dynastinae or rhinoceros beetles are a subfamily of the scarab beetle family ( scarabaeidae ) .

other common names – some for particular groups of rhinoceros beetles – are for example hercules beetles , unicorn beetles or horn beetles .

over 300 species of rhinoceros beetles are known .

many rhinoceros beetles are well known for their unique shapes and large sizes .

some famous species are , for example , the atlas beetle ( chalcosoma atlas ) , common rhinoceros beetle ( xylotrupes ulysses ) , elephant beetle ( megasoma elephas ) , european rhinoceros beetle ( oryctes nasicornis ) , hercules beetle ( dynastes hercules ) , japanese rhinoceros beetle or kabutomushi ( allomyrina dichotoma ) , ox beetle ( strategus aloeus ) and the eastern hercules beetle ( dynastes tityus ) .

dynastinae

estados inmaduros de ancognatha ustulata ( coleoptera : melolonthidae : dynastinae : cyclocephalini ) .
monographie der dynastinae 2 . tribus : oryctoderini ( coleoptera : lamellicornia : melolonthidae )
monographie der dynastinae 8 . tribus : phileurini , amerikanische arten i . ( coleoptera )
the dynastine scarab beetles of costa rica and panama ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
larval and pupal descriptions for the genera podischnus and heterogomphus ( scarabaeidae : dynastinae : oryctini ) .
los estados inmaduros de coelosis biloba ( coleoptera : melolonthidae : dynastinae ) y notas sobre su biología .
the dynastine scarab beetles of honduras , nicaragua and el salvador ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
synoptic revision of the united states scarab beetles of the subfamily dynastinae , no . 1 : tribe cyclocephalini
description of the third instar larva of hemiphileurus dispar kolbe ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : phileurini ) .
morphologie et biologie d ' un coléoptère des plages sableuses : callicnemis latreillei cast . ( scarabaeidae , dynastinae )
catalogues raisonns de la faune entomologique du congo belge . coloptres : dynastinae , valginae , melolontinae . 64 p
descripción de los estados inmaduros de heterogomphus pauson ( perty , 1830 ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
description of the larva of chalcosoma atlas ( l . ) ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) from malaysia .
description of the third - stage larva of megasoma elephas occidentalis bolívar et al . ( scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
dynastinae of north america with descriptions of the larvae and keys to genera and species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) .
monographie der dynastinae 4 . tribus : pentodontini ( papuanische und pazifische inselwelt ) ( coleoptera : lamellicornia : melolonthidae )
descriptions of strategus larvae with a new key to species based on the larvae ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
coprinae , hybosorinae , dynastinae ( rsultats scientifiques du voyage aux indes orientales nerlandaises 4 fasc . 4 ) . 8 p
descriptions of the larvae of some rhinoceros beetles ( col . , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) associated with coconut palms in new guinea
descriptions of the larvae of some rhinoceros beetles ( col . , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) associated with coconut palms in new guinea .
the life of cyclocephala celata dechambre , 1980 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) in captivity with descriptions of the immature stages .
strategus syphax ( fabr . ) : a description of the third instar larvae and pupa ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
common name : coconut rhinoceros beetle scientific name : oryctes rhinoceros ( l . ) ( insecta : coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae )
immature stages of homophileurus tricuspis prell ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : phileurini ) with notes on natural history and distribution in colombia .
endrödi s : the dynastinae of the world . series entomologica , vol 28 ( dr w . junk publishers , dordrecht 1985 ) .
surutu jelineki endrődi ( cyclocephalini ) , a new junior synonym of platyphileurus felscheanus ohaus ( phileurini ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
a new species of hemiphileurus kolbe ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : phileurini ) from colombia , with description of its larva and pupa .
a love picture of some dynastinae specimens , showing the range of colours and sizes these beetles come in . image credit : anaxibia via wikipedia
xyloryctes hope , 1837 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : oryctini ) in the united states . qui es et ubi fuisti et quo vadis ?
chromosome analyses challenge the taxonomic position of augosoma centaurus fabricius , 1775 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) and the dynastini - oryctini taxonomic separation .
n°4 . 54e annee . bulletin mensuel de la societe linneenne de lyon . avril 1985 . chalumeau f - un dynastinae des antilles decrie endroedianibe coleoptera scrarabaeidae
o gênero strategus hope , 1837 como praga de arecaceae , com especial referência a strategus surinamensis hirtus sternberg , 1910 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) .
from guadeloupe : chromosome comparison with some other species of dynastinae ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . cytogenet genome res 119 : 248 - 254 ( 2007b ) .
endrödi , s . 1974 : monographie der dynastinae . 4 . tribus : pentodontini von australien und neu - zeeland ( coleoptera ) . [ monograph of the dynastinae . 4 . tribe : pentodontini from australia and new zealand ( coleoptera ) . ] folia entomologica hungarica 22 ( 2 ) : 17 - 70 .
monographie der dynastinae ( col . lamellicornia ) i . teil . 457 p . , 872 figs , 3 pls with 26 figs , disbound ( deut . ent
endrödi , s . 1985 . the dynastinae of the world . series entomologica , volume 28 , w . junk , dordrecht . 800 pp . , 46 plates .
descriptions of the larvae of some rhinoceros beetles ( col . , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) associated with coconut palms in new guinea | bulletin of entomological research | cambridge core
descripción de la larva de cyclocephala testacea burmeister , 1847 y clave para la determinación de larvas de cuatro especies del género cyclocephala en el uruguay ( coleoptera , dynastinae ) .
given , b . b . 1955 : preliminary note on the genus pericoptus ( scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) . new zealand entomologist 1 ( 5 ) : 15 - 18 .
note sur le genre alissonotum arrow , 1908 avec la description d ' une espèce nouvelle d ' asie : alissonotum yamayai n . sp . ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , dynastinae )
descripción de los estados inmaduros y notas sobre la biologia de diloboderus abderus ( sturm , 1826 ) y philoscaptus bonariensis ( burmeister , 1847 ) ( coleoptera : mololonthidae : dynastinae ) .
descripción de larva y pupa , ciclo de vida y distribución del escarabajo rinoceronte podischnus agenor olivier ( coleoptera : melolonthidae ) en colombia , con una clave para larvas de tercer estadio de dynastinae neotropicales .
descripción de los estados inmaduros de tres especies de anomala , ancognatha y ligyrus ( coleoptera : melolonthidae : rutelinae y dynastinae ) con observaciones de su biología , acta zoológica mexicana ( n . s .
description of the larva of homophileurus integer ( burmeister , 1847 ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : phileurini ) , with notes on biology and a key to the known larvae of new world phileurini .
the dynastine scarab beetles of the usa and canada ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) brett c . ratcliffe & ronald d . cave . 2017 . university of nebraska state museum , vol 30 , 298 pp .
