gymnammodytes is a genus of sand lances native to the eastern atlantic ocean , the mediterranean sea and the southwestern indian ocean along the coast of africa .

gymnammodytes

kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
sinipäätuulenkala
to
gymnammodytes cicerelus ( rafinesque , 1810 )
.
underwater footage . flock of the marine fish species mediterranean sand eel ( gymnammodytes cicerellus ) in their natural habitat . black sea coast .
justification : gymnammodytes cicerelus is widespread in the mediterranean and the eastern central atlantic and can be locally common . there are no known major threats . it is listed as least concern .
justification : gymnammodytes cicerelus is widespread in the mediterranean . there is no specific population information but it is not considered threatened at present . therefore this species is listed as least concern .
( of gymnammodytes cicerellus ( rafinesque , 1810 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
gymnammodytes semisquamatus is taken as bycatch in the commercially - important ammodytidae fishery ( muus and nielsen 1999 ) . additionally , it is suspected that , like several congeners , g . semisquamatus forms an important component of the diet of fishes , mammals and seabirds .
there are issues of taxonomic quality within the family ammodytidae . gymnammodytes capensis and g . cicerelus do not significantly differ morphologically and therefore , their status is uncertain . they were described as separate species due to differences in geographic distribution of regional populations , however a systematic revision is needed ( nizinski in press ) .
corbin , p . g . 1950 . the occurrence of the smooth sand - eel , gymnammodytes semisquamatus ( jourdain ) , in the plymouth area , with notes on c . cicerelus ( rafinesque ) , and g . capensis ( barnard ) . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k , 29 : pp . 83 - 89 .
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greek , gymnos = naked + greek , ammos = sand + greek , dytes = somebody that likes immersions or diving ( ref . 45335 )
eastern atlantic and mediterranean sea : including the adriatic , aegean and black sea , portugal and senegal . has also been reported from southern morocco , mauritania , and angola ( ref . 10813 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 17 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 12 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 53 - 59 ; anal soft rays : 27 - 32 ; vertebrae : 64 - 68 . ventrolateral skin - folds extending well beyond pectoral fins to anus . lateral line branched . back golden brown or greenish , belly silvery , head usually dark blue .
found over shell - gravel and coarse sand bottoms ( ref . 6450 ) .
quéro , j . - c . , 1990 . ammodytidae . p . 920 . in j . c . quéro , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 10813 )
) : 7 . 8 - 18 . 1 , mean 14 . 3 ( based on 57 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 45 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .
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van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes argenteus risso , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes cicerelus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes siculus swainson , 1839 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes terebrans cisternas , 1875 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes cicerellus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
jourdain , s . ( 1879 ) . sur les ammodytes des côtes de la manche . rev . sci . nat . 8 ( ser . 2 , v . 1 ) : 203 - 210 , pl . 2 . page ( s ) : 208 [ details ]
muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
ben rais lasram , f . ; mouillot , d . ( 2008 ) . increasing southern invasion enhances congruence between endemic and exotic mediterranean fish fauna . biological invasions . 11 ( 3 ) : 697 - 711 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
cattrijsse , a . ; vincx , m . ( 2001 ) . biodiversity of the benthos and the avifauna of the belgian coastal waters : summary of data collected between 1970 and 1998 . sustainable management of the north sea . federal office for scientific , technical and cultural affairs : brussel , belgium . 48 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 208 [ details ]
( of ammodytes semisquamatus jourdain , 1879 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes capensis barnard , 1927 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of ammodytes capensis barnard , 1927 ) macnae , w . & m . kalk ( eds ) . ( 1958 ) . a natural history of inhaca island , mozambique . witwatersrand univ . press , johannesburg . i - iv , 163 pp . [ details ]
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2006 , only as ichthyoplankton ) , the sea of marmara and the black sea . it has been recorded from portugal , southern morocco , mauritania , senegal and angola ( quéro 1990 , nizinski in press ) .
