was significantly more mobile than other diprotodonts .
but even if hulitherium had vaguely ape - like appearance , there are many problems , especially that it hardly walked on two legs .
booktopia - prehistoric vombatiforms : diprotodon , zygomaturus , giant koala , hulitherium , phascolonus , ilariidae , riversleigh rainforest koala , silvabestius , diprotodon , zygomaturus , giant koala , hulitherium , phascolonus , ilariidae , riversleigh rainforest koala , silvabestius by llc books , 9781156967089 . buy this book online .
closest thing your going to get to a hulitherium is zygomaturus , which is in the same family . you get an idea what this animal looked like here .
the hypothesis that the yowie might actually have been a diprotodontid , similar to or congeneric with hulitherium from new guinea ( greenwell 1994 ) , now extinct , has always struck me as a non - starter : eyewitnesses have never described yowies that sound at all diprotodontid - like [ diprotodontid zygomaturus shown here ; hulitherium would have been similar . picture by nobu tamura , from wikipedia ] .
hulitherium (
huli beast
after the huli people ) is a genus of marsupial from pleistocene new guinea . it lived in rainforests and may fed on bamboo , making it a marsupial analogue of the giant panda . it was one of new guinea ' s largest mammals , with a height of 1 m ( 3 ft ) and was close to 2 m ( 6 ft ) long .
name : hulitherium  ( huli beast )  . phonetic : hu - le - fee - re - um . named by : flannery & plane  -  1986 . classification : chordata ,  mammalia ,  marsupialia ,  diprotodontia ,  vombatiformes ,  zygomaturidae species : h .  tomasetti ( type )  . diet : herbivore . size : roughly estimated at about 1 meter high at the shoulder ,  and about 2 meters long . known locations : new guinea . time period : pleistocene . fossil representation : almost complete skull ,  lower jaw ,  vertebrae and a humerus ( upper arm bone )  .
karl shuker once proposed the extinct diptrodont hulitherium as origin of ape - like cryptids of australia . this is a nearly unknown giant marsupial , about the size of a brown bear . it seems that there are no picutres or photos of it online anymore , and nearly no information about it . i remember that i saw a reconstruction of it some years ago . it was shown as something which looked a bit like a cross between a a wombat and a very short - faced bear , with a vaguely ape - like apperance . but the guy which draw it , made also a lot of drawings which are far away of the actual appearnces of the depicted animals , so i would not give too much on it .
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the diprotodontids were similar in shape to wombats , and ranged from the size of a sheep to that of a large hippopotamus . there were 2 families of diprotodontids , zygomaturines and diprotodontines .
zygomaturines have multi - cusped last upper premolars . among the riversleigh diprotodontoids these were the most common and diverse . one of the most common was
, is known from skulls and articulated skeletons , was about the size of a labrador dog , others reached the size of small cattle . a feature of these animals was that they had very small brains . they are believed to have eaten soft leaves . gradually the smaller forms died out , either becoming extinct or giving rise to larger forms . this evolutionary pattern is common , being found in the fossil record of many vertebrate groups . most zygomaturines were very large , and most were species of
seems to have survived in the new guinea highlands as late as the early holocene .
diprotodontines had much simpler premolars than the zygomaturines . they followed the same path as the zygomaturines , diversifying and becoming larger , but diversified less than the zygomaturines . the last of the group ,
, was the largest known marsupial . before their discovery at riversleigh , the oldest known protodontine was the very large species
a very primitive , small diprotodontine has been found at riversleigh . it has the simple premolars of diprotodontines and the molars of a zygomaturine , suggesting that it may be ancestral to both groups , or at least closely related to the ancestral form , especially as it is older than the oldest known members of both groups , such as
, was about the size of a horse . its shape differs from any other known animal . it had very powerful forearms and very large claws like those of koalas , a long , thin tongue and a large trunk like an elephant . as it had the high - crowned , complex teeth of like the grazers it could have eaten grass , it is assumed it must have eaten abrasive plant material such as grass , but why it had the other characteristics of a trunk , long thin tongue and powerful arms and claws is unknown . these features don ' t fit with it being a grass - eater .
has been found in the lower deposits at riversleigh . this find has allowed the biocorrelation of the riversleigh strata with those of the central australian sites . many small palorchestids have also been found at riversleigh in the local faunas from sites b and c .
some other diprotodontoids from riversleigh have a combination of features normally thought to be from either diprotodontids or palorchestids . this blend of features has been interpreted as indicating that the common ancestor of diprotodontids and palorchestids had the premolars of palorchestids , the molars and incisors of primitive zygomaturines , and the middle ear region of the skull like that seen in
species . the common ancestor would be much older than any of the fossils at either riversleigh or the central sites containing mammals .
ferb latin . . . in ferb latin ouyerb aketerb etherb irstferb etterlerb of veryeerb ordwerb ouyerb ovemerb it to etherb ndeerb ndaerb entherb ayserb ' - erb ' t ' sierb ikelerb e ' rewerb ddingaerb a oneticpherb aboosecerb to it on ' tderb etgerb onfusedcerb , ustjerb etgerb seduerb to it . eneverwherb omeoneserb neezesserb , ouyerb no ongerlerb ayserb
lessberb ouyerb
. nsteadierb ouyerb layperb a lugelhornferb ndaerb ivegerb imherb ouryerb eftlerb oesherb . eneverwherb ouyerb eetmerb omeoneserb on the treetserb on ' tderb akesherb eirtherb andherb , ustjerb tompserb ouryerb eetferb ndaerb ouryerb onversationcerb on ' twerb be ompletecerb ntiluerb ouyerb ivegerb imherb a igberb labserb of eatmerb . ouyerb aketerb etherb irstferb etterlerb of veryeerb ordwerb ouyerb ovemerb it to etherb ndeerb ndaerb entherb ayserb ' - erb ' t ' sierb ikelerb e ' rewerb ddingaerb a oneticpherb aboosecerb to it on ' tderb etgerb onfusedcerb , ustjerb etgerb seduerb to it . eneverwherb omeoneserb neezesserb , ouyerb no ongerlerb ayserb
lessberb ouyerb
phineas and ferb gets flanderized tyrannotitan : glad flanderization hasn ' t reached the cast yet . albertonykus : yeah tyrannotitan : if they did the show would lose what i find so likeable about it . albertonykus : indeed tyrannotitan : i ' m going to try and imagine what the characters will be like if they were . albertonykus : lol tyrannotitan : phineas would like be the kindest person ever and never gets angry ever tyrannotitan : ferb can now do anything albertonykus : he almost can xd tyrannotitan : candace . . . i think split personality sums that up albertonykus : yeah albertonykus : that was an in - universe flanderization xd tyrannotitan : but ferb is now a mary sue lolol albertonykus : lol tyrannotitan : though the title characters already ca
sinovenator and mei it was a cool yet sunny day by the yixian lakeside . the diversity of life here was amazing . enantiornithines were flying from tree to tree , beipiaosaurus and psittacosaurus were munching on fresh plants , boreopterus and confuciusornis were feeding at the lake , beipiaopterus were filter feeding , and colourful caudipteryx showed off their colours . on the edge of the forest , two small maniraptoran dinosaurs were together . both were troodontids - one was sinovenator , one was mei . sinovenator and mei were best friends . they had similar likes and dislikes , they worked well together , and most importantly of all . . . they understood and cared about each other . they also loved to spend time together . sinovenator was fascinated by the jehol biota that he lived with , and could be very knowledgable . despite this , he wasn ' t very good with socialising with the other vertebrates that he lived with - in particular other manirap
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conceived and designed the experiments : bpk . performed the experiments : bpk . analyzed the data : bpk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : maa yaam mah . wrote the paper : bpk thr pvr maa . participated in research and coordinated field logistics : maa yaam ahm amam ahn ya mah .
like many people interested in cryptozoology ( the study of animals – or alleged animals – known only from anectodal evidence ) , i’m of the opinion that the australian yowie is one of the most problematic of mystery beasts . it is , in fact , so ridiculous and inconvenient that it’s difficult to take seriously . as if sasquatch , yeti and orang pendek aren’t difficult enough * , what are we to make of antipodean reports of a hairy , bipedal , ape - like creature ? back in 2006 ( oh my god , four years ago already ) , tony healy and paul cropper collated everything known about the yowie for their book
the yowie may , or may not , have anything to do with north america’s bigfoot but , as the authors admit ( p . 161 ) , they had to use the word ‘bigfoot’ in the title ‘in order to make the subject of the book more easily recognisable to non - australian readers’ .
while it’s all very well saying that any and all reports of an ape - like creature in the australian bush are nonsense and that the phenomenon can hence be rejected without question , the problem is that at least some yowie accounts really do sound extremely intriguing at the very least . maybe all the reports represent misidentifications , hoaxes and the manifestations of cultural stereotypes or something , but even if this is so , there’s still an interesting phenomenon here that’s worthy of investigation . those of us predominantly interested in zoology sometimes forget that cryptozoological reports might tell us more about folklore , psychology , witness perception and / or cultural transmission than anything else ( see meurger 1995 , meurger & gagnon 1988 ) . as a result i still think that investigation of subjects like the yowie is worthwhile , and within the remit of science . please remember this as you read the following : i’m nowhere near happy with the idea that the yowie might be real , but – whatever the phenomenon represents – it’s interesting .
