the puriri moth , aenetus virescens , is a moth of the family hepialidae , endemic to the north island of new zealand .

it is new zealand 's largest moth , with a wingspan of up to 150 mm .

the moth spends the first five to six years of its life as a grub in a tree trunk ( including non-native species such as eucalyptus ) , with the last 48 hours of its life as a moth .

footage has been taken of a puriri moth chrysalis hatching over a period of one hour and forty minutes .

puriri moth

for single specimen trees , puriri moth caterpillars can be killed by injecting insecticide into their burrows .
secondary rots ( fig . 2 ) . damage caused by the caterpillars of the puriri moth in
female puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . image : birgit e rhode © landcare research
a green male puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . image : robert hoare © robert hoare
a yellow male puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . image : robert hoare © robert hoare
male puriri moth aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) on a tree trunk . image : ruud kleinpaste © ruud kleinpaste
the caterpillar of the puriri moth bores a 7 - shaped hole ( fig . 1 ) in the growing trunks and
the puriri moth also attacks poplars and fruit trees , but so far this has been on a limited scale . it
the signs for puriri moth are best placed near trees with the distinctive damage to trunks and / or branches . trees commonly , exhibiting damage include , puriri , lacebark ( hoheria species ) and carpodetus serratus ( marble leaf , putaputawētā ) . trees with puriri moth damage usually live for many years .
a green - blue male puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . image : robert hoare © robert hoare
fig . 6 - pupa of the puriri moth in a stem of putaputaweta . length of this pupa is 55 mm .
grehan , j . r . and wigley , p . j . 1984 : fungal and bacterial diseases of puriri moth ,
puriri moth
ghost moth
the puriri moth is one of our most magnificent moths . it is the largest moth in new zealand , with a wingspan of 15cms . despite its mammoth size you ' d be lucky to see one because they only live for two days during the months of october - december . to avoid predators , they use the cover of darkness .
describing the photos as
outstanding
, dr grehan said he believed it was the first time a puriri moth , or even any ghost moth , had been captured on film emerging from a chrysalis .
puriri moths are new zealand ' s largest native moth - with a wingspan of 15cm ( they are sometimes mistaken for bats they are so large ! ) . puriri moths are creatures with an amazing life history . the puriri caterpillar lives inside a range of tree species ( including eucalyptus ) for up to seven years before emerging as a beautiful moth .
out of the woodwork : an elusive puriri moth is finally caught emerging from its burrow in a tree , after three years of photographic experimenting .
a puriri moth has been captured on film hatching from a chrysalis at a waikanae nature reserve in what is believed to be a world first .
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of griselinia littoralis ( cornaceae ) . © nicholas a . martin
pathogens and predators of puriri moths are known , but no parasitoids have been found .
old pupal case of a puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , protruding from burrow in a puriri tree , vitex lucens . note how the web cover now has holes . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
grehan jr , care c . 2017 . colour pattern variation in puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . the weta 51 : 51 - 57 .
( red beech ) resulting from damage caused by caterpillars of the puriri moth . ( the small dark - stained holes and tunnels were made by native pinhole borers ,
the puriri is a member of the ghost moth family and a dominion post article about the x–ray prompted a united states ghost moth expert , buffalo museum of science director john grehan , to contact mr mckenzie saying he was astounded by the images .
insects associated with empty tree burrows other insects and spiders colonise the vacated puriri moth burrows . some insects such as weta are reported to stop the tree growing over the hole by chewing the edge of the opening . māori knew that weta inhabited puriri moth burrows and named carpodetus serratus putaputaweta , because it often had many weta living in it .
large bug sign ( 5003 ) for aenetus virescens , puriri moth , 194 x 294 mm . image : metal images ltd © metal images ltd & entomological society of new zealand
small bug sign ( 5003 ) for aenetus virescens , puriri moth , 100 x 200 mm . image : metal images ltd © metal images ltd & entomological society of new zealand
empty pupal skin of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , dorsal ( upper photo ) and ventral ( lower photo ) views . note the split skin through which the moth emerged . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
he was even more excited by photos taken on saturday night of the moth hatching .
grehan jr , wigley pj 1984 . fungal and bacterial diseases of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , larvae . new zealand entomologist 8 : 61 - 63 .
feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of nestegis montana ( oleaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
active feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of griselinia littoralis ( cornaceae ) image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of griselinia littoralis ( cornaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
the puriri moth may be found in a wide range of indigenous and exotic hardwoods ( grehan 1984 ) . it will attack living eucalypts , but complete development has only been recorded in
webbing of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , litter phase caterpillars covering feeding site on fungal fruiting body . image : john r . grehan © john r . grehan
male puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , just emerged from its pupa and hanging to dry its wings . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of kunzea ericoides ( myrtaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
active feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of griselinia littoralis ( cornaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillars feeding under webbing on trunk of cotoneaster glaucophyllus ( rosaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of quintinia serrata ( grossulariaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of pomaderris apetala ( rhamnaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of griselinia littoralis ( cornaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
tunnel opening of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , litter phase caterpillar ; tunnel exposed by removing of webbing . image : john r . grehan © john r . grehan
feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of ngaio , myoporum laetum ( myoporaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
webbing covered feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of quintinia serrata ( grossulariaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in aerial root of griselinia lucida ( cornaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
pupal skin of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) ; the tough , black head of the pupa has coarse ridges . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
old feeding scar and hole of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of leucopogon fasciculatus ( epacridaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
old feeding site of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of ngaio , myoporum laetum ( myoporaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
healed feeding of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in an aerial root of griselinia lucida ( cornaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin )
martin na . 2010 , revised 2018 . puriri moth - aenetus virescens . interesting insects and other invertebrates . new zealand arthropod factsheet series number 13 . urltoken date accessed . issn 1179 - 643x .
pupa of the puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in a stem of carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) . length of this pupa is 55 mm . image : fri photographers © scion
puriri moths are part of the biodiversity of native ecosystems . where host trees grow in native ecosystems , the moth should be accepted . there are , however , some circumstances where control could be justified .
puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , burrows ; left , new establishment burrow , pale ; right , dark mature burrow with its smaller establishment burrow . image : dsir photographers © landcare research
with a wingspan of 15 centimetres in females , the bright green puriri moth is new zealand’s largest . males are smaller and have white markings on their forewings , in contrast to the female’s dark brown . the moth is found only in the north island , usually within or close to stands of native forest .
pupal skin of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) : abdominal ridges that help the pupa to work its way out of its burrow . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
active feeding site of a newly established burrow of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in branch of pomaderris apetala ( rhamnaceae ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
after seven years living in a hole in a tree - trunk , it seems a bit unfair that the puriri moth only lives for two days as a winged insect . it doesn ' t even have mouthparts in its moth phase - its only purpose is for breeding . the puriri moths can emerge at any time of the year , but especially from october to december . like the bittern , the puriri moth is another one of our native creatures i still haven ' t seen yet . for now , i ' ll just have to make do with this neat video of one emerging from a tree trunk burrow by those patient folk at nga manu nature reserve in waikanae .