4 papers : monographie der dynastinae 4 . tribus : pentodontini ( 2 parts ) , viii . tribus : phileurini ( 2 parts ) . 284 p . , 279 figs , 2 pls , disbound ( ent . abh
descripción de la larva y la pupa de phileurus affinis burmeister , 1847 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) . algunas observaciones sobre su biología y clave para la identificación de las larvas de tres especies de phileurini del uruguay .
mankin rw , moore a . 2010 . acoustic detection of oryctes rhinoceros ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) and nasutitermes luzonicus ( isoptera : termitidae ) in palm trees in urban guam . journal of economic entomology 103 : 1135 - 1143 .
morón , m . a . and deloya , c . ( 2001 ) observaciones sobre el ciclo de vida de megasoma elephas elephas ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : melolonthidae : dynastinae ) . folia entomológica mexicana , 40 : 233 - 244 .
bedford , g . o . 1979 . description of the larva of oryctes monoceros ( olivier ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) from the seychelles . bulletin of entomological research , vol . 69 , issue . 04 , p . 599 .
bedford , g . o . 1976 . description of the larva of chalcosoma atlas ( l . ) ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) from malaysia . bulletin of entomological research , vol . 66 , issue . 02 , p . 189 .
full title :
a review of the species of phileurus latreille ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : phileurini ) with quadridentate protibiae and description of a new species from panama .
treats one of our nearctic species , phileurus valgus ( olivier ) . abstract here : urltoken
bedford * , g . o . 1976 . observations on the biology and ecology of oryctes rhinoceros and scapanes australis ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) : pests of coconut palms in melanesia . australian journal of entomology , vol . 15 , issue . 3 , p . 241 .
to assess the differences of apical setal patterns of pupae between different species of dynastinae , pupae of the following species of phileurini and oryctini from the immature collection of mzsp were studied ( for descriptions see vanin et al . ( 1983 ) , costa et al . ( 1988 ) ) :
ratcliffe , b . c . and morón , m . a . ( 2005 ) larval descriptions of eight species of megasoma kirby ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) with a key for identification and notes on biology . the coleopterists bulletin , 59 ( 1 ) : 91 - 126 .
the rhinoceros beetle platyphileurus felscheanus ohaus , 1910 ( scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) was described twice as a new species , first under this name in the tribe phileurini and 65 years later as surutu jelineki by endrődi ( 1975 ) in the tribe cyclocephalini . grossi et al . ( 2010 ) recently synonymized those two names .
beaudoin - ollivier , laurence bonaccorso , frank aloysius , michael and kasiki , mathew 2003 . flight movement of scapanes australis australis ( boisduval ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae ) in papua new guinea : a radiotelemetry study . australian journal of entomology , vol . 42 , issue . 4 , p . 367 .
morón , m . a . and gómez - anaya , j . a . ( 2002 ) consideraciones sobre la categoría taxonómica de megasoma elephas occidentalis bolívar y pieltain , jiménez - asúa y martínez , 1963 ( coleoptera : melolonthidae ; dynastinae ) . folia entomológica mexicana , 41 ( 3 ) : 299 - 319 .
an inventory of the types housed in the hungarian natural history museum , is in preparation . types of dynastinae photographed for various purposes are presented here . ht = holotype , pt = paratype , lt = lectotype , plt = paralectotype , mt =
monotype
, at = allotype , ct = cotype , st = syntype photo : 1
albertoni , fabiano krell , frank steiner , josefina and zillikens , anne 2014 . life history and description of larva and pupa of platyphileurus felscheanus ohaus , 1910 , a scarabaeid feeding on bromeliad tissues in brazil , to be excluded from phileurini ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) . zookeys , vol . 389 , issue . , p . 49 .
albertoni ff , krell f - t , steiner j , zillikens a ( 2014 ) life history and description of larva and pupa of platyphileurus felscheanus ohaus , 1910 , a scarabaeid feeding on bromeliad tissues in brazil , to be excluded from phileurini ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , dynastinae ) . zookeys 389 : 49–76 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 389 . 6888
full pdf brett c . ratcliffe . 2009 . xyloryctes hope , 1837 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : dynastinae : oryctini ) in the united states . qui es et ubi fuisti et quo vadis ? insecta mundi 0100 : 1 - 11 . ( qui es et ubi fuisti et quo vadis ? = who you are , and where you have been and where are you going ? )
the karyotypes of 5 species of dynastes , d . hercules , d . tityus , d . granti , d . satanas , and d . neptunus , and 2 subspecies of d . hercules are compared with those of 6 other selected dynastinae species . in the 3 former species , there are 18 chromosomes , including neo - sex chromosomes formed by the fusion of an acrocentric autosome with the x and y chromosomes . in all other species , including d . neptunus and d . satanas , free x and y chromosomes are observed in 20 , xyp karyotypes . the acrocentric autosome presumably involved in the fusion is present in d . neptunus and d . satanas ( pair no . 8 ) . it replaces a submetacentric observed in the other dynastinae species . thus , the karyotypes of d . neptunus and d . satanas derive from that of ancestral dynastinae by an inversion in chromosome 8 , and those of d . hercules , d . granti and d . tityus derive from that of d . neptunus by the translocation of this inverted chromosome to sex chromosomes . because the dynastes species with the most derived karyotype occur in north and central america and lesser antilles , while d . neptunus and d . satanas are limited to the northern part of the south american andes , we suggest a south american origin of the genus dynastes .
