microgale is a genus of mammal in the family tenrecidae .

there are 22 living species on the island of madagascar and one extinct species known from a fossil .

some species have been discovered in the last twenty years .

it contains the following extant species : short-tailed shrew tenrec ( microgale brevicaudata ) – g. grandidier , 1899 cowan 's shrew tenrec ( microgale cowani ) – thomas , 1882 dobson 's shrew tenrec ( microgale dobsoni ) – thomas , 1884 drouhard 's shrew tenrec ( microgale drouhardi ) – grandidier , 1934 dryad shrew tenrec ( microgale dryas ) - jenkins , 1992 pale shrew tenrec ( microgale fotsifotsy ) – jenkins , raxworthy & nussbaum , 1997 gracile shrew tenrec ( microgale gracilis ) – ( major , 1896 ) microgale grandidieri - olson et al. , 2009 naked-nosed shrew tenrec ( microgale gymnorhyncha ) - jenkins et al. , 1996 jenkins ' shrew tenrec ( microgale jenkinsae ) - goodman & soarimalala , 2004 northern shrew tenrec ( microgale jobihely ) - goodman , raxworthy , maminirina & olson , 2006 lesser long-tailed shrew tenrec ( microgale longicaudata ) - thomas , 1882 major 's long-tailed tenrec ( microgale majori ) - thomas , 1918 montane shrew tenrec ( microgale monticola ) - goodman & jenkins , 1998 nasolo 's shrew tenrec ( microgale nasoloi ) - jenkins & goodman , 1999 pygmy shrew tenrec ( microgale parvula ) - g. grandidier , 1934 greater long-tailed shrew tenrec ( microgale principula ) - thomas , 1926 least shrew tenrec ( microgale pusilla ) - major , 1896 shrew-toothed shrew tenrec ( microgale soricoides ) - jenkins , 1993 taiva shrew tenrec ( microgale taiva ) - major , 1896 talazac 's shrew tenrec ( microgale talazaci ) - major , 1896 thomas 's shrew tenrec ( microgale thomasi ) - major , 1896

microgale

this species of microgale is not specifically threatened , but the island of madagascar is rapidly losing much of its endemic fauna due to rapid deforestation of the tropical rainforest .
to cite this page : jansa , s . 1999 .
microgale dobsoni
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
macphee , r . d . e ( 1987 ) the shrew tenrecs of madagascar : systematic revision and holocene distribution of microgale ( tenrecidae , insectivora ) . american museum novitates 2889 : 1 - 45 .
the mass of this small insectivore varies by season . without fat reserves , an individual weighs between 34 - 45g . with fat reserves stored in the tail and body , a single individual in captivity reached 84g . all members of the genus microgale possess a cloaca ( a single opening for the digestive , urinary and reproductive tracts ) , a trait that is considered primitive for mammals .
examples of new species of mammals discovered since 1993 . from top left to bottom right , rungwecebus kipunji ( copyright 2006 , tim davenport / world conservation society ) . cuscomys ashanika [ reproduced with permission from emmons ( si appendix ) ( copyright 1999 , american museum of natural history ) ] . bradypus pygmaeus ( copyright 2007 , bill haycher / national geographic society ) . mirza zaza ( copyright 2006 , david haring / duke lemur center ) . cebus queirozi [ reproduced with permission from pontes et al . ( si appendix ) ( copyright 2006 , magnolia press ) ] . rhyncocyon udzunwensis [ reproduced with permission from rovero et al . ( ref . 17 ) ( copyright 2007 , the zoological society of london ) ] . macrotarsomys petteri [ reproduced with permission from goodman and saorimalala ( si appendix ) ( copyright 2005 , biological society of washington ) ] . laonastes aenigmamus ( copyright 2007 , david redfield / florida state university ) . scotophilus marovaza [ reproduced with permission from goldman et al . ( si appendix ) ( copyright 2006 , polish academy of sciences ) ] . microgale jenkinsae [ reproduced with permission from goldman et al . ( ref . 18 ) ( copyright 2006 , the zoological society of london ) ] .
in this article we will deal only with the first two cases—if the third were considered we would be dealing with > 1000 “new” species . we did not map new species of marine mammals , which include whales and dolphins . even 250 years after taxonomists started formally naming new mammals , 408 new species ( excluding those elevated subspecies ) , have been documented in the last 15 years , a surprisingly large number considering < 4 , 800 mammal species had been described at the beginning of that period . the discoveries include 18 new genera such as a large bovid ( pseudoryx ) , a rodent ( cuscomys ) , a bat ( xeronycteris ) , and a primate ( rungwecebus ) , and a living representative of diatomyidae , a family considered extinct for 11 million years ( fig . 1 and si appendix ) . the new species belong to 18 mammalian orders ( table 1 ) . the newly - discovered species varied in size from a 3 - g shrew - tenrec ( microgale jobihely ) to the 100 - kg soala antelope ( pseudoryx nghetinhensis ) , and include some remarkable creatures such as a pygmy sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) from a panamanian island , a “giant” muntjac ( megamuntiacus vuquangensis ) from vietnam , a white titi monkey ( callithrix mauesi ) from a river near manaus in brazil , and the solomons islands monkey - faced bat ( pteralopex taki ) . the number of new species among orders was not random , i . e . , related to the order ' s total species richness . it was higher than expected for primates , chiroptera , rodentia , and all orders that used to belong to marsupials ; in contrast , it was less than expected in soricomorpha , artiodactyla , and carnivora ( χ 2 goodnes of fit between expected and observed speciess richness order ; x ( 2 ) = 40 . 32 , df = 12 , p < 0 . 001 ) .
html public
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urltoken
traditionally included in the lipotyphla ( = insectivora sensu stricto ) . various molecular studies ( madsen et al . , 2001 ; murphy et al . , 2001 a , b ; springer et al . , 1999 ) and syntheses of morphological and molecular data ( asher et al . , 2003 ; liu et al . , 2001 ) support a clade containing tenrecs and golden moles , which stanhope et al . ( 1998 ) named afrosoricida . this name is inappropriate since this clade does not include soricids , and could lead to confusion with the soricid subgenus afrosorex hutterer , 1986 . noting that tenrecomorpha butler , 1972 may be a prior , and more explicit name for this clade following simpson’s ( 1945 ) guidelines for naming superfamial taxa , bronner et al . ( 2003 ) nevertheless accepted afrosoricida because this name is entrenched in the recent literature .