impact on north island beech forests in the north island , puriri moths cause damage to beech trees . the damage to the wood lowers the value of beech as a timber tree in the north island and makes it less valuable to fell . through its damage to the timber , did puriri moth save many north island beech forests from clear felling ?
male puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , just emerged from its pupa ; note the empty pupal case protruding from the hole in the tree branch . image : john r . grehan © john r . grehan
some trees , such as carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) may suffer heavy infestations of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) ; an example of damaged wood in a split trunk . image : dsir photographers © landcare research
newly established puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillar burrow in carpodetus serratus . the web cover has been folded down . note the fragments of wood . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
fully grown caterpillar of the puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in a stem of nothofagus menziesii ( silver beech ) . note the cap sealing the entrance to the vertical shaft . image : fri photographers © scion
puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillars feeding in thin tree trunks can almost ring bark the tree . this carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) sapling survived . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
yellow female puriri moths , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , top view . image : dsir photographers © landcare research
yellow female puriri moths , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , side view . image : dsir photographers © landcare research
the camera , automatically set to take a photo every 10 minutes , missed the moment when the moth flew away .
puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , web covering feeding area on carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) . note the pile of wet faeces below the entrance to the tunnel . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
the groove is covered with webbing , and originates from a hiding hole the grub has chewed into the trunk . the puriri moth caterpillar chews out the bark around the entrance to its hole , making a depression where the bark has been removed .
caterpillar of puriri moth aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in a burrow in a stem of carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) . length of the tunnel is 120 mm ; length of the caterpillar is 58 mm . image : fri photographers © scion
on some trees the feeding scars and burrows of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , are grown over , e . g . a healthy carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
some trees , such as carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) may suffer heavy infestations of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . an example of many burrow openings and feeding scars . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
feeding scar of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in trunk of nestegis lanceolata ( oleaceae ) , note the spiders web in the hole originally used by the caterpillar . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
avocado branches for the first time in 2011 / 2012 . the moth is a new zealand native , and attacks native trees , mainly puriri and putaputaweta , and a range of introduced trees . the first hint was a wilting branch . . . .
the tree tries to heal the damage with callus tissue , and it is the callus tissue that the puriri moth caterpillar feeds on . it covers the depressed area with webbing , and sticks bits of bark onto the webbing effectively camouflaging its hiding place .
nga manu nature reserve director peter mckenzie has spent three years trying to reveal the reclusive life of new zealand ' s largest forest moth and has finally captured a moth hatching from a burrow in a putaputaweta ( marbleleaf ) tree at the reserve .
diagrams illustrating the position and form of diseased puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillars . image : jr grehan and pj wrigley © drawings published in new zealand entomologist , 1984 , 8 : 61 - 63 , figs 1 - 4
so there she is in all her pale - green glory , and it is for this reason that i have dubbed her puriri .
puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , feeding area after web cover removed on ( carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) . note the pile of wet faeces below the entrance to the tunnel . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
table : host plants of the puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) from plant - synz database ( 16 may 2016 ) . the reliability score shows the quality of evidence for the host association ( 1 - 10 , 10 = high ) .
table : natural enemies of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , from plant - synz database ( 19 may 2015 ) . the reliability index shows the quality of evidence for the host association ( 0 - 10 , 10 = high quality ) .
on some trees the feeding scars and burrows of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) remain exposed , e . g . nestegis montana ) . the open holes may be colonised by insects . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
old puriri moth aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) burrow and feeding scar in a carpodetus serratus ( putaputaweta ) tree trunk . the feeding scar has grown new bark , but the caterpillar burrow is still open . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
incidentally putaputaweta ( marble - leaf ) trees are named for the many weta that take up residence in puriri caterpillar burrows as the caterpillars consider these trees to be hot property . a single marbleleaf tree can be infested with many puriri caterpillars at once and eventually becomes high - rise accommodation for tree weta .
earlier this year , with the assistance of raumati vet andrea wilson , mr mckenzie x–rayed a puriri grub in a burrow in a section of putaputaweta trunk .
trees that have become homes to puriri moth larvae have telltale holes in the trunk where the caterpillar emerges from its
7
shaped burrow inside to eat the bark around the edge of the hole . after the caterpillars eventually emerge , tree weta take advantage of the vacant real estate and make homes in the burrows .
the site of a newly established puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) burrow in a cherry tree . during the winter following establishment , tree gum oozed out of the burrow . the following summer , the tree had grown over the feeding scar and hole . image : nicholas a . martin © nicholas a . martin
conservation status : the moth occurs in natural ecosystems and parkland where suitable trees and litter and dead branches occur . it can live in adventive and cultivated trees .
drawing of transverse section of feeding chamber and radial tunnel of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , in nothofagus solandri . dotted circle , longitudinal tunnel ; fine stippling , cover . image : john r . grehan © drawing published in new zealand journal of zoology , 1987 , 14 : 441 - 462 , figure 10a
moreporks ( ruru , small owls ) and native bats are reported to catch flying moths . possums and cats will also eat moths . kaka tear at wood to try to reach caterpillars in tree branches . dr . miller reports that maori also used puriri moth larvae which they called ngutara , a name also used for other wood - boring larvae .
grehan jr 2009 . ghost moth ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) research and discovery in the southwest pacific . bulletin of the buffalo society of natural sciences 38 : 17 - 29 .
pinned specimens of female ( top ) and male ( bottom ) puriri moths aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) showing the relative size of the two sexes . image : fri photographers © scion
the grub lives in a tree trunk burrow for five to six years , only to die 48 hours after emerging as a spectacular moth with a wingspan of up to 15 centimetres .
newly established tree phase puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillar burrow in a cherry tree . note the wood fragments attached to the web cover . during the following winter , tree gum oozed out of the burrow . the following summer , the tree had grown over the feeding scar and hole ( right ) . image : nicholas a . martin © plant & food research
i have been checking my cameras regularly over the past three years , was outsmarted constantly by the moth but have finally got the photo , it is pretty cool ,
he said .
apparently the first stage of the puriri caterpillars life is spent eating fungus growing on dead wood on the forest floor . i try to keep bits of rotting wood under my little avocado trees as part of the battle against
drawings of sections through the fungal feeding tunnels of litter phase puriri moth caterpillar aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . top , simple feeding cover . bottom , feeding surface cover extended as a cone - like protrusion . coarse stippling , dead wood ; fine stippling , fungal tissue . image : john r . grehan © drawings published in new zealand journal of zoology , 1987 , 14 : 441 - 462 , figure 2
moths may emerge any month of the year , although the peak months are october to december , with a second minor peak in march . the female moth , the largest moth in new zealand , has a wing span up to 150 mm ; the male is smaller with a wing span of 100 mm . moths mainly fly in the evening . male moths are more likely to be seen at lights .
