siamosaurus ( meaning " siamese lizard " ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur from early cretaceous thailand .

the size of the animal is unknown , but it may have reached a length of about 9.1 meters ( 30 ft ) .

the type species , siamosaurus suteethorni , was formally described by buffetaut and ingavat in 1986 .

there is very little information on this cretaceous meat-eater , but it is known from teeth that closely resemble those of spinosaurus ; it may have eaten fish .

siamosaurus

siamosaurus was another carnivore to ruled the north - east thailand 100 million years ago along with siamotyrannus isanesis . siamosaurus was one of spinosaurus relative that has the same crocodile head like siamosaurus .
miniature sheet featuring dinosaurs with phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae , siamotyrannus isanensis , siamosaurus suteethorni and psittacosaurus sattayaraki .
siamosaurus is a little known and often considered dubious genus of spinosaurid dinosaur since it has so far only been described from teeth .  siamosaurus was the first and only known genus of spinosaurid dinosaur known from asia until the 2012 description of ichthyovenator from partial post cranial bones .  like other spinosaurids ,  siamosaurus was probably a piscivore ( fish eater )  .
i still am wondering who will go on . i would think siamosaurus , seeing that he is still alive and the gorgosaurus is dead .
i ' m not decided yet . i would say siamosaurus , but technically it didn ' t win . it didn ' t get the kill
loved the story , and the epilogue was great . i really didn ' t expect siamosaurus to live , is he going on to the next round ?
siamosaurus ' food were fishes in the large lakes of the early cretacous when thailand was covered by a inland sea . like spinosaurus , siamosaurus also eat the other dinosaurs which also used to live around the same era . scientist is trying to find out if siamosaurus had a sail since it also had a same unique habits like it ' s relative . but unlike it ' s relative , siamosaurus was only 30ft ( 9 . 1m ) , it taller than siamotyrannus which was a rival for food in that era . most of this dinosaurs ' fossils had been found mostly in north - east of thailand which made a unique dinosaur for the country .
little is known about siamosaurus . its teeth closely resembled those of its close relative spinosaurus aegypticus , indicating that its diet mainly consisted of fish and other aquatic animals .
siamosaurus was a carnivore . it lived in the cretaceous period and inhabited asia . its fossils have been found in places such as yasothon province ( thailand ) , chaiyaphum province ( thailand ) and maha sarakham province ( thailand ) .
name : siamosaurus  ( siamosaurus )  . phonetic : sy - am - o - sore - us . named by : buffetaut & ingavat  -  1986 . classification : chordata ,  reptilia ,  dinosauria ,  saurischia ,  theropoda ,  spinosauridae . species : s .  suteethorni ( type )  . diet : piscivore . size : unknown due to lack of remains . known locations : thailand . time period : early cretaceous . fossil representation : teeth .
siamosaurus was the only spinosaur to live in south east asia . how it got there is currently unknown . why it went there would also be unknown . there seems to be no advantage to living there other than the lack of other spinosaurs and larger carnivores .
right , i guess my memory isn ' t that good . i do remember 30 foot tall mushroom . and it wasn ' t a minor roll . the final kill was by the sarcosuchus , but the siamosaurus nearly drowned it many times , and caused a lot of injuries .
its semiaquatic life also suggests that siamosaurus was able to live alongside other theropods without competing for food , since they lived in different habitats and possessed different diets and ecological niches . this would have however encouraged siamosaurs to breed more which may or may not have reduced fish populations quite a bit
according to a 2010 publication by roman amiot and his colleagues found that oxygen isotope ratios in spinosaurid remains suggest semiaquatic lifestyles . further comparisons between spinosaurid teeth and those of a contemporary theropod , crocodile and turtle showed that they were more similar to those of crocodilians and turtles than was originally believed , further supporting the notion that siamosaurus and other spinosaurs were semi - aquatic . siamosaurus specimens tend to have the largest difference to theropods and spinosaurus had the smallest . the results of the tests concluded that spinosaurids had lifestyles similar to crocodilians and hippopotamuses and spent most of their daily life in water .
out front of the tent prowl siamosaurus suteethorni , which is named for thai paleontologist varavudh suteethorn , and phuwiangosuarus sirindhornae , the former bearing siam’s name and that of its bones’ discoverers , the latter the surname of her royal highness prince maha chakri sirindhorn and the locale that was once its habitat .
siamosaurus , meaning
siamese lizard
, ( sie - ah - moe - sore - us ) is an extinct genus of spinosaurid which existed during the early cretaceous period , thailand . the exact size of this dinosaur is currently unknown , however most estimates suggest that it was around 9 . 1 metres ( 30 ft ) in length and 2 - 3 tons in weight .
i thought it was yutyrannus that scared megalosaurus away ? i think becklespinax killed cryolophosaurus , but it is funny to just have you recite that haha and in any case , it still defeated its opponent in some way . siamosaurus just kind of was lucky sarcosuchus didn ' t get it first . it kind of played a role in gorgosaurus ' death but it was a very minor role .
it ' s true that many dinosaurs are
diagnosed
on the basis of a single , fossilized tooth - - but it ' s also true that many of these dinosaurs are looked on dubiously by other paleontologists , who require more convincing evidence . that ' s the case with siamosaurus , which in 1986 was touted by its discoverers as the very first spinosaur ( i . e . , spinosaurus - like theropod ) ever to be discovered in asia . ( since then , a comparably sized and better - attested spinosaur , ichthyovenator , has been unearthed in laos . ) if siamosaurus was in fact a spinosaur , it probably spent most of its day on the banks of rivers hunting for fish - - and if it wasn ' t , then it may well have been another type of large theropod with a more diverse diet .
while scientist were digging , princess chakri sirindhornae came and see the discovery the first dinosaur . so the scientist gave the name phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae to honor the princess and the charkri dynasty . phuwiangosaurus use to feed on tall trees that grows variously in the creatacous period . during that era there were various dinosaur like the unname sauropod that is still being studying , iguanodon , psittasaurus , gallimimus , and siamosaurus . phuwiangosaurus only has a enemy which was siamotyrannus that also ruled the same era . this made phuwiangosaurus one of the giant titanosaur to ever had ruled indochina .
also affiliated with institut universitaire de france , 103 boulevard saint - michel , 75005 paris , france .
also affiliated with natural history museum of guangxi , 1 - 1 east renmin road , nanning 530012 , china .
romain amiot , eric buffetaut , christophe lécuyer , xu wang , larbi boudad , zhongli ding , françois fourel , steven hutt , françois martineau , manuel alfredo medeiros , jinyou mo , laurent simon , varavudh suteethorn , steven sweetman , haiyan tong , fusong zhang , zhonghe zhou ; oxygen isotope evidence for semi - aquatic habits among spinosaurid theropods . geology ; 38 ( 2 ) : 139–142 . doi : urltoken
spinosaurs were large theropod dinosaurs showing peculiar specializations , including somewhat crocodile - like elongate jaws and conical teeth . their biology has been much discussed , and a piscivorous diet has been suggested on the basis of jaw as well as tooth morphology and stomach contents . although fish eating has been considered plausible , an aquatic or semiaquatic lifestyle has seldom been suggested because of the apparent lack of corresponding adaptations in the postcranial skeleton of spinosaurs , which on the whole is reminiscent of that of other large terrestrial theropods . on the basis of the oxygen isotopic composition of their phosphatic remains compared with those of coexisting terrestrial theropod dinosaurs and semiaquatic crocodilians and turtles , we conclude that spinosaurs had semiaquatic lifestyles , i . e . , they spent a large part of their daily time in water , like extant crocodilians or hippopotamuses . this result sheds light on niche partitioning between large predatory dinosaurs , since spinosaurs coexisted with other large theropods such as carcharodontosaurids or tyrannosaurids . the likely ichthyophagy and aquatic habits of spinosaurids may have allowed them to coexist with other large theropods by reducing competition for food and territory .
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buffetaut , e . ; and ingevat , r . ( 1986 ) . unusual theropod dinosaur teeth from the upper jurassic of phu wiang , northeastern thailand . rev . paleobiol . 5 : 217 - 220 .
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e . buffetaut . 1983 . stratigraphic significance of fossil vertebrates from the mesozoic of northeastern thailand . conference on geology and mineral resources of thailand , bangkok , 19 - 28 november , 1983
e . buffetaut and r . ingavat . 1983 . < i > goniopholis phuwiangensis < / i > nov . sp . , a new mesosuchian crocodilian from the mesozoic of northeastern thailiand . géobios 16 ( 1 ) : 79 - 91
e . buffetaut and v . suteethorn . 1995 . new dinosaur discoveries in thailand . international conference on geology , geotechnology and mineral resources of indochina ( geo - indo ' 95 ) , 22 - 25 november 1995 , khon kaen , thailand
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full reference : e . buffetaut and r . ingavat . 1986 . unusual theropod teeth from the upper jurassic of phu wiang , northeastern thailand . revue de paléobiologie 5 ( 2 ) : 217 - 220
see also buffetaut 1997 , buffetaut 1998 , buffetaut 2007 , buffetaut and ingavat 1986 , buffetaut et al . 1993 , buffetaut et al . 1995 , buffetaut et al . 1997 , buffetaut and suteethorn 1999 , buffetaut et al . 2007 , buffetaut et al . 2008 , canudo et al . 2008 , hasegawa et al . 2003 , holtz et al . 2004 , lauprasert et al . 2007 , mo et al . 2014 , mo et al . 2014 and nessov 1995
type specimen : tf 2043a , a tooth . its type locality is phu wiang 1a , phu pratu teema , which is in a barremian / aptian channel sandstone / siltstone in the sao khua formation of thailand .
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urltoken
is derived from
siam
( an old name for thailand ) and the greek
sauros
( lizard ) .
were discovered at
phu wiang 1a , phu pratu teema
in the sao khua formation ( khorat group ) , changwat khon kaen , thailand , in 1986 .
lived in a well - vegetated area with slow - moving rivers , meandering channels and extensive flood plains . this fits with the results of a 2010 study of oxygen isotopes in dinosaur fossils by romain amiot and colleagues , who found that spinosaurid bone structure was closer to that seen in turtles and crocodiles than other theropod dinosaurs , suggesting they spent much of their lives in water .
• buffetaut eric and ingevat r ( 1986 )
unusual theropod dinosaur teeth from the upper jurassic of phu wiang , northeastern thailand
.
• buffetaut e and suteethorn v ( 1993 )
the dinosaurs of thailand
.
journal of southeast asian earth sciences volume 8 , issues 1–4 , pages 77–82 .
. ( 2010 )
oxygen isotope evidence for semi - aquatic habits among spinosaurid theropods
.