while afrosoricida is widely used as a name for a tenrec - golden mole clade ( e . g . , cao et al . , 2000 ; de jong et al . , 2003 ; douady et al . , 2002 a , b ; hedges , 2001 ; helgen , 2003 a ; scally et al . , 2001 ; van dijk et al . , 2001 ; waddell et al . , 2001 ) , some authors have argued that tenrecoidea mcdowell , 1958 is the prior valid name for this taxon ( e . g . , archibald , 2003 ; asher , 2000 ; malia et al . , 2002 ; mouchaty , 1999 ) . tenrecoidea , however , was first used by simpson ( 1931 ) as a corrected superfamily name for cententoidea , and comprised various
zalambdodont
taxa ( solenodontidae , potamogalidae , tenrecidae and extinct palaeoryctidae and apternodontidae ) but not chrysochlorids ( assigned to a separate superfamily chrysochloridea ) . mcdowell’s ( 1958 ) restriction of tenrecoidea to include only golden moles and tenrecs ( thus identical in composition to afrosoricida ) implied a fundamentally different grouping concept to that of simpson ( 1931 ) ; usage of this name arguably violates simpson’s ( 1945 : 33 ) guidelines ( 29 - 30 ) for reasonable emendation , and also his recommendation that superfamily names ( ending in –oidea ) should be avoided . priority , which simpson ( 1945 : 33 ) advocated as a deciding criterion only
. . when other things are about equal .
is thus insufficient to justify acceptance of mcdowell’s ( 1958 ) revised
tenrecoidea
. even if accepted , this name should be ascribed to simpson , 1931 ( simpson 1945 : 32 – guideline 23 ) .
following simpson ( 1931 ) , the term
tenrecoid
has also been widely misused as a general name for a vaguely defined grouping of ( extinct and extant ) taxa characterized by zalambdodonty , even though it has become clear that some of these were not technically zalambdodont , and that zalambdodonty may have arisen independently several times ( e . g . broom , 1916 ) . this further militates against its stricter nomenclatorial use , even at taxonomic ranks below order .
tenrecomorpha is also a problematic name for the tenrec - golden mole clade ( c . f . bronner et al . , 2003 ) . butler ( 1972 ) used this name for a suborder of the lipotyphla ( insectivora sensu stricto ) to accommodate only the tenrecidae , and assigned chrysochlorids to the separate suborder chrysochloridea broom , 1915 . butler ( 1988 ) tentatively accepted a common origin of these families , but argued for their early separation . eisenberg ( 1981 : 63 ) showed tenrecomorpha as a separate clade from chrysochloridea , but elsewhere ( p . 113 ) included chrysochlorids in tenrecomorpha without giving any character support . while mouchaty et al . ( 2000 ) and waddell and shelley ( 2003 ) recently used tenrecomorpha in this context , this name has most consistently been used to include only tenrecs ( e . g . macphee and novecek , 1993 ) and consequently is better applied at the subordinal level to separate tenrecids from chrysochlorids , in accordance with both morphological and molecular data suggesting early phylogenetic divergence of these taxa . following bronner et al . ( 2003 ) , we therefore reluctantly accept afrosoricida as the most specific name for a tenrecid - chrysochlorid clade .
the supraordinal affiliation of the afrosoricida remains controversial . molecular data strongly support an affinity within the afrotheria , whereas morphological data suggest a closer relationship to lipotyphlans . lipotyphlan monophyly , however , is only weakly supported by cladistic analyses of morphological data ( asher , 1999 ) and phylogenetic analyses of combined anatomical and molecular data strongly support the inclusion of afrosoricids within afrotheria ( asher et al . , 2003 ) .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
mammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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contributed by paul r . ehrlich , december 21 , 2008 ( received for review november 3 , 2008 )
in light of recent discoveries of many new species of poorly - studied organisms , we examine the biodiversity of mammals , a well known “charismatic” group . many assume that nearly all mammal species are known to scientists . we demonstrate that this assumption is incorrect . since 1993 , 408 new mammalian species have been described , ≈10 % of the previously known fauna . some 60 % of these are “cryptic” species , but 40 % are large and distinctive . a substantial number persist only in areas undergoing rapid habitat destruction . our findings suggest global animal and plant species diversity is badly underestimated even in well studied taxa . this implies even greater threats to ecosystem services and human well - being than previously assumed , and an increased need to explore , understand , and conserve earth ' s living resources .
today biology is in “a new age of discovery” ( 1 ) . that age is characterized by the uncovering of vast new elements of biodiversity , which are the fundamental building blocks of ecosystems , and thus the provision of ecosystem goods and services . there are thousands of examples of unexpected discoveries of new taxa across broad taxonomic and geographic spectra , from extremophile bacteria in yellowstone geysers to whole new ecosystems in the pacific ocean hydrothermal vents ( 2 , 3 ) . for example , the census of marine life program has uncovered hundreds of new species ( 4 ) . similarly , recent work has shown that a “species” of skipper butterfly , astraptes fulgerator was actually a complex of 10 species with distinct life histories , and that 16 species of “generalist” tropical parasitoid tachinid flies were actually 73 evolutionary lineages ( as indicated by mitochondrial dna barcoding ) including many lineages specialized to attack different hosts ( 5 , 6 ) .
these findings are of much more than academic interest . most of the focus in conservation has been on trying to preserve as much of species diversity as possible ( 7 , 8 ) . although the equally critical need for population preservation is now recognized ( 9 , 10 ) , the diversity of species remains crucial as a source of populations that can assume more distinct ecological roles ( e . g . , as generalist or specialist predators ) in a rapidly changing world . previously unrecognized genetic diversity must therefore be evaluated so that biologists have some idea of what they must strive to preserve , and how to deploy their limited resources to reduce biodiversity loss .
here , we evaluate discoveries of new species of mammals , an especially well - studied group . we first give the methods by which new mammalian diversity has been discovered . then we review the taxonomic affiliations , range size , and patterns of geographic distribution of mammal species described since a comprehensive 1993 checklist ( 11 ) . finally , we discuss the significance of these findings for the status of biodiversity in general , the problems of maintaining it , and thus of the ecosystem services that depend upon that diversity .
what are the ways in which additional mammal diversity has been uncovered ? we started with a thorough search for new species of mammals and created maps for all new species except for marine ones , from the literature ( si appendix ) . global patterns of species distribution were done using 10 , 000 - km 2 ( 2 ) grid cells , similar to our previous studies ( 10 , 12 , 13 ) . the new mammal species we found were of three types . the first was morphologically distinct species found in previously poorly surveyed areas . the second , the result of using molecular genetic techniques , was discoveries that the geographic range of a well - known organism was actually the combined ranges of two or more cryptic species—one ' s not easily recognized by morphological features . the third type consists of species that had been considered subspecies and were newly elevated to specific status ( again , often as the result of molecular genetic discoveries ) . two of the most prominent recent cases involved giving specific status to populations of forest elephants in central africa and orangutans in borneo ( 14 ) .