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rhinoceros beetles are well - known for their large size , and the longest beetle species in the world is member of the dynastinae . male hercules beetles can reach a whopping 17 . 5 cm in length , including their immense horns ( you can read more specifically about hercules beetles here ) . rhinoceros beetles are quite heavily armoured , having a thick exoskeleton which can come in a variety of colours . they have two sets of wings , and can fly , though usually not very well as they are so large .
i was under the impression that there were a handful of species of rhinoceros beetle , but i was quite mistaken . in fact , there are over three hundred species classified in the subfamily dynastinae . they are found all over the world , in a range of habitats . rhinoceros beetles are most common in tropical areas , and don’t like the cold — one of the only places they aren’t found is in polar regions . they are nocturnal , spending their days hiding in vegetation or under logs to protect themselves from predators .
dynastinae larvae frequently feed on decaying plant matter , especially wood ( ritcher 1958 ; carlson 1991 ; ratcliffe et al . 2002 ) , although food sources vary between species and include roots of living plants , especially monocots , and general organic matter ( ritcher 1958 ; gassen 1989 ) . lourenção et al . ( 1999 ) reported larvae of strategus hope , 1837 ( oryctini ) as a pest of arecaceae feeding on live plant tissue . larvae of oryctini and cyclocephalini are often associated with feeding on live plant tissue , unlike those in the tribes phileurini and dynastini that are known to feed on decaying wood or humus associated with decaying vegetable matter . thus platyphileurus felscheanus would be the first known exception in the phileurini tribe .
voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1912 ) . rsultats scientifiques . insectes coloptres parts 1 - 19 . pselaphidae , scarabaeidae onthophagini , meloidae , hylophilidae et anticidae , scarabaeidae ochodaeinae , orphninae et hybosorinae , buprestidae , lampyridae et drilidae , chrysomelidae hispinae , dascillidae , helodidae , scraptiidae et salpingidae , anthribidae , histeridae , scarabaeidae dynastinae , elateridae , trixagidae et melasidae , scarabaeidae trichiini et cetoniini , dryopidae , georyssidae et heteroceridae , silphidae , clavicornes , cassidinae , and curculionidae parts by h . dõorbigny , m . pic , e . benderitter , ch . kerremans , e . olivier , r . gestro , k . jordan , h . desbordes , e . fleutiaux , a . bourgoin , a . grouvelle , r . jeannel
likewise , the species would have the highest number of antennal sensilla ever recorded in phileurini larvae . so far , homophileurus integer ( burmeister , 1847 ) had the highest number with 5 dorsal and 8 ventral sensory spots ( ratcliffe and skelley 2011 ) ; most phileurini have a lower number . in dynastinae , a similarly high number of antennal sensilla was only found in the dynastini species xylotrupes gideon s . l . ( linnaeus , 1767 ) ( bedford 1974 ) and chalcosoma atlas ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( bedford 1976 ) , in oryctoderus ( oryctoderini ; bedford 1974 ) , and in several species of the tribe oryctini , namely a few strategus species ( ritcher 1944 ; ratcliffe and chalumeau 1980 ; costa et al . 1988 ; morón and ratcliffe 1990 ) , heterogomphus chevrolati burmeister , 1847 and enema endymion ( chevrolat , 1843 ) ( ratcliffe 2003 ) , coelosis biloba ( linnaeus , 1767 ) ( pardo - locarno et al . 2006 ) , oryctes monoceros ( olivier , 1789 ) ( marcuzzi et al . 1977 ) , oryctes boas fabricius , 1775 ( oberholzer 1959 ) , trichogomphus fairmairei arrow , 1919 , scapanes australis ( boisduval , 1835 ) ( bedford 1974 ) , and podischnus agenor ( olivier , 1789 ) ( pardo - locarno et al . 2009 ) . with outgroup taxa ( rutelinae , melolonthinae ) having only 1 to 4 antennal sensilla ( ritcher 1966 ) , and a high number of sensilla as in platyphileurus not occurring in other dynastinae tribes , this character is likely to be an apomorphy of dynastini , oryctoderini , and oryctini .
several descriptions of pupae from dynastinae tribes , such as cyclocephalini , phileurini , oryctini point out the thin golden setae present at the apex of 9 th abdominal segment but rarely mention the shape of the 9 th tergite and the genital ampulla ( phileurini : vanin et al . 1983 ; morelli [ 1991 ] ; neita - moreno and ratcliffe 2010 , 2011 ; cyclocephalini : neita - moreno et al . 2007 ; neita - moreno and morón 2008 ; oryctini : ratcliffe and chalumeau 1980 ; costa et al . 1988 ; morelli 1997 ; alvarez castillo et al . 1998 ; neita - moreno and orozco 2009 ; pardo - locarno et al . 2009 ) , characters which seem to vary within scarabaeidae . our examination of pupae from phileurini and oryctini revealed that they can be distinguished from that of platyphileurus felscheanus based on the form of the 9th tergite and genital ampulla and the distribution and size composition of those apical setae .
many species of scarabs are pests of turfgrass in the larval stage ( table 1 ) . also known as white grubs , larvae of these species feed on grass roots and damage cultivated turfgrasses . white grubs are the most widespread and most destructive group of insect pests of turf in the northern two - third of the united states , i . e . , the cool - season and transition zones with respect to turfgrass adaptation zones . there are several important introduced white grub species in the united states , the most common and widespread of which is the japanese beetle , popillia japonica newman . however , among the important native scarab pests of turfgrasses , masked chafers , cyclocephala spp . ( order : coleoptera ; family : scarabaeidae ; subfamily : dynastinae ; tribe : cyclocephalini ) are probably the most widespread ( potter 1998 , vittum et al . 1999 ) . among these , the northern masked chafer , cyclocephala borealis arrow , and the southern masked chafer , cyclocephala lurida bland , are the most important species , with other damaging species including cyclocephala pasadenae casey , cyclocephala hirta leconte , and cyclocephala parallela casey .