is distributed on the continental shelf in the eastern central atlantic off of the african coast from southern morocco south to angola . vakily
albania ; algeria ; angola ; benin ; bulgaria ; cameroon ; congo ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; côte d ' ivoire ; croatia ; equatorial guinea ; france ; gabon ; gambia ; georgia ; ghana ; gibraltar ; greece ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; italy ; liberia ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; nigeria ; portugal ; romania ; russian federation ; senegal ; serbia ; sierra leone ; slovenia ; spain ( canary is . ) ; togo ; tunisia ; turkey ; ukraine ; western sahara
can be occasional on the rocky reefs surrounding the cape of palos ( murcia , spain ; garcia - charton and perez - ruzafa 2000 ) . in the catalan sea , the landing data for
is a demersal , burrowing species , found over sand substrata ( wheeler 1979 ) .
are important prey items for other fishes , birds and mammals ( nizinski in press ) . vakily
as demersal with a maximum size of 17 cm tl off of west africa .
is a commercial species . in the mediterranean , it is mainly caught by beach seine . in the eastern central atlantic , it
is utilized on a small - scale basis for bait and food in some areas and commercially for fishmeal and fish oil ( nizinski in press ) .
. however , it may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range ( world database on protected areas 2010 ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
there are issues of taxonomic quality within the family ammodytidae ( nizinski in press ) . prior to the revision by sabatés et al . ( 1990 ) , the accepted description of g . cicerelus included two species : g . cicerelus and g . semisquamatus .
is distributed from the southern coast of norway and the shetlands to spain , including all coasts of the british isles and the north sea , excluding the baltic sea , and into the mediterranean .
is a coastal species which is found over the continental shelf . this species co - occurs with
is assumed to be to roughly 35 m . this species is found over shell - gravel substrates , and also inshore where shell - gravel beaches occur . it is likely an important prey item for other fishes , birds and mammals . in addition to this important ecosystem service ,
is a commercially important bycatch species in the sandeel fishery . there are no species - specific landing statistics available , there is little reliable population information available , and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range .
is assessed as least concern because it is widespread within the region , and because there has been a significant reduction of effort in the sandeel fishery in recent years , with a decrease in fishing mortality and a rise in spawning stock biomass of ammodytidae in general .
is suspected to be taken as bycatch in the commercially important sandeel fishery . there are no species - specific landing statistics or reliable population data available , and the fishery is poorly characterized throughout the range .
sea of marmara : 21200 - 411 ( 1 spc . ) , 21 . 07 . 1992 , norteastern waters of kapidag peninsula , beam trawl , 46 m , l . eryilmaz .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
bauzá - rullán , j . 1960a . contribución al conocimiento de otolitos de peces . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . ( biol . ) , 57 , 1959 : 89 - 118 , pl . i - viii .
bini , g . 1967 - 1972 . atlante dei pesci delle coste italiane . mondo sommerso , milano , 9 vol : i , 1967 , leptocardi , ciclostomi , selaci , 206 pp . , 66 fig . + 64 col . fig . ii , 1971 , osteitti ( acipenseriformi , clupeiformi , mictofiformi , anguilliformi ) , 300 pp . , 73 col . fig . iii , 1970 , notacantiformi . . . zeiformi , 229 pp . , 34 fig . + 63 col . fig . iv , 1968 , perciformi ( mugiloidei , percoidei ) , 163 pp . , 34 fig . + 49 col . fig . v , 1968 , perciformi ( percoidei ) , 175 pp . , 22 fig . + 56 col . fig . vi , 1968 , perciformi ( trichiuroidei . . . blennioidei ) , 177 pp . , 48 fig + 57 col . fig . vii , 1969 , perciformi ( ofidioidei . . . dactilopteroidei ) , 196 pp . , 57 fig . + 59 col . fig . viii , 1968 , pleuronettiformi , echeniformi , gobioesociformi , tetraodontiformi , lofiformi , 164 pp . , 34 + 63 fig . ix , 1972 , introduzione . parte generale . aggiornamenti . indici . 176 p .