the discovery of some of these species has generated considerable interest within the scientific community . for example , both the recently described rodent species from the family diatomyidae and genus cuscomys were already known from paleontological and prehistoric remains , respectively . this is an instance of the “lazarus effect” ( 15 ) —in which an organism known only from fossils is discovered alive . remarkably , the diatomid species ( laonastes aenigmamus ) and a new rabbit species ( nesolagus timminsi ) were first discovered being sold as food in a market in a laotian village ( 15 , 16 ) . it appears that exploration of new regions has been the main factor for the discovery of as much as 40 % of the new species , such as the pygmy deer ( muntiacus putaoensis ) in bhutan , the arunachal macaque ( macaca muzala ) from the himalaya foothills of northeast india , the amazonian basin monkeys , and most of the new philippines species ( si appendix ) . the exploration of new regions has been based on both the use of either new techniques such as camera - traps , which were the first indication that there was a new giant elephant shrew ( rhynchocyon udewensis ) in tanzania ( 17 ) , or traditional techniques , such as pitfall traps , which have yielded specimens of 8 new species of shrew - tenrecs from madagascar since 1988 ( 18 ) . molecular techniques have revealed cryptic species across many orders . for bats and galago monkeys , discriminating among echolocation signals and vocalizations respectively have been key to identifying cryptic species ( si appendix ) .
the patterns of distribution of new species are shown in fig . 2 , based on a global grid of some 17 , 000 10 , 000 - km 2 ( 2 ) terrestrial cells . the number of new species in a single cell varied from 1 to 10 . new species have been discovered on all continents except antarctica , with the majority in south america and asia ( si appendix ) . in the americas , cells with one or two new species occur in temperate regions of alaska , the eastern u . s . , chile , and argentina , whereas cells with two species or more have been found throughout tropical and semitropical regions in mexico and central america , eastern colombia , peru and ecuador , the amazon basin , and the atlantic forests of brazil . most new species on this continent are bats and primates .
patterns of distribution in new species of mammals . ( a ) species richness , n = 408 . ( b ) restricted - range species , n = 221 . ( c ) cells ( in red ) with new species located outside hotspots [ in blue , sensu myers ( 13 ) ] .
in africa , most new species have been discovered in tropical regions , but some species have been found in arid regions in western sahara and namibia ; discoveries have been concentrated in eastern tropical forests of west africa and the congo basin , from liberia to angola , the eastern mountains of somalia , kenya , and tanzania , and madagascar , where up to 3 new species have been discovered in some cells . surprisingly , several new species have been discovered in europe , mostly around the mediterranean basin . new species in asia are concentrated in the malayan peninsula , indonesia , and new guinea . the number of new species discovered in philippines is rather remarkable .
on average these species had ranges of ≈87 , 000 km 2 ( 2 ) , significantly smaller compared with an average land mammal range of 400 , 000 km 2 ( 2 ) ( p < 0 . 0001 ) . indeed , 81 % of the new species have very restricted ranges [ i . e . , < 10 , 000 km 2 ( 2 ) ] ( fig . 2 ) , which make them more prone to extinction . interestingly , the distribution of newly discovered mammals often includes large areas not considered biodiversity hotspots ( fig . 3 ) , which further indicates that conservation strategies to supplement the focus on hotspots are required ( 13 , 19 ) . also interesting , and unexpected , is that the new mammal species were larger than average ( p < 0 . 0001 ) . this is primarily because few of the newly discovered species were either bats or rodents .
anthropogenic threat in cells either with ( red ) or without ( blue ) new species of mammals measured by the percentage of the cell under agriculture ( a ) and its human population density ( b ) .
although most ( 61 % , 1640 ) of the cells where new species have been found have relatively little anthropogenic threat , measured as both the area of the cell under agriculture and human population , 24 % of the cells are located in cells with > 10 % of their land area under agriculture , including 12 % of cells with > 50 % of agriculture ( fig . 3 a ) . in contrast , most ( 46 % ) cells are in regions with low human population density [ < 10 individuals per square kilometer ( 2 ) ] ; however , > 20 % are found in regions with relatively high human populations ( fig . 3 b ) , indicating higher vulnerability . a very interesting example is the mammalian fauna discovered in a limestone karts outcrop in the the kammaouan province , in the lao people ' s democratic republic , which included a new family and 6 species , in a region completely isolated by agriculture ( 15 ) .
the discoveries of new mammals are hardly unique ( 20 , 21 ) . our analysis supports the anecdotal conclusions from butterflies , flies , and other organisms mentioned above . it suggests that other prominent taxa ( e . g . , birds and reptiles ) , and more obscure groups , likely contain many more species than are currently described . this could amount to millions of species and other distinct entities , greatly expanding estimates of the diversity of the living elements of earth ' s natural capital ( 22 ) , to even perhaps hundreds of millions of species . in addition , because 12 % of earth ' s land surface is used for crop agriculture , 25 % is grazed by livestock , 2 % has been paved or built on , 30 % is exploited in other ways ( 23 ) , our results suggest that many more unheralded organisms in all groups have likely recently gone extinct without being noticed . that implies that the levels of species extinction overall have been grossly underestimated . thus , the situation is likely even worse than indicated by the steady rise of endangerment in the iucn mammal statistics ( 8 ) . although it is common for estimates of total current plant and animal biodiversity to be in the tens of millions ( 24 ) , those estimates are largely based on rates of discovery of morphologically defined species found in traditional surveys .
the problem of cryptic biodiversity , and the incompleteness of inventories of even charismatic organisms , is not usually considered . this is especially likely because the species now being discovered , as illustrated by mammals , tend to have limited distributions . for instance , the golden capuchin monkey ( cebus queirozi ) was described in 2006 , and is known to occur in a 200 ha remnant forest patch , isolated by sugar cane plantations ( 25 ) . similarly , the solomon islands flying fox ( pteralopex taki ) was described in 2002 from 3 islands , and was already extinct on one of them ( 26 ) . the lemur genus microcebus , thought to consist of two species in 1982 , has now been shown to comprise ≈13 cryptic species ( 27 ) . it , of course , may have once contained many other cryptic species , all of which went extinct unheralded . this seems likely , considering the massive deforestation that has occurred on madagascar and the inconspicuous character of many lemurs .
population loss is also largely unrecorded , except when a well - defined subspecies goes extinct , as in the case of the satyrine butterfly cercyonis sthenele sthenele that famously disappeared in the 1880s from san francisco sand dune habitats ( 28 ) or the more recent loss of the caspian , balinese , and javan tiger subspecies ( panthera tigris virgata , p . t . balica , p . t . sondaica ) and the well - publicized near extinctions of the asian cheetah ( acinonyx jubatus venaticus ) and florida panther ( puma concolor coryi ) . in short , there has probably been substantial cryptic loss of population biodiversity over much of the planet even in well - studied groups ( 10 ) .
several commentators have suggested that the discovery of “new species” is problematic for conservation—especially “taxonomic inflation” ( raising of subspecies to specific status and uncovering of cryptic species ) ( 29 ) . we and others disagree ( 30 ) . there is little need to focus on taxonomic rank when what needs to be preserved are the numbers and diversity of biological entities . for example , it is important to know that most tachinid flies in costa rica are host specialists . whether they are counted as “good species” or “mitochondrial lineages” makes no scientific difference . conserving one of those tachinid lineages , for instance , may preserve a crucial biological control agent . the key thing is that in an ideal world we should conserve all such units , regardless of appellation , keeping the loss rate not significantly above the “background” rate .