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a travel experience : rhinoceros beetles in thailand ' s combat arena – xylotrupes gideon l . as a gladiator
legendary max and moritz would have had a field day planning their famous
attack of the beetles
on wilhelm bushs poor uncle fritz : large black bugs as far as the eye can see . in the north of thailand they have other ideas for these six - legged creatures . clear the ring for the gladiators !
like two angry sumo wrestlers , these two beetles go for one another . the impact is so immense that you can still hear the
armour
crashing two metres away . beetle versus beetle . armour against armour .
all six legs push with full force against their rival , leaving their tracks behind in the soft jute - wood arena . you think you can hear both fighters groan and , for a moment , nobody moves a millimetre in any direction , despite
full throttle
. suddenly , there is a quick head movement , a skilful leverage grip . with his intimidating
forceps - like jaws
the smaller of the two has gripped his weighty opponent in the back of the head , lifted him up , so that the larger one is distraught with all six legs in the air , propels forward and tries to hurl him from the battle wood .
the fat one is too heavy . in addition he has sunk his forceps deep into the neck of his attacker and doesn’t even think about letting go . the small one must once again drop his rival nearby . for almost seven dramatic seconds . the fight goes to the second round .
at the same time each year the eastern embankment of the river ping in the small town of chiang mai turns into a fairground for rhinoceros beetles for about a month . the
kwang song
( or xylotrupes gideon l . from the scarabaeidae family ) that has become a menace in thailand , has its
rutting season
. innumerable little men fired with the passion of mating cavort in the koruna trees of the jungle in northern thailand in search of lovers . and just as it is for jealous young men , the numerous declarations mean there is a fight for the
love night
.
originally , only the children played in the countryside with the courting stag beetles as a pastime . in the meantime this has become something for grown - ups as well as a lucrative business .
depending on its size and aggressiveness , a beetle can get between two and four euros in the market in chiang mai . for tried and tested champions , people may even pay up to 200 euros . and despite the state and regal ban on the game , a few coins inconspicuously change hands after a dual .
what to us in europe is regarded as cruelty to animals does not give the thai people a bad conscience . the rhinoceros beetle larvae kill hundreds of banana trees and coconut palms each year in the south and are considered to be pests in thailand because of their superior number . when the rhinoceros - beetle weeks begin in chiang mai , after the planting of the rice , a right little industry develops . the beetle dealers arrive from the surrounding villages at the weekends to sell their wares to the highest bidder .
whilst someone spreads out his crawling treasures on the ground , the person next to him starts up a refreshment stand ; someone else offers roasted rice for the hungry customers and another sells beetle accessories . an absolute must for anyone who steps into the shop here are the sweet sugar cane stems that serve as nourishment for the animals . there are also colourful
beetle - leashes
to attach to the valuable warriors , wooden battlefields with an internal chamber in which the female rhinoceros beetle is held for
motivation ,
and small , hand carved wooden beaters . these pencil - sized rods are as important to both trainers of the crawling gladiators as a whip is for a jockey .
with tense faces , they sit at the respective ends of the roughly metre long
arena
. each twirls his mini beater between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and thereby produces a quick , drumming noise on the wooden battlefield that forces the beetles upon one another from behind . according to individual taste and persuasion , a small steel clip is also attached to the stick , which makes additional noise .
if one of the opponents falls , is thrown or walks off the wood the fight is over . the victorious beetle is leashed once again , eats a few morsels of sugar cane as refreshment and waits for the next challenger .
admittedly sometimes the losing beetle becomes the real winner , for example when the owners frustration after defeat is such that the
failure
is purposefully cast onto the nearest tree and is then able to mount his lover to his heart’s content .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
contributed by james e . garrison on 14 may , 2012 - 10 : 03pm
the 61 species and two subspecies of dynastine scarab beetles that occur in the united states of america ( including guam ) and canada are reviewed . discussions of historical collecting , people , climate , vegetation , and habitats are presented . keys to all tribes , genera , and species in the study area are given . descriptions , recorded geographic localities and temporal distributions , diagnoses , notes on natural history , illustrations , and distribution maps are provided for all species . also included are synopses of the higher - level taxa of the subfamily in the region , a glossary , and a species checklist .
excellent source of much scarab life cycle information . the product of over 30 years of research . ritcher , p . o . 1966 . white grubs and their allies , a study of north american scarabaeoid larvae . monograph series no . 4 . oregon state university press , corvallis . 219 pp . about the author : dr . paul ritcher is well known for his work on scarab larvae . this work culminated in his 1966 book entitled white grubs and their allies published by the oregon state university press . ritcher worked as an assistant and then associate entomologist for the kentucky agricultural experiment station from 1936 to 1949 and as a research professor of entomology at north carolina state college from 1949 - 1952 . he was a professor of entomology and chair of the department of entomology at oregon state university from 1952 - 1974 , and he served as the curator of the insect collection from 1971 to 1974 . ritcher also served as the president of the entomological society of america in 1970 , president of the coleopterists society in 1975 , and president of the oregon entomological society in 1955 - 56 . he had 81 publications and one book , and approximately 41 publications were related to scarabs .
bulletin of the university of nebraska state museum 10 . 176 pp . , 1976
link to full text the new world genus strategus kirby is here defined and revised for the first time . ratcliffe , b . c . 1976 . a revision of the genus strategus . bulletin of the university of nebraska state museum 10 . 176 pp .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
robust , often large scarabs , a few groups of spectacular size . dorsal surface in most groups rounded and several groups have horns . typical characters :
harpootlian , subfamily characteristics p . 11 , description and key to tribes pp . 104 - 105
scarab beetles ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) of south carolina phillip j . harpootlian . 2001 . clemson university public service .
peterson field guides : beetles richard e . white . 1983 . houghton mifflin company .
a manual of common beetles of eastern north america dillon , elizabeth s . , and dillon , lawrence . 1961 . row , peterson , and company .