• buffetaut e , suteethorn v , le loeuff j , khansubha s , haiyan tong and wongko k . ( 2005 )
the dinosaur fauna from the khok kruat formation ( early cretaceous ) of thailand
.
proceedings of the international conference on geology , geotechnology and mineral resources of indochina ( geoindo 2005 ) . khon kaen university , khonkaen , p . 575–581
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8th of july its my birthday yeahh ! ! got this printed for my birthday .
“dinosaurs in town ! ” schoolboys shriek in delight while playing with a t rex that’s strutting around in front of siam paragon . it’s far too cute to be terrifying , but more than ample for drawing attention to the exhibition of actual prehistory on view at the mall , starting inside a huge air - conditioned tent that dominates parc paragon .
“the amazing asian dinosaur at siam” show is a chance for bangkok bone buffs to see what they’re missing in the far northeast . there are three dozen genuine dinosaur fossils shared by the sirindhorn museum in kalasin and the phuwiang fossil research centre and dinosaur museum in khon kaen , along with replica skeletons of the “terrible lizards” that have been found in isaan , laos and japan .
“thailand is the dinosaur hub of southeast asia , ” says naramase teerarungsigul of the ministry of natural resources and environment’s department of mineral resources . “ever since we found the first 130 - million - year - old fossil in phuwiang national park in 1976 , thailand has been uncovering various species . most of the discoveries have taken place in khon khaen , kalasin , chaiyaphom and nakhon ratchasima , but in recent years we’ve found more in the north , in chiang muan in phayao , and in the south , in klongtom in krabi . ”
these discoveries are still going on , naramase emphasises . excavation is underway in kalasin’s kham muang district , where a team from the department led by dr phonpen janthasit has found more than 2 , 000 dinosaur bones along with the remains of prehistoric fish , turtles and crocodiles .
the department has mounted the 10 - day exhibition to let more people know what a wealth of important dinosaur finds have turned up in thailand . some of the fossils brought to bangkok haven’t even been shown to the public in the northeast .
one zone , titled “treasures of siam” , recounts the history of thai palaeontology over the last four decades . eleven glass display cases contain 37 fossils unearthed since 1976 . there is also a tribute in text and photos to princess sirindhorn , a keen enthusiast in the field , plus a mammoth replica of the skeleton of phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae and a model and the actual teeth from a small , long - extinct mammal also named in her honour , tarsius sirindhornae .
the faux phuwiangosaurus skeleton is the department’s birthday gift to the princess , to be formally presented to her next saturday . the skeleton on which it was modelled was found in 1999 at ban na krai in kalasin’s kuchinarai district – 160 bones that , once assembled , reared up nearly 11 metres in height . the princess will also receive a 1 : 27 - scale model of the creature .
the bones , first spotted by local residents who realised they’d found something unusual , were dug from the red siltstone of what geologists call the sao krua formation . during the mesozoic era there were only two seasons – rainy and dry – and siltstone accrued in the floodplains of slow - flowing rivers .
the epoch , running 220 million to 100 million years ago , remained dry enough to preserve the fossils well . so today we have pretty accurate ideas of what this giant looked like , as well as a sauropod unearthed at phu kum khao and a spinosaurus , which are also on display , along with the teeth of various dinosaurs .
“the continuing discoveries have proved that thailand was once an important dinosaur habitat , ” naramase says , adding that malaysian palaeontologists are always keen to work here .
orn - uma summart , a sirindhorn museum geologist , points out a case showing fossils from a theropod unearthed in phu noi , kalasin . “we found this upper jaw with some teeth in good condition in 2007 . it might be more than 130 million years old . ”
inevitably drawing a great deal of attention , a new species of tyrannosaur was found at phuwiang and subsequently named siamotyrannus isanenis ( after isaan ) . it remains the subject of further research involving scientists in sichuan , china , which is another rich hunting ground for fossils .
inside the tent in front of the mall are the roars of the beasts and the thud of their footsteps , adding to the thrills for the younger visitors . people are having their photos taken with 3d dinosaurs , digging up their own fossil replicas hidden in sand and finding out just how sharp the beasts’ teeth can be .
just outside the tent is the paleo pond , with a waterfall and models of fish - eating dinosaurs and ancient crocodiles also found in thailand , some of them previously unknown species .
another zone , “jurassic wonders” , reconstructs the prehistoric world with a dozen more dinosaur species , as well as plants and other animals .
and “revival of ancient times” has more skeleton replicas , dinosaur eggs and footprints . the 150 - metre - tall skeleton of the vegetarian sauropod tangvayosaurus hoffeti comes from savannaket , just across the thai - lao border from mukdahan . japan has shared a theropod , fukuiraptor kitadaniensis , and a iguanodontid , fukuisaurus tetroriensis .
also surveying the dining possibilities in bangkok are kinnareemimus khonkaenensis , an “ostrich dinosaur” , dug up in khon kaen in 1982 , 130 million years old ; isanosaurus attavipatchi , the earliest known sauropod at 200 million years old , found in chaiyaphum in 1998 ; and ratchasimasaurus suranareae , a “new” species of iguanodontid , 110 million years old , found in nakhon ratchsima in 2011 .
- “the amazing asian dinosaur at siam” is open from 10am to 10pm daily until sunday at siam paragon . admission is free .
- the text in the exhibition booklet is in thai and english , but the display captions are in thai only . find out more at ( 02 ) 610 8000 .
a bewildering array of meat - eating dinosaurs lived during the mesozoic era . in this picture gallery , complete with detailed profiles , you ' ll meet over 50 of the world ' s largest and meanest theropod dinosaurs , ranging from abelisaurus to tyrannotitan . ( the dinosaurs on display here don ' t include tyrannosaurs or raptors , which you can visit in tyrannosaur dinosaur pictures and raptor dinosaur pictures . )
the lack of fossil evidence ( only a single skull ) has forced paleontologists to hazard some guesses about the anatomy of abelisaurus . it ' s believed that this meat - eating dinosaur resembled a scaled - down t . rex , with fairly short arms and a bipedal posture . see an in - depth profile of abelisaurus
paleontologists are unsure about the function of acrocanthosaurus ' distinctive back ridge . it may have served as a storage place for fat , as a temperature - control device ( depending on whether this theropod was cold - or warm - blooded ) , or as a sexual display . see 10 facts about acrocanthosaurus
in most ways , aerosteon was a typical predatory dinosaur of the late cretaceous period , with its classic theropod shape ( powerful legs , short arms , bipedal stance ) and sharp teeth . what set this meat - eater apart from the pack is the evidence of air sacs in its bones , which globetrotting paleontologist paul sereno has taken as evidence that aerosteon ( and , by implication , other theropods of its kind ) may have possessed a birdlike respiratory system .
of course , air - filled bones serve another important function : they help to reduce their owner ' s overall weight and bulk . that ' s another thing aerosteon seems to have had in common with modern birds , whose bones are necessarily light and airy in order to reduce their owner ' s flying weight . ( it ' s important to bear in mind , however , that modern birds evolved not from one - ton theropods like aerosteon , but from the small , feathered raptors and
dino - birds
of the late cretaceous . )
afrovenator is significant for two reasons : first , it ' s one of the few nearly complete theropod ( meat - eating dinosaur ) skeletons to be unearthed in northern africa , and second , it appears to have been closely related to the western european megalosaurus - - yet more evidence for the distribution of continents during the early cretaceous period .
however , ever since its discovery , the exact place occupied by afrovenator in the theropod family tree has been a matter of some controversy . at various times , paleontologists have linked this dinosaur to putative descendants as diverse as eustreptospondylus , dubreuillosaurus , allosaurus and even the massive spinosaurus . the situation is complicated by the fact that , to date , afrovenator is represented by only a single fossil specimen ; further digs may shed more light on this dinosaur ' s affiliations .
since it was one of his earliest discoveries , afrovenator has become something of a calling card for the noted paleontologist paul sereno , who unearthed this dinosaur ' s bones in the african country of niger in the early 1990 ' s and carted the remains back to his home base at the university of chicago , where they ' re currently in storage .
allosaurus was one of the most common carnivores of the late jurassic period , a fearsome theropod equipped with sharp teeth and a well - muscled body . this dinosaur also had an especially prominent head , some anatomical features of which may have been meant to attract the opposite sex . see 10 facts about allosaurus
quick : what other meat - eating dinosaur of the middle cretaceous period had a sailed back , a long , narrow , crocodilian snout , and a weight class in the tyrannosaurus rex range ? if you answered spinosaurus , that ' s pretty much all you need to know about angaturama , a close ( albeit much smaller ) relative of spinosaurus that was unearthed in brazil in 1991 . brazilian national pride has resulted in the
type fossil
of angaturama being assigned to its own genus , though some paleontologists speculate that it may actually have been a species of irritator , yet another spinosaur from south america .
the abelisaurs were a breed of medium - to - large sized meat - eating dinosaurs that originated in south america toward the middle of the mesozoic era and then spread to other parts of the world ( while still remaining clustered , for the most part , on their home continent ) . the importance of arcovenator is that it ' s one of the few abelisaurs to have radiated as far afield as western europe ( another example being tarascosaurus ) ; in any event , this fearsome , 20 - foot - long carnivore seems to have been most closely related to majungasaurus , from the island of madagascar , and rajasaurus , which was discovered in india . as you can imagine , what this implies for the evolution of abelisaurs during the late cretaceous period is still being worked out !
to date , not much information has been released about aucasaurus , a near - complete skeleton of which was discovered in argentina in 1999 . we do know that this carnivorous theropod was closely related to two other famous dinosaurs of south america , abelisaurus and carnotaurus , but it was significantly smaller , with longer arms and bumps on its head instead of horns . based on the dire condition of its skull , it ' s possible that the only identified specimen of aucasaurus was done in by a fellow predator , either in a head - on attack or after it had died of natural causes .