dieuzeide , r . ; novella , m . ( collab . j . roland ) , 1953 - 1955 . catalogue des poissons des côtes algériennes . bull . stn aquic . pêch . castiglione , i ( n . s . ) , ( 4 ) , 1952 [ 1953 ] : pp . 1 - 135 , 73 fig . n . num . ; ii ( n . s . ) , ( 5 ) , 1953 [ 1954 ] : pp . 1 - 258 , 135 fig . n . num . ; iii ( n . s . ) , ( 6 ) , 1954 [ 1955 ] : pp . 1 - 384 , 202 fig . n . num .
dollfus , r . ph . 1955 . première contribution à l ' établissement d ' un fichier ichthyologique du maroc atlantique de tanger à l ' embouchure de l ' oued dra . trav . inst . scient . chérif . , zool , ( 6 ) : 227 pp . , 1 map .
duncker , g . ; mohr , e . w . 1939 . revision der ammodytidae . mitt . zool mus . , berlin , 24 ( 1 ) : pp . 8 - 31 .
günther , a . 1862 . catalogue of the fishes in the british museum . 4 . catalogue of the acanthopterygii pharyngognathi and anacanthini in the collection of the british museum . london , xxi + 534 pp .
lozano y rey , l . 1960 . peces fisodistos . tercera parte . subseries toracicos ( ordenes equeneiformes y gobiformes ) , pediculados y asimetricos . mems r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . , ser . : cienc . nat . , 14 : 613 pp . , 173 fig . , 7 pl .
luther , w . ; fiedler , k . 1961 . die unterwasserfauna der mittelmeerküsten . hamburg - berlin , parey ed . : 253 pp . , 28 fig . , 46 pl .
moreau , e . 1881 - 1891 . histoire naturelle des poissons de la france , paris , i , 1881 : pp . i - vii + 1 - 480 , fig . 1 - 82 ; ii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 572 , fig . 83 - 145 ; iii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 697 , fig . 146 - 220 ; suppl . , 1891 : pp . 1 - 144 , fig . 221 - 227 .
padoa , e . 1956b . triglidae , peristediidae , dactylopteridae , gobiidae , echeneidae , jugulares , gobiesocidae , heterosomata , pediculati in uova , larve e stadi giovanili di teleostei . fauna flora golfo napoli , 38 : pp . 627 - 888 , fig . 504 - 785 , pl . xxxix - l .
poljakov , g . d . ; filipi , n . d . ; basho , k . 1958 . peshgit e shgiperise . [ fish of albania ] , tirane , 286 pp .
rafinesque - schmaltz , c . s . 1810a . caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali ( principalmente di pesci ) e piante della sicilia , con varie osservazioni sopra i medisimi . palermo , 105 pp . , 20 pl . ( reprint , 1967 , asher - amsterdam . )
risso , a . 1810 . ichthyologie de nice , ou histoire naturelle des poissons du département des alpes maritimes . paris , xxxvi + 388 pp . , 11 pl . ( reprint , 1966 , asher , amsterdam . )
risso , a . 1826 . histoire naturelle des principales productions de l ' europe méridionale et particulièrement de celles des environs de nice et des alpes maritimes . paris et strasbourg , vol . iii , xvi + 486 pp . , 16 pl .
steindachner , f . 1868a . ichthyologischer bericht über eine nach spanien und portugal untermommene reise . übersicht der meeresfische an den kusten spanien ' s und portugal ' s . sber . akad . wiss . wien . , 57 ( 1 ) : 351 - 424 , 667 - 738 , 6 pl .
svetovidov , a . n . 1964 . rîbî chernogo morya . [ the fishes of the black sea ] . opred faune sssr , 86 : pp . 1 - 552 , fig . 1 - 191 ( in russian ) .
swainson , w . 1820 - 1833 . zoological illustrations , or original figures and descriptions of new , rare or interesting animals , arranged on the principles of cuvier and other modern zoologists . london , 6 vol . , 318 col . pl .
no specific population information is available on this species . in the catalan sea the landing data for this species was 265 . 1 tons / year ( sardà et al . 2005 ) .
it is a demersal , burrowing species , found over sand substrata ( wheeler 1979 ) .
this is a commercial species . inside the mediterranean it is mainly caught by beach seine . no serious threats are known .
there is no information available on specific conservation measures for this species in the mediterranean . however , this species may be found in marine protected areas within its distribution range .