pathogens dr grehan in his extensive study of puriri moth found three fungi and bacterium , bacillus sp . , infesting caterpillars and pupae . the only definitely named fungus , cordyceps bassiana kills the caterpillars and forms a mass of fluffy white fruiting body extending over the larval feeding area . one unnamed fungal disease kills larvae and pupae , while another unnamed species kills pupae and forms distinctive forms finger - like coremia that protrude out of the tunnel .
puriri moths are found in north island forests and although they are relatively common , there is very little documented evidence of their life cycles .
the photos have advanced the knowledge of their life cycles ,
mr mckenzie said .
we have a few quercus ilex ssp bellota seedlings planted in the hope of one day harvesting the edible acorns . most of the half dozen or so trees have been unwitting hosts to larvae of the puriri moth . i only discovered the damage recently when pruning the trees , as the moth leaves a thin ' skin ' of bark over its workings , and the frass resembles the bark somewhat . i found two trees with empty pupal cases just protruding from the holes . given the ' tree stage ' of these caterpillars live for an average of about 2 years before they pupate and turn into moths , the larvae have had plenty of time to do damage .
drawing of the external view of entrance to a puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , caterpillar burrow in nothofagus solandri , showing the position of the radial tunnel and cover . solid line , external cover ; dashed line , extent of feeding surface under the bark ; dotted circle , radial tunnel . image : john r . grehan © drawing published in new zealand journal of zoology , 1987 , 14 : 441 - 462 , figure 9b
drawings of longitudinal sections of larval puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) , burrows in wood ; left , in aristotelia serrata ; note that part of the feeding area is under the bark ; right , in carpodetus serratus showing establishment burrow blocked by frass and the large burrow closed by pupal operculum . image : john r . grehan © drawings published in new zealand journal of zoology , 1987 , 14 : 441 - 462 , figures 3 and 4
the puriri caterpillar chews the hole more or less vertically down the branch - but unlike the lemon tree borer , it does not keep going deeper and deeper , and there are no little frass ejection holes at intervals down the branch . . . .
behaviour of moths it is not known how male and female moths find each other for mating . the male moth has brush organs on the tibia of the hind leg . other moths of the family hepialidae that have brush organs show courtship ; the males fly in groups at dusk and the females fly to them for copulation . it is believed that the males emit a pheromone that attracts the female moths . mating has not been observed for puriri moths , but probably occurs after dark .
this endemic moth is found throughout the north island of new zealand . it occurs in habitats with dead wood with suitable fungi for its young caterpillars and living host trees in which the larger caterpillars live in tunnels and graze callous tissue .
so far , i have spotted 4 puriri caterpillar holes in my young trees . the caterpillar seems to start its entry attempts at the point where a youngish branch joins either a main limb or the tree trunk , usually on the upper side of the join .
the photos are outstanding . this is not only a first ( in terms of sequence the whole way through the emergence ) for wood - boring ghost moths , but may be a first for any ghost moth ,
dr grehan said .
6 june 2016 . na martin . recognition : added photos of moth and external tree damage . other images : images added . host plants : names of host fungi added . natural enemies : list of pathogens and predators added . details of bug signs added .
the whitey - colored larvae can seriously weaken smaller limbs . their body shape and color is very similar to lemon tree borer larvae , but lemon tree borer is a beetle , and this pest is a moth caterpillar . the caterpillar has 6 true legs just behind the brown head , and several stumpy ' prolegs ' at the rear .
insects associated with pupal skins when a moth leaves its pupal skin , it excretes all the waste that has accumulated during the pupal stage . an intact pupal skin with brown waste liquid present had hover fly larvae living in it . several kinds of hover fly have larvae that live in wet decaying matter . the adult female fly was probably attracted to the smell of the waste liquid .
the moth’s large size and distinctive colouring makes it easily recognisable . the characteristic damage to trees also makes the presence of old feeding sites easy to recognise . active feeding sites are less easy to detect because of the camouflaged webbing . the fungal - feeding , litter phase caterpillars are the most difficult stage to detect because potential sites are more difficult to find unless deliberately sought out and because the feeding sites are covered by webbing .
pupation and moth emergence when the caterpillar has reached full size , it first removes pieces of the web covering the feeding scar . it may make many small holes or remove the entire central portion of the web . then the caterpillar blocks the top of the vertical burrow with a fibrous disc and pupates . new pupae may be found in every month from march to november . pupal duration is shortest for those formed in october and november , but the mean duration is 151 days for males and 173 days for females . when the moth is ready to emerge , the pupa wriggles up the shaft , pushes up the disc and protrudes through the camouflaging web . movement up the shaft is helped by 12 horny ridges , armed with hooklets , on the upper side of the abdomen and five similar ridges on the underside . it is not known how male and female moths find each other before mating .
the caterpillar damages the tree by making radial and vertical burrows in live wood , in which the body of the caterpillar rests . at the entrance to the burrow , they graze on the cambium , forming a diamond - shaped feeding scar . they cover the scar and burrow with a tough web that is coloured like the bark of the tree . after the moth has left the pupa , the hole may grow over or remain open . the vertical burrows remain after the caterpillar has left and the defect reduces the usefulness of the wood as a timber . heavy infestations can weaken the tree , especially those with thin trunks .
eggs and litter phase caterpillars after mating , the female moth scatters eggs over the forest floor . up to 2000 eggs may be laid . the eggs are round and pale yellow when first laid , turning black a few days later . after 12 - 14 days , litter phase caterpillars hatch from the eggs . the litter phase caterpillars live on the underside of bracket fungi or fungal fruiting bodies encrusting twigs and branches . they make a tunnel and feed on the fungal fruiting body , and cover their feeding areas with web covered in frass ( insect droppings ) . the fungus feeding stage lasts two to three months , during which the caterpillar may moult ( change its skin ) .
the 1hr 40min hatching was caught on camera after three years of experimenting with photographic techniques , a few false starts and a little bad luck .
it hatched out of the chrysalis very quickly ,
mr mckenzie said .