australovenator is the third of a trio of australian dinosaurs announced in 2009 , the other two being huge , herbivorous titanosaurs . this dinosaur has been classified as an allosaur , a distinctive type of large theropod , and it seems to have been a lightly built , sleek predator ( the paleontologist who named it has likened it to a modern cheetah ) . australovenator was unlikely to have hunted the 10 - ton titanosaurs it was discovered near , but it probably made a good living off the smaller plant - eaters of middle cretaceous australia . ( by the way , recent analysis has shown that australovenator was a close relative of the impressively named megaraptor , a large theropod from south america . )
the euphoniously named bahariasaurus (
oasis lizard
) might be better known today if its only fossils hadn ' t been destroyed by an allied bombing raid on germany during world war ii ( the same fate that befell the remains of a much better - known dinosaur , spinosaurus ) . what we do know from these long - gone hipbones is that bahariasaurus was a large theropod , possibly attaining tyrannosaurus rex - like sizes of 6 or 7 tons . as to the evolutionary lineage of bahariasaurus , that ' s a murky affair : this dinosaur may have been related to the north african carcharodontosaurus , it may have been a true tyrannosaur , or it may even have been a species or specimen of the contemporary deltadromeus ; we ' ll probably never know without additional fossil discoveries .
the preserved skeleton of baryonyx was discovered in 1983 , by an amateur fossil hunter in england . it ' s unclear from the remains just how big this spinosaurus relative really was : since the fossil may be of a juvenile , it ' s possible that baryonyx grew to larger sizes than previously thought . see 10 facts about baryonyx
one of the most oddly named of all dinosaurs - - try saying
becklespinax
ten times fast and keeping a straight face - - this large theropod was also one of the most mysterious , diagnosed on the basis of three fossilized vertebrae . all we know about becklespinax is that it was a respectably sized carnivorous dinosaur of early cretaceous england , and that it may ( or may not ) have sported a short sail , akin to those of later meat - eaters like spinosaurus . judging by the ecosystem in which it lived , becklespinax probably made its living by chasing down and eating small - to medium - sized sauropods .
the early jurassic period wasn ' t exactly a hotbed of dinosaur fossils , which is why berberosaurus is so important and so frustrating at the same time . ever since this theropod was discovered , in the atlas mountains of morocco about a dozen years ago , it has bounced around the classification bins . first , berberosaurus was pegged as an abelisaur ; then as a dilophosaur ( that is , a close relative of the better - known dilophosaurus ) ; and finally , though tentatively , as a ceratosaur . whatever its ultimate disposition , berberosaurus was doubtless a fearsome predator , feasting on the smaller theropods and prosauropods of its african habitat .
as is often the case in the dinosaur kingdom , the name bicentenaria is a bit of a misnomer . the scattered remains of this small theropod were actually discovered in 1998 , and revealed to the world in an article published in 2012 ; the 200th anniversary of the country of argentina actually transpired in between , in 2010 .
bicentenaria is important for two reasons . first , this dinosaur was a coelurosaur , that is , a meat - eater closely related to coelurus . the problem is , coelurus dated from the late jurassic period ( about 150 million years ago ) , while the remains of bicentenaria date to the middle to late cretaceous ( 95 to 90 million years ago ) . evidently , while other theropods went merrily about their evolutionary way , developing into plus - sized tyrannosaurs and vicious raptors , bicentenaria remained stuck in a mesozoic time warp . considering the time and place in which it lived , bicentenaria was a surprisingly
basal
dinosaur ; if it weren ' t for the unmistakable sediments in which it was buried , paleontologists might be forgiven for believing that it lived 50 million years earlier than it actually did .
second , the discovery of numerous associated bicentenaria remains ( this dinosaur was reconstituted from the bones of various individuals buried in an argentinean reservoir ) has led paleontologists to speculate that it hunted and / or traveled in packs . it ' s difficult to know how much weight to give to this theory , since it ' s not unknown for dinosaur carcasses from different time periods to wind up accumulated in the same location , thanks to floods and prevailing river currents .
the type fossil of carcharodontosaurus , the
great white shark lizard ,
was destroyed during an allied bombing raid on germany in world war ii , the same fate that befell the bones of this dinosaur ' s close relative , spinosaurus , also of northern africa . see 10 facts about carcharodontosaurus
the arms of carnotaurus were small and stubby enough to make those of t . rex seem gigantic by comparison , and the horns over its eyes were too small to be of much use - - odd features that make carnotaurus easily distinguishable from other large meat - eating dinosaurs of the late cretaceous period . see 10 facts about carnotaurus
wherever it ' s ultimately assigned on the theropod family tree , ceratosaurus was a fierce predator , gobbling up pretty much anything that came across its path - - fish , marine reptiles , and other dinosaurs . this carnivore had a more flexible tail than others of its kind , presumably making it an agile swimmer . see an in - depth profile of ceratosaurus
a bewildering array of large theropods roamed the woodlands of eurasia during the early to middle cretaceous period ; among the biggest of the bunch was chilantaisaurus , which may have weighed as much as four tons ( only about half the size of a full - grown tyrannosaurus rex , which lived tens of millions of years later , but still impressive ) . chilantaisaurus was once thought to be closely related to the slightly earlier allosaurus of north america , but it now seems that it may have been an early member of the line of carnivorous dinosaurs that went on to produce the truly gigantic spinosaurus .
announced to the world in april 2015 , chilesaurus is a true oddball : a theropod dinosaur that not only ate plants , but possessed a distinctly ornithischian - like pubic bone ( all theropods are technically classified as saurischians ) , a small head , and large , clumsy feet . see an in - depth profile of chilesaurus
the meat - eating dinosaur concavenator sported two extremely odd adaptations : a triangular structure on its lower back that may have supported a sail or fatty hump , and what appear to be
quill knobs
on its forearms , bony structures that probably supported small arrays of feathers . see an in - depth profile of concavenator
if the
type fossil
of cruxicheiros had been discovered 200 years ago , it would no doubt have been classified as a species of megalosaurus . as it is , though , this dinosaur ' s bones were dredged from an english quarry in the early 1960 ' s , and it was only assigned to its own genus in 2010 . ( the name cruxicheiros ,
crossed hands ,
doesn ' t refer to this meat - eater ' s posture , but to the cross hands quarry in warwickshire . ) beyond that , not a whole lot is known about cruxicheiros besides its very general classification as a
tetanuran
theropod , meaning it was related to virtually every other meat - eating dinosaur of the mesozoic era .
the meat - eating dinosaur cryolophosaurus stands out for two reasons : it was an early carnosaur , predating others of its kind by tens of millions of years , and it had a strange crest atop its head that ran from ear to ear , rather than from front to back , like an elvis presley pompadour . see 10 facts about cryolophosaurus
the importance of dahalokely ( which was announced to the world in 2013 ) is that this meat - eating dinosaur lived 90 million years ago , shaving about 20 million years off the far end of madagascar ' s almost 100 - million - year fossil gap . see an in - depth profile of dahalokely
it ' s hard to picture a carnivorous dinosaur measuring over 30 feet from snout to tail and weighing in the neighborhood of 3 to 4 tons building up a significant head of steam during a chase , but judging by its streamlined build , deltadromeus must have been one of the fastest and most dangerous predators of the middle cretaceous period . until recently , this large theropod was classified as a coelurosaur ( a family of fairly small , predatory dinosaurs ) , but its size and other anatomical characteristics have since placed it more firmly in the ceratosaur camp , and thus closely related to the equally dangerous ceratosaurus .
thanks to its portrayal in jurassic park , dilophosaurus may be the most misunderstood dinosaur on the face of the earth : it didn ' t spit poison , it didn ' t have an expandable neck frill , and it wasn ' t the size of a golden retriever . see 10 facts about dilophosaurus
you might imagine that a dinosaur named draconyx (
dragon ' s claw
) would be a confirmed meat eater , or at least have an unpleasant disposition . well , that ' s not the case : this late jurassic ornithopod , discovered in portugal in 1991 , only weighed about 300 pounds and was a confirmed vegetarian , about as far from a dragon as you can get while still being in the general vicinity of a large reptile . that ' s pretty much all we know about draconyx , except for the fact that it was closely related to the north american camptosaurus and shared its habitat with the much bigger meat - eater lourinhanosaurus .
not the most easily spelled ( or pronounced ) dinosaur , dubreuillosaurus was only
diagnosed
in 2005 on the basis of a partial skeleton ( it was originally thought to have been a species of the even more obscure meat - eater poekilopleuron ) . now classified as a megalosaur , a type of large theropod closely related to megalosaurus , dubreuillosaurus was characterized by its unusually long skull , which was three times as long as it was thick . it ' s unknown exactly why this theropod evolved this feature , but it probably had something to do with its accustomed diet .
paleontologists don ' t always spend their time out in the field digging up new dinosaurs ; sometimes , they have to rectify the errors made by previous generations of scientists . duriavenator (
dorset hunter
) is the genus name assigned in 2008 to what had previously been classified as a species of megalosaurus , m . hesperis . ( in the mid - 19th century , a bewildering variety of theropods were classified as megalosaurus species by paleontologists who hadn ' t yet grasped the full scope of theropod evolution . ) the middle jurassic duriavenator is one of the earliest identified tetanuran (
stiff - tailed
) dinosaurs , preceded ( perhaps ) only by cryolophosaurus .
just how confident was the famous paleontologist robert bakker when the discovered the fossils of edmarka in the early 1990 ' s ? well , he dubbed this presumed new genus of large theropod edmarka rex , after its more famous cousin of the late cretaceous period , tyrannosaurus rex . the trouble is , most paleontologists believe that edmarka was actually a species of torvosaurus ( and , even more confusingly , other paleontologists believe that torvosaurus was actually a species of allosaurus ) . whatever you choose to call it , edmarka was clearly an apex predator of late jurassic north america , and one of the scariest predatory dinosaurs until the advent of full - sized tyrannosaurs tens of millions of years later .
the most interesting thing about some dinosaurs is their names . that ' s certainly the case with ekrixinatosaurus , a nearly - unpronounceable jumble of greek roots that translates roughly as
explosion - born lizard