many newly discovered entities may supply previously unrecognized ecosystem services . for example , a recent study has shown that the abundance of a hantavirus - prone rodent species and hantavirus infection rates are negatively correlated with the number of native rodent species in panamanian tropical forests ( 31 ) . loss of such native taxa can thus potentially have negative effects on human health and welfare . furthermore , the role of large mammals in regulating the trophic and architectural properties of ecosystems has become even clearer with the recent investigations of the impacts of large herbivores ( 32 ) . such results underscore the often - neglected point that conserving biodiversity over broad areas is essential to maintaining ecological function and critical ecosystem services ( 7 , 9 , 10 ) .
however , no one is in a position to decide the full conservation value of any species , charismatic or not , let alone the other more or less distinct entities now being revealed . this moves the “rivet popper hypothesis” to a new level ( 33 ) . scientists know that there is some functional redundancy in the species composition of most ecosystems ( 34 ) . however , the level of that redundancy may be generally overrated , as research on the buffering of ecosystem processes by diversity demonstrates ( 35 ) .
in response to these problems , what should be the strategy of conservation biologists ? it goes without saying that they should try to preserve as many genetically distinct species as possible . it is also crucial that the number and diversity of populations—many of which are clearly more genetically and ecologically differentiated than previously thought—and the ecosystem services they provide , also be preserved and , where possible , restored . the whole issue of triage needs to be revisited—triage decisions may be required , but they will involve vast scientific , socioeconomic , and political uncertainties . also vexed will be issues of “where to draw the line” ( because most individuals are genetically distinct and we can not preserve everything ) ( 36 ) . the more diversity that is discovered the more urgent becomes putting additional resources into understanding and finding ways to conserving it . the insufficiency to date of ethical and esthetic arguments for preserving biodiversity means that ecosystem service based approaches , typified by countryside biogeography and the natural capital project , must be expanded ( 37 ) . this is especially the case in the face of increasing threats to virtually all organisms , which are experiencing rapid climate , land conversion , and extensive toxic pollution—threats that now extend to areas previously considered protected , of marginal value , or remote .
finding the political will to attain such goals will not be easy , but the survival of civilization may well hang on a cultural evolutionary sea change , and how much of societies resources get allocated to the task . considering the complexity and uncertainty of the relationships between biodiversity and the delivery of ecosystem services , conservation decisions should include a very large precautionary principle bias toward protection of as many of our living companions as possible .
we thank our friends peter raven , rob pringle , and watt ward for helpful comments on a previous draft of the manuscript ; ana davidson and navjot sodhi for reviewing and helping us to improve the manuscript ; irma salazar , silvia surhig , pablo ortega , and regina ceballos for kindly helping us with data and gis analyses ; and tim davenport , louise emmons , bill haycher , david haringm , david redfield , francisco rovero , achille raselimanana , and steve m . goodman for lending us their photographs . this work was supported by grants from dirección general de asuntos del personal académico of the universidad nacional autónoma de mexico , comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad ( mexico ) , and the mertz gilmore foundation .
author contributions : g . c . and p . r . e . designed research , performed research , analyzed data , and wrote the paper .
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researchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .
a survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .
a study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .
the mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena—but this rigor hasn’t always been enough to spur policy changes .
occurs generally in second growth deciduous forests subjected to seasonal rainfall and cool temperatures during the winter .
is shrew - like in general appearance , has a grey - brown back , a grey belly , and a tail almost as long as its head and body . measurements : head - body : 92 - 114mm ; tail : 102 - 108mm ; hind foot : 19 - 24mm .
in the wild . in captivity , copulation occurs from december to august and young are born from february to may . when
was trapped in the wild during the month of april , no lactating females were captured and none of the animals were fully adult . this suggests that the breeding season is considerably shorter in the wild than in captivity .
is solitary and live in populations with individuals well spaced in the wild . they are primarily nocturnal and communicate with sound and scent . vocalizations range from a soft twittering squeak to a loud scream . both males and females give a repeated soft squeak during initial contact with unknown conspecifics . it is thought that this vocalization serves to reduce aggression and facilitate contact , especially between males and females . if interactions between conspecifics become aggressive , one or both interactors will give a loud repeated squeal . finally , if threatened by a hostile conspecific or a predator , the animal will emit a single piercing scream . shrew tenrecs also communicate by scent . both male and female shrew tenrecs will mark areas with secretions from their cloacal openings as they move through a new area or during male - female encounters . shrew tenrecs groom themselves by spreading saliva over their face and paws . it is possible that this saliva may function in olfactory communication during conspecific contact .
does not usually enter torpor , but if the animal has sufficient fat reserves , it will become inactive , eat less and allow its body temperature to fluctuate to some degree with the ambient temperature .
is insectivorous . in captivity , it readily eats insects , earthworms and raw ground meat . in the wild , it probably subsists on a diet of insects supplemented with ant eggs .
' s ability to live in second growth forest may save it from extinction .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
eisenberg , j . f . and e . gould ( 1970 ) the tenrecs : a study in mammalian behavior and evolution . smithsonian contributions to zoology , no . 27 . smithsonian institution press ( washington ) .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
slash and burn agriculture in an afrotherian hotspot : gedi ruins
national park
, kenya 1972 . photos by g . rathbun
the species listed here are classified on the iucn redlist as either endangered ( en ) , vulnerable ( vu ) , or near - threatened ( nt ) by the 2016 iucn redlist . while some of the iucn categories do not necessarily imply imminent extinction , the trend in many cases is negative . that is , without additional effort towards conservation on the part of local communities , ngos , national and international regulatory agencies ,
first world
consumers , and other relevant parties , these species will eventually become extinct , many within your lifetime .
here are pdf file downloads of conservation fact sheets for the aardvark , golden moles , sengis , tenrecs , and hyraxes . these fact sheets are periodically updated , and they supersede nicoll , m . e . and g . b . rathbun . 1990 . african insectivora and elephant - shrews , an action plan for their conservation . international union for conservation of nature and natural resources ( iucn ) , gland , switzerland .
in many cases , the causes of extinction are simple : destruction of natural habitat due to increased exploitation of fossil fuels , timber , minerals , and expansion of agricultural zones by humans .
human population is increasing exponentially and , in many places , we are consuming per capita an ever increasing share of the earth ' s resources . no one knows exactly what the carrying capacity of the planet is for any single species . however , the consequences of exceeding that capacity will be truly dire , at least for humans .
micropotamogale lamottei with bownet used by locals for fishing . the bownet frequently traps and kills micropotamogale . photos by p . vogel
high - altitude grasslands of south africa , with five endemic golden mole taxa ( chrysospalax villosus , chlorotalpa sclateri , amblysomus robustus , amblysomus septentrionalis , and two subspecies of amblysomus hottentotus ) .
the edge program of the zoological society of london draws attention to the large number of species that face imminent extinction , including small afrotherians such as the golden rumped sengi and nimba otter shrew .
the madagascar ankizy fund was started by a paleontological team from stony brook university to improve access to health care and education facilities for villagers in remote areas of madagascar . a healthy and educated local human population will , in the long term , benefit the malagasy fauna ( including afrotherians such as the tenrecidae ) .