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the moths are usually green , but the intensity of colour and wing patterning is very variable . the markings of the male ' s forewings are white and the hind wings are greener than those of the female . colour variations from blue - green , yellow , red and albino have been recorded . see a 2017 paper in the weta by graham and care for photographs of some of the variable wing patterns and colours .
transfer phase caterpillars at the end of the litter phase , it moults ( changes its skin ) to a darker transfer phase caterpillar . these caterpillars locate trees , which they climb , and bore through the bark into the wood of the trunk or branch . they form a distinctive seven - shaped tunnel . the top of the ‘seven’ follows the radius of the trunk / branch and slopes upwards . the longer part of the burrow descends vertically and is where the caterpillar rests . the opening of the burrow and the area used for feeding are covered with a protective web .
tree phase caterpillars the transfer phase caterpillar moults to a paler tree phase caterpillar , this caterpillar is a delicate transparent purplish - pink with a hardened dark - brown head capsule . it grazes on live callus tissue that develops round the opening of the burrow . some frass is used in the web cover , but is ejected through a hole at the bottom of the web covering . as the caterpillar grows , it enlarges its burrow . it extends the radial burrow and makes a larger vertical burrow . the establishment burrow may become blocked with frass . the mature caterpillar can grow to about 100 mm long and 15 mm in diameter . the tree phase caterpillar can live up to five years , but this stage may be as short as eight months . the mean time for male caterpillars is about two years and for females , about three years .
the newly hatched ( neonate ) caterpillars live on fungi . larger caterpillars live in the trunk and branches of a wide variety of trees and shrubs . host plants include native , naturalised , and cultivated species .
caterpillars can also infest non - host trees , such as cherry ( prunus ) and eucalyptus . the caterpillar is killed by gum flooding the burrow .
schizopora nothofagi ( g . cunn . ) p . k . buchanan & ryvarden
aristotelia serrata ( j . r . forst . & g . forst . ) w . r . b . oliver
nestegis cunninghamii ( hook . f . ) l . a . s . johnson
nestegis lanceolata ( hook . f . ) l . a . s . johnson
nestegis montana ( hook . f . ) l . a . s . johnson
raukaua simplex ( g . forst . ) a . d . mitch . , frodin & heads var . sinclairii ( hook . f . ) a . d . mitch . , frodin & heads
in orchards and tree collections , the risk of infestations can be reduced by keeping the ground clean of any dead wood on which fungi can grow and develop . this prevents the young fungal - feeding litter phase caterpillars from establishing . for information about reducing risk to forest trees go to urltoken
sometimes many male moths gather at lights at night . is emergence of moths synchronised and if so how ?
metal outdoor signs are available for placement in reserves , regional and national parks , urban parks and school grounds . they can be bought from metal images ltd , urltoken . the bug signs are listed near the bottom of the ‘fauna species list’ . the signs come in two sizes , 100 x 200 mm , 194 x 294 mm . the signs can be bought ready mounted on a stand that needs to be ‘planted’ in the ground , or they can be bought unmounted with holes for fixing into your own mounts .
dugdale js 1994 . hepialidae ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . fauna of new zealand 30 : 1 - 164 .
early j 2009 . know your new zealand insects & spiders . northcote , auckland , new zealand , new holland publishers ( nz ) ltd . 176 p .
grehan jr 1987a . life cycle of the wood - borer aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . new zealand journal of zoology 14 : 209 - 217 .
grehan jr 1987b . evolution of arboreal tunnelling by larvae of aenetus ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . new zealand journal of zoology 14 : 441 - 462 .
grehan jr 1988 . fungal and vascular plant polysaccharide digestion by larvae of aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . new zealand entomologist 11 : 57 - 67 .
the new zealand institute for plant & food research limited ( plant & food research ) for permission to use photographs .
landcare research new zealand limited ( landcare research ) for permission to use photographs .
new zealand forest research institute limited ( scion ) for permission to use photographs .
16 october 2017 . na martin . life stages and annual cycle and information sources : a new sources of photographs of moths added .
26 july 2010 . na martin . caption for image \ 3cl : female to male . annual cycle : added pre - pupation web removal by caterpillar .
scion is the leading provider of forest - related knowledge in new zealand formerly known as the forest research institute , scion has been a leader in research relating to forest health for over 50 years . the rotorua - based crown research institute continues to provide science that will protect all forests from damage caused by insect pests , pathogens and weeds . the information presented below arises from these research activities .
length of the tunnel is 120 mm ; length of the caterpillar is 58 mm .
branches of host plants and feeds on the callus tissue at the opening of the hole .
( grehan 1984 ) . early stage larvae feed on a range of fungal fruiting bodies ( grehan 1984 ) .
cm ) , the tunnel system persists indefinitely after the adult has emerged . the entrance hole is
entrances may be enlarged and kept open for long periods . timber sawn from the cores of
( beeches ) has restricted their potential for productive forestry in the north island . many exotic
attractants to the insect . attack on living eucalypts is usually abortive , the caterpillars being
flooded out by heavy gum flows . the kino , or gum reaction , produced by some species ( for
occurrence of bright - yellow , brick - red , almost scarlet , and even albino specimens . the females
and november . they are nocturnal and males in particular are attracted to light . the females
scatter their eggs indiscriminately in forested areas , and may lay up to 2000 . the eggs are round
and pale yellow when first laid , turning black a few days later . they hatch in 12 - 14 days .
the length of the life cycle varies from one to four years ( grehan 1987 ) . larval development involves two phases : an initial period of approximately three months in forest litter , generally under logs and pieces of dead wood or on fungi , before moving into live tree host for the second phase where the feeding tunnel is formed ( grehan 1983 ) .
( fig . 4 ) , presumably occupied by the caterpillar when it was smaller in size . the caterpillar rests
in the vertical shaft , but ascends to feed on living callus tissue at the entrance . the tunnel slopes
up from the entrance , presumably preventing the entry of rainwater . the opening is covered with
a tough , fibrous , silken web , which so well camouflages the holes ( fig . 5 ) that they are often
fig . 5 - the first photo shows webbing in place camouflaging a tunnel entrance in silver beech .
the caterpillar grows to about 100 mm long and 15 mm in diameter . it is a delicate transparent
purplish - pink with a hardened dark - brown head capsule . the last - stage caterpillar ( fig . 4 )
assumes a more creamy colour as fat accumulates in the body . the prothorax is hard and shining
brown . the remainder of the body segments bear pairs of light - purple plates . the caterpillars
pupate at the bottom of the vertical shaft after closing the top with a fibrous disc ( fig . 6 ) . prior to
on the upper surface of the abdomen , and five similar ridges on the underside . pupae may be
found from august onwards , and the pupal stage is thought to last about three months .
no means of controlling this insect on a large scale are known . the caterpillars within their
attack on eucalypts usually occurs where branches have been pruned flush with the stem . if a
short stub of branch is left then this soon dies and prevents entry of the caterpillar .