anyway… i really enjoyed reading healy and cropper’s book , even though some of the material was , necessarily , repeated from their 1994 book out of the shadows : mystery animals of australia ( healy & cropper 1994 ) . they discuss everything that’s known about the yowie , include virtually all relevant illustrations , and include a catalogue of the 300 + yowie accounts of which they’re aware . an early chapter reviews aboriginal references to the giant , hairy , man - like creatures known variously as dulugar , yahoo , devil - devil , or jimbra . i was interested to discover that a yowie was reportedly seen by the three girls who star in the book and movie rabbit proof fence during their 1931 escape from the moore river native settlement [ adjacent illustration of a ‘wood devil’ attack represents an event that supposedly happened near the einasleigh river , queensland , during the 1880s ] .
colonial awareness of hairy , bipedal , primate - like creatures in the australian bush goes back to the 1820s at least , and various ‘australian gorilla’ accounts were reported during the late 1800s and early 1900s . we’ll call this the ‘historical phase’ . for the most part , these early accounts sound much like modern ones ( healy & cropper 2006 ) .
yowie reports went quiet for much of the 20th century ( we’ll call this the ‘quiet phase’ ) , though we do know that people in rural areas were still aware of the creature , and apparently encountering it ( as demonstrated by recently discovered and long - overlooked accounts from the 1910s , 20s , 30s , 40s and 50s ) . healy & cropper ( 2006 ) suggest that there might be a few reasons for this ‘quiet phase’ . the australian population became highly urbanised during this time , naturalists became less active , rural news became ignored or was deemed irrelevant by city - based newspapers , and aborigines went through one of their most difficult periods ever and lost much of their cultural heritage .
many other fascinating encounters are discussed in the book . yowies have been reported by some witnesses to be unbelievably aggressive , and to pursue people with what was interpreted as predatory intent . yowies have sometimes been reported to peer into windows , hang around the outsides of houses , and to approach cars on remote roads – all motifs that sound familiar if you’ve read the sasquatch literature . in further parallels with sasquatch , extremely bad , lingering smells have also been associated with yowie sightings , and yowies also seem to be good swimmers and waders .
hoaxing has definitely played a role in the yowie phenomenon : in fact , the earliest account on record ( a 1790 handbill depicting a ‘monstrous giant’ ) was a hoax , and additional definite hoaxes have been exposed or revealed over the years . however , while i feel gullible saying it , the sincerity of many of the eyewitnesses , and the quality of their accounts , makes me think that many people have indeed experienced something .
as just mentioned , alleged yowie tracks are rare : perhaps this could be explained away by australian terrain and sedimentology . however , those tracks that have been reported are annoyingly variable . some are five - toed and don’t look all that different from typical sasquatch tracks [ adjacent track photographed at barrington tops , nsw , in 1996… looks dodgy ] , but others are four - toed or even narrow , three - toed , and look nothing like primate tracks at all . it’s worth noting at this point that at least some north american tracks attributed to mystery primates are also four - or three - toed : nobody really knows what these tracks ‘mean’ , but it’s most convenient to ignore them and write them off as hoaxes . a couple of alleged yowie tracks were reportedly ape - like in terms of digital configuration , but with an unusual broad , squared - off heel . at least one track cast ( the springbrook cast ) was analysed for dermal ridges by jeff meldrum ( a technically qualified primatologist with a well known interest in sasquatch ) . no dermal ridges were found ; however , the owner admitted that he’d let an estimated 10 , 000 people handle it ( he used it as a promotional tool for his restaurant ! ) , so this isn’t surprising . loud , primate - like calls have been attributed to yowies , as mentioned earlier .
so , having read the book , i remain perplexed . the most sensible conclusion is that the yowie represents a combination of hoaxing , hallucination and witness misinterpretation , combined with the global folklore motif of the wild hairy - man . ‘wild man’ / mystery hominid sightings and legends don’t just come from asia and north america ; believe it or don’t , there are also accounts , legends and even recent sightings of such creatures from hawaii , new zealand , the uk and spain . while there’s nowhere near enough yowie evidence to make any hard - nosed sceptic properly pause for thought , some of the eyewitness accounts do , i feel , suggest that people have had encounters with peculiar creatures of some kind . even if this is a naïve conclusion , we still have a fascinating cultural phenomenon here , and a larger question emerges : why do people claim to see wild , hairy , man - like creatures in the australian bush ?
as a thorough and entertaining review of a very weird mystery animal phenomenon , healy and cropper’s book succeeds and fulfils expectations .
healy , t . & cropper , p . 2006 . the yowie : in search of australia’s bigfoot . strange nation ( sydney ) , pp . 320 . isbn 978 - 0 - 646 - 46964 - 5 . get it on amazon . get it on urltoken .
most of the images used in this article were taken from urltoken , a sort of online supplement to the volume . thanks to paul cropper for his help .
greenwell , j . r . 1994 . the whatsit of oz . bbc wildlife 12 ( 2 ) , 53 .
healy , t . & cropper , p . 1994 . out of the shadows : mystery animals of australia . ironbark , chippendale , australia .
– . & cropper , p . 2006 . the yowie : in search of australia’s bigfoot . strange nation , sydney .
meurger , m . 1995 . of skrimsls and men , icelandic water being from folklore to speculative zoology . fortean studies 2 , 166 - 176 .
– . & gagnon , c . 1988 . lake monster traditions : a cross - cultural analysis . fortean times , london .
yowies have been reported by some witnesses to be unbelievably aggressive , and to pursue people with what was interpreted as predatory intent . yowies have sometimes been reported to peer into windows , hang around the outsides of houses , and to approach cars on remote roads
why don’t yowies ever get killed by people ? from that description , it sounds like their behaviour is very conducive towards eventually meeting the business end of a rifle or a shotgun .
i have always been fairly skeptical of the yowie phenomenon . but it strikes me as vaguely possible that the original yowie myth may have been based around encounters with procoptodon - like animals , who do look genuinely “human - ish” in ways .
i think it is biological phenomenon . humans have instinctive fear of some categories of natural enemies . they are animal - like humans ( perhaps image of rival bands of archaic hominids ) , big cats , big monsters lurking in water ( crocodiles ) , big reptiles ( constricting snakes ) and large flying beast attacking from the air ( large raptors ) . because modern reality never releases the stimulus , sometimes the instinct is released spontaneously . so people enjoy monster movies , or hallucinate dangerous beasts in the woods .
note something . country people in reality usually shoot any unusual animals with the gun . but in yowie sightings and horror movies , there is never a gun ready .
there are many deformities of small animals worldwide , which could give a rise to many cryptic species of birds , small mammals , ungulates etc . but cryptozoologists are mostly interested in the above categories of animals .
palorchestids would seem a better starting point to me than diprotodontids , but still not a particularly good one .
eh… being an australian and having spent about five minutes wandering around the bush once every few years i reckon the yowie , the bunyip and all other australian crypto - monsters are just bullshit .
a lot of this stuff has come down through aboriginal legend , and with the aborigines having been in australia for at least 40 , 000 years , there has been a lot of time for things to get exaggerated .
i saw a doco a couple of years ago that reckoned that the best candidate for being a bunyip ( a mythical monster more famous in oz than the yowie ) is the now - extinct marsupial lion , aka thylacoleo carnifex .
thylacoleo was well capable of killing humans , and it was – how you say – contemporaneous with aboriginal australians . ( a lot of marsupial megafauna , apparently including wombats the size of vw beetles , met their end between the time that aborigines found australia and the time that europeans got here ) .
on the primate front , south - east asia is swimming in monkeys , gibbons and orang utans . why are there no primates in oz ? if some strange ape - man had made it all the way down here , why don’t we have any funky monkeys ?
afaik , there aren’t too many places that don’t have some sort of tradition of such creatures .