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smith , a . b . t . 2009 . checklist and nomenclatural authority file of the scarabaeoidea of the nearctic realm . version 4 . electronically published , ottawa , canada . 97 pp . , available online at urltoken
bouchard , p . , y . bousquet , a . davies , m . alonso - zarazaga , j . lawrence , c . lyal , a . newton , et al .
lawrence , j . f . , and a . f . newton , jr . / pakaluk , james , and stanislaw adam slipinski , eds .
biology , phylogeny , and classification of coleoptera : papers celebrating the 80th birthday of roy a . crowson , vol . 2
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5cf02fda - a861 - 4ca5 - afb1 - 318a1a5f8f8e
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a51c2626 - c0c4 - 420b - 886f - a28545b81f60
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1627679b - cee1 - 463d - 8cb4 - 23527dbcb21f
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 259622
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rhinoceros beetle , oryctes rhinoceros l . ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) , is an important pest of oil palm . oryctes rhinoceros is distributed throughout asia and the western pacific . besides malaysia and indonesia , the native range of this beetle include bangladesh , cambodia , china , laos , myanmar , pakistan , philippines , sri lanka , thailand , and vietnam ( invasive species specialist group ) . it has been reported in png , fiji , and other pacific islands . in oil palm , attack by adults may reduce yield and kill palms if there are repeated attacks . they may provide entry points for lethal secondary attacks by the red palm weevils ( rhyncophorus spp . ) or by other pathogens .
oil palm agro - ecosystem , especially when suitable breeding materials are abundant . thus , the rhinoceros beetle is classified as a key pest and is capable of causing serious damage in replants . the female beetles , having located a breeding site , lay the eggs into the rotting organic materials . in oil palm plantations , decaying palm logs , trunk chips , and heaps of empty fruit bunches are suitable breeding materials which are very attractive for egg laying and development of grubs . the grubs develop to maturity in the decaying materials after feeding voraciously on the organic matter , in dead standing coconut palms , decaying organic materials like compost and sawdust heaps , decaying pandanus trunk , heaps of decaying cocoa pod shells , heaps of cattle - dung , heaps of rotting paddy straw , farm yard manure , and floating logs with decaying tissues ( issg ) . pupation takes place in the breeding sites ( e . g . , the harder part of the decaying log or in the soil underneath , within a hard cocoon constructed from vegetative or soil matter ) . the adults emerge and feed , usually on palm crowns , before returning to suitable sites for egg laying . life cycle of rhinoceros beetle in oil palm log tissue from egg to adult takes about 7 to 8 months after egg laying . in finer and more suitable media like cow dung and saw dust , the life cycle can be 5 to 6 months .
apart from coconut and oil palm , the recorded host plants include the date palm and a variety of palms grown for ornamental purpose , including roystonea regia , livistona chinensis , corypha umbraculifera , and raphia ruffia ; also recorded are pineapple , sugarcane , pandanus , and banana ( issg ) .
the beetles feed on the palm spears ( unopened spindle leaf ) with their chewing mouth parts . the burrowing into the spear cluster causes damage to the palms . several symptoms of damage on the canopy of oil palm caused by rhinoceros beetles are recognized and summarized below :
the management of rhinoceros beetles in oil palm is a combination of ecological control , cultural control , physical control , biological control , chemical control , and semio - chemical control . the current emphasis is preventive control , with emphasis on crop residue management and ground cover management at replanting . these steps are essential in areas with past history of serious infestation . the monitoring of pests and reduction of beetle populations are required in such areas by installation of vane traps baited with aggregation pheromone , oryctalure ( ethyl 4 - methyloctanoate ) . in replants with low pest population , mass trapping of beetles can remove large number of rhinoceros beetles and prevent serious damage to immature palms ( usually no spraying of insecticide is needed ) . even with high pest populations , causing serious risks to canopy damage or even palm death , immature palms are protected by targeted spraying with short residue synthetic pyrethroids to protect spear and new fronds . this combination has proven to be effective in solving many outbreaks . commercial formulated bio - pesticide products containing spores of
in cases of continuous repeated attacks by the rhinoceros beetle , seedlings in polybags , young , and even mature palms can be killed . the loss caused by the death of seedlings and immature palms can be accounted for by basing total loss on the cost of producing the seedlings and the cost of supplying in immature fields . the death of a mature palm , especially at the young mature stage , equal to total loss as supply is no more feasible . high yield palms produce 185 kg ffb / palm , moderate yield palms produce 169 kg ffb / palm , and low yield palms yield 155 kg ffb / palm (
) . using the low yield palm category , the potential crop loss is equal to 155 kg multiplied by 20 years of harvesting ( i . e . , 3100 kg ) .
in severely damaged , immature plantings with no control measure applied , 25 % reduction in the crop from the first two years has been reported ( liau & ahmad , 1993 ) . in indonesia , such damage also reduced the yield up to 79 % in the first year of production (
) . the results indicate that moderate to severe damage caused by rhinoceros beetles had significant adverse effect on early ffb yield , even though the affected palms had recovered after introduction of chemical control . the reduction in yield was mainly due to the delay in maturity of most damaged palms .