- - a reference to the fact that this large theropod ' s bones were discovered during construction - related blasting in argentina , and which has nothing to do with the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago . ekrixinatosaurus is classified as an abelisaur ( and hence a relative of abelisaurus ) , and it also shared some characteristics ( such as its unusually tiny and stunted arms ) with the better - known majungatholus and carnotaurus .
the abelisaurids were a family of meat - eating dinosaurs that populated south america during the cretaceous period ( the most famous member of the breed was carnotaurus ) . the importance of eoabelisaurus is that it ' s the first identified abelisaurid theropod to date from the jurassic period , about 170 million years ago , an otherwise sparse stretch of time for dinosaur discoveries . like its descendants tens of millions of years down the line , this
dawn abelisaurus
was characterized by its fearsome size ( at least by middle jurassic standards ) and its unusually stunted arms , which doubtless still served some useful purpose .
as you may have guessed from its name , eocarcharia was closely related to carcharodontosaurus , the
great white shark lizard
that occupied the same north african habitat . ecarcharia was smaller than its more famous cousin , and also had a strange , bony ridge over its eyes , which it may have used to head - butt other dinosaurs ( this was probably a sexually selected characteristic , meaning males with bigger , bonier brows got to mate with more females ) . judging by its numerous , sharp teeth , eocarcharia was an active predator , though it presumably left the biggest prey to carcharodontosaurus . by the way , this large theropod marks yet another notch in the dinosaur - discovery belt of the prolific paleontologist paul sereno .
to those unfamiliar with the greek language , the name erectopus may seem slightly naughty - - but it actually means nothing more titillating than
upright foot .
the remains of this meat - eating dinosaur were discovered in france in the late 19th century , and since then it has had a complicated taxonomic history . like many carnivores of dubious provenance , it was initially classified as a species of megalosaurus ( m . superbus ) , then renamed erectopus sauvagei by the german paleontologist friedrich von huene , at which point it spent almost the next 100 years in dinosaur limbo - - until it was reassessed in 2005 as a close ( but much smaller ) relative of allosaurus .
eustreptospondylus was discovered in the mid - 19th century , before scientists had developed a suitable system for classifying dinosaurs . as a result , this theropod was originally thought to be a species of megalosaurus , and it took a full century for paleontologists to assign it to its own genus . see an in - depth profile of eustreptospondylus
like many theropods ( the large family of two - legged carnivorous dinosaurs that included such diverse groups as raptors , tyrannosaurs , carnosaurs and allosaurs ) , fukuiraptor has bounced around the classification bins ever since its discovery in japan . at first , this dinosaur ' s giant hand claws were misidentified as belonging on its feet , and it was classified as a raptor ( a legacy that endures in its name ) . today , though , fukuiraptor is believed to have been a carnosaur , and was probably closely related to another misnamed , medium - sized theropod , the chinese sinraptor . ( it ' s possible that fukuiraptor preyed on the contemporary ornithopod fukuisaurus , but as yet there ' s no evidence for this . )
why
gasosaurus ?
not because this dinosaur had digestive issues , but because the fragmented remains of this obscure but amusingly named theropod were discovered in 1985 by the employees of a chinese gas - mining company . see an in - depth profile of gasosaurus
considering that entire dinosaurs have been reconstructed from scarcer fossil evidence , it seems odd that genyodectes has proven so hard to classify : this meat - eater is represented by a single , superbly preserved set of choppers , which look like the giant - sized false teeth from a children ' s cartoon . since its
type fossil
was described , in 1901 , genyodectes has been classified as a tyrannosaur , an abelisaur and a megalosaur ; lately , the trend has been to lump it in with the ceratosaurs , which would make it a close relative of ceratosaurus . oddly enough , considering its tangled history , genyodectes was the most well - attested large south american theropod until a series of spectacular fossil finds starting in the 1970 ' s .
giganotosaurus was a truly enormous predatory dinosaur , slightly outweighing even tyrannosaurus rex . this south american theropod also had a more formidable arsenal , including much bigger arms with three clawed fingers on each hand . see 10 facts about giganotosaurus
here ' s a quick japanese lesson : the enormous monster we know as godzilla bears the japanese name gojira , which is itself a combination of the japanese words for whale (
kujira
) and gorilla (
gorira
) . as you can guess , the paleontologist who named gojirasaurus ( the bones of which were dug up in north america ) grew up as a die - hard fan of the godzilla movies .
despite its name , gojirasaurus was far from the biggest dinosaur that ever lived , though it did attain a respectable size for its time - - in fact , at 500 pounds , it may have been one of the biggest theropods of the triassic period . so far , paleontologists have only found the fossil of a single juvenile , so it ' s possible that adults of this genus may have been even bigger ( though nowhere near as massive as later carnivorous dinosaurs like tyrannosaurus rex , much less godzilla himself ) .
ilokelesia was one of a wide variety of abelisaurs - - small - to medium - sized theropod dinosaurs closely related to abelisaurus - - that inhabited south america during the middle to late cretaceous period . this 500 - pound meat - eater stood out from the pack thanks to its broader - than - usual tail and the structure of its skull ; its closest relative was the much bigger , and much more dangerous , mapusaurus . there ' s still a lot paleontologists don ' t know about the evolutionary relationship of abelisaurs to other theropod families , which is why dinosaurs like ilokelesia are a subject of intensive study .
as you may have guessed from its name - -
indian crocodile
- - indosuchus wasn ' t identified as a dinosaur when its scattered remains were first discovered in 1933 , in southern india ( which , even today , is not exactly a hotbed of dinosaur research ) . it was only much later that this creature was reconstructed as a large theropod closely related to the south american abelisaurus , and thus a devoted hunter of the small - to mid - sized hadrosaurs and titanosaurs of late cretaceous central asia . ( indosuchus / kinship with a south american dinosaur can no doubt be explained by the distribution of the earth ' s continents during mesozoic era . )
as spinosaurs - - large , carnivorous dinosaurs with crocodile - like heads and jaws - - go , irritator wasn ' t any more
irritating
than any other genus . rather , this predator acquired its name because its only existing skull had been touched up with plaster by an overeager fossil hunter , requiring paleontologist dave martill to spend long , tedious hours undoing the damage . as you may already have guessed , irritator was closely related to its fellow south american theropod spinosaurus , the biggest carnivorous dinosaur that ever lived - - and it may yet wind up being assigned as a species of yet another south american spinosaur , angaturama .
by the way , the last name of the only known species of irritator is
challengeri ,
after the lead character in sir arthur conan doyle ' s novel the lost world .
kaijiangosaurus is one of those dinosaurs that has been consigned to the
almost , but not quite
netherworld of paleontology : this large theropod ( technically , a carnosaur ) was discovered in china in 1984 , in the same formation that yielded the better known , and much more amusingly named , gasosaurus . in fact , most paleontologists believe that kaijiangosaurus was either a specimen , or a species , of this more famous dinosaur ( which wasn ' t technically gassy , but discovered during a dig on gas - bearing sediments ) , though only further fossil discoveries can decide the issue one way or the other .
discovered in 2008 by the globe - trotting paleontologist paul sereno , kryptops is a rare example of a north african theropod ( technically , an abelisaur ) from the middle cretaceous period . this dinosaur wasn ' t especially big ,
only
about 25 feet long and less than a ton , but it was distinguished by the weird , horny skin that seemed to have covered its face ( this coating was probably made of keratin , the same stuff as human fingernails ) . despite its fearsome appearance , kryptops ' relatively short , blunt teeth point to its having been a scavenger rather than an active hunter .
to date , not a lot is known about leshansaurus , which was diagnosed on the basis of a partial juvenile skeleton unearthed in china ' s dashanpu formation in 2009 . initially , this theropod was classified as a close relative of sinraptor , but now there are now some indications that it may have been a megalosaur instead ( and thus similar to the western european megalosaurus ) . leshansaurus did possess an unusually narrow snout , which has fueled speculation that it preyed on the small , more easily tipped - over ankylosaurs of late cretaceous china ( such as chialingosaurus ) .
every now and then , paleontologists unearth a dinosaur that throws a big , looping curve ball into accepted dogma . that ' s what has happened with limusaurus , a very early ceratosaur ( a type of large theropod , or bipedal , meat - eating dinosaur ) with a beaked snout and no teeth . what this almost certainly means ( though not all paleontologists have accepted this conclusion ) is that limusaurus was a vegetarian , whereas virtually all other theropod genera ( with the exception of some therizinosaurs and ornithomimids ) are known to have subsisted on meat . as such , this relatively early ( late jurassic ) ceratosaur may have represented a transitional form between earlier vegetarians and later carnivores .
one of the few large theropods to be discovered in portugal , lourinhanosaurus ( named after that country ' s lourinha formation ) has proven difficult to classify : paleontologists can ' t decide if it was most closely related to allosaurus , sinraptor or the equally obscure megalosaurus . this late jurassic predator is noteworthy for two reasons : first , scientists have identified gastroliths among its fossilized stomach contents , which lourinhanosaurus clearly swallowed on purpose rather than ingesting by accident when eating herbivorous dinosaurs . and second , a clutch of about 100 lourinhanosaurus eggs , some containing fossilized embryos , have been found close to the original excavation site .
paleontologists are still untangling the confusion generated by the early discovery ( in 1676 ) of megalosaurus , after which every dinosaur that vaguely resembled it was assigned , incorrectly , to its genus . a good example is magnosaurus , which ( based on its limited fossil remains ) was considered to be a valid a species of megalosaurus until fairly recently . apart from this taxonomic confusion , magnosaurus appears to have been a typical theropod of the middle jurassic period , relatively small ( only about 400 pounds or so ) and speedy compared to its later jurassic and cretaceous descendants .
paleontologists have identified majungasaurus bones bearing majungasaurus tooth marks . however , we don ' t know whether adults of this dinosaur genus actively hunted down their relatives , or if they simply feasted on the carcasses of already - dead family members . see an in - depth profile of majungasaurus