( cf wudewasa or woodwose from england — the inspiration for the woses or drúedain in lord of the rings . )
i just like how , despite living in australia ( and , if seen by the ‘rabbit proof fence’ girls , the outback ) , the yowie has maintained long , shaggy fur .
bunyip = thylacoleo ? wow . i thought “bunyip” was an australian term for water monsters , said to resemble nessie .
how recent are the most recent sightings by these yowie - hunters ? i submit that any sighting more recent than about 2004 that does not have photographic evidence can be discounted . these days , any investigator worth his salt should be carrying a pocket digital camera that can take both stills and video .
i’ve heard an interesting hypothesis that ape - men sightings became more common after origin of the species’ publication , substituting werewolf sightings , because the idea of a wolf - man became illogical . add to this scenario tha spread of european occupation of asia and africa , with a bunch of “explorers” avid for find new animals , and maybe , “living fossils” .
because primates suck at swimming in the sea , and australia has never had a land connection to asia , not even in glacial maxima – there’s deep sea with ocean floor between them .
the new world primates show it’s not impossible for primates to disperse overseas – but it’s not likely at all .
if anything is thylacoleo carnifex , it’s the yarri . the bunyip seems to me to be the ordinary sea leopard , which sometimes enters freshwater courses in australia , but i’m not very familiar with that stuff…
another way of looking at this might be to try to model how a possible relic hominid would behave when confronted by modern humans . now , modern humans don’t use smell all that much , despite our having a much better sense of smell than is ordinarily supposed ( walking down a path in the countryside , even with a nose over 5′ off the ground , i’m still well capable of detecting where a fox has been ) . archaic humans and hominids would presumably have had even better senses of smell and a propensity to use these in daily life to a much greater degree than we do ( hence the super strong body odour of these animals ) .
so , how would a bigfoot or yowie perceive modern humans ? from a distance , all they would see is a big hominid that looked a bit like members of their own species . a bit closer in , they’d get a whiff of us , but since modern humans tend to minimise body odour as much as we can , the yowie would likely get the impression that the human was a subordinate or immature individual . if yowies are territorial , then this could well switch on a lot of aggression ; the yowie would think it had an intruder on its territory and would furthermore think that the intruder was a weakling .
so , it’d come out of the bush charged up , thinking it had a pushover of a confrontation on its hands , and would very likely be handling the situation as would a chimp ; i . e . making a lot of noise to scare off the intruder in the belief that the intruder would run for it at the first sign of trouble . at this point the yowie would be in line for a very nasty series of shocks ; humans would probably look very weird and worryingly large to a yowie , wouldn’t smell right at all , and the presence of the ubiquitous dingo or stockmans’ dog barking its head off would also prove very unsettling .
a couple of run - ins like this , especially if the run - in also involved a close encounter with a vehicle , with fire or with artificial lights would very likely so unnerve the yowie that it would keep well clear of humans forever more , and this is assuming it hadn’t bumped into aboriginals before , who also keep dogs and use fire a lot .
this is probably why there are few sightings ; yowies would quickly learn that humans were extremely bad news and to be avoided .
if somebody is interested , i could translate my article into english and upload it to some webspace .
i only now noticed ( by clicking on the amazon link and enlarging the image ) that the yowie on the cover of healy & cropper’s book has long , protruding fangs and three long , sharp claws on each foot . those are not exactly traits you’d expect a hominoid , or less still a hominid , primate to possess .
i’m a totally white australian but as a homo sapiens or whatever we’re all called i find that idea quite offensive . ( for what little it’s worth my mainly british ancestors arrived here in the 20th century , after attempts to exterminate and / or assimilate the aboriginal race had mostly been abandoned ) .
knowing next to zero about genetics i can look at people from papua new guinea and even some people from india and see resemblances to australian aborigines . but to suggest that aborigines look like more like a species that died out 2 million years ago is slightly fucking insane .
re bunyips : i’m no expert on that either , but i’d always thought that they were supposed to be mammals that lived in billabongs ( waterholes ) , rather than some nessie - style dinosaur .
thylacoleo , like a lot of other predators that occupy similar ecological niches / positions , used to hang around waterholes so it could eat whatever turned up to drink .
@ david marjanovic . i don’t think the bunyip is a sea leopard / sea lion / seal . the legend of the man - eating bunyip is more associated with billabongs , which are water holes that are created when seasonal inland rivers dry up in the dry season .
i don’t see a seal swimming so far inland that it gets stuck in a waterhole when a river dries up . even if one did i suspect that you , me and / or the aborigines would have killed it and eaten it rather than turn it into a monster that scared us away from our water .
re australia’s lack of primates : my point was that if we have no monkeys or orang utans in australia we can hardly expect to have bigfoots .
and dave hughes ( not the comedian , surely ? ) , yeah , if there were bigfoots in oz or america someone would have found a body or bones or at the very least a pile of poop by now .
i’m always very skeptical about supposed bipedal apes that have not been discovered , especially if they come from regions which are known for being rather empty of primates in both the fossil record and in their recent natural history .
i have no idea what a yowie is or what it would be . i feel the same way about the sasquatch .
i’ve spoken to an australian woman who claimed a very close encounter with a yowie .
she was hitchhiking through the outback and was relieved when a truck driver picked her up , and agreed to let her sleep in his cab overnight .
she woke while it was still dark , and saw a large , apelike face staring in at her through the window . understandably , she screamed in terror , at which the driver woke up and the visitor disappeared .
they left the truck to investigate , but it was raining heavily and there was no evidence of any kind in the vicinity .
she responded that there was clearly an intelligence in the eyes , and that the creature seemed merely curious – the truck window was eight feet off the ground and anything so tall as to look in could clearly have forced its way in had it wanted to .
as darren noted , this kind of uncorroborated second hand account is of no real value , but i have no reason to doubt her sincerity .
“she woke while it was still dark , and saw a large , apelike face staring in at her through the window . understandably , she screamed in terror , at which the driver woke up and the visitor disappeared . ”
a skeptic would probably suggest that her vision of an apelike face preceded the waking - up , i . e . that it was a vivid dream brought on by spending the night in unfamiliar and rather scary surroundings , possibly with her mind dwelling on yowie - lore before she went to sleep . i’m sure most of us have had experiences of dreams so vivid that they seem real to the newly - awoken mind . this is just speculation . it may all have happened exactly as she described it , or she may have been sincere but just honestly mistaken . i’m not going to call someone a liar without good reason . unfortunately the fact that cryptozoology consists mostly of uncorroborated tales like this is the reason why it never goes anywhere except round in circles . until there’s some hard verifiable evidence to examine we have to consider the yowie and similar beasts as psychological phenomena rather than biological ones .
in re cryptozoology , i had not previously heard of the ningen . someone linked me to that story , and i thought of tetzoo . : - >
great overview summary , as always , of a complex cryptozoological subject . i posted a link at cryptomundo so folks could find their way here and read this fully .
just one small correction , about the publishing history . the cropper and healy book with my introduction , the yowie , was first published in the usa , by anomalist books , new york , in 2006 . the book then appeared in an australian edition ( which you mention out of sydney ) in 2007 ( even if it retained the earlier copyright date ) .
on a completely different note , “chewbacca - like” may be the best descriptor ever used .
have you ever been with a group of people ( can be adults , but works best with kids or young adults ) that are not really familiar with being in the woods and have someone come back to the campfire saying they saw a bigfoot ? someone will usually say it was only a bear or something , then the person will say something like , “i know what a bear looks like and it wasn’t a bear . ” it is almost guaranteed that someone else will “remember” seeing it too or someone will see it later on that night . those people will insist they saw something for real even if the first person admits he made it up .
as always , the cryptozoological subjects are my favorite posts here at tet zoo . thanks for writing about the topic , darren .
i agree that we are not talking so much about the zoological reality here as we are what did these people experience ? a similar situation , i feel , is occurring with ufos , hauntings , even alternative meds . the existing body of knowledge does not support the typical interpretation the witness gives for these experiences but there is something going on ( related to culture , psychology , environment , physiology , etc . ) . that is really interesting and far more complex . i’m glad there are those who don’t jump to the overly simplified false choice of “it’s a yowie or he’s lying” .
as lopes ( commentn . 5 ) i think that there is a thik link beetween yeti , almas and sasquatch ( remember that sasquatch mith is limited to na - denè pacific coast tribes ) . for someone thisi is a record of neandertalian men . could for australia be a big kangaroo the origin of the mith ?
given the bipedal nature of these yowies and their supposed ape - like face perhaps the myth was inspired by aboriginal encounters with the extinct giant short faced kangaroos that i believe the co - existed with for some time . there faces could have seemed to human - like or at least more so than most animals do . that seems more plausible than the diprotodontid idea not that it explains recent sightings or i’m suggesting these roos got into modern times .
i haven’t seen a yowie yet , but if i do i’ll be sure to collect samples . but i have numerous times had close encounters ( while proccupied with looking at or under rocks , or watching where i put my feet ) with large , shaggy bipeds with long , oddly - shaped feet ( middle toe much longer than the first ) , that vocalised in an agressive way before leaving suddenly and noisily… so my guess is that a lot of these reports could be of ordinary large macropus surprised at unusually close quarters , observed badly and reconstructed with artistic licence . if you happen to notice a male kangaroo’s chest first , rather than his face or feet or tail , you’ll definitely be thinking ‘furry muscle - bound large primate’ rather than ‘dopey grazing marsupial’ . also , human - shaped and - sized ( or larger ) scat containing fur or feathers ( but no bones ) are not unusual ; they belong to pythons .
i have a copy of ‘the yowie’ , and it is probably the best catalogue of recorded incidents , though i felt the analysis was somthing of a mixed bag .
interestingly the incidents you refer to , are not actually the ones i would have singled out as being the most convincing evidence for the yowie phenomenon .
a difficulty with the idea that yowie is based on an aboriginal cultural memory of some extinct creature ( and in deed a problem for most explanations of the yowie phenomenon ) is that is very little evidence that aboriginal peoples knew of the yowie .
malcolm smith referred to a couple of examples of ‘hairy man’ type creatures in aboriginal mythology – and the problem is that not only do there seem to be few of them , they also seem to have little to do with the yowie being seen by people from the 19th century to the present day ( some for example refer to hairy dwarfs ) .
unlike the sasquatch which does seem to have some kind of cultural heritage among indigenous north american cultures , the yowie seems to have little pre - colonial history ( note ‘little’ not ‘none’ ) .
as i have stated previously if you discount probable hoaxes and misidentifications there remains a core of incidents that are not easily explained and do seem to refer to something .
nicholas miotk makes a reference to the kow swamp remains . these are intriguing , and i strongly suspect that if these had been found elsewhere they would have been treated if not as h . erectus then at least as some form of archaic homo .
that term , it seems , is only ever used in cryptozoological contexts . i’ve never liked it . throughout most of the pliocene and the pleistocene there were , afawk , always more than one contemporary hominid * species in the world . now there’s only one . if any hominid species deserved be called a ‘relic’ , it would be us .