the results of experiments in nile tilapia with asiatic rhinoceros beetle culture under laboratory conditions did not seem to give promising results . the 16 % fish meal substitution decreased the weight and survival . however , a negligible weight increase was also observed in the controls ( 2 g in 10 weeks ) (
the partial ( 25–50 % ) or total fish meal substitution of soybean meal with yellow mealworm larvae meal was examined . the results indicated that it did not affect the intake levels in fish , biometric indices , or the balance of essential and nonessential amino acids in fish muscle . however , the inclusion of yellow mealworm meal at any of the tested levels decreased the growth of nile tilapia , worsened nutritional parameters , and affected the lipid profile of the fish muscle (
) . the authors related the worse nutritive indices to the chitin content , which represents 1 . 4 and 2 . 8 % for 25 and 50 % fish meal substitutions in feeds , respectively . moreover , the administration of a yellow mealworm larvae meal - based diet at early ages of development ( with 25 % fish meal substitution ) did not cause irreversible effects on zootechnical parameters and biometric indices in nile tilapia . additionally , these parameters could recover when they were subsequently provided with a control diet ( without insect meal ) , and the same was true for high unsaturated fatty acid ( hufa ) muscle composition , which was altered by ingestion of the insect - based diet (
achieved a 50 % replacement of fish meal with superworm in nile tilapia diets that resulted in optimal growth . moreover , even a 75 % replacement was well tolerated in terms of growth , fce , and protein digestibility . nevertheless , the apparent digestibility coefficients of protein and lipids were less for superworm meal than fish meal , and this was reflected in low lipid percentages found in muscles at all substitution levels tested as compared to the fish fed fish meal . this result occurred despite the major lipid content in diets formulated with superworm . therefore , the authors suggested that slight improvements to the superworm containing fish diets are necessary before they can entirely replace fish meal as feed for nile tilapia (
is a major pest of palm in asia and the western pacific . main hosts of the adult beetles are coconut , oil , and date palms , whereas the larvae live in a variety of dead but not yet decomposed plant material , including dead standing coconut palms , stumps and logs on the ground , and other types of decaying wood , as well as compost , dung heaps , rotting straw , rotting coconut husks , coffee and cacao pulp waste , refuse from sugar cane factories , ricemills , and sawmills , and other wastes from agricultural processing . control of rhinoceros beetles is based on sanitation and cultural practices similar to those recommended for
might also be incorporated into palm ipm programs , recycling an endless variety of tropical wastes into animal protein and fat .
) . the beetles are infected through oral contact with the virus and subsequently serve as reservoirs and disseminators . although there are no external symptoms of the disease in adults , the virus shortens the insect’s lifespan and reduces fecundity (
) . introduction of the virus in conjunction with cultural practices such as the removal of larval habitats ( e . g . , rotting palm logs and the like ) has significantly reduced
) . one of the key factors responsible for success of the virus is the persistence of the virus in adult and larval habitats . adults also serve as a reservoir of the virus . however , a ban on burning of palm logs and the recent invasion of other islands have resulted in the resurgence of the beetle in some locations (
, is an invasive pest of spruce in north america . an npv found infecting
) . natural epizootics of the npv have since kept populations of the sawfly under control in most locations . the virus was also introduced into a moderately infested area , near sault ste . marie , where it became established and spread rapidly (
) . virus epizootics recurred each year and have prevented excessive increases in sawfly populations .
, which is an exotic pest of various pine varieties . the virus was isolated from
) . several field trials using aerial and mist blower applications of the imported virus produced mortalities exceeding 90 % .
concluded that without treatment , defoliation would have been almost complete . these and other small - scale applications produced epizootics in
introductions of fungal entomopathogens and microsporidia for classical biological control outnumber those of other entomopathogens . among 136 programs using different groups of arthropod pathogens , 49 % have introduced fungal pathogens (
resulted in up to 99 % mortality and were documented at the same sites three years after inoculation . resting spores survive under the bark of trees and surrounding soil where epizootics have occurred and are capable of producing disease in
, which can result in death of the tree . it is the most important insect pest of
in australia . consequently , the first concerted use of biological control agents ( parasitoids and nematodes ) in an integrated program for control of the wasp was in australia . the entomogenous nematode ,
) . parasitism by the nematode sterilizes female wasps . rearing of the infective stage of
into australia , this nematode has been introduced into new zealand , south africa , and brazil . although establishment and good control of
haugen and underdown , 1993 ; bedding and iede , 2005 ; hurley et al . , 2008
spp . , a serious pest of lawn and turf , arrived in florida from south america . the nematode was collected in uruguay and introduced into florida in small plot field tests (
) . after demonstrating effective control and persistence , it was introduced into several locations around the state .
) . the beetle is a serious exotic pest of coconut and oil palms in the southwest pacific islands . adults consume foliage in the crown of the palms and can reduce yield and kill trees (
) . larvae develop in rotting palm logs , including the tops of standing dead palms , and in organic matter in a diversity of other sites with high organic content ( sawdust , manure piles , etc . ) (
) . adult beetles become chronically infected and serve as mobile reservoirs of the virus . aggregations of mating and feeding adults in the palm crowns ensures transmission from infected to uninfected individuals and dispersal of the virus . larval breeding sites become initially contaminated with virus via ovipositing infected females . larvae become acutely infected after consuming virus and die within 9–25
conclude that selection of more virulent strains of virus and improvements in application methods need to be developed to overcome this problem .
) . strains of these bacteria are highly specific , showing little to no cross - infectivity to species other than the one they were isolated from . only the strain infecting
years in the united states . due to the absence of an effective mass production system , the product has to be applied in an inoculative approach , relying on recycling in infected larvae to spread the disease . spores can persist in the soil for several years ; however , limited availability combined with inconsistent performance and establishment has curbed the use of
have not been commercially developed . until effective in vitro production or more virulent strains can be developed , the use of
tympanal ears have been described in two beetle families to date . several species of the genus
( cicindelidae ) have ears on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment , beneath the wings . some scarabs ( two tribes in the subfamily
) have ears located just beneath the neck membranes ( pronotal shield ) . the ears of both families are tuned to ultrasonic frequencies , and there is strong evidence that they function as bat detectors . it is a little bit surprising that there are not much examples of hearing in beetles . given the large number of species , the wide diversity of niches worldwide , and numerous reports of sound production , we expect that more examples will be uncovered .