a rocha kenya aims to achieve long - term conservation of threatened habitats and species in the arabuko - sokoke forest .
the tanzania forest conservation group ( tfcg ) is actively supporting the conservation of tanzania ' s coastal and eastern arc forests through a combination of protected area management , community development , environmental education , advocacy and research . with over 20 years experience , tfcg is tanzania ' s leading national non - governmental organization addressing the conservation of tanzania ' s high biodiversity forests ( including a focus on coastal forests ) .
wwf tanzania ' s coastal forest programme is supporting the conservation of forests along tanzania ' s coastal zone . wwf is active in muheza , rufiji and kilwa districts . wwf tpo is also supporting the conservation of the udzungwa mountains national park in the eastern arc mountains . wwf - east african regional programme office supports an ecoregion programme addressing the conservation of the east african coastal forests . the programme links initiatives in tanzania , kenya and mozambique .
critical ecosystem partnership fund provides strategic assistance to civil society organizations to help safeguard earth ' s biodiversity hotspots , the biologically richest and most threatened areas . cepf has invested us $ 7 million in the conservation of the eastern arc and coastal forests of kenya and tanzania .
tanzania natural resources forum is a collective civil society - based initiative to improve natural resource management in tanzania by addressing fundamental issues of natural resource governance .
traffic south / eastern africa actively monitors and investigates wildlife and endangered species trade and provides information gathered as a basis for effective conservation policies and actions . traffic have played an important role in highlighting governance shortfalls in the tanzanian forestry sector by providing detailed information on the scale of illegal logging in tanzania ' s coastal forests . this information has stimulated renewed efforts to improve the governance of tanzania ' s forests .
the mpingo conservation project aims to conserve endangered forests in east africa by promoting sustainable and socially equitable harvesting of mpingo and other valuable timber stocks . the mpingo conservation project is active in kilwa district in tanzania .
the eastern arc mountains conservation endowment fund ( eamcef ) is a trust fund that was established as a mechanism to provide for long term , reliable and sustainable funding support to biodiversity conservation in the eastern arc mountains of tanzania .


cardioglossa melanogaster is a species of frog in the arthroleptidae family .

it is found in cameroon and nigeria .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , and heavily degraded former forest .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

in is a stream breeding species .

cardioglossa melanogaster

iucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2015 . cardioglossa melanogaster . the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t54405a16864192 . urltoken
descriptive morphometrics of cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . all measurements are given in millimeters
une nouvelle cardioglossa orophile de la dorsale camerounaise : c . schioetzi nov . sp
comments on adult skeletal morphology will be provided in a future publication on skeletal morphology in cardioglossa and related genera .
contribution à l ' étude des batraciens de l ' ouest africain . xii . –les formes larvaires de cardioglossa leucomystax
cardioglossa melanogaster amiet , 1972 , biol . gabonica , 8 : 212 . holotype : mhng 1253 . 86 ( formerly jla 71 . 765 ) according to j . - l . amiet in frost , 1985 , amph . species world : 17 ; and schätti , perret , and mariaux , 2002 , cat . comm . types amph . rept . mus . hist . nat . geneve , vers . 4 . 0 ( jan . 2002 ) : 7 . type locality :
mwakoumel , env . 1250 m
, cameroon .
the analysis of morphometric data presented here supports a close phylogenetic relationship between c . manengouba and c . oreas . in addition , this study allows for the recognition of other cardioglossa species groups , which are discussed below ( table 4 ) .
a , type locality of cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . in the montane forests of mount manengouba ( approximately 2100 m above sea level ) . b , photograph of male paratype ( mcz a - 137908 ) of c . manengouba in life .
scatter plot depicting mean length of third manual digit vs . mean snout–vent length for male and female of cardioglossa species ; data are ln - transformed . males of both cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . and c . oreas are the only species examined in which no mature males have third manual digits absolutely longer than those of adult females of the same species . the mean value for males of c . occidentalis is somewhat low due to the inclusion of a specimen that may not be fully mature as it exhibits only weakly developed manual digital spines and a relatively short third manual digit .
geographical patterns of diversity within cardioglossa are of particular interest to studies of african biogeography for two principal reasons . first , it is an excellent group within which to study relationships within and between ecoregions ( e . g . forests of cameroonian and albertine rift mountains ) as well as between large regions such as western and central africa . second , because cardioglossa consists of approximately equal numbers of montane and lowland species , it is an interesting opportunity to understand the connections between montane biota of different regions , the connections of montane faunae within the cameroonian mountains , and the interspecific relationships of a lineage with many montane and lowland species .
see comment under cardioglossa schioetzi . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 148 . channing , rödel , and channing , 2012 , tadpoles of africa : 96–97 , reported on comparative tadpole morphology .
a , map showing topography of cameroon and neighbouring countries . inset shows position of cameroon within africa . white star indicates position of mount manengouba . b , topographic map of mt manengouba showing the two known localities ( black circles ) of cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . nsoung , a commonly visited collecting locality , is included for reference ( black square ) .
c . melanogaster –mhng 1253 . 86 ( male holotype , 24 . 6 mm ) , cameroon , mwakoumel , littoral province ; mcz a - 137905 ( female , 29 . 8 mm ) , mcz a - 137906 ( male , 28 . 5 mm ) , mcz a - 137907 ( male , 26 . 6 mm ) , cameroon , nsoung , littoral province ; usnm 563698 ( ? female , 27 . 5 mm ) , usnm 563699 ( ? female , 27 . 3 mm ) , usnm 563700 ( ? female , 23 . 7 mm ) , cameroon , nguéngué , littoral province .
cardioglossa manengouba is known only from a small patch of gallery forest near the summit of mt manengouba ( fig . 1 ) . if this species is indeed restricted to forests between 2100 and 2200 m elevation , it is unlikely to be found on other nearby mountains , such as mt kupe ( summit elevation 2064 m ) and mt nlonako ( summit elevation 1825 m ) .
right lateral view of the head of the holotypes of cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . ( a ; male ; mcz a - 137909 ) and c . oreas ( b ; female ; mhng 1253 . 87 ) . note the small tympanum and the swelling and fold immediately above and behind the tympanum . ventral view of the right hand of a male paratype of c . manengouba ( c ; mcz a - 136933 ) and male c . oreas ( d ; mcz a - 137922 ) . scale bar = 1 mm .