* i’m here using the vernacular ‘hominid’ in the traditional humans sensu stricto - sense .
yowies clearly aren’t hunted by humans – if they were , we’d already know all about them . on that basis , would we expect them to show any fear of humans ? surely they’d be foraging along road - sides in broad daylight , or raiding suburban dustbins for scraps ?
i think this touches on a very good point . it’s all fine and well to speculate that mystery hominids elude discovery because they intentionally avoid us . but that begs the question , why do they avoid us , anyway ? staying alert costs energy , so animals don’t stay eternally vigilant unless they have some pressing reason to do so . for similar reasons , animals don’t remain hidden all the time unless they absolutely have to . for most species , the presence of predators and / or aggressive competitors is reason enough to stay alert and / or hidden . in most countries , bears , wolves , big cats and other large top predators avoid humans because they until recently have been , and sometimes still are , heavily hunted / poached by humans * .
* a side note regarding conservation biology : if ‘megafauna’ is to be conserved outside of zoos , it’s probably – especially in the long run – a necessary evil to maintain a certain amount of healthy fear of humans in large predators ( and potentially dangerous large herbivores ) by strictly controlled hunting , at least in populated areas . cynical as it may sound , if animals are not persecuted they will eventually get habituated and lose their fear of people , and when that happens…
the counter - suggestion that mystery hominids avoid humans today because we did hunt them in the pleistocene / whenever , and that they’ve retained this fear over countless generations and milennia , also seems unlikely to me . it would imply ( unless you’re willing to resort to some metaphysical “racial memory” type of explanations ) that mystery hominids would have to have a rather sophisticated culture ; at the very least , they would have to have some sort of a language for passing on this specific information . and it’s hard to see how language could have evolved / been maintained without the mystery hominids having at least some sort of organised society .
well , how smart do you have to be to understand that being hit by an automobile is dangerous ? pretty much every single human being on this planet , save for the very youngest children and the mentally deficient , knows that it can be quite dangerous indeed . and yet : millions and millions of people worldwide get killed in traffic accidents every year . quite a few because of their own carelessness or downright stupidity , others ( the majority , perhaps ? ) because of the powerful cause often known as ‘shit happens’ .
shit happens to us humans even though we are , when all is said and done , pretty damn smart by animal standards . so why does similar shit never seem to happen to the yowie , the sasquatch , the yeti or the almas ? where are the mystery hominids’ darwin award winners and contenders ?
and finally : even if we are willing to assume that mystery hominids are stupefyingly smart , cunning and elusive in life and that they’re virtually immune to accidents , disease and predation , then we still should have found their fossils by now . after you die , it doesn’t matter how smart and elusive you were in life . even if your kin bury your corpse ( as has sometimes been suggested , apparently in earnest ) , that should , if anything , only enhance the likelihood of its eventual fossilisation .
ah , nothing like a lengthy cryptozoology article to get people angry and arguing 🙂 many thanks to all for comments , very interesting . a few responses…
— dartian ( comment 1 ) asked why yowies never get killed by people . err , because they’re not real ? he also asked what the ‘primate - like’ vocalisations sounds like . i mostly had gary opit’s descriptions in mind : opit described a series of ‘deep , base notes’ that ‘produced a bellowing - roar’ . see the pdf here for more .
— dartian also commented on the weird tridactyl creature depicted on the cover of healy & cropper’s book ( comment 13 ) . this picture is a 1982 painting by bushman / writer percy trezise of turramulli , the giant quinkin . turramulli was a mythical giant who featured in the mythology of the yalanji people of cape york peninsula , and trezise’s painting featured on the cover of a children’s book he and dick roughsey wrote about turramulli . quinkins ( which were small as well as large ) may or may not be anything to do with yowies . and , yes , as mark lees noted ( comment 31 ) , aboriginal ‘hairy man’ legends refer to small creature as much as large ones . healy & cropper have a whole chapter on these smaller creatures , known as junjudees ( or variations thereof ) .
if you discount probable hoaxes and misidentifications there remains a core of incidents that are not easily explained and do seem to refer to something .
i dunno… try to apply that kind of reasoning to the nigerian scam letters that we’re all surely familiar with . they are a bit like bigfoot sightings in that they are numerous and they are , by and large , internally consistent . does that then mean that some of these letters really are what they purport to be : genuine get - rich - quick offers by complete strangers ? or is it safer in this case to take the risk of throwing the baby out with the bathwater ( and possibly leave the unfortunate son of nigeria’s ex - foreign minister languishing in house arrest in the outskirts of lagos , or summat ) and assume , at least until much better evidence to the contrary is at hand , that they are all hoaxes ?
in the link you provided , opit opines that there may be more than one species of unknown primate in australia . parsimony fail .
“all hoaxes” – mmm , some certainly are , quite a lot of others probably are , but “all” – no . there are of course many misidentifications , and as with many other cryptids i would suggest that misidentification is a much greater cause of sightings than hoaxing is .
but there does seem to be a number of sightings that cannot be entirely explained simply as misidentification or hoax . one of the woodenbong sightings allegedly had additional evidence in the form of footprints , hair ( as far as i recall it was long and reddish – i’d double check that , but the relevant book is at home ) as well as the effects on the dog attacked by the ‘yowie’ .
i guess i have come to the conclusion that while most yowie sightings are due to hoaxing or to misidentification of known animals or people , some are not . that is not to say i think they are based on an unknown non - human primate in australia ( in my opinion that is ridiculously unlikely , and don’t consider it a realistic option ) . so what is the cause of the ‘genuine’ sightings – i haven’t got a clue , but suspect that it might not be purely biological – i will end there on a suitably enigmatic note , with eyebrow raised 🙂
based on the absurdity of the yowie i further discussed possible explanations for the ubiquitous presence of this ape - man – phenomenon , that is in my opinion the result from a relic in the subconscious of h . sapiens . confronted in his early evolutionary past with concurrence by other species of hominids , this could have shaped the subconscious of h . sapiens in a way ( especially the populations of man , that left africa and met other hominids like the neanderthal - man or h . erectus in asia in more recent times ) , that rooted the savage ape - man as some form of archetypus in the jungian sense deep inside of our minds .


aedes koreicus is a mosquito species originally described from korea that has been shown to be enzootic to japan , northeastern china , the republic of korea ( south korea ) and parts of russia , but recently found in belgium and italy .

adult aedes koreicus are relatively large , with areas of white scales on black background , strongly resembling aedes japonicus , which has also become established outside its native range .

aedes koreicus

weak larval competition between two invasive mosquitoes aedes koreicus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) .
distribution of aedes koreicus and aedes albopictus according to altitude in north - eastern italy , 2011–2012 .
comparison between male features of aedes albopictus and aedes koreicus . difference between aedes albopictus ( a ) and aedes koreicus ( b ) ; figure s8 , palps and proboscids ; figure s9 , hypopygium .
a quick guide for the morphological identification of larvae and adults of aedes koreicus , compared to aedes albopictus and aedes japonicus . table showing the main characteristics of aedes koreicus ( italian or belgian specimens ) , aedes albopictus and aedes japonicus ( according to [ 18 ] ) .
comparison between legs of aedes albopictus and aedes koreicus . difference between aedes albopictus ( a ) and aedes koreicus ( b ) ; figure s13 , 1 - 2 - 3 fore , mid and hind legs respectively .
morphological features of aedes koreicus . description of the main characteristics of adults and larvae of aedes koreicus , ( italian or belgian specimens ) .
weak larval competition between two invasive mosquitoes aedes koreicus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
comparison between larval features of aedes albopictus and aedes koreicus . difference between aedes albopictus ( a ) and aedes koreicus ( b ) ; figure s5 , antennae and antennal setae 1a ; figure s6 , comb scales ; figure s7 , pecten .
comparison between female features of aedes albopictus and aedes koreicus . difference between aedes albopictus ( a ) and aedes koreicus ( b ) ; figure s10 , palps and interorbicular space ; figure s11 , ornamentation on scutum ; figure s12 , abdomen .
l2 of dirofilaria immitis within the malpighian tubules of aedes koreicus ( 5x ) .
first record of aedes koreicus ( diptera , culicidae ) in slovenia . - pubmed - ncbi
first assessment of potential distribution and dispersal capacity of the emerging invasive mosquito aedes koreicus in northeast italy .
the exotic mosquitoes distribution maps are based only on confirmed data ( published and unpublished ) provided by experts from the respective countries as part of the vectornet project . separate maps for the distribution of each of the following mosquito species are currently available : aedes aegypti , aedes albopictus , aedes japonicus , aedes atropalpus and aedes koreicus .
map of monitored municipalities in north - eastern italy , 2011–2012 . legend : municipalities positive for the presence of aedes koreicus , aedes albopictus and their overlapping areas .