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harpalus zabroides is a species of ground beetle native to europe , where it can be found throughout central europe and in such countries as baltic states ( except for estonia ) , benelux , belarus , italy , spain , ukraine , in all states of former yugoslavia ( except for croatia and republic of macedonia ) , and all parts of russia ( except north and northwest ) .

it is also found in such asian countries as armenia , georgia , iran , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , tajikistan , and turkey .

harpalus zabroides

it is unrealistic to even up this kind of perspective . approximately genus harpalus /
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beetle harpalus zabroides on a white background
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photo : ivan pristrem . image without retouching at the website . identified by : evgeny komarov
date and time , location shooting / catching : 2015 - 06 - 09 22 : 52 : 00 , волгоградская обл . , г . волгоград , пос . верхняя ельшанка ; 48°41′16″n ( 48 . 687669 ) ; 44°24′36″e ( 44 . 409932 )
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date and time , location shooting / catching : 2015 - 06 - 09 22 : 53 : 00 , волгоградская обл . , г . волгоград , пос . верхняя ельшанка ; 48°41′16″n ( 48 . 687669 ) ; 44°24′36″e ( 44 . 409932 )
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ne ukraine , kharkov , frunzhenskiy distr . . velozavodskaya street . 49°58 ' 20 . 02
n . 36°21 ' 26 . 84
e .
reck n . , chaladze g . 2004 . checklist of the ground beetles ( coleoptera , carabidae ) of georgia . proceedings of the institute of zoology of georgia , v . xxii , p . 127 - 157 .
tarkhnishvili d , chaladze g ( editors ) . 2013 . georgian biodiversity database . urltoken downloaded on : 9 july 2018


apterichtus ansp , the academy eel , is a species of snake eel native to the western atlantic ocean from north carolina , united states through the bahamas to brazil .

it is known to dwell down to a maximum depth of 200 metres ( 660 ft ) , and leads a benthic lifestyle , inhabiting burrows in the sand in surf areas .

this species can reach a length of 54 centimetres ( 21 in ) tl .

academy eel

the academy eel , apterichtus ansp ( bohlke 1968 ) , was named after @ acadnatsci . # taxonomytuesday urltoken
christian kammerer on twitter :
the academy eel , apterichtus ansp ( bohlke 1968 ) , was named after @ acadnatsci . # taxonomytuesday urltoken
abrau sprat academy eel aden blenny african ray aguja skate almaco . . . : blue hamlet blue maomao blue runner blue shiner blue sucker blunt skate bobo mullet bobtail eel bombay duck bombay - duck bonnethead border barb bottle - fish . . . urltoken more
common name / nom commun : academy eel , serpenton de l ' académie . comments / commentaires : none / aucune . bascanichthys bascanium ( jordan , 1884 ) common name / nom commun : sooty eel , serpenton charbonneux . comments / commentaires : none / aucune . more
since allowing patrons to reach into the tank would be a tad unhygienic , the aquarium provides the next best thing : an electric eel simulator on the wall , complete with the irresistible words :
how does an electric eel catch dinner ? touch the eel for a shock .
paradigm for recording current during eel shocking leap . ( a ) two parts of a conductive aluminum plate were connected with a wire through which current was measured with a hall effect sensor as the eel ascended . ( b ) as was the case for voltage , current increased as the eel ascended . ( c ) comparison of current and voltage relative to eel height above water for each of two eels ( five trials for each condition , eels a and c ) . see movie s6 for trial illustrated in b .
schematic of changes to the current path presumed to occur as an electric eel approaches and ascends a conductor . as the eel emerges from the water , two parallel current paths and corresponding resistances exist , representing a current divider . the eel’s high voltage is delivered in volleys of roughly 1 - ms pulses , and eels do not modulate their total power output during a volley ( see text ) .