) are also produced , they were not active in the field . 3 - hydroxy - 2 - butanone of unknown enantiomeric composition is the major sex pheromone component of male cockroach
) . as mixtures of all components of the natural secretion were used in this study , it is not clear whether all compounds really possess pheromonal activity .
all of the insect pests of oil palm in malaysia are of local origin ; they have adapted to the crop ever since its introduction close to a century ago . in general , oil palm pests can be classified into insects and vertebrates . the insect pests consist of leaf defoliators , bag worms , nettle caterpillars , crown attacker , rhinoceros beetle , and the bunch moth . other insect pests that attack the nursery stages are cockchafers and grasshoppers . vertebrate pests include rodents , wild boar , porcupines , and elephants (
insect pests are generally kept in balance by biotic and abiotic factors . the former include natural enemies ( parasitoids , predators , and diseases caused by bacteria , fungi , and viruses ) . the latter are mainly environmental factors , such as rainfall , temperature , and humidity . nevertheless , the balance may sometimes be disrupted by injudicious use of insecticides , which often trigger pest outbreak . it is now imperative that chemical use is minimized to avoid the problems of insect resistance , persistence in the environment , resurgence of secondary pests , and detrimental effects on natural enemies , beneficial organisms , and nontargets . however , when the need arises , especially in controlling outbreaks , it is important to ensure that pest numbers are kept below a certain economic threshold but not to eliminate the pest completely . this is in line with the concept of integrated pest management ( ipm ) where natural
) . it is important to find factors governing outbreaks because , with this information , a pest can be more effectively and efficiently managed in an environmentally friendly manner .
) . in controlling leaf - eating pests , the propagation of natural enemies by planting beneficial plants is widely recommended .
attacks by rhinoceros beetle are now common because of the extensive replanting programs being undertaken in malaysia . other agronomic practices such as application of empty fruit bunches ( efb ) as mulch , underplanting of oil palm , and “zero burning” have also aggravated the problem (
) for integrated control of this pest . information on the ecology of the rhinoceros beetle , especially in the zero - burning environment (
in addition to attack by insect pests , the oil palm plant is also susceptible to the onset of diseases from the time the seed germinates until planting in the field . fungi cause the most damage to oil palm . in general , there are five major diseases : vascular wilt , basal stem rot ( bsr ) , bud and spear rot , red ring disease , and quick wilt . in malaysia , the most significant disease is bsr caused by ganoderma sp . the other diseases mentioned are not present in malaysia , but assume serious proportion in other countries on the african and latin american continents .
) . in older palms , the canopies of infected palms are pale green with multiple unopened spears . this is typical resulting from decreased water intake due to the rotting stem . with the progression of the disease , fruiting bodies will start to appear , initially as small white buttons , subsequently developing into bracket - shaped sporophores (
) . when the fruiting bodies appear , the palm is already in an advanced stage of decay and near to death .
) . in areas where oil palm is planted after coconut , the disease symptoms occur much earlier , within 1–2 years after planting . serious incidence of bsr occurs in coastal clay soils compared to inland soils (
) . the best method to control the disease is by clean clearing , completely removing the infected palms , and destroying the bole and root masses that harbor the pathogen . this is particularly important , as the detached infected root segments can still transmit the disease and cause outbreak (
despite over 90 % of insects spending at least part of their time in the soil , there are very few bacteria for use against soil - inhabiting pests . over time , these insects have evolved resistance against the multitude of pathogenic microbes that can be isolated from soil and will kill leaf - feeding pests . it appears that only highly co - evolved or unique pathogenic bacteria are able to overcome the defenses of soil - dwelling pests . the bacteria that are available are almost exclusively used against white grubs , larvae of beetles in the family scarabaeidae . scarab adults and larvae are serious pests of crops , ornamentals , and turf throughout the world and are likely to increase in significance (
) have examined the status of bacteria against turf and soil pests in general .
, and describes methods of isolation , identification , propagation , bioassay , and preservation .


a number of fragmentary remains were discovered in the songwe valley part of the east african rift in mbeya region , tanzania ( approximately 8 ° 56 ′ s 33 ° 12 ′ e ) , in fragile sandstone sediments .

the animal had a carapace around 50 millimetres ( 2.0 in ) across the widest part , which is around 15 mm ( 0.6 in ) from the front of the carapace ; the carapace is 44 mm ( 1.7 in ) from front to back , and the slightly inward-curving rear edge of the carapace is 28 mm ( 1.1 in ) across .

the genus name refers to tanzania , the country where the fossil was found , while the specific epithet commemorates michael türkay , an authority on freshwater crabs .

the genus tanzanonautes is assigned to the family potamonautidae , although the characters mentioned in the family 's diagnosis are missing from the fragmentary fossils available .

tanzanonautes

tanzanonautes tuerkayi is a species of fossil freshwater crab from tanzania , the only species in the genus tanzanonautes .
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tanzanonautes tuerkayi is a species of fossil freshwater crab from tanzania , the only species in the genus tanzanonautes . it is the oldest known freshwater crab , and probably dates from the oligocene ; the next oldest specimens are from the miocene . a number of fragmentary remains were discovered in the songwe valley part of the east african rift in mbeya region , tanzania , in fragile sandstone sediments .
discovery of numerous fragmentary remains of freshwater crab in paleogene , probably oligocene , sediments in tanzania , africa , permits the description of a new genus and species , tanzanonautes tuerkai . the fossils represent the oldest freshwater crabs known .
the rrbp has recovered invertebrate material that extends the geographic and stratigraphic range of freshwater crabs in africa and , significantly , represents the earliest global occurrence of freshwater crabs ! prior to this discovery , the earliest occurrence was from the miocene , by which time the group is known from europe , africa , and south america . the new species , tanzanonautes tuerkayi , is shown in the figure above , with different views of the carapace and limb elements ( scale bars = 1cm ) . it is referred to the family potamonautidae , and is represented by numerous well - preserved articulated specimens that indicate rapid burial without a great deal of transport .
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the rukwa rift basin project ( rrbp ) was initiated to focus paleontological and geological field exploration in poorly sampled strata in southern and western tanzania . this work reveals a rare glimpse into the past , as the rukwa rift basin preserves one of the only well - exposed , fossiliferous cretaceous - neogene continental sedimentary sequences in sub - equatorial africa .
since 2002 , project pis from ohio university , michigan state university , james cook university , and the university of dar es salaam ( tanzania ) have assembled research teams for annual field expeditions . these teams have recovered a diversity of cretaceous , paleogene , and neogene terrestrial and freshwater vertebrate and invertebrate fossils , revealing the region ' s importance for understanding environmental change through time .
the rrbp provides opportunities for student training , science education , and outreach . the project receives funding from the us national science foundation ( ear - sedimentary geology and paleobiology program , ear - instrumentation and facilities program ) , the national geographic society , and the lsb leakey foundation for field and laboratory research .