aedes koreicus is known to bite humans , farm animals [ 8 ] and domestic animals [ 2 ] .
the role of aedes koreicus in the transmission of the above - mentioned viruses in natural conditions remains unclear .
development of dirofilaria immitis within the mosquito aedes ( finlaya ) koreicus , a new invasive species for europe .
drawings of main characteristics considered for the identification of larvae and male of aedes species . c – hypopygium of aedes ; d – head of culicinae larvae ; e – lateral view of the distal part of the larval abdomen of aedes / ochlerotatus species . the arrows point only the characteristics useful for the identification of aedes koreicus and aedes albopictus .
first assessment of potential distribution and dispersal capacity of the emerging invasive mosquito aedes koreicus in northeast italy . - pubmed - ncbi
l1 of dirofilaria immitis alive ( clear ) and melanized ( brown ) within the abdomen of aedes koreicus ( 20x ) .
aedes koreicus has been reported in belgium , china , japan , italy , republic of korea ( south korea ) and russia .
development of dirofilaria immitis within the mosquito aedes ( finlaya ) koreicus , a new invasive species for europe . - pubmed - ncbi
the map shows the current known distribution of aedes koreicus in europe at at ‘regional’ administrative level ( nuts3 ) , as of may 2018 .
apperson cs , engber b , levine jf . relative suitability of aedes albopictus and
nothing is known of the feeding preferences of aedes koreicus , although there are reports of blood meals being taken from cattle and humans [ 8 ] .
l3 of dirofilaria immitis within the head of aedes koreicus ( 10x ) . l3 emerging from the palp ( a ) and the proboscis ( b ) .
overall phenology of aedes koreicus at maasmechelen ; gravid = gravid traps representing female oviposition activity and larval eclosion ; mmlp = mosquito magnet liberty plus traps representing adult activity .
larval stages of dirofilaria immiti s within aedes koreicus . a ) l1 ( 40x ) ; b ) l2 ( 10x ) ; c ) l3 ( 5x ) .
as with other aedes species , aedes koreicus seems well adapted to surviving human - induced transport over long distances , winter temperatures in northern europe and organic - rich , artificial and semi - natural containers [ 1 ] . much like aedes albopictus , this species can exploit urban habitats and is reported to be more tolerant of cold temperatures [ 2 ] .
drawings of the main characteristics considered for the identification of female culicinae mosquito . a - general aspect of a female mosquito ; b – dorsal and lateral view of thorax . the arrows point only the characteristics useful for the identification of aedes koreicus and aedes albopictus .
development parameters for ae . koreicus reared at a temperature of 23 ± 1 °c
the first record of aedes koreicus was made in the village of lovrenc na dravskem polju , north - eastern part of the country . the discovery of ae . koreicus in various continental european countries motivated us to revise samples of the collected aedes japonicus japonicus . we found ae . koreicus in samples from 2013 , where the larvae were misidentified as ae . j . japonicus . the species was identified morphologically and molecularly . the first discovery of ae . koreicus advocates an urgent need for a nationwide mosquito surveillance programme .
there is no specific guidance on control of this mosquito species in belgium , although future action is currently being discussed . aedes koreicus is not targeted for control within its native range .
werner d , zielke d , kampen h . first record of aedes koreicus ( diptera : culicidae ) in germany . parasitol res . 2016 ; 115 ( 3 ) : 1331–1334 .
nothing is known of how the species was initially introduced into belgium / europe . the species was reported in italy in 2011 during surveillance for aedes albopictus . surveillance was carried out in the same municipality during 2009 and 2010 but aedes koreicus was not detected at that time [ 2 ] .
map of the monitored area and sampling sites in north - eastern italy , 2011–2012 . legend : negative ( blue dots ) and positive sites ( red cross ) for the presence of aedes koreicus .
there is currently no specific surveillance action for the species . in belgium , aedes koreicus is being monitored through a temporary , nationwide mosquito surveillance project ( modirisk ) . specimens found in italy were identified via routine surveillance for aedes albopictus by the public health service , i . e . passive detection [ 2 ] .
the gis physiological - based model had the highest prediction power . it showed that localities currently occupied by aedes koreicus represent only a small fraction of the potentially suitable area . furthermore , the modelled niche included areas as high as 1500 m a . s . l . , only partially overlapping with aedes albopictus distribution .
in parts of russia aedes koreicus has been proven to be a vector for japanese encephalitis virus [ 3 , 4 ] but this has never been reported from the field in korea [ 5 ] . there are indications that the species could be able to transmit dirofilaria immitis to dogs [ 6 ] and brugia malayi to humans [ 7 ] . aedes koreicus can be found more in human - inhabited areas compared to aedes japonicus , and the species is known to bite humans [ 8 ] during daytime [ 9 ] , increasing the potential contact with humans .
over the recent decades , container - breeding mosquito species belonging to the genus aedes have frequently been recorded far from their place of origin . aedes koreicus was first reported in north - eastern italy in 2011 , in a region endemic for dirofilaria immitis , the agent of canine heartworm disease . the vector competence of ae . koreicus for d . immitis was here tested under laboratory conditions , by infecting mosquitoes with a local strain of d . immitis .
over the recent decades , container - breeding mosquito species belonging to the genus aedes have frequently been recorded far from their place of origin . aedes koreicus was first reported in north - eastern italy in 2011 , in a region endemic for dirofilaria immitis , the agent of canine heartworm disease . the vector competence of ae . koreicus for d . immitis was here tested under laboratory conditions , by infecting mosquitoes with a local strain of d . immitis .
the end of ae . koreicus activity was defined when there were no more adults , larvae or positive ovitraps .
bezzhonova ov , patraman iv , ganushkina la , vyshemirskiĭ oi , sergiev vp . the first finding of invasive species aedes ( finlaya ) koreicus ( edwards , 1917 ) in european russia . med parazitol ( mosk ) . 2014 ; 1 : 16–9 .
considering its strong ecological and genetic overlap with aedes japonicus [ 12 ] and its ability to survive northern european winters and human - aided transport , the species may be introduced and establish in other european countries [ 2 ] . there is , however almost no information on the biology and activity of aedes koreicus [ 2 ] and therefore it is impossible to predict future risk at this stage .
messersmith dh ( 1971 ) extension of the distributional range of aedes triseriatus ( say ) to greenland . mosq syst newsletter 3 ( 1 ) : 7–8
montarsi f , ciocchetta s , ravagnan s , simonato g , mutinelli f , camuffo s , et al . laboratory evidence on vector competence of the invasive mosquito aedes koreicus [ hulecoeteomyia koreica ] for dirofilaria immitis . parasit vectors . 2014 ; 7 ( suppl 1 ) : o34 .
aedes ( finlaya ) koreicus ( edwards ) is a mosquito that has recently entered europe from asia . this species is considered a potential threat to newly colonized territories , but little is known about its capacity to transmit pathogens or ability to compete with native mosquito species . the establishment of a laboratory colony is a necessary first step for further laboratory studies on the biology , ecology and vector competence of ae . koreicus .
1 . versteirt v , de clercq em , fonseca dm , pecor j , schaffner f , coosemans m , et al . bionomics of the established exotic mosquito species aedes koreicus in belgium , europe . j med entomol . 2012 nov ; 49 ( 6 ) : 1226 - 32 .
2 . capelli g , drago a , martini s , montarsi f , soppelsa m , delai n , et al . first report in italy of the exotic mosquito species aedes ( finlaya ) koreicus , a potential vector of arboviruses and filariae . parasit vectors . 2011 ; 4 : 188 .
particular attention was paid to the morphological features useful to make a correct and rapid identification of larvae and adults of ae . koreicus ( see additional file 1 ) . aedes koreicus was compared with the most similar species aedes ( finlaya ) japonicus ( theobald ) [ hulecoeteomyia j . japonica ] [ 17 , 18 , 23 ] and ae . albopictus . the comparative study reports only the features that differ among the three species ( see additional file 2 ) . drawings of morphology and terminology of the characters described are provided ( see additional files 3 and 4 ) . finally , photographs of ae . koreicus are compared to ae . albopictus to draw attention to their differences ( see additional files 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 ) .
the map shows the current known distribution of aedes koreicus in europe at at ‘regional’ administrative level ( nuts3 ) , as of april 2017 . the vectornet maps are published regularly on the website to provide the ecdc stakeholders and the general public with the most up - to - date information on vector distribution .
the map shows the current known distribution of aedes koreicus in europe at at ‘regional’ administrative level ( nuts3 ) , as of september 2017 . the vectornet maps are published regularly on the website to provide the ecdc stakeholders and the general public with the most up - to - date information on vector distribution .
aedes eggs were collected with standard ovitraps ( black vases filled with 300 ml of water , 8 cm upper diameter ) with sticks of masonite™ as support for oviposition .
aedes koreicus male and female genital lobe . a male genital lobe after dissection and after observation of pupae alive in a water drop as per technique described in the text ( b ) . c female genital lobe after dissection and after observation of pupae alive in a water drop as per technique described in the text ( d )
schaffner f , vazeille m , kaufmann c , failloux a , mathis a ( 2011 ) vector competence of aedes japonicus for chikungunya and dengue viruses . europ mosq bull 29 : 141–142
aedes koreicus eggs development at two different rearing temperatures ( 23 ± 1 °c and 26 ± 1 °c ) was compared using the x 2 test ( prism graphpad 6 ® ) . to determine the fecundity - size correlation a linear regression analysis ( prism graphpad 6 ® ) was performed using the number of mature follicles and wing length .