zizeeria knysna , the dark grass blue or african grass blue , is a species of blue butterfly ( lycaenidae ) found in africa , on cyprus and the iberian peninsula .

sometimes mistakenly called zizeeria lysimon ( hübner ) , that species name is invalid as it is preoccupied by papilio lisimon stoll , [ 1790 ] , a butterfly in the family riodinidae .

the wingspan is 18 – 23 mm for males and 21 – 26 mm for females .

the butterfly flies nearly year-round .

the larvae feed on medicago , melilotus , acanthyllis , armeria delicatula , polygonum equisetiforme , tribulus terrestris and oxalis .

zizeeria knysna

valter jacinto marked
africana - azul / / african grass blue ( zizeeria knysna )
as trusted on the
zizeeria knysna
page .
c . michael hogan set
africana - azul / / african grass blue ( zizeeria knysna )
as an exemplar on
zizeeria knysna trimen 1862
.
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
ruohosini
to
zizeeria knysna trimen 1862
.
zizeeria knysna trimen ( iysimon huebner ) ( lep . : lycaenidae ) : an additional species of butterfly to the maltese islands
article : zizeeria knysna trimen ( iysimon huebner ) ( lep . : lycaenidae ) : an additional species of butterfly to the maltese islands
details - zizeeria knysna trimen ( iysimon huebner ) ( lep . : lycaenidae ) : an additional species of butterfly to the maltese islands - biodiversity heritage library
knysna angustemarginata heydemann , [ 1955 ] ; zs . wien . ent . ges . 39 : 424
zizeeria ( zizeeriina ) ; stradomsky , 2016 , caucasian ent . bull . 12 ( 1 ) : 151
knysna volpii ( romei , 1927 ) ( zizera ) ; boll . lab . zool . portici 20 : 275
zizeeria chapman , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 ( 4 ) : 480 , 482 ; ts : polyommatus karsandra moore
ty - jour ti - zizeeria knysna trimen ( iysimon huebner ) ( lep . : lycaenidae ) : an additional species of butterfly to the maltese islands t2 - the entomologist ' s record and journal of variation . vl - 90 ur - urltoken pb - s . n . cy - [ london : py - 1978 sp - 265 ep - 266 sn - 0013 - 8916 au - bonett , g er -
zizeeria knysna ; clench , 1965 , mem . amer . ent . soc . 19 : 399 ; stempffer , 1967 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent ) suppl . 10 : 258 ; [ bafr ] , 550 ; [ bk ] : 238 , pl . 24 , f . 323 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ bmat ] : 33 , pl . 11 , f . 5 - 10 ; [ madl ] ; [ afrl ] ; [ otakar kudrna ] ; [ fe ]
@ article { bhlpart196489 , title = { zizeeria knysna trimen ( iysimon huebner ) ( lep . : lycaenidae ) : an additional species of butterfly to the maltese islands } , journal = { the entomologist ' s record and journal of variation . } , volume = { 90 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ london : s . n . } , author = { bonett , g } , year = { 1978 } , pages = { 265 - - 266 } , }
zizeeria karsandra ; [ mrs ] , 674 ; [ bmp ] : 245 , pl . 34 , f . 40 - 42 ; [ bmat ] : 34 , pl . 11 , f . 11 - 16 ; [ nhm card ] ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 156 ; [ afrl ] ; [ fe ]
) is found only in a locality about one hectare in size , near knysna , in the western cape province of south africa . how can these discrepancies be explained ? the main reason why the painted lady has such a wide distribution is because it is an extreme ecological generalist , while the brenton blue is an extreme specialist . painted lady larvae can feed on the leaves of hundreds of different plant species , the adults are great ‘migrators’ and ‘dispersers’ , and the adults ( and early stages ) can tolerate extremes of temperature . the brenton blue , on the other hand , breeds on a single plant species that has a very restricted geographical distribution . in addition , the larvae are associated with a specific species of
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butterflies and moths are animals without a backbone ( invertebrates ) , with jointed legs ( arthropods ) . they have six legs ( insects ) and scaled wings ( lepidoptera ) . the order lepidoptera ( moths and butterflies ) is divided into more than 30 superfamilies . three of these superfamilies , the papilionoidea ( true butterflies ) , hesperioidea ( skippers ) , and hedyloidea ( a small central american superfamily ) are regarded as “butterflies” by most people , while all of the other superfamilies are considered to be “moths” . there is actually no real distinction between butterflies and moths but , generally , butterflies fly during the day ( are diurnal ) , are brightly coloured , have a club at the end of the feelers ( = antennae ) , and have naked pupae ( moth pupae are often cocooned ) . skippers are , in some respects , in between moths and butterflies because they often fly at dawn or dusk ( are crepuscular ) , have drab colours , the ends of the antennae have a club often followed by a hook , and pupation occurs in a rudimentary cocoon between folded leaves . a few moths , particularly in the families arctiidae and sessidae , are diurnal , brightly coloured , and have clubbed antennae .
there are more than 18 000 described species of butterflies and skippers in the world , and new ones are still being discovered . there are probably at least ten times as many “moth” species , many of which must still be discovered and described . a rough estimate would be at least a quarter of a million species of lepidoptera . many of these will become extinct even before they have been discovered , largely because of the impact of habitat modification and degradation by expanding human populations and activities .
the afrotropical zoogeographical region ( africa south of the sahara , the southern arabian peninsula , and the off - shore islands , including madagascar ) boasts just over 4 000 described species of butterfly and skipper ( about one fifth of the world total ) .
species diversity of butterflies in any particular geographical region is related mainly to vegetational diversity . this , in turn , is dependant mostly on climatic and geomorphological factors . plant diversity is generally highest in areas of high rainfall , high temperatures ( low altitudes and latitudes ) , and variable landscapes . butterfly diversity ( and abundance ) is therefore highest in wet , tropical , lowland forest and lowest in dry , cold , polar deserts . on one forested mountain , a few hectares in extent , in cameroun , more than 1 000 species of butterfly have been recorded , while not a single species is found on the continent of antarctica . in south africa the golden gate highland national park and blyde river canyon nature reserve are of similar size . the floristically less diverse golden gate has fewer than 100 species whereas the floristically rich blyde canyon has about 300 . butterfly diversity thus generally mirrors overall biological diversity for any particular region , one of the reasons why they are a popular model for various branches of scientific inquiry . a striking exception to this rule is the cape floral region , which has nearly 9 000 plant species but a relatively depauperate butterfly fauna . the reason for this is that butterfly larvae mainly utilize the meagre sub - tropical elements of this flora , indicating that the butterflies and the fynbos plants evolved separately .
the life cycle of butterflies and moths is one of the most incredible phenomena of the natural world , and fascinated me as a child , leading to my life - long passion for these creatures . each of the four stages of the life cycle is unique so that each species is , from an ecological perspective , actually four creatures rolled into one . the
( ovum ) is a small spheroid of about a millimetre in diameter that is deposited by the adult female , either singly or in batches , on or near the larval food source . within it the embryo develops into a
( larva ) in a week or so . the larva chews its way though the shell ( chorion ) of the egg and proceeds to feed at a prodigious rate . when it becomes too big for its skin ( cuticle ) , a larger one forms below and the old one is shed . usually there are five larval stages ( instars ) and four moults . the duration of the larval stage is variable but is generally completed in a few weeks . the final larval moult results in the formation of a pre - pupa , a soft unformed thing which wriggles and changes shape as it hardens into a
( pupa ) . within hours the shape of the adult body , wings , eyes , and antennae becomes apparent below the cuticle of the pupa . the duration of the pupal stage is also variable but generally lasts between one and two weeks . a few days before the
butterfly ( imago ) emerges the pupa “colours up” and the adult insect can be clearly seen below the pupal cuticle . on emerging the adult splits the pupal case along defined sutures and hangs , with crumpled wings , from the empty shell or crawls to a nearby support . over the next hour or so the wings gradually expand and harden . this is achieved by pumping body fluids into the wing veins . once the wings have hardened the butterfly is ready for its maiden flight , in search of food and a mate .
butterflies that occur in favourable ( more or less non - seasonal ) environments , such as tropical lowland forest , breed continuously , with as many as 10 generations a year . in harsher environments , particularly those with dry , or freezing periods and periodic fires the indigenous butterflies have only a few or a single annual generation . these species bridge these unfavourable periods by diapausing ( ‘hibernating’ ) in one of the life stages . diapause in the egg stage is well documented in some butterfly species in the northern hemisphere but not in afrotropical butterflies . larval diapause is a common strategy in browns ( satyrinae ) in grassland habitats and in lycaenidae , especially those associated with ants ( myrmecophiles ) . pupal diapause is seen in swallowtails ( papilionidae ) , some swordtails ( genus
) sometimes remaining in the pupal stage for several years . adult diapause is relatively rare in afrotropical butterflies and is best exemplified by the nymphaline ( nymphalinae ) genus
, which has dry - season form adults that look very different from the breeding summer forms .
it is important , from a biological viewpoint , to realize that it is the larval stage that is of greatest ecological importance since it is the larva that is the prime ‘energy - gathering’ stage . there is no nutrient intake in the transforming egg and pupal stages , and largely only ‘maintenance’ energy intake by the adult ( adult butterflies do not grow ! ) . the adult stage should only be regarded as the dispersal and reproductive phase of the life cycle .
some butterfly species have enormous geographic distributions while others are exceedingly localized . the painted lady (
) occurs throughout africa , large parts of europe and america , asia and even parts of australia . at the other extreme , the brenton blue (
ant . adult brenton blues are ‘colony - bound’ , seldom venturing beyond the limits of the colonial boundaries . species with a wide distribution should , however , not automatically be regarded as ‘common’ , nor those with restricted distributions as ‘rare’ . sometimes a species is widespread but rare , sometimes it is local but abundant !