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a new freshwater crab ( decapoda : brachyura : potamonautidae ) from the paleogene of tanzania , africa .
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after the end - cretaceous extinction event , afro–arabia entered a period of relative isolation that lasted throughout much of the paleogene ( 65 – 23 million years ago ) , with occasional small–scale faunal exchange with other landmasses . as the african biota radiated in near–isolation , certain mammal groups dominated the landscape . many of these endemic forms later became extinct after the collision between the afro–arabian and eurasian plates allowed widespread exchange of previously separated faunas throughout the neogene onward ( 23 million years ago – present ) . our knowledge of african paleogene faunas has largely been based on sites from supra - equatorial africa , particularly in areas that are now part of the sahara desert . until recently , little was known of paleogene terrestrial faunas below the equator , rendering assessments of large - scale biogeographic patterns all but impossible . and although the african fossil record later in the neogene–quaternary is better documented , significant temporal and / or geographic sampling gaps remain for elucidating the origin of the modern african fauna .
since the inception of the rrbp , a wealth of new invertebrate and vertebrate forms have been recovered from the late oligocene nsungwe formation deposits and the neogene lake beds sequence , including but not limited to freshwater crabs , gastropods , fishes , frogs , turtles , crocodylians , snakes , birds , rodents , macroscelideans , hyracoids and primates ( for an overview , stevens et al . , 2008 ) . documentation of these diverse faunas from below the equator can help to better characterize regional faunal patterns , and explore the role of synchronous tectonic and paleoenvironmental changes to the african landscape in shaping vertebrate evolutionary history .
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fossil calibrations used in divergence time analyses and prior setting for the log - normal distribution used in beast .
. —the geological ages of the fossil recovered from are provided in millions of years before present .
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idugumbi in the region of mbeya is located in tanzania - some 255 mi ( or 410 km ) south - west of dodoma , the country ' s capital .
. the local timezone is named
africa / dar es salaam
with an utc offset of 3 hours . depending on your travel modalities , these larger destinations might be interesting for you :
. while being here , make sure to check out utambalila , msanyila and idugumbi as well . we also found some pictures .
more reading : wikipedia article located at - 8 . 73 , 33 . 07 ( lat . / lng . ) , less than 17 mi away .
information of geographic nature is based on public data provided by geonames . org , cia world facts book , unesco , dbpedia and wikipedia .
msanyila in the region of mbeya is located in tanzania - some 254 mi ( or 408 km ) south - west of dodoma , the country ' s capital city .
. the local timezone is named
africa / dar es salaam
with an utc offset of 3 hours . depending on your travel resources , these more prominent places might be interesting for you :
. being here already , consider visiting utambalila , msanyila and idugumbi . we also found some pictures .
more reading : wikipedia article located at - 8 . 73 , 33 . 08 ( lat . / lng . ) , less than 16 mi away .
i have found out that there ain’t no surer way to find out whether you like people or hate them than to travel with them .
tanzania with its capital dodoma is located in africa ( eastern africa , bordering the indian ocean ) . it covers some 947 , 301 square kilometers ( more than six times the size of georgia ) with 53 , 950 , 900 citizens . swahili , english and arabic are the languages commonly used by the people in tanzania ( consider regional differences ) . burundi , democratic republic of the congo , kenya , malawi , mozambique , rwanda , uganda and zambia are bordering countries .
tanzania is the largest country in east africa , bordered by kenya and uganda to the north ; rwanda , burundi , and the democratic republic of the congo to the west , and zambia , malawi , and mozambique to the south . tanzania is a country with great national parks , where you can see some of the finest african flora and fauna . tanzania is home to several national parks and game reserves . safaris in tanzania can be put into two categories , the northern circuit ( serengeti , ngorongoro , manyara and tarangire ) and the southern circuit ( selous , mikumi and ruaha ) . this is certainly an oversimplification and does not include other interesting but harder to reach parks such as katavi and gombe , just to name two . for tourist , the two first groupings are more accessible as several tour companies offer a variety a packages for these .
have a look at our dedicated photo collection to get a view of what new delhi is like . we have selected more pictures from new delhi on our dedicated gallery page .
the landscape is plains along coast with central plateau as well as highlands in north , south . the average density of population is about 57 per km² . the climate in tanzania can be described as varying from tropical along coast to temperate in highlands . potential threats by nature are drought , flooding on the central plateau during the rainy season and limited volcanic activity ; ol doinyo lengai ( 2 , 962 m ) has emitted lava in recent years ; other historically active volcanoes include kieyo and meru .
to reach someone tanzania dial + 255 prior to a number . the local cellular networks are operated on 900 mhz , 1800 mhz , 3g , 4g . websites typically end with the top level domain
. tz
. if you want to bring electric appliances ( e . g . battery chaarger ) , keep in min the local 230 v - 50 hz ( plugs : d , g ) . the sign for the locally used currency shilling is tzs .
divided diagonally by a yellow - edged black band from the lower hoist - side corner ; the upper triangle ( hoist side ) is green and the lower triangle is blue ; the banner combines colors found on the flags of tanganyika and zanzibar ; green represents the natural vegetation of the country , gold its rich mineral deposits , black the native swahili people , and blue the country ' s many lakes and rivers , as well as the indian ocean .
shortly after achieving independence from britain in the early 1960s , tanganyika and zanzibar merged to form the united republic of tanzania in 1964 . one - party rule ended in 1995 with the first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s . zanzibar ' s semi - autonomous status and popular opposition led to two contentious elections since 1995 , which the ruling party won despite international observers ' claims of voting irregularities . the formation of a government of national unity between zanzibar ' s two leading parties succeeded in minimizing electoral tension in 2010 .
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