) and one bacterium has been recorded attacking this species ( grehan & wigley 1984 ) . kakas are known to tear away
the wood in their search for the caterpillars , and moreporks capture the moths on the wing . it is
zealand forest service , forest and timber insects in new zealand no . 16 .
miller , d . 1971 : common insects in new zealand . a . h . & a . w . reed , wellington , 178 p .
this information is intended for general interest only . it is not intended to be a substitute for specific specialist advice on any matter and should not be relied on for that purpose . scion will not be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , consequential or exemplary damages , loss of profits , or any other intangible losses that result from using the information provided on this site . ( scion is the trading name of the new zealand forest research institute limited . )
protecting our eucalyptus trees wednesday , june 20 , 2018 scion are undertaking community pre - consultation on a proposed biological control of the eucalyptus tortoise beetle . eucalyptus plantations are a recognisable part of new zealand’s diversified forestry industry . they provide pulp and…
forest industry reputation damaged by mobilisation of forest harvest residues sunday , may 27 , 2018 the successful prosecution of a forest management company by the marlborough district council has been endorsed by the forest owners association . merrill and ring has been fined $ 39 , 000 and ordered…
biosecurity levy proposal tuesday , may 15 , 2018 as it affects plantation forest owners . consultation document : the new zealand forest owners association ( foa ) and the nz farm forestry association ( ffa ) acting on behalf of new zealand plantation forest…
forest industry backing judgment against forest companies monday , april 23 , 2018 forest industry associations are supporting penalties imposed in the district court against bay of plenty forest owner whitikau holdings and two harvesting contractors . the companies pleaded guilty to charges laid…
new free online forest productivity calculator for small growers sunday , march 25 , 2018 a new online calculator for radiata pine and douglas - fir productivity is now available , free of charge . the forecaster calculator was built for owners and advisors of small forests , who…
consultation starts on fumigant for forest industry to replace methyl bromide tuesday , february 27 , 2018 a significant milestone has been reached in replacing methyl bromide as the standard fumigant for export logs and timber . the environmental protection authority has just released application details for approval…
billion tree planting timetable gives industry confidence wednesday , february 21 , 2018 forest owners say the announcement of the timetable for the government’s billion tree ten year project will give confidence that the massive afforestation is a serious proposition . the forestry minister…
cutting rights proposal jeopardising government’s billion tree and climate change mitigation goals saturday , february 03 , 2018 the forest owners association is against the proposal the overseas investment office should approve or decline sales of forest cutting rights . the foa says it would jeopardise the government’s ambitions…
jim anderton’s legacy contribution to forest industry sunday , january 07 , 2018 the forest owners association is paying tribute to jim anderton for his contribution to the forest industry . president peter clark says jim anderton had a keen eye for the significance…
government recognises forestland and farmland different cases for overseas investment wednesday , november 29 , 2017 the forest owners association says the government would be jeopardising its billion - tree target if it hadn’t separated forest and farmland in its ministerial directive to the overseas investment office . the…
farm foresters says foresters should check all selling options for best returns monday , november 27 , 2017 new zealand farm forestry association president neil cullen recommends small - scale forest owners check what offers might be available from local timber processors when they go to sell their woodlots . nzffa , …
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the point of entry was just above a small branch that had died back following a failed graft attempt . . .
the larva chews a channel right around the branch , effectively ringbarking it . and when an avocado tree exudes sap , the unique avocado sugars crystallise into a dusty pure white powder around the damaged area .
the give - away is the area of moist poo ( ' frass ' ) at the bottom of the webbing .
when the caterpillar starts a fair way out on a limb , all it will do is kill the branch above its hole . but where it drills into the young tree trunk and ring barks it , the entire top the the tree trunk will either die or snap off in a wind .
this is probably not critical if you grow avocados in the conventional way as a multi truck tree , but if you are growing them as a single trunk , you may end up with the entire top half of your tree snapped off .
if you live near bush and have small avocado trees , it pays to look for small areas of frass , and the white sugar deposits from damaged tissue . probe the hole under the web full of frass with a fine wire to locate the hole , then spear the larva in its hiding place .
frass obscuring the tunneling . . . pupal case and the damage done - the thin bark cover pulled back . . . empty pupal case showing the size of the caterpillar . . . !
( disclaimer : after tackling doc cuts and water pollution this week , i thought it was time for a bit of friday frivolity . )
this week i bought a new car . i know , shocking isn ' t it that the
greenie
drives a car ! ( for the record , i also shave my armpits and don ' t wear a hemp suit . ) seriously though , with a lifestyle that has me living 45 minutes out of the city , it ' s just too far for cycling ( plus , unlike my blogger colleague moata , who is a keen cyclist , i ' m cursed with severe uncoordination issues ) .
we live across from the railway lines , and i would love to be able to take the train to work every day , but it seems trains aren ' t really a priority these days . i could take the weka pass railway , but it only goes up to waikari and back and only twice a month , and the boss might not appreciate that kind of work attendance .
living close to the railway has turned me into a bit of a trainspotter ! i have waved daily at the passengers on the overlander heading back and forth from christchurch to picton , and i can tell now by the time of day whether it ' s a freight or a passenger train going past . the other day , we were treated to the view of a beautiful old steam engine , the
nigel bruce
, which headed north on its own , and came back towing carriages full of passengers a day or two later . it was a real treat to see ( and hear ! ) . chugga chugga toot toot and all that . my stepbrother pointed out it runs on coal , which is true , but i prefer to think it runs on rainbows .
so a new car it is . i was just bursting to tell you all and since this is a nature blog , i ' ll get to the wildlife - related segue soon , but for now , back to the wheels ! i ' ve had a few cars in my life . the first was a morris 1100 ( moriarty ) with roof racks and that fantastic hydrolastic suspension that meant you could almost get air driving over the railway tracks on the way to school .
after moriarty came yoda ( the toyota ) , then clarry ( another toyota ) and then a nissan pulsar that i bought when clarry died , and didn ' t particularly
feel the love
for it , though it was a reliable wee car . all of these cars have been hand - me - downs or someone else helped in the choosing .
all i really ever wanted to drive was a vw beetle . when i was a teenager looking around for cars my father ( a mechanic by trade ) put his foot down and said no ( parts too hard to get and expensive , he reckoned ) . when the new beetles came out , i thought they were fantastic , but they were always waaaay out of my price range . plus , i didn ' t want just any vw beetle , i wanted the pale green one . imagine my surprise after months searching on trademe when i found the car , for a reasonable price in my colour !
» please feel free to email me to send me your questions , feedback , ideas or photographs for in our nature blog posts . you can also join the in our nature facebook page .


the black crowned crane ( balearica pavonina ) is a bird in the crane family gruidae .

there are two subspecies : b. p. pavonina in the west and the more numerous b. p. ceciliae in east africa .

this species and the closely related grey crowned crane , b. regulorum , which prefers wetter habitats for foraging , are the only cranes that can nest in trees .

this habit , amongst other things , is a reason the relatively small balearica cranes are believed to closely resemble the ancestral members of the gruidae .