adult butterflies can live for a few weeks to a few months but most die before they can become ‘old’ , either falling prey to a predator , inclement weather , or some other accident ( such as the radiator of a fast - moving vehicle ) . tropical and subtropical species tend to have continuous overlapping broods so that adults and the early stages are present in more or less constant numbers throughout the year . at the other extreme are univoltine species , with only one brood a year . species with a single annual brood predominate in seasonal habitats having long dry spells or cold winters . depending on the species , the eggs , larvae , pupae or adults may undergo diapause ( early stages ) or hibernate ( adults ) during unfavourable periods . the pupal stage is the one which may remain dormant for longest - a desert moth pupa is known to have remained dormant for 16 years before producing a perfectly healthy adult ! in univoltine species the adults are often on the wing for only a few weeks , generally either in spring or in autumn .
lay persons , and even biologists , often fail to understand the population dynamics of butterflies because they equate them with large mammals . a handful of rhinoceroses breeding remorselessly would reach about one hundred individuals after five years . the same handful of butterflies could reach 30 million within six months . the number of butterflies after five years would be simply astronomical ! this has very important and obvious implications when considering the impact of butterfly collecting
like all biological entities butterflies are morphologically variable . this variation is of most interest in adult butterflies since we mainly make use of them in classification systems . obviously there are differences between species ( interspecific variation ) , although in some cases this may be very slight . less obviously there is variation within each species ( intraspecific variation ) , and in some cases this may be very marked . intraspecific variation includes sexual , seasonal , geographical ( subspecific ) , polymorphic , and individual variation .
: in some species the sexes have almost identical wing markings but in others they are entirely different ( sexual dimorphism ) .
: in a few butterfly species there are distinct wet season ( summer ) forms and dry season ( winter ) forms . seasonal dimorphism , also known as seasonal polyphenism , is well illustrated by species belonging to the group of butterflies known as commodores ( genus
) shows the most extreme seasonal dimorphism of any butterfly , the summer form being predominantly red and the winter form predominantly blue . for many years these seasonal forms were thought to represent two different species . even when a summer and winter form were first found in copula this was interpreted as a hybrid mating ! today we know that by keeping the pupae at different temperatures we can breed out the two forms at will . maintaining pupae at ‘boundary’ temperatures produces ‘mixed’ forms known as transitional forms ( rarely transitional forms are also found in the field ) .
: small but consistent differences between geographically isolated populations of a particular species leads some taxonomists to classify them as subspecies . given a sufficient period of time the differences between these subspecies become progressively more pronounced until the populations eventually become reproductively isolated ( can no longer interbreed ) , when we have two distinct species . this phenomenon is known as allopatric speciation .
refers to genetically determined colour forms , most often seen in females , within a species . this is best illustrated by the females of the mocker swallowtail (
) , a common butterfly that is widespread in the afrotropical region . there are dozens of named ( and unnamed ) female forms , all of which mimic distasteful or toxic butterflies . polymorphism exists in many other species , but the reasons for this variation is usually unexplained . the last kind of infraspecific variation is
about 150 ( 4 % ) of the more than 4000 afrotropical butterfly species have what may be regarded as a ‘pan afrotropical’ distribution . these pan afrotropical species have been recorded from west africa ( senegal / guinea ) to north - east africa ( ethiopia ) to southern africa ( south africa ) . a number of these species are also found in madagascar ( 49 species ) and / or the southern arabian peninsula ( 66 species ) ; these have been noted in parentheses .
( skippers ) . the number of species in each family in the afrotropical region is : 93 papilionids , 188 whites , 1 419 nymphalids , 1 700 lycaenids , and 515 hesperiids . although there is fairly good , but not general , agreement about the correct designation of butterfly families , there is much controversy regarding the division of butterfly families into subfamilies . the validity of the tribal and subtribal taxon levels are also in a state of flux . cladistic analyses , together with relatively new dna techniques , will , hopefully , provide us with a more natural classification of taxa above generic level in the near future . below is a classification of the families down to subtribal level ( only taxa found in the afrotropical region are included ) .
most species of butterfly obtain the nutrition they require for their activities in the form of nectar from flowers . this is particularly true of the papilionids , pierids and lycaenids . the males of many species , in all six families , are known to mud - puddle . this involves settling on muddy or damp sandy patches and the imbibition of large quantities of water . every few minutes a drop of water is excreted . thus muspuddling is not equivalent to drinking . it is known that the males extract salts from the water but what they require these salts for is not well understood . in some cases these accumulated salts appear to be passed to females at mating , so - called “nuptial gifts” . on hot sunny days very large numbers of males can be found mud puddling at a favoured ‘watering hole’ . females rarely mud puddle .
many nymphalid butterflies obtain all of their nutrients from fermenting fruit and so - called “sucking holes” in the boles and branches of trees . from these sources they obtain alcohol , which they use as an energy source . sucking holes are usually engineered by beetles or other insects boring into the wood , resulting in the exudation of fermenting tree sap . the large and showy nymphalid genus known as charaxes (
spp . ) are the best known alcohol - feeders among insects . there is often stiff competition among them at a particular “sucking tree” and they have evolved serrations on the leading edge of their front wings . the wings are used to batter each other and the peculiar sound can be heard from many metres away on a hot still day ! mammal dung , of carnivores , omnivores and herbivores , is also frequently visited .
it is not unusual to find large numbers of butterflies imbibing moisture from piles of fresh elephant dung , especially where mud puddling is not an option . in tropical forests some species of skipper have been found feeding from bird droppings . the adults of some lycaenids ( subfamilies poritiinae and miletinae ) feed from the secretions ( honeydew ) of sap - sucking bugs known as hemipterans . a few groups of butterflies , such as the skollies ( lycaenids of the genus
) , and many moths ( e . g . emperor moths ) , do not feed as adults at all .
mating is a crucial function of the adult stage of butterflies and moths . male butterflies use two main strategies to find mates – perching and patrolling . perching behaviour involves the selection and defence of a defined territory , from a perch within the territory . these perches and territories are often on a geographical high point ( often a hill top or ridge ) , but may be a forest or savanna tree , or a bush , or grass stem . sometimes the perch is a stone or even a bare patch of ground . the particular perch that is selected depends very much on the particular species and terrain in which a population occurs . species that select territories on high points are known as “hilltoppers” and the behaviour as “hill - topping” . patrolling behaviour encompasses active coursing of males in search of females . again this is species specific behaviour ; patrolling species generally do not perch and
some perching male skippers appear to use chemicals in their mate - location behaviours . males of the ragged skipper (
) have brush - like scales on their legs and extend these while perching . males of
possess a brush - like abdominal androconial organ with which they scent - mark leaves of bushes and trees in their territory . even though these pheromones appear to be involved in mate - location much research needs to be done in order to fully elucidate the functions of these chemicals signals .
most moths locate mates by using volatile chemicals as homing signals . these chemicals , known as pheromones , are produced by a special gland at the tip of the abdomen of the female . pheromones are relatively species specific and are able to attract males over a distance of several kilometres . the feathery antennae of many male moths are covered with chemical receptors that can detect the specific pheromone at concentrations measured in parts per billion . recent research has indicated that some female moths produce electromagnetic waves that are picked up by the male antennae , similar to radar detection . some moths are even capable of “jamming” the radar system that bats use to detect their prey !
because adult butterflies have the power of flight they are capable of both dispersal and migration . dispersal is the active or passive emigration of individuals from the home range of a population in a random direction , whereas migration is mass movement of large numbers of individuals in a specific direction . migration is a complex biological phenomenon that is incompletely understood . the huge migrations of white butterflies ( mainly the brown - veined white ,
) , in a north - easterly direction , in southern africa is probably caused by over - population in populations originating from the karoo and kalahari regions . here numbers of larvae reach such densities that larval food plants are completely denuded of foliage , causing the stressed adults to ‘trek’ in search of ‘better pastures’ . migration ‘hormones’ probably induce the behaviour and magnetite biological compasses in the head of the butterfly , possibly provide the means for navigation . however , the direction of flight that is invariably chosen is apparently a complete mystery .
female butterflies , depending on species , are capable of laying from 50 to about 500 eggs . for a population to remain numerically stable a particular female must provide two adults to replace herself and her mate . this implies that there is a mortality rate of 96 % or greater . this staggering carnage occurs mainly in the early stages . in one population of butterflies that i studied more than 90 % of the eggs that were laid were parasitized by minute wasps with a wingspan of less than a tenth of a millmetre ( they looked like tiny specks of dust with the naked eye ) . larvae and pupae are decimated by diseases caused by viruses , bacteria and fungi , hordes of parasitic wasps and flies , and carnivorous insects and vertebrates . vertebrate predators include frogs , reptiles , birds and even mammals . in respect of the latter one only has to think of the fondness that some african tribes have for mopani moth caterpillars . most adult butterflies and moths also provide tasty morsels for an army of hungry invertebrates and vertebrates . the often virulent attacks that butterfly and moth collectors must endure from ignorant , albeit often well - meaning , lay persons and the conservation fraternity would be laughable if it was not so counter productive ( see also “