paradigm for recording voltage during eel shocking leaps . ( a ) either a conductive carbon rod or a flat aluminum plate was split , with an insulator in between . a voltmeter ( v ) measured potential between the conductor in the water and the top conductor as the eel ascended . ( b ) proposed equivalent circuit showing water resistance ( r w1 ) , eel internal resistance ( r i ) , and a new and increasing resistance ( r w2 ) for the current from head to water as the eel ascends . ( c and d ) result of two trials for voltage measurement from eel a during leap , demonstrating increase in potential as the eel ascends . note modulation of pulse rate when contact with conductor was lost ( red tick - marks in c ; see movie s2 ) . ( e ) result of trial for voltage measurement from eel b during leap . ( f ) result of trial for voltage measurement from eel c during leap . note modulation of pulse rate when contact with conductor was lost ( red tick - marks ; see movie s5 ) .
as predicted from the circuit shown in fig . 3 b , the recorded voltage increased dramatically as the eels ascended . this effect of increasing voltage in proportion to increasing height of eel leap during the volley was measured in each of three eels ( n = 10 trials for eel a and n = 5 trials for eels b and c ) . the same effect was observed for a fourth eel ( eel d ) based on eel - powered light - emitting diode ( led ) intensity ( see movies s7 and s8 ) . two additional eels ( over 60 cm in length ) exhibited the behavior in the course of previous investigations , but no measurements were taken .
there are certain truths we hold to be self - evident about san franciscans : we love learning new things , and we love mild , non - lethal electrocution . thankfully , deep within the moodily - lit steinhart aquarium at the california academy of sciences , through the amazon flooded forest and nearly hidden in the shadows of the northern california coast exhibit , is a big ol ' electric eel that satisfies both cravings .
granted , it ' s a picture of an eel with two electric small plates attached - - and it most likely is not the prey - stunning 650 volts the sign says eels are capable of . . .
fig . 2 provides a schematic illustration of the resulting relative current paths that would presumably exist for different phases of the eel’s behavior . to assess the validity of this interpretation , a split conductive rod , or alternatively a split aluminum plate , was used to measure voltage ( fig . 3 ) . one short segment of the rod ( fig . 3 c and d ) or plate ( fig . 3 e and f ) was placed into the water , and the other , longer , segment protruded above the water , with a plastic insulating segment between them . voltage was measured between the top and bottom segments of the conductors as the eels ascended during their shocking leaps . fig . 3 b shows an equivalent circuit . when fully submerged , the resistances include the eel’s internal resistance ( r i ) and the water resistance ( r w1 ) . as the eel ascends , a new and progressively higher resistance path ( r w2 ) from the eel’s head to the water presumably develops .
although the full form of the eel’s leaping behavior is astonishing , the more subtle stages by which this behavior likely evolved are apparent . increasing power is delivered to the conductive target , first as the positive pole of the dipole field ( the eel’s head ) is brought closer to the target , second as direct contact is made , and finally as the eel’s head leaves the water and ascends the conductor . each stage provides a progressive advantage , suggesting how it may have evolved . a similar argument has been made for the curling behavior eels use to concentrate their electric field through struggling prey ( 14 ) . the effect is to cause tetanus and rapid muscle fatigue by overactivating prey efferents . in the latter case , the activation of afferent ( sensory ) pathways is irrelevant to the eel , but when leaping to shock large animals , the aversive sensory experience of afferent activation ( combined with induced tetanus ) likely plays a key role in deterrence . in this context , the eel’s electrical defense may parallel the pain - inducing venoms of some insects and arachnids that have a primarily deterrent function but do not cause tissue damage ( 38 , 39 ) . the possibility that eels use the leaping strategy to hunt is untenable because they swallow food whole , would not benefit from stunning large animals , and never bit or tried to swallow the large conductors during or after the leap .
fishing with horses . ( a ) this illustration depicts the battle between eels and horses observed by alexander von humboldt in march 1800 . it was published in 1843 as the frontispiece for the naturalist library , ichthyology , volume v , part ii , the fishes of guiana , authored by robert h . schomburgk , a friend and protégé of humboldt’s ( 3 ) . ( b ) example of an eel leaping from the water to shock a simulated predator . leds are powered by the eel through a conductive carbon strip taped to the front of the plastic prop . see movie s8 .