it is about 1 m ( 3.3 ft ) long , has a 1.87 m ( 6.2 ft ) wingspan and weighs about 3.6 kg ( 8 lbs ) .

like all cranes , the black crowned crane eats insects , reptiles , and small mammals .

it is endangered , especially in the west , by habitat loss and degradation .

black crowned crane

nobody uploaded sound recordings for black crowned - crane ( balearica pavonina ) yet .
the body of the black crowned crane is mostly black , with distinctive white upper and under wing coverts . the head is
like all cranes , the black crowned crane eats grass , insects , reptiles , and small mammals . it is endangered , especially
( south african crowned crane ) , which breeds from angola south to south africa .
of the 15 species of crane , the blue crane has the most restricted distribution of all .
understanding and managing black crowned cranes on their breeding grounds in west and central africa . we are :
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edges of water bodies . black crowned cranes are considered both year - round residents and local migrants , flocking
williams , e . , beilfuss , r . and dodman , t . ( 2003 ) status survey and conservation action plan for the black crowned crane balearica pavonina . international crane foundation and wetlands international , usa and senegal .
the black crowned - crane is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
the beautiful stately black crowned - crane ( balearica pavonina ) , threatened by the loss of wetland habitat , gets its name from its dark slaty - grey to black plumage ( 4 ) , and the crown of stiff , golden feathers atop the head ( 5 ) . distinctive white feathers are at the leading edge of the wing and a small pouch of red skin hangs under the chin ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this is known as the gular sac , which is similar to a wattle , but can be inflated to enable the bird to emit a long sequence of low , booming calls ( 5 ) . the legs and toes are black , and the long hind toe enables the black crowned - crane to grasp to perches ( 5 ) . the black crowned - crane has bare cheek patches that are white and reddish ( 4 ) . there are two black crowned - crane subspecies ; in the west african black crowned crane ( balearica pavonina pavonina ) the lower half of the cheek patch is red , whereas in the sudan black crowned crane ( balearica pavonina ceciliae ) the red extends to the upper half of the cheek patch ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . male black crowned - cranes are larger than females , and juveniles differ by having grey to brown plumage with a brown crown and nape ( 2 ) .
developing new community - based conservation projects for black crowned cranes linked to the broader wetland management programs in west and central africa .
black crowned cranes were protected by turkana ( kenya ) pastoralists because they were believed to get rid of livestock pests and guarded waterholes and wetlands .
conducting range - wide status surveys to determine the population and distribution of , and threats to , black crowned cranes across west and central africa .
the black crowned - crane appears to eat anything it comes across ; its feeds on insects such as grasshoppers and flies , millipedes , crabs , amphibians and reptiles ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . it also consumes grass seeds and sometimes grain , and may do some crop damage through its feeding habits ( 4 ) . food is normally pecked off the surface , but the black crowned - crane also stamps its feet in an attempt to disturb potential prey hidden in the ground ( 2 ) .
, is a bird in the crane family gruidae . it occurs in dry savannah in africa
the preferred habitats of the black crowned - crane are freshwater marshes , wet grasslands and the edges of lakes , ponds and rivers ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . they also forage in rice fields and wet cropland , or on dry land close to wetlands ( 6 ) .
threats : illegal capture and trade for the pet industry is the most serious threat to black crowned cranes . there is an ancient tradition in west african countries such as mali , to keep domesticated black crowned cranes at household compounds . however , in the past 30 years , international trade in the species has accelerated . other threats facing the black crowned crane are the loss , transformation , and degradation of habitat . in west africa , wetlands and grasslands have been devastated by natural forces ( drought ) and by the intensification of human land use ( overgrazing , destruction of tree cover . ) as per 2001 their number was estimated to about 75 . 000 .
did you know ? that since 1985 , when the black crowned crane was listed in appendix ii of cites , more than 7000 live specimens have been recorded in international trade ? in addition , there may be some illegal trade to destination countries , which are not parties to cites .
the black crowned - crane is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that any trade in this species should be carefully regulated ( 3 ) . black crowned - cranes are legally protected in most countries where they occur , although this protection is often ineffective ( 6 ) , and their habitats are protected within several national parks , such as waza national park , northern cameroon and djoudj national park , senegal . in 1992 the black crowned - crane working group was established , leading to the first ever range - wide surveys of the species being undertaken in 2000 - 2001 , which was coordinated among 20 african nations ( 9 ) . a number of black crowned - cranes are kept in captivity worldwide , although they are moderately difficult to keep in captivity and do not breed predictably . the potential for reintroduction programmes has been discussed , and one experimental release took place in nigeria in 1992 ( 6 ) . a number of further conservation actions have been recommended for the black crowned - crane , including public awareness campaigns on the conservation of wetlands and cranes , transferring this species from appendix ii to i of cites , and undertaking further research and monitoring ( 6 ) ( 9 ) .
when nothing else stated , all pictures courtesy of international crane foundation , baraboo , wisconsin . urltoken
the wattled crane , bugeranus carunculatus is a large bird found in africa south of the sahara desert .
the black crowned crane is one of the smaller crane species standing about 95 - 105 cm tall . this species is much darker in colour than balearica regulorum , its cousin from se and southern africa . the black crowned crane has small red chin wattles and a bare cheek patch white above and a much larger lower portion pinkish to reddish . a large straw - yellow crown covers the top of the head . feathers on the head are black , short and velvety . the neck feathers a re slate to dark grey becoming elongated and pointed towards the base of the neck . the plumage of the body , tail and wings is blackish , except for the wing coverts and alula , which are white . the legs and feet are black , the bill is black except for a horn - coloured tip in the nominate subspecies pavonina . crowned cranes occasionally roost in trees , a trait not seen in other cranes . crowned cranes build fairly bulky nests of vegetation in marshy areas , frequently surrounded by water . both parents share the duties of nest building , incubating , and caring for the young . the normal clutch consists of two clear , pale blue eggs , which are incubated for 28 - 35 days . the hatchlings have a red - brown to greyish down plumage . black crowned cranes feed primarily on tips of grasses , seeds , insects , and other invertebrates , and small vertebrates . seeds from agricultural crops are a most important food source .
diagana , c . h . , dodman , t . and sylla , s . i . ( 2006 ) conservation action plans for the black crowned crane balearica pavonina and black stork ciconia nigra in africa . in : boere , g . c . , galbraith , c . a . and stroud , d . a . ( eds . ) waterbirds around the world . the stationery office , edinburgh , uk .
the nest of the black crowned - crane is usually a haphazard pile of nearby vegetation ( 4 ) . the nesting period generally extends from july to october , when clutches of two to five eggs are laid after an incubation period of 28 to 31 days ( 2 ) . the nesting territory is guarded closely by the parents , with both the male and female chasing away any other birds that dare to enter the area ( 6 ) . shortly after hatching the chicks forage with the parents , and fledge after 60 to 100 days ( 2 ) . the black crowned - crane does not apparently breed until four years of age ( 4 ) .