2a . dorsal base coloration somber apple or olive green in life with blue near the base of the thigh ( amiet , 1972b ; laurent , 1972 ) ; infratympanal line weakly developed ( possibly absent ) and does not extend rostral to the tympanum ( for photograph in life , see amiet , 1972b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cardioglossa escalerae
16a . ventral surface nearly solid black or very dark brown ; mask extends caudally from rostrum and is broken into many small spots posterior to tympanum ( for variation of dorsal pattern and photograph in life , see amiet , 1972a , b , 1975 ) ; distance from anterior orbit to tip of rostrum subequal to or slightly less than anteroposterior length of eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . melanogaster
tadpole of cardioglossa manengouba sp . nov . ( mcz a - 138156 ; gosner stage 29 / 30 ) . radiographs of tadpole in dorsal ( a ) and lateral ( b ) views . line drawings of tadpoles in dorsal ( c ) , ventral ( d ) and left lateral ( e ) views . scale bar = 1 mm . abbreviations : at - anal tube ; b - beak ; fp - frontoparietal bone ; g - gut ; hb - hindlimb bud ; ip - infraoral papillae ; n - naris ; ove - otic vesicle endolymph ; s - sphenethmoid bone ; sl - supraoral labium ; st - spiracular tube .
this species is known from the mountains of eastern nigeria and western cameroon between 1 , 000 - 2 , 000 m asl . in nigeria , it has been recorded from the obudu plateau . in cameroon , it is known from mount manengouba , the southern fringe of the bamileke plateau ( at foto and mount bana ) , mount nlonako , the bamenda highlands ( in the bafut - ngemba forest reserve ) , and the rumpi hills . at mwakoumel on mount manengouba , it co - exists with
. its estimated extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 16 , 351 km² .
it lives in montane forest , including dense secondary growth . males call from shady situations along streams . it is a stream - breeding species . the quality and extent of its habitat is thought to be declining .
it appears to be most abundant between 1 , 500 and 1 , 900 m asl , and was last recorded in 2012 ( m . hirschfeld pers . comm . june 2012 ) . as with other high - elevation , forest - dependent amphibians endemic to west and central africa , the population of
is considered to be severely fragmented : 100 % of the population occurs in isolated and fragmented habitat patches , which is increasingly fragmented by human activities , and these fragments are separated by large extents of unsuitable habitat thereby restricting its dispersal .
the major threat is increasing habitat loss as a result of agricultural encroachment , including plantations of tree crops ; expanding human settlements ; and removal of wood by local people for firewood and building materials ( m . hirschfeld pers . comm . june 2012 ) .
on mount manengouba , trampling by livestock in the forest is a threat to this species and degrades its habitat ; the use of herbicides and pesticides here is suspected to have long - term effects on the stream habitat , affecting the larval stage , and this threat is expected to increase as human activity in the area increases ( n . gonwouo pers . comm . june 2012 ) . deforestation on mount manengouba also occurs due to the unsustainable collection of bark from
a high - elevation tree endemic to the cameroon highlands—by the method of tree ringing . the tree ' s bark is used in small amounts for medicinal purposes by local people . however , it is also sold to pharmaceutical companies in large amounts , in which case all the bark is removed from the individual trees , resulting in their death . the consequence of the latter practice changes the microclimate required for the species ' survival ( gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . furthermore , as with other high - elevation species , the species ' habitat may be affected by climate change ( gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) , but this requires further research .
it is found in the bafut - ngemba forest reserve in cameroon , which requires continued and improved protection . the protected area network in western cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include the remaining montane forest habitats , particularly those on mount manengouba , which has been proposed as a protected area ( n . gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . on mount manengouba , the harvesting of
should be sustainably managed ( n . gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . further research is required on this species ' distribution , population status , natural history , and the impact of climate change .
this species is listed as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is 16 , 351 km² , its population is severely fragmented , and the extent and quality of its forest habitat is declining .
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : this species is listed as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is 16 , 351 km² , its population is severely fragmented , and the extent and quality of its forest habitat is declining .
it is found in the bafut - ngemba forest reserve in cameroon , which requires continued and improved protection . the protected area network in western cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include the remaining montane forest habitats , particularly those on mount manengouba , which has been proposed as a protected area ( n . gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . on mount manengouba , the harvesting of prunus africanus should be sustainably managed ( n . gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . further research is required on this species ' distribution , population status , natural history , and the impact of climate change .
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amiet ' s long - fingered frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 37 ) .
obudu pleateau of nigeria ; in cameroon on the southern and western slopes of the cameroon range ( except mount cameroon ) , 1100 - 1200 m elevation .
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mdii , manual digit ii ; mdiii , manual digit iii ; r , right ; l , left .
mcz a - 137909 , adult male , republic of cameroon , littoral province , mt manengouba , 05°00′38 . 9″n , 09°51′24 . 8″e , montane gallery forest , approximately 2160 m elevation , 21 . vii . 2006 , d . c . blackburn , k . s . blackburn , and m . t . kouete .
mcz a - 136933 , subadult male , same locality as holotype , 27 . ix . 2004 , d . c . blackburn , j . l . diffo , and l . n . gonwouo ; mcz a - 137908 , adult male , southwest province , mt manengouba , 05°01′48 . 9″n , 09°50′37 . 3″e , montane gallery forest , approximately 2190 m elevation , 21 . vii . 2006 , d . c . blackburn , k . s . blackburn , and m . t . kouete ; mcz a - 138155 - 56 , tadpoles , same collection data as mcz a - 137908 ; mcz a - 137910 , adult female , same collection data as holotype ; mcz a - 138153 - 54 , a - 138157 - 59 , tadpoles , same locality data as mcz a137909 - 10 .
adult male , svl 23 . 0 mm ( fig . 3 ; table 1 ) . medium - sized frog with slender limbs ; head approximately wide as long ; distance from naris to rostral tip less than that from naris to anterior eye ; canthus rostralis rounded ; distinct tympanum opaque , round and small ; region behind tympanum slightly swollen and anterior margin marked by supratympanic fold ; no premaxillary , maxillary or vomerine teeth ; tongue without prominent median papilla and widens towards distal , free end .
relative length of fingers : iii > iv > ii > i ; two white and small , but prominent , palmar tubercles ; metacarpal tubercles poorly developed or lacking at proximal base of digits ( fig . 3b ) ; manual digit tips barely swollen ; no webbing between manual digits ; pronounced small , white and terminally blunt spines on manual digits ; unpaired and unpigmented subarticular tubercles rounded , globular projections surrounded by pigmented skin ; tibiofibula just longer than femur ; relative length of toes : iv > iii > v > ii > i ; pedal digit tips slightly expanded laterally ; no webbing between pedal digits ; no inguinal spines .
skin very smooth and not tuberculate ; very faintly visible median skin raphe ; gular skin only slightly distended relative to female ; golden white supraorbital line extends posteriorly from rostrum and terminates just posterior to tympanum ; ventral surface of manual and pedal digit tips unpigmented ; dorsal surface of ultimate intraphalangeal joint unpigmented ( more marked on manual digits i–iii , less so on manual digit iv ; also marked on pedal digits i–iii , but only slight unpigmented transverse line on pedal digits iv–v ) .
all specimens were collected near shallow , sandy streams in montane gallery forest during the day ( 12 : 00–15 : 00 h ) when they were active on the ground ( fig . 2a ) . the male holotype ( mcz a - 137909 ) and female paratype ( mcz a - 137910 ) were found in axillary amplexus hopping along a dry streambed with steep rock sides covered in damp , low - lying vegetation . other specimens were found under rocks at the edge of a stream or hopping in leaf litter .