from what has been said in the section above one would think that butterflies are powerless to defend themselves . this , of course , is not so and they have developed many fascinating survival strategies . eggs are often deposited in concealed places or may be covered by sticky substances that may trap the wings of would - be parasitic wasps . the sheer numbers of eggs may saturate the predators ability to use them . larvae and pupae are often superbly camouflaged . some larvae closely resemble lichen and moss encrusted twigs , others resemble shoots and leaves ; some even closely resemble fruits , so escaping detection by the beady eyes of lizards and birds . adult butterflies may be shaped and coloured like dead leaves , and when settled among dead leaves on the forest floor may be virtually invisible .
adult butterflies often have tails projecting from their hind wings – presumably these act as ‘false antennae’ , directing an attack away from the vulnerable head end . some lycaenid butterflies have elaborate false heads and antennae , complete with false eyes , on the ends of their hind wings . in order to enhance the effect of the false head they often settle head down and rub the closed hind wings together , almost inviting a potential predator to attack the ‘wrong end’ .
if deception and other passive strategies do not work then one can always resort to aggressive strategies , based on the maxim that the best method of defence is attack . for butterflies attack takes the form of poisoning the predator . the classical example is the nymphalid subfamily danainae ( monarchs ) . monach caterpillars feed on milkweeds ( aclepiadaceae ) which contain heart poisons known as cardiac glycosides , toxic to vertebrate predators , such as birds . in addition adult monarch butterflies ingest pyrollizidine alkaloids from damaged plants that contain them . these are liver toxins . both the early stages and adults are brightly coloured , displaying so - called “warning colouration” . combinations of black , white , yellow and red are usual . darwinian selective pressures over millions of years have resulted in a number of unrelated palatable species coming to resemble their toxic models . groups of similar models and mimics are known as mimicry rings . one of the most extraordinary mimicry rings involves the african monarch , common diadem , mocker swallowtail , common mimic acraea , boisduvals false acraea , and others .
butterflies and moths , because they are easy to work with , are the subject of numerous studies dealing with basic biological processes . recently they have become an important tool in biodiversity and environmental impact studies . this is because they are taxonomically diverse , and are the best known insect group , thanks largely to the efforts of amateur butterfly collectors . because they are highly visible and relatively abundant , data is easily collected and compared with existing data sets .
there are no major butterfly pests , but there are a number of very serious moth pests . in africa the most important butterfly pests are the african clouded yellow ( on lucerne ) , citrus swallowtail ( on citrus ) , the long - tailed pea blue ( on the seeds of pulses ) and the coffee playboy ( on coffee beans ) .
as is the case with most living species the impact of man is taking an ever increasing toll on butterflies and moths . habitat modification and destruction due to human activities , including the introduction of alien invasives , is the major threat . it is particularly important to those species which have small , local populations because they require very specific habitats . even minor modifications of these habitats might result in the extinction of that species . knowledge about which species are under threat , what the threats are , biological and taxonomic data , and conservation needs is provided by amateur collectors . their advice is crucial for the conservation authorities who are legally charged for the implementation of appropriate measures . as i have emphasized throughout these notes it is important to educate the public on this issue . far from denigrating and even criminalizing butterfly and moth collecting children , especially , should be encouraged to collect and study these beautiful creatures . the bottom line is that butterflies and moths do not have a future if collectors do not .
the life cycles of many lycaenid butterflies are bound up with ants . this is known as myrmecophily ( myrmos = ant ; philos = to love ) . the association between lycaenid caterpillars and ants , if it occurs , may be casual and non - essential ( facultative myrmecophily ) or it may be essential for the completion of the life cycle ( obligate myrmecophily ) . in some cases the larvae are entirely phytophagous , in others they are partially phytophagous , and in still others they are entirely carnivorous ( parasitic on ant brood ) . a few lycaenid caterpillars are fed directly by the worker ants , a process known as trophyllaxis . in a few groups of lycaenids the larvae are associated with hemipterans such as scale insects and membracids . hemipterans , in turn , are frequently closely associated with ants , the latter tending them and ‘milking’ them for their sweet honeydew .
this close association between lycaenid larvae , ants and hemiptera has probably evolved because both lycaenid larvae and hemiptera utilize the soft , nutritious growing shoots of plants . virtually all lycaenid species whose larvae use this microhabitat have anatomical specializations that allow them to survive possible aggression by hemipteran - tending ants ( for the ants the hemipterans are ‘sacred cows’ ) . scattered microscopic glands in the larval cuticle , known as perforated cupola organs ( pco’s ) , are capable of producing ‘ant appeasing secretions’ . other lycaenids have a honeydew - producing gland ( dorsal nectar organ ) which is ‘milked’ by ants . all lycaenid caterpillars appear to have a cuticle which is up to 10 times thicker than that of caterpillars not associated with ants . further specializations in some groups include eversible tentacle organs ( to’s ) and even vibratory papillae . lycaenid larvae are thus able to communicate with their associated ants by chemical as well as auditory systems . larvae of the lycaenid genus
feed on the developing seeds of flowering shrubs for the first two larval instars . after this they induce a specific species of ant to pick them up by emitting a chemical analogue of the ant’s brood . the ant carries the larva into its nest and drops it with the brood . the lycaenid larva then becomes carnivorous on the ant brood . this is just one example of the suite of possible ant - lycaenid interactions that are known to occur .
a few lycaenid groups have become hemipterophagous . in southern africa this is known to occur in basutu skolly (
, containing a blend of both scientific and popular articles . the bibliographies in the main body of the encyclopaedia contains nearly six thousand literature references , including all the books that have been published on afrotropical butterflies .
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a very small discrete butterfly , usually found in towns and villages and cultivated areas where watering , irrigation or drainage maintain vegetation even in very hot dry conditions . the butterflies are very fond of lucerne fields and during our visit in june / july in morocco 2005 just about every field had a thriving colony of this butterfly , even deep into the desert .
widespread and often common across north africa and sporadic and local in spain , particularly in southeast coastal areas .
flies very low over short grasses and damp areas in usually very dry hot locations . i ' ve most frequently encountered them in towns and villages , then in margins of cultivated land . partial to mint and lucerne for example in irregation ditches , drains and desert oases .
fascinating location for many films such as laurence of arabia and gladiator , the movie makers neglected to mention the thriving colony of african grass blues in the foreground of this photo .
1049x807 ( ~ 188kb ) ethiopia , oromia , debre libanos env . , at german ethio lodge , the gur river right bank . 30th july 2012 , photo © oleg kosterin
the exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .
af , madagascar , seychelles , canary islands , s . iberia . see [ maps ]
larva on tribulus terrestris , amaranthus deflexus , amaranthus viridis , medicago sativa , oxalis corniculata , zornia , euphorbia [ pbsa ] , polygonum equisetiforme , armeria delicatula , medicago tribuloides , melilotus messanensis , acanthyllis sp . , medicago sativa [ bmat ] , ( on canary is . ) amaranthus sp . , malva sp . , fagonia [ bmat ]
lycaena serica felder , 1862 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 12 ( 1 / 2 ) : 487
cupido lysimon corneliae regteren altena , 1948 ; tijdschr . ent . 91 : 17 ; tl : teneriffer , santa cruz
e . algeria , tunisia , sicily , crete , tropical asia , australia , moluccas , waigeu , misool , salawati , west irian , timor - tanimbar . see [ maps ]
? zizera mora swinhoe , [ 1885 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1884 : 506 , pl . 47 , f . 7
larva on zornia diphylla , amaranthus viridis , ( association with ant tapinoma melanocephalum ) [ bmp ] amaranthus tricolor , a . viridis [ mrs ] , melilotus indica , medicago sativa , zornia diphylla , trifolium alexandrinum [ bmat ] , glinus lotoides , tribulus cistoides , t . terrestris , t . spp . k . l . & l . e . dunn , 1991 , review austr . butts . ( 1 - 4 ) : ( 120 - 140 )
checklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
voyage au pole sud et dans l ' océanie sur les corvettes l ' astrolabe et la zelée executé . . . . . . pendant . . . . . . 1837 - 40 sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville etc . zool . , insectes . vol . 4
the butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera
review of australian butterflies : distribution , life history and taxonomy . pushlished by authors , melbourne
list of diurnal lepidoptera collected by capt . a . m . lang in the n . w . himalayas
walker , 1870 a list of the butterflies collected by j . k . lord esq . in egypt , along the african shore of the red sea , and in arabia ; with descriptions of the species new to science entomologist 5 ( 76 ) : 48 - 57 , ( 80 - 81 ) : 123 - 134 , ( 82 ) : 151 - 155
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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the ' flower bed ' blue . in tenerife , above , these blues lived in flower beds around built up hotel complexes also i ' ve seen them in portugal in march , seemingly shunning ' natural ' habitat , they frequented a grass lawn next to the swimming pool that was sprinkled every day . in central spain , pictured above they frequented an area of short grass next to a track .
i also saw a few of these in a gorge in southern spain . pictures below ;
© all pictures in these pages copyright to simon coombes . permission must be sought and obtained for any use .
biodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p… urltoken
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the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
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dracaenura torridalis is a species of moth of the crambidae family .