all crowned cranes have the ability to perch because their long hind toe ( hallux ) allows for grasping . males and females
hang down from under the upper throat . the breast , primaries , secondaries , and tail coverts are black . the secondaries
wart - like bumps . wattled cranes have long bills and black legs and toes . males and females are virtually indistinguishable ,
both subspecies of the black crowned - crane are declining in numbers ( 7 ) due to the loss , transformation and degradation of their habitat ( 6 ) . in recent decades , wetlands and grasslands throughout the crane’s range have been devastated by drought , the development and expansion of intensive agriculture , and by large scale dam , drainage and irrigation projects ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . drought and population growth has forced people to encroach onto suitable crane habitat , where wetlands are drained to expand agricultural production , and pesticides are increasingly being used which may result in the accumulation of toxins in the cranes , or reduce the amount of prey available for them ( 6 ) . this has resulted in the total or near extirpation of this species in some countries ; a tiny number of black crowned - cranes remain in nigeria ( where it is the national bird ) , and none have been recorded in sierra leone since the 1930s ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . in some areas , the threat of habitat loss is compounded by hunting of this species ( 2 ) . in certain regions , locals capture black crowned - crane chicks , or take eggs and raise the young in captivity ( 4 ) , and they are also trapped for the legal international market ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . this is a particularly serious threat in mali , where today , there are more domesticated black crowned - cranes than there are in the wild ( 8 ) . in chad , nigeria and other countries , this bird is also captured for food ( 6 ) .
sarus crane . the wingspan is 230260 centimetres , the length is typically 120 centimetres and weight is 6 . 47 . 9 kilograms
adult in flight . note the prominent hind - toe ( for a crane ! ) which gives these cranes the ability to perch .
sporadic populations of black crowned cranes are found in eastern africa , centered in senegal and gambia . there is a large population throughout sudan , south sudan , ethiopia and kenya , with separate populations in chad and cameroon . most populations are found within the sahel region of northern africa .
and dark . the gular sac is similar to a wattle , except that it can be inflated . legs , toes , and bill are black .
authenticated ( 26 / 07 / 10 ) by kerryn morrison , manager , international crane foundation / endangered wildlife trust partnership for african cranes . urltoken urltoken
the blue crane , anthropoides paradiseus , also known as the stanley crane and the paradise crane , is the national bird of south africa . it is a tall , ground - dwelling bird , but is fairly small by the standards of the crane family . it is 100120 cm tall and weighs 4 . 06 . 2 kg . this crane is pale blue - gray in colour with a white crown , a pink bill , and long , dark gray wingtip feathers which trail to the ground . unlike most cranes , it has a relatively large head and a proportionately thin neck . blue cranes , the national bird of south africa , are endemic ( only found in a certain region ) to southern africa , with more than 99 % of the population occurring within south africa . the blue crane is the national bird of south africa . a small disjunct breeding population of approximately 60 individuals exists in northern namibia , in and around etosha pan . [ 1 ]
archibald , g . w . , meine , c . d . , kirwan , g . m . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . black crowned - crane ( balearica pavonina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
adults – black body , white wings with feathers ranging from white to brown to gold , head topped with stiff golden feathers , red and white cheek patches ( these vary among the subspecies ) , small red gular sac , black legs , short , gray bill ; juveniles – blackish feathers , head cinnamon - brown , no cheek patches , crown spiky and dull gold .
the crowned cranes are synonymous with the savannas , wetlands and grasslands of africa and are hence most often kept in exhibits with a number of other species which inhabit these same habitats . presenting them is of educational interest and helps to highlight the plight of habitat degradation and loss , especially wetland .
threats . while it remains common in parts of its historic range , and approx . 26 , 000 individuals remain , it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable . in the last two decades , the blue crane has largely disappeared from the eastern cape , lesotho , and swaziland . the population in the northern free state , western cape , limpopo , gauteng , mpumalanga and north west province has declined by up to 1 % . the majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern south africa , with a small and separate population in the etosha pan of northern namibia . occasionally , isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighboring countries . the primary causes of the sudden decline of the blue crane are human population growth , the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations , and poisoning : deliberate ( to protect crops ) or accidental ( baits intended for other species , and as a side - effect of crop dusting ) . as per 2001 their number was estimated to 15 . 000 - 18 . 000 .
threats destruction , alteration , and degradation of wetland habitats constitute the most significant threats to the wattled crane . hydroelectric power projects and other water development have caused fundamental changes in the species expansive floodplain habitats , and their most important food source eleocharis spp . human and livestock disturbance , powerline collisions , mass aerial spraying of tsetse flies , and illegal collection of eggs , chicks and adults for food are also significant threats to wattled cranes throughout their range . as per 2001 their number was estimated to 13 . 000 - 15 . 000 .
the 26th meeting of the animals committee of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) stated on march 27th , 2012 : scientists expressed serious concern about trade from certain african countries in grey - crowned and blackcrowned cranes ( balearica regulorum and balearica pavonina ) , large waterbirds that typically inhabit open land near inland water bodies . international trade in cranes consists principally of live , wild - taken birds , with trade in captive - bred specimens also reported . between 2000 and 2010 , trade in some 1 , 300 live birds has been recoded . source : urltoken
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
calvert , r . , evans , m . , khwaja , n . , malpas , l . , o ' brien , a . , pilgrim , j . , stattersfield , a . , symes , a . , taylor , j . , westrip , j .
this species is classified as vulnerable as recent surveys have shown a rapid population decline which is predicted to continue into the future , primarily due to habitat loss and trapping for domestication or illegal international trade . however , trend data for the eastern sub - population is poorly known , and should the worst - case scenario for
, but was once more numerous and widespread . the western sub - population (
) was estimated to number 15 , 000 - 20 , 000 birds in 1985 and c . 15 , 000 birds in 2004 , suggesting that an alarming rate of decline reported in the 1960s and 1970s may have slowed in recent years ( beilfuss
2007 ) , and it appears to have disappeared from some countries completely ( e . g . nigeria ) ( dodman
) was estimated to number c . 15 , 000 individuals in 2004 , and the eastern sub - population (
) is less well - known , though estimated at 28 , 000 - 55 , 000 individuals in the same year . this gives a total population estimate of 43 , 000 - 70 , 000 individuals , roughly equivalent to 28 , 000 - 47 , 000 mature individuals .