however , in the majority of the cases , ae . koreicus was the only species found , demonstrating it has preferentially occupied empty niches [ 44 ] .
climatic variables of the study area and native area of aedes koreicus ( south korea ) . legend : monthly means of precipitation ( curves : monthly precipitation ; lines : trend lines ) ( a ) , mean temperature ( b ) and minimum temperature ( c ) of the valbelluna ( study area ) and south korea ( native area ) .
larvae of the species have been found breeding at a number of artificial sites , such as garden ponds , water drums and other water - containing vessels [ 15 ] , and in natural sites such as tree holes and stone cavities containing rain water and decaying tree leaves [ 6 ] . tanaka et al . [ 8 ] stated that the larvae of aedes koreicus can be found more easily in areas inhabited by humans than the larvae of aedes japonicus . in belgium , immatures of aedes koreicus were found at artificial sites ( discarded tyres , old rusted construction equipment ) , as well as in more natural sites such as road tracks and ditches [ 1 ] ; in italy , larvae were found in manholes , a bucket in a private garden and flower pots in a cemetery . the bucket in the private garden was heavily infested and was said to be filled with clean water [ 2 ] .
the chi - square test was used to test significance of the differences of ae . koreicus prevalence ( only place / breeding sites monitored more than 10 times ) according to the place of collection , larval breeding sites , altitude range . prevalence distribution of ae . koreicus was also compared with ae . albopictus according to altitude .
v . versteirt , e . m . de clercq , d . m . fonseca , j . pecor , f . schaffner , m . coosemans , w . van bortel ; bionomics of the established exotic mosquito species aedes koreicus in belgium , europe , journal of medical entomology , volume 49 , issue 6 , 1 december 2012 , pages 1226–1232 , urltoken
this is the first report of the introduction of this exotic mosquito species into switzerland and lombardy , italy , suggesting the range of a . koreicus is expanding in central europe . as a . koreicus is competent to vector pathogens its establishment imposes a risk to public and veterinary health . from a technical point of view , the presence of a . koreicus alongside a . albopictus requires careful analysis and reliable diagnostics . as a diagnostic tool the use of the recently developed maldi - tof ms approach has proofed to be a very useful approach , particularly since hatching rates of a . koreicus seem to be low , making identification by classic morphology difficult , if not impossible .
the simulated spread indicated that all of the suitable portion of the study area is at risk of invasion in a relatively short period of time if no control policies are implemented . stochastic events may further boost the invasion process , whereas competition with aedes albopictus may limit it . according to our analysis , some of the major cities in the study area may have already been invaded . further monitoring is needed to confirm this finding . the developed models and maps represent valuable tools to inform policies aimed at eradicating or mitigating aedes koreicus invasion in northeast italy and central europe .
ae . koreicus potential distribution maps : the values range from 0 : no suitability ; to 1 : complete suitability . the green triangles represent the centroids of the main cities in the area
other aspects of the biology of ae . koreicus need urgently to be investigated in the next future , such as the feeding behaviour and the vector competence . the people resident in the areas where ae . koreicus is the exclusive diurnal biting species complained due to mosquito bites ( behaviour confirmed by the authors ) . except humans , the host preference spectrum in this area remains unknown .
aedes koreicus is endemic to japan , north - eastern china , the republic of korea ( south korea ) and parts of russia [ 8 ] . in the republic of korea ( south korea ) the species has frequently been found in the northern regions [ 10 ] and on the island of gyeongsangbuk - do [ 11 ] , but also on the island of jeju - do in the south [ 8 ] .
aedes koreicus overwinter as eggs and hatch during spring [ 2 ] . the species probably survive in the same manner as aedes japonicus ‒ e . g . as freeze - and desiccation - resistant eggs that are dormant during winter and hatch once environmental conditions become more favourable . larvae collected in early spring 2010 in local containers demonstrated the ability of the species to survive northern european winters [ 1 ] . in italy , this species was found in belluno , veneto province , which extends from 305 to 2 149 metres above sea level , is characterised by a temperate climate , with cold and often snowy winters and mild warm summers [ 2 ] .
the results of our survey clearly show that ae . koreicus is well established in an area of 2600 km 2 of north - eastern italy and confirm the invasive potential of this mosquito [ 24 ] .
aedes koreicus was recently found established in a small area of eastern belgium although it does not seem to be spreading . this was the first report of the species outside its native region in korea [ 1 ] and the first worldwide report of the species arriving in a new area . the species has also recently been reported in veneto province , italy [ 2 ] but further surveillance is needed to assess the spread of the species in italy .
aedes koreicus , a new invasive species for europe , is most likely a competent vector of d . immitis being of potential relevance in the natural cycle of the parasite . this poses a new threat for animal and human health in endemic areas for dirofilariosis and enhances the risk of spreading the infection in previously non - endemic areas . these results stress the importance of active surveillance and control strategies to minimize the risk of introduction of invasive alien species .
aedes koreicus , a new invasive species for europe , is most likely a competent vector of d . immitis being of potential relevance in the natural cycle of the parasite . this poses a new threat for animal and human health in endemic areas for dirofilariosis and enhances the risk of spreading the infection in previously non - endemic areas . these results stress the importance of active surveillance and control strategies to minimize the risk of introduction of invasive alien species .
aedes koreicus was found in 37 municipalities ( 39 . 4 % ) and was detected in 40 . 2 % of places and in 37 . 3 % of larval habitats monitored , in a range of altitude from 173 to 1250 m . a . s . l . . garden centres were the most common locations ( 66 . 7 % ) , followed by streets / squares ( 57 . 1 % ) , private gardens ( 46 . 4 % ) and cemeteries ( 21 . 1 % ) ( p < 0 . 01 ) . the main larval habitats were catch basins ( 48 . 5 % ) and artificial water containers ( 41 . 8 % ) . as for aedes albopictus [ stegomyia albopicta ] , ovitraps were attractive for adult females resulting in the higher rate of positivity ( 15 / 21 ; 71 . 4 % ) among breeding sites . the period of ae . koreicus activity ranged from march 29 to october 29 .
little information on ae . koreicus vector competence is available ; while experimental transmission of japanese encephalitis virus ( jev ) has been proven [ 54 - 56 ] , the virus has not been isolated from wild - caught mosquitoes in korea [ 57 ] . there is also laboratory evidence of its involvement in the parasitic cycle of the dog heartworm dirofilaria immitis [ 58 ] , which is endemic in north - eastern italy and mainly transmitted by culex and aedes mosquitoes [ 59 , 60 ] .
study areas : right side : european map with the two red rectangles showing ae . koreicus positive areas for ae . koreicus in italy ( big rectangle ) and in belgium ( small rectangle ) . for the statistical analysis , the italian study area was used as the training area while the belgian one as the test area . left side : zoom of the italian study area showing trap locations and major cities , with the shaded digital elevation model as background
the finding of ae . koreicus in italy represents the second incursion in europe , after a previous report in belgium [ 25 ] . outside europe , ae . koreicus is common in korea and china and reported in japan [ 23 , 26 ] and in the asian part of russia [ 27 ] . however , the current distribution of the species in asia is unclear due to the lack of recent studies ; furthermore ae . koreicus was considered being a variety of ae . japonicus and was often confused in the past with similar species [ 17 ] . only recently its distribution in korea has been defined [ 21 ] and the taxonomic position clarified using molecular tools [ 24 ] .
morphological features of the genital lobe of ae . koreicus pupae were investigated as a means of distinguishing males from females . pupae were inspected in a water droplet under 20× magnifications . coverslips were not used as they damaged the pupae .
potential spread of aedes koreicus predicted through road network analysis : areas with the same cost of invasion are displayed using a red - green - blue colour scale . the cost of invasion is expressed in years since the species’ introduction ( 2011 ) . cost of invasion is a function of the travelling distance from the introduction point based on the observed rate of shift of the invaded range centroid and the predicted habitat suitability . major cities ( green pushpins ) and sampling locations ( white circles ) are also reported
here , for the first time , a . koreicus was found in switzerland and in the neighbouring italian lombardy region . it was not detected during the surveillance activities in 2012 , but only in the 2013 summer season . as no a . koreicus eggs were found in 2012 , we assume that this species has been introduced de novo although we cannot exclude that it was missed during the 2012 survey . while this is the first report of the introduction of this exotic mosquito species into switzerland and the neighbouring italian region , it suggests that the range of a . koreicus is generally expanding in central europe . continued surveillance will show if this new invasive mosquito has established a local population and is gaining further ground .
we describe the establishment of an ae . koreicus colony in the laboratory and identify critical requirements for the maintenance of this mosquito species under artificial conditions . the laboratory colony will facilitate studies investigating the vector potential of this species for human pathogens .
in 2012 and 2013 , an entomological survey of aedes albopictus , the asian tiger mosquito , was carried out in the border region of southern switzerland and northern italy , using ovitraps . in july 2013 , besides a . albopictus already known to the region several unusual eggs were recovered .
the global trade , the increase of travel and the improvement of connection among people , along with climatic and environmental changes , increase the risk of the introduction and adaptation of arthropod vectors to new environments [ 1 ] . in particular , the container breeding species belonging to the genus aedes ( meigen ) are frequently recorded out of their place of origin , mainly due to their diapausing eggs that survive to desiccation during the passive transport [ 2 ] . invasive aedes species are proven or potential vectors of important arboviruses [ 3 , 4 ] and their establishment in new areas pose a threat for human and animal health .
ae . koreicus was also well represented at an altitude between 800–1000 m . a . s . l . ( 28 . 1 % ) and was found in two sites above 1000 m . a . s . l . , where ae . albopictus was absent .