the spiracle is located on the posterolateral surface of the body ( fig . 5e ) . the spiracular tube is elongate , unpigmented and extends caudally nearly to the same anteroposterior level as the terminus of the anal tube ; the distal opening is directed slightly ventrally . in preserved c . manengouba tadpoles , the spiracular tube extends caudally and the distal opening of the spiracular tube is directed ventrally . in many specimens , however , the distalmost spiracular tube is curved or bent , probably due to dehydration during the process of preservation .
the tail is very long and muscular . the large spinalis muscles extend onto the posterior dorsolateral surfaces of the cranium such that they form a ‘y’ in dorsal view ( fig . 5c ) . the length of the body ( as measured from the snout to the proximal base of the anal tube ) constitutes only one - third or less of the total length of the tadpole . a tail fin is present along the entire ventral margin of the tail but is present only on the posteriormost two - thirds of the dorsal tail surface .
the specific epithet is a noun in opposition and refers to the type locality , mt manengouba .
scatter plot of the first and second principal component scores . the second principal component ( pc2 ) is plotted against the first principal component ( pc1 ) , an indicator of body size . lines are drawn to indicate the centroid of points for each species .
scatter plot of the second and third principal component scores . the second principal component ( pc2 ) is plotted against the third principal component ( pc3 ) . lines are drawn to indicate the centroid of points for each species .
results of principal components analysis of morphometric data . percentage variance , cumulative variance and loadings of morphometric variables for the first three principal component axes
svl , snout–vent length ; hw , head width ; th , tympanum height ; ed , eye diameter ; sl , snout length ; fl , femur length ; tfl , tibiofibula length ; pdi–v , pedal digit i–v length ; imt , inner metatarsal tubercle length .
the first analysis tested the ability of the morphometric data to discriminate between species . this dfa was performed specifically to determine whether specimens classified a priori as a particular species were more likely to be misclassified as another species in the same classification group used in the second analysis . eleven functions were defined , although only the first five were significant ( χ 2 : p < 0 . 005 ) , and 11 of the 13 morphometric characters entered into the stepwise discrimination function before discriminating power was exhausted . the characters not included were head width and the length of pedal digit ii . only eight of the 88 specimens were misclassified . in the second analysis , five of these eight specimens are assigned to a classification group and , in this first analysis , all were misclassified as another species in the same classification group . these misclassifications support the species groups used in the second analysis .
country abbreviations : car , central african republic ; drc , democratic republic of congo ( kinshasa ) ; rc , republic of congo ( brazzaville ) . sources for altitudinal ranges ( in metres above sea level ) : a72 , amiet ( 1972a ) ; a81 , amiet ( 1981 ) ; b06 , blackburn ( 2006 ) ; b , blackburn et al . ( in press ) ; bö , böhme & schneider ( 1987 ) ; h04 , herrmann et al . ( 2004 ) ; h05 , herrmann et al . ( 2005b ) ; i , iucn et al . ( 2006 ) ; l50 , laurent ( 1950 ) ; l72 , laurent ( 1972 ) ; r , rödel et al . ( 2001 ) ; s , estimated based on schiøtz ( 1964 ) ; u , d . c . blackburn , unpubl . data ; * present study .
caractères diagnostiques de petropedetes perreti , nov . sp . et notes sur les autres espèces camerounaises du genre ( amphibien anoures )
standards in herpetology and ichthyology : part i . standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology
amphibians exclusive of the genera afrixalus and hyperolius . –exploration du parc national de l ' upemba , mission g . f . de witte
batraciens récoltés au congo belge par le dr . h . schouteden et par m . g . - f . de witte
1a . white or grey infratympanal line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1b . infratympanal line absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2b . infratympanal line strongly developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3a . three prominent and distinct dorsal markings present : subtriangular cephalic lobe , and subrectangular scapular and lumbar lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3b . no prominent and distinct dorsal markings ( i . e . cephalic , scapular , and lumbar ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4a . infratympanal line extends rostral to tympanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4b . infratympanal line does not extend rostral to tympanum and typically terminates immediately ventral to tympanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5a . skin of dorsal and lateral surfaces mostly smooth with some small scattered tubercles ; in life , dorsal and lateral surfaces bluish lead grey with large blackish steel blue spots ( laurent , 1950 ) ; ventral surface of body and hindlimbs covered by anastomosing network of wide , dark grey bands interspersed with greyish cream coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . cyaneospila
5b . skin densely covered in large , closely spaced tubercles ; in life , dorsum and limbs grey and ventral surface deep , dark blue ( amiet , 1972a ) ; three prominent dorsal markings large and blockish ( for photograph in life and variation in pattern and fusion , see amiet , 1972a , b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . trifasciata
6a . dorsal base coloration bright orange or yellow in life ; many irregularly shaped and distributed black or dark brown spots , some of which may be symmetrical with respect to midline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . aureoli
6b . dorsal base coloration not bright orange or yellow in life ( but possibly golden or tan ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7a . infratympanal line merged with labial bar forming continuous , or nearly so , thick white bar that extends from rostrum to level of tympanum ( for photograph in life , see amiet , 1972b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . gracilis
7b . infratympanal line typically very distinct and curves rostrodorsally towards external naris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8a . dorsal base coloration orange or reddish in life with block - like black dorsal markings ; scapular and lumbar markings typically fused into continuous black rectangle ( for photograph in life and variation in dorsal pattern , see amiet , 1972a , b , c , respectively ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . nigromaculata
8b . continuous black mask on lateral surface extends from rostrum to approximate snout–vent midpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
9a . three dorsal markings completely or mostly confluent ; tan dorsal base coloration present as continuous band extending dorsolaterally from snout to inguinal region ; bluish black ventral coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9b . three dorsal markings absent or present only as scattered dots ( occasionally present as a confluent band in c . oreas ; see figure 8 of amiet , 1972a ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10a . large blocky dorsal markings approximately the same dark shade as lateral markings ( for photograph in life , see amiet , 1972b , c ) ; dorsal markings typically ring - shaped with small central area of lighter coloration ; brightness of infratympanal line less intensity anterior to tympanum ; distance from anterior orbit to tip of rostrum less than anteroposterior length of eye ; expanded digit tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . elegans