it is found in papua new guinea .

it has a wingspan of 33 mm .

dracaenura torridalis

dracaenura stenosoma ( c . felder , r . felder & rogenhofer , 1875 )
dracaenura is a genus of moths of the family crambidae . it was described by edward meyrick in 18863 .
1907 : jan . - apr . [ pp . 1 - 446 ] - proceedings of the zoological society of london . - biodiversity heritage library
a list of moths of the family pyralidae collected by a . e . pratt in british new guinea in 1902 - 3 , with descriptions of new species
zoological results of the third tanyanyika expedition , conducted by dr . w . a . cunnington , 1904 - 1905 . - report on the polyzoa
zoological results of the third tanganyika expedition , conducted by dr . w . a . cunnington , 1904 - 1905 . - report on the brachyurous crustacea
3 . the rudd exploration of south africa . - vii . list of mammals obtained by mr . grant at coguno , inhambane
1 . on a small collection of fishes made in the eastern watershed of the transvaal b7 capt . g . e . bruce
3 . notes upon the anatomy of a species of frog of the genus megalophrys , with references to other genera . of batrachia
2 . the duke of bedford ' s zoological exploration in eastern asin . - iv . list of small mammals from the islands of saghalien and hokakaido
3 . on some new species of earthworms of the family eudrilide belonging to the genera polytoreutcts , neumanniella , and eminoscolesae from mt . ruwenzori
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