populations alone , the species is estimated to have declined between 0 - 25 % from 1985 - 2004 . given the uncertainty around these estimates , we provisionally estimate a worst - case decline of 30 - 49 % over 45 years ( three generations ) , though the true figure may be higher depending on the status of
1986 ) , though it no longer occurs in the country . it forages singly , in pairs or in small groups ( urban
. clutch - size is c . 2 . 5 eggs per nest . incubation lasts 22 - 25 days , and chicks are able to fly when 35 - 40 days old ( dodman
. in addition , indiscriminate pesticide application may be leading to harmful bio - accumulation of toxins ( e . t . c . williams
2003 ) , and remains problematic . oil exploration in and near the wetlands also poses a threat ( williams
cites appendix ii . listing under appendix i has been pursued in the past ( r . beilfuss
. 2004 ) , and recently cites suspended trade in this species in sudan , south sudan and guinea ( anon . 2013 ) . a collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend , distribution and threats , and to draft an action plan for the species ( e . t . c . williams
2016 ) . there are plans to produce an updated conservation action plan through an international stakeholder workshop , whilst a few west african countries are preparing national action plans for this species ( k . morrison and t . dodman
conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species ' s total population size , and the size of different subpopulations ( t . dodman
2016 ) . monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys . monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation . monitor levels of hunting pressure . discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns , and develop actions to reduce and minimise all forms of trade ( local and international ) ( t . dodman
2016 ) . improve the viability of sub - populations with management interventions at key sites , especially breeding areas ( t . dodman
2016 ) . consider options for eventual reintroduction to areas where the species no longer exists , e . g . northern nigeria ( t . dodman
2016 ) . source resources for the implementation for conservation action plans for this species ( t . dodman
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building upon decades of research , we have created current range maps for the 15 species . . .
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height : ~ 104 cm , 3 ft weight : ~ 3 . 6 kg , 8 lbs population : 43 , 000 – 70 , 000 trend : decreasing subspecies : balearica pavonina pavonina ( west african ) , balearica pavonina ceciliae ( sudan ) status : iucn : vu ; cites appendix ii
tips of grasses , seeds , insects , small mammals , amphibians , reptiles and seeds from agricultural crops .
unison call | a duet performed by a pair , to strengthen their bond and protect their territory .
habitat loss including desertification , illegal capture for commercial trade , unintentional and intentional poisoning , human disturbance , unsustainable exploitation and conversion of wetlands .
johnsgard pa . 1983 . cranes of the world . bloomington : indiana university press .
meine cd , archibald gw . 1996 . the cranes : status survey and conservation action plan . gland , switzerland : iucn .
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b . p . pavonina occurs in scattered populations in sub - saharan west africa from senegal and gambia to lake chad . b . p . ceciliae inhabits sub - saharan africa from chad to sudan , ethiopia and kenya ( 2 ) .
incubation the act of incubating eggs , that is , keeping them warm so that development is possible . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .
del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 3 : hoatzin to auks . lynx edicions , barcelona .
walkinshaw , l . ( 1973 ) cranes of the world . winchester press , new york .
meine , c . d . and archibald , g . w . ( 1996 ) the cranes : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland , and cambridge , u . k .
flpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken
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it occurs in dry savannah in africa south of the sahara , although in nests in somewhat wetter habitats . there are two subspecies :
are the only cranes that can nest in trees . it is about 1 m long , has a 1 . 87 m wingspan and weighs about 3 . 6 kg .
topped with a crown of stiff golden feathers . cheek patches are red and white . the subspecies are most easily distinguished
by the differences in the coloration of their cheek patches . in the west african subspecies , the lower half of the cheek patch
is red ; in the sudan subspecies , the red extends into the upper half of the cheek patch . the gular sac under the chin is small
vegetated wetlands . females lay 2 - 5 eggs and incubation ( by both sexes ) lasts 28 - 31 days . both parents guard the nest .
when the female leaves the nest to forage , the male often guards by perching on a nearby tree . the male will sound an
alarm call if a threat is perceived . chicks fledge ( first flight ) at 60 - 100 days .
in females , 7 . 59 kilograms in males . the back and wings are ashy gray . the feathered portion of the head is dark slate
are long and nearly reach the ground . the upper breast and neck are white all the way to the face . the skin in front of the
juveniles have tawny body plumage , lack the bare skin on the face , and have less prominent wattles .
blue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands . they feed on seeds and snakes and spend little time in wetlands . they are
altitudinal migrants , generally nesting in the lower grasslands and moving down to lower altitudes for winter .
south of the sahara , although it nests in somewhat wetter habitats . this animal does not migrate .
democratic republic of the congo through uganda , of which it is the national bird , and kenya to eastern south africa .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : balearica pavonina . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
formerly considered conspecific with b . regulorum ( lumped species sometimes erroneously listed as b . regulorum ) , but differences revealed by electrophoresis , together with those in vocalizations , bare parts and plumage , as well as in genetic evidence # r # r , advocate recognition of two species . two subspecies recognized .
( linnaeus , 1758 ) – scattered populations in sub - saharan w africa from senegambia to l chad .
mitchell , 1904 – sub - saharan africa from chad to sudan , south sudan , ethiopia , eritrea , and n kenya , especially in basin of upper r nile .
100–105 cm ; 3000–4000 g ; wingspan 180–200 cm . iris pale grey to pale blue . distinguished from
calls are mellow honks , e . g . a single “honk” and a “ka - wonk” , generally low . . .
mixture of shallow wetlands and grassland . in w africa , affects flooded lowlands , riverbanks , rice . . .
generalist . feeds on insects , including grasshoppers and flies ; other invertebrates , including molluscs , millipedes and crustaceans ; fish , . . .
jul–oct , but variable in response to rains , only occasionally nests during dry season . nest , constructed by both sexes , is circular . . .
usually regarded as being non - migratory , but the species is only occasionally recorded in congo - . . .
vulnerable . cites ii . in past , species was probably more numerous and more evenly distributed . population of race
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josep del hoyo , eldert groenewoud , joe angseesing , paul clarke , ian fulton .
gemma aznar , lars petersson , steve garvie , nik borrow , mak khogaly , hythumm , morten venas , gabriel . courousse , josep del hoyo , ken havard , paul van giersbergen , markus lilje , lad , derejeb , priska rüegg , guy poisson , arthur grosset , matzeputze , fran trabalon , tomasz doroń , abubakr mohammad , john a thompson , francois jarvel .
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urltoken
subsaharan africa : benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , congo ? , congo dem . , equatorial guinea , eritrea , ethiopia , gabon , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau ivory coast , kenya , liberia , mali , mauritania , niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , sudan , togo . vagrants may be encountered in egypt and uganda .
the eastern subspecies ( b . p . ceciliae ) is believed to be relatively stable and counts about 28 , 000 - 55 , 000 specimens . the western subspecies ( b . p . pavonina ) has declined in numbers to about 15 , 000 birds ( red list iucn 2011 ) . .
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