13 . reinert jf . new classification for the composite genus aedes ( diptera : culicidae : aedini ) , elevation of subgenus ochlerotatus to generic rank , reclassification of the other subgenera , and notes on certain subgenera and species . j am mosq control assoc . 2000 sep ; 16 ( 3 ) : 175 - 88 .
six other mosquito species were identified in 152 collections ( 59 . 4 % ) ( excluding ovitraps ) during the survey : culex pipiens ( l . ) ( 42 % ) , cx . hortensis ( ficalbi ) ( 2 . 3 % ) , aedes geniculatus ( olivier ) [ dahliana geniculata ] ( 0 . 8 % ) , culiseta longiareolata ( macquart ) ( 0 . 8 % ) and anopheles maculipennis s . l . ( meigen ) ( 0 . 4 % ) . aedes albopictus was found in 57 ( 23 . 8 % ) out of 225 breeding sites monitored ( including ovitraps ) , even in places not previously colonized .
12 . cameron ec , wilkerson rc , mogi m , miyagi i , toma t , kim hc , et al . molecular phylogenetics of aedes japonicus , a disease vector that recently invaded western europe , north america , and the hawaiian islands . j med entomol . 2010 jul ; 47 ( 4 ) : 527 - 35 .
therefore , the vector competence of ae . koreicus for d . immitis was here assessed under laboratory conditions , by infecting a mosquito colony derived from specimens collected from new geographic foci in north - eastern italy , with a local strain of d . immitis from an autochthonously infected dog .
we apply three different approaches to model the potential distribution of an emerging invasive mosquito , aedes koreicus , in northeast italy : 1 ) an automatic statistical approach based on information theory , 2 ) a statistical approach integrated with prior knowledge , and 3 ) a gis physiology - based approach . each approach possessed benefits and limitations , and the required ecological information increases on a scale from 1 to 3 . we validated the model outputs using the only other known invaded area in europe . finally , we applied a road network analysis to the suitability surface with the highest prediction power to highlight those areas with the highest likelihood of invasion .
further studies on the vector competence of ae . koreicus for pathogens such as dengue and chikungunya viruses , d . repens and other filarioids are warranted in order to better understand the role played by this recently imported mosquito species in the epidemiology of the diseases they may transmit to animals and humans .
in august 2012 , ae . koreicus adults were caught by one out of three co 2 baited bg - sentinel traps but not by the two traps with only odorous attractant . adults were also captured inside a house up to the fourth floor and in 2 of 3 forests where no buildings were present .
the standard ovitraps used for tiger mosquito monitoring and the co 2 baited bg - sentinel trap were shown to be suitable for ae . koreicus collection . accordingly , the current surveillance system is now complicated by the presence of two similar species in the same environment , thus requiring well trained personnel for identification .
in conclusion , aedes koreicus , a new invasive species for europe , is most likely a competent vector of d . immitis , being of potential relevance in the natural cycle of the parasite . this poses a new threat for animal and human health in endemic areas for dirofilariosis and enhances the risk of spreading the infection in previously non - endemic areas . it is important that veterinarians and physicians are aware of the presence of a new competent vector of d . immitis in areas where the risk of dirofilariosis for pets and humans was previously considered negligible . these results stress the importance of active surveillance and control strategies to minimize the risk of introduction of invasive alien species .
the aim of this study was to assess the introduction of ae . koreicus from jeju - do , the assumed origin region based on their morphological similarities ( versteirt et al . 2012 ) and its acclimatization in belgium , to elucidate the establishment of the species in the area and to explore its population dynamics .
six females and six males were examined accurately ; the legs were clarified , mounted on slides and length of white band measured . twelve larvae were also examined . the specimens described were collected as larvae during the summer from two villages where only ae . koreicus was present or obtained from eggs hatched in laboratory .
we provide the first report of laboratory colonization of ae . koreicus . the information provided promotes a better understanding of the biology of laboratory colonies of this european invader . it will help facilitate investigations on ecology , competition and vectorial capacity in the laboratory . this will help inform potential public health or ecological issues associated with its continuing spread .
from a total of 233 eggs reared at izsve laboratory in italy at 23 ± 1 °c , 39 . 41 % reached the adult stage ( n = 93 ; 37 males , 56 females ) . by contrast , the percentage of adults obtained from the 204 eggs reared at the same institute at 26 ± 1 °c was just 3 . 43 % ( n = 7 ; 3 males , 4 females ) . significantly more ae . koreicus adults developed at the lower temperature than at the higher temperature ( χ 2 = 82 . 04 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . these egg cohorts developed slowly with a great deal of variation in emergence times ( over a period of 17 days ) . following this initial finding , the rearing temperature of the ae . koreicus colony in italy was adjusted to 23 ± 1 °c , and after 3 months 8 , 860 eggs had been collected . these were sent to qimr berghofer medical research institute to start a new ae . koreicus colony for vector competence studies .
little information on the biology and the behaviour of ae . koreicus in an area out of the native area is available [ 25 , 35 ] . in the native area it colonizes a wide typology of natural and artificial containers and seems more abundant in urban areas than ae . japonicus [ 18 ] . it can tolerate the cold winter temperature and the first larvae are found early in the spring [ 17 ] . the area colonized in italy displays air temperatures and freezing days during winter similar to the native south korea . as opposed to ae . albopictus , the cold season is not a limiting factor to the establishment and spread of ae . koreicus , thus extending the risk of invasion all over central europe .
in its native region the species is trapped using cdc light traps , although large numbers are not caught [ 10 ] . in belgium , the species was monitored using co2 - baited traps , bg sentinels and john hock gravid traps . however , the species is never caught in large numbers ( versteirt et al . 2012 ) . this species was successfully detected using ovitraps set for aedes albopictus in italy [ 2 ] .
all morphological identifications of adult mosquitoes were done according to tanaka et al . ( 1979 ) , schaffner et al . ( 2001 ) , and becker et al . ( 2003 ) . the rapid assay developed by cameron et al . ( 2010 ) was used on extracted dna of eggs , larvae and adults to molecularly support the morphological identification of ae . koreicus .
despite the fact that the experiment was not repeated due to the limited availability of mosquitoes , the finding of l3 emerging from the proboscis clearly indicated that d . immitis infective larvae developed in this mosquito species . further experimental evidence of l3 transmission to a host is necessary for a final confirmation of the role ae . koreicus plays as intermediate host for d . immitis .
ae . koreicus is currently established in the studied region , although there are no complaints of nuisance at the moment of writing nor any evidence of expansion to other areas of belgium . the species was most probably introduced through human trade . the introduction of new potential disease vectors into europe seems to be a result of suitable entrance points , created by intense worldwide trade and suitable environmental conditions .
the findings of this survey defined horizontal and vertical geographical limits of the area colonized by ae . koreicus in northern italy and reported some biological characteristics of the species , such as period and temperatures of activity and breeding sites preference . these data are important to model the risk of spreading in other part of italy or europe and to plan the future control of this invasive species , considering that the eradication of an establish species is unlikely .
eggs from the initial italian colony , reared in laboratory at izsve , were used to establish a new colony of ae . koreicus at qimr berghofer medical research institute under import permit ip 14001574 . rearing conditions for the new colony of ae . koreicus were : 23 ± 1 °c temperature , 75 ± 5 % relative humidity and a 12 - h light : 12 - h dark cycle , with crepuscular periods . larvae were reared in 45 × 40 × 5 cm white plastic trays that contained approximately 5 l of rain water or de - chlorinated tap water never exceeding a density of 500 larvae per tray . they were fed on an aqueous solution of ground tetramin ® fish food ( 0 . 125 g / ml ) added to the trays , never exceeding the following amounts : 0 . 5 ml of tetramin ® fish food solution for first and second instar larvae , 1 to 2 ml for third - instar larvae , and 2 ml for fourth - instar larvae .
some arboviruses , such west nile and usutu viruses , are endemic in veneto region [ 51 , 52 ] and others , such as chikungunya and dengue viruses , are regularly introduced by infected humans every year [ 61 ] . if ae . koreicus will be demonstrated to be competent for some of these viruses , the risk of transmission will be extended in this new colonized area , especially at high altitudes , i . e . in places previously regarded at a negligible risk of animal and human outbreaks .
based on our observations , ae . koreicus confirms also to be well adapted to urban settlements . the main sites colonized are garden centres , urban areas ( streets , squares , parking lots ) and private gardens ( flower and kitchen gardens , sets of flowers on the balcony ) where it breeds in a variety of artificial man - made containers . surprisingly larvae were also found in fountains located into the forest , far from human settlings , indicating that the species is able to complete its life cycle feeding on animals other than humans .