10b . in both life and preservation , dorsal markings distinctly lighter than lateral markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11a . dorsal base coloration reddish or orangish brown with markings on lateral surface ranging from red to yellow ( amiet , 1972a ; for colour photograph , see alonso et al . , 2006 ) ; large , prominent and rounded inguinal spot ; dorsal markings indistinct or poorly developed ( for variation in lateral and dorsal markings , including photographs in life , see amiet , 1972a , b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . gratiosa
11b . prominent , thick white infratympanal line ; dorsal markings well developed ; inguinal spot small and somewhat irregularly shaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . occidentalis
12a . three dorsal markings ‘faded and conjoined to various degrees’ ( herrmann et al . , 2004 ) , not forming distinct , solid , and wide band extending from rostrum to vent ; dorsal markings appear as varied shades of dark tan or brown ; inguinal spot similar to rostral mask as distinct from and much darker than dorsal markings ( based on colour photograph of fig . 2a of herrmann et al . , 2004 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . alsco
12b . very distinct , solid , wide black or dark brown band extends from rostrum to vent ( for black and white or colour photograph in life , see amiet , 1972b or 1989 , respectively ) ; dark shade of inguinal spot similar to that of rostral mask and dorsal band ; inguinal spot fused medially to dorsal band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . pulchra
13a . no dorsal markings ; dorsal base coloration is brownish red in life ; prominent white line extends from rostral tip along canthus rostralis and terminates just posterior to level of tympanum ; male lacks elongate manual digit iii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . manengouba
13b . scattered small dorsal markings , intraspecifically irregular in both number and position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
14a . broad connection between cephalic and scapular dorsal markings ( for photographs in life , see amiet , 1972b ) ; solid , or nearly so , black or dark brown stripe extends proximodistally on posterior femur ; ventral surface of body ( i . e . belly ) mostly white or cream and covered in diffuse pigmentation and / or large spots ; toe tips not expanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . leucomystax
14b . cephalic and scapular dorsal markings either not connected or connected by narrow band ; ventral surface darkly pigmented , possibly with scattered white or silver flecks ; first two presacral vertebrae always fused ; toe tips expanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
15a . indistinct tympanum ; in life , ventral surface varies from black to dark brown and dorsum yellow or golden ( grey in preserved specimens ) with scattered , irregularly positioned dark brown or black markings ( for variation of dorsal pattern , including photographs in life , see amiet , 1972a , b ) ; males lack elongate manual digit iii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . oreas
15b . prominent tympanum ; dorsal base coloration rosy beige in life with black or brownish spots or mottling ; ventral surface of body and hindlimbs greenish blue in life ; prominent bars on both femur and tibiofibula ; few scattered markings on dorsum ( remnants of the three dorsal markings ) sometimes form ‘mirror - image’ pairs with respect to midline ( for photograph in life and variation in dorsal pattern , see amiet , 1972a , b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . venusta
16b . ventral surface black or dark brown with many silver white flecks ; solid mask extends posteriorly to approximately caudal extent of scapular lobe ( similar to c . occidentalis ) , distance from anterior orbit to tip of rostrum greater than the anteroposterior length of eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . schioetzi
c . aureoli –zmk r075881 ( male holotype , 22 . 4 mm ) , zmk r075885 ( male paratype , 20 . 5 mm ) , zmk r075586 ( female paratype , 23 . 6 mm ) , cas 230187 ( female , 24 . 1 mm ) , sierra leone , freetown .
c . cyaneospila –ku 154326 ( male , 31 . 0 mm ) , ku 154327 ( male , 30 . 7 mm ) burundi , bururi .
c . elegans –bmnh 1947 . 2 . 30 . 35 ( female holotype , 30 . 2 mm ) , cameroon , efulen ; uta a44472 ( male , 23 . 5 mm ) , cameroon , ntale plateau , southwest province .
c . escalerae –tnhc 38697 ( male , 24 . 6 mm ) , tnhc 38698 ( male , 25 . 7 mm ) , cameroon , ototomo forest reserve , center province ; tnhc 47888 ( male , 25 . 4 mm ) , tnhc 47889 ( male , 26 . 5 mm ) , cameroon , mt kala , center province .
c . gracilis –mcz a - 5605 ( female , 35 . 1 mm ) , cameroon , metet ; mcz a - 35766 ( male , 32 . 2 mm ) , cameroon , foulassi ; mcz a - 136796 ( male , 31 . 5 mm ) , uta a44454 ( female , 31 . 4 mm ) , cameroon , ntale plateau , southwest province ; mcz a - 137931 ( male , 29 . 2 mm ) , mcz a - 137932 ( male , 30 . 6 mm ) , mcz a - 137933 ( male , 2–7 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137934 ( male , 29 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137935 ( female , 29 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137936 ( male , 26 . 9 mm ) , cameroon , nkalakie , center province ; mvz 234675 ( male , 33 . 8 mm ) , cameroon , fopouanga .
c . gratiosa –mhng 1253 . 85 ( male holotype , 22 . 7 mm ) , cameroon , ongot , mt kala , center province ; bmnh 1947 . 2 . 3045 ( ? female , 29 . 9 mm ) , equatorial guinea , benito river ; fmnh 256784 ( juvenile , 15 . 5 mm ) , fmnh 256785 ( juvenile , 16 . 0 mm ) , respectively ) , gabon ; mcz a3425 ( female , 33 . 7 mm ) , mcz a - 5595 ( male , 24 . 1 mm ) , cameroon , metet .
c . nigromaculata –mhng 1521 . 50 ( male , 24 . 2 mm ) , cameroon , nkunjock .
c . occidentalis –fmnh 83121 ( male paratype , 25 . 6 mm ) , fmnh 83122 ( ? immature male paratype , 23 . 3 mm ) , sierra leone , north kambry ; mvz 244911 ( female paratype , 34 . 8 mm ) , ghana , ankasa conservation area , western region .
c . oreas –mhng 1253 . 87 ( female holotype , 26 . 7 mm ) , mcz a - 137919 ( juvenile , 16 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137920 ( juvenile , 19 . 7 mm ) , mcz a - 137921 ( juvenile , 16 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137922 ( male , 22 . 3 mm ) , cameroon , bamboutos mountains , west province ; mcz a - 137927 ( female , 29 . 7 mm ) , mcz a - 137928 ( male , 22 . 5 mm ) , cameroon , mount oku , northwest province .
c . pulchra –zmk r072173 ( male holotype , 29 . 5 mm ) , nigeria , obudu plateau , ogoja province ; mcz a - 137916 ( male , 29 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137917 ( male , 31 . 0 mm ) , mcz a - 137918 ( male , 25 . 8 mm ) , cameroon , bamboutos mountains , west province ; mcz a - 137924 ( juvenile , 18 . 2 mm ) , mcz a - 137925 ( juvenile , 17 . 0 mm ) , cameroon , mount oku , northwest province ; mhng 1521 . 58 ( male , 26 . 6 mm ) , mhng 1521 . 59 ( male , 28 . 5 mm ) , cameroon , nsoung , littoral province .
c . schioetzi –zmk r076631 ( male paratype , 27 . 3 mm ) , nigeria , obudu plateau ; mcz a - 137911 ( male , 23 . 2 mm ) , mcz a - 137912 ( male , 24 . 2 mm ) , mcz a - 137913 ( male , 24 . 4 mm ) , mcz a - 137914 ( male , 24 . 2 mm ) , mcz a - 137915 ( male , 24 . 4 mm ) , cameroon , mount mbam , west province ; mcz a - 137926 ( male , 27 . 0 mm ) , cameroon , mount oku , northwest province .
c . trifasciata –mhng 1253 . 88 ( male holotype , 28 . 4 mm ) , cameroon , nsoung , mt manengouba , littoral province .
c . venusta –mhng 1253 . 89 ( male holotype , 29 . 3 mm ) , cameroon , fotabong , southwest province .
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