in 2011 the beginning of the ae . koreicus activity remained unknown as the survey started after the first identification at the end of may ; the last adults were collected on september 13 , while ovitraps remained positive until october 13 . in 2012 the first larvae were caught on march 29 and ovitraps were positive on may 5 . the adults were active until the end of september and living larvae were observed until october 29 . the period of activity of ae . albopictus was july 7 - september 8 in 2011 and may 23 - september 28 in 2012 .
it was not possible to clearly demonstrate the time of arrival and the route of entry of the mosquito in this part of italy . based on the previous monitoring for ae . albopictus in the same area [ 45 , 46 ] . ae . koreicus was apparently absent or undetectable before 2010 . however , comparing the size of this area with the area colonized by ae . japonicus in central europe ( approx . 2 , 600 vs . 1 , 400 km 2 ) , where ae . japonicus has been present from at least since 2008 [ 47 ] , it can be assumed that this species was likely introduced 3–4 years ago .
different morphological variants of ae . koreicus have been described ( tanaka et al . 1979 ) and the specimens observed in belgium are very similar to the form occurring on the island of jeju - do ( versteirt et al . 2012 ) . based on these similarities it was assumed that the belgian specimens originated from jeju - do . therefore , for in total 70 climatic variables , divided over seven main categories ( see table 1 ) , the minimum and the maximum value for jeju - do were determined . then we delineated the areas in belgium where the values for the respective climatic variables fell within the value range in jeju - do .
environmental data were obtained from land use map ( corine land cover 2006 ) . vegetation is dominated by beech ( fagus sylvatica ) , downy oak ( quercus pubescens ) and european hophornbeam ( ostrya carpinifolia ) . coniferous and pine forests are present on the mountains . water bodies and lakes are abundant at the lowest elevation . the area is mainly covered by forest or natural vegetation ( 75 . 0 % ) and little used for agricultural activities ( 20 . 2 % ) ; the water bodies represent 0 . 5 % of the area and only the 4 . 3 % of the area is urbanized . the human settlings are small villages composed by country houses with private gardens and public parks , which offer many breeding possibilities to container breeding mosquitoes of the aedes genus .
after this record , a more intensive surveillance was gradually extended from positive sites in surrounding areas to verify the distribution of this species , to attempt to trace back the possible route of entry and to collect biological data on its life cycle . in this work we report the results of two years of surveillance and the implication for the monitoring and control of a new species , which overlapped with another similar invasive mosquito , ae . albopictus . a quick guide for the identification of the species , reporting the main morphological features of the italian population of ae . koreicus , is included as additional files , to help personnel involved in the entomological monitoring with a prompt recognition of this species .
to assess the degree of establishment and population dynamics of ae . koreicus , a longitudinal study was conducted in 2009 . adults were collected with different trap types on both sites : two mosquito magnet liberty plus traps , two bg sentinel traps ( biogents ag , germany ) and two center for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) gravid traps ( frommer updraft , john w . hock company , gainesville , fl ) . the first two trap types were placed in a latin square pattern , the latter in the prolongation of one mmlp and one bg sentinel trap . all were positioned at least 68 m apart , to avoid signal interference . all traps operated fortnightly for 48 h starting from 20 april until 19 october 2009 .
alien species need some time to adapt to their new environment and seem to follow a three - step process to settle and expand , i . e . arrival , establishment ( population growth and unlikely extinction ) and spread ( expansion into new areas ) [ 28 , 29 ] . the current scenario of ae . koreicus in italy seems to represent the third phase , characterized by occasional long - distance dispersal and formation of isolated new colonies [ 28 , 30 ] . the probability of establishment and spread of invasive species depends initially on suitable climatic conditions [ 31 ] , on the availability of aquatic habitats ( larval breeding sites ) [ 32 - 34 ] and on the presence of suitable hosts . the knowledge of these features is of particular importance to predict their future spread .
it’s interesting to note that this area of north - eastern italy and in particular the veneto region has experienced several invasive mosquito introduction and spread in the past 20 years ; in particular , ae . albopictus in 1990 , which spread all over the country in a few years [ 9 , 11 ] , ae . atropalpus [ georgecraigius atropalpus ] in 1996 [ 50 ] , detected in the province of treviso and eradicated , and now ae . koreicus . this is likely a consequence of the intensive trade of goods in one of the most developed industrial and commercial area of italy . however , the intensive mosquito monitoring that followed recent vector - borne outbreaks in north italy [ 51 - 53 ] could have enhanced our probability to detect invasive mosquitoes . trade of goods and road vehicles movement are also likely the route of local dispersal , as happened with ae . albopictus [ 9 ] .
to determine whether wing length could be used as an indicator of fecundity in ae . koreicus , larvae were divided between four trays of 100 larvae each , three days after hatching . the volume of water per tray was 5 l . to create mosquito cohorts of different sizes , we applied different feeding regimes . one group was provided with aqueous solution of ground tetramin ® fish food ( 0 . 125 g / ml ) ad libitum , larvae from three other groups were fed with the same solution at various ratios : first instars larvae were given respectively 0 . 05 , 0 . 1 and 0 . 2 ml fish food solution per tray ; second instars larvae were fed 0 . 1 , 0 . 2 , and 0 . 4 ml of food per tray ; third instars larvae were fed 0 . 15 , 0 . 3 , and 0 . 6 ml of food per tray and fourth instars larvae were fed 0 . 2 , 0 . 4 , and 0 . 8 ml of food per tray daily .
ecdc and efsa , through the vectornet network , continues to improve the data collection for the maps . vectornet is looking for vector - borne disease experts who are interested in sharing data on the distribution of mosquito , tick , sand fly and culicoides vectors . experts can contact vectornet at vectornet @ urltoken to join the network . they can also register and upload data to the common database through the vectornet tool .
suggested citation : european centre for disease prevention and control and european food safety authority . mosquito maps [ internet ] . stockholm : ecdc ; 2018 . available from : urltoken
the map ' invasive mosquitoes ' shows the current known vector surveillance activities in europe , as of september 2017 . the vectornet maps are published regularly on the website to provide the ecdc stakeholders and the general public with the most up - to - date information on vector distribution .
the map ' invasive mosquitoes ' shows the current known vector surveillance activities in europe , as of january 2018 . the vectornet maps are published regularly on the website to provide the ecdc stakeholders and the general public with the most up - to - date information on vector distribution .
the map ' invasive mosquitoes ' shows the current known vector surveillance activities in europe , as of april 2017 .
experts can register and upload data to the common database through the vectornet tool . vectornet is looking for vector - borne disease experts who are interested in sharing data on the distribution of mosquito , tick , sand fly and culicoides vectors .
vectornet is a joint initiative of the european food safety authority ( efsa ) and the european centre for disease prevention and control ( ecdc ) .
in the republic of korea ( south korea ) the species is known to bite humans and farm animals [ 8 ] during the daytime [ 9 ] . probably because of the low density of the species no complaints of nuisance were noted in belgium [ 1 ] . this species is reported to bite humans both during the day and at night [ 2 ] .
there is little information on possible thresholds that might limit the distribution of the species . based on a comparison of climate likeness between the republic of korea ( south korea ) and belgium , climate seems not to be a limiting factor for the establishment of the species in the country [ 1 ] or other countries with a similar climate in europe .
species - specific control methods e . g . insecticide , public health education , etc .
invasive status of this mosquito species is not clear , nor is the vectorial capacity .
species is probably able to colonise northern european territories . more information on import pathways , ecological niche and restraints is needed .
feeding patterns of the species should be analysed in order to assess the rate of anthropophylly .
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6 . feng l - c . the tree hole species of mosquitoes of peiping , china . . chinese medical journal . 1938 ; suppl . 2 : 503 - 25 .
7 . korean centre for disease control . elimination of lymphatic filariasis in korea . national document for certification . republic of korea : national institute of health . centres for disease control and prevention , ministry of health and welfare , 2007 .
8 . tanaka k , mizusawa k , saugstad es . a revision of the adult and larval mosquitoes of japan ( including the ryukyu archipelago and the ogasawara islands ) and korea ( diptera : culicidae ) . . contributions of the american entomological institute . 1979 ; 16 : 1 - 987 .
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11 . rueda lm , kim hc , klein ta , pecor je , li c , sithiprasasna r , et al . distribution and larval habitat characteristics of anopheles hyrcanus group and related mosquito species ( diptera : culicidae ) in south korea . j vector ecol . 2006 jun ; 31 ( 1 ) : 198 - 205 .
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16 . gutsevich av , monchadskii as , stackelberg aa . fauna of the ussr . dipteran insects ( in russian ) . . leningrad 3
17 . yamada s . an experimental study on twenty - four species of japanese mosquitoes regarding their suitability as intermediate host for filaria bancrofti cobbold . . scientific report of the government institute of infectious diseases . 1927 ; 6 : 559 - 622 .
is poorly understood . its status as a potential vector is also complicated by some historical confusion regarding its native range . the species has often been confused with
colonies have been reported in the literature and thus no satisfactory method of rearing this species has been yet described . in this study , several experiments have been conducted to describe the successful rearing conditions of our colony and the key biological attributes of our laboratory - reared