given that leaping from the water to shock may be risky , what advantage might this seemingly extreme behavior provide compared with discharging while submerged ? michael faraday’s “hands - on” eel experiments provide a key insight ( 36 ) . in 1838 , faraday pointed out : “when one hand was in the water the shock was felt in that hand only , whatever part of the fish it was applied to ; it was not very strong , and it was only in the part immersed in water” ( 36 ) . thus , despite an eel’s impressive high - voltage volley , the power is distributed throughout the surrounding water and may have little effect on a terrestrial animal with only a small portion of its body submerged . a motivated terrestrial predator , harrying a trapped eel from above , may not be deterred before an eel is exhausted . recent studies have shown that high rates of eod are particularly costly ( 37 ) . these results suggest electric eels can be vulnerable to predation . one solution is to direct the potentially limited electrical resources to the threatening target through contact . this strategy would presumably be even more important for a metabolically stressed animal with little energy to expend . the most obvious advantage of leaping is the progressive electrification of increasing portions of an animal’s body , with increasing power , as the eel ascends ( movie s7 ) . the second advantage is the potential to electrify most of a well - grounded animal ( movie s8 ) . the latter result was reported by sachs ( 18 ) .
in march 1800 , alexander von humboldt observed the extraordinary spectacle of native fisherman collecting electric eels ( electrophorus electricus ) by “fishing with horses” [ von humboldt a ( 1807 ) ann phys 25 : 34–43 ] . the strategy was to herd horses into a pool containing electric eels , provoking the eels to attack by pressing themselves against the horses while discharging . once the eels were exhausted , they could be safely collected . this legendary tale of south american adventures helped propel humboldt to fame and has been recounted and illustrated in many publications , but subsequent investigators have been skeptical , and no similar eel behavior has been reported in more than 200 years . here i report a defensive eel behavior that supports humboldt’s account . the behavior consists of an approach and leap out of the water during which the eel presses its chin against a threatening conductor while discharging high - voltage volleys . the effect is to short - circuit the electric organ through the threat , with increasing power diverted to the threat as the eel attains greater height during the leap . measurement of voltages and current during the behavior , and assessment of the equivalent circuit , reveal the effectiveness of the behavior and the basis for its natural selection .
in addition to increasing the electrical power delivered to a target , an additional benefit from leaping is the progressive electrification of greater portions of a threatening animal’s body that is only partially submerged . to illustrate this effect , sets of eel - powered leds were connected in series along separate strips of conductive tape attached , in turn , to a prosthetic limb , allowing direct observation of the increasing area of effect ( movie s7 ) . an additional benefit from the leaping strategy might be gained for targets that have only a small portion of their body submerged but are grounded ( 5 , 18 ) . eel - powered leds were similarly used to illustrate this effect ( fig . 1 b and movie s8 ) .
here i report that electric eels attack large , moving , partially submerged conductors by leaping from the water while pressing themselves against the threat and discharging high - voltage volleys ( fig . 1 b ) . this behavior appears to be ubiquitous for comparatively large eels ( over 60 cm ) . measurement of the voltage and current delivered to stimuli during this behavior suggest it is a formidable defensive strategy . it allows eels to deliver much of their prodigious electrical power , normally distributed throughout the surrounding water , directly to a threat . eel responses to simulated predators demonstrate the effectiveness of the behavior for electrifying partially submerged targets . results are discussed in the context of the eel’s habitat , power output , and ability to electrify targets in various configurations .
in light of these findings , it seems reasonable to suggest that humboldt observed a similar eel behavior on march 19 , 1800 . importantly , the events took place toward the end of the dry season , and the eels were trapped in a muddy basin , which was all that was left from a drying stream ( 1 ) . clearly , if the account is true , the eels would have deterred the horses from remaining in the pool , had the fishermen not gone to extreme measures to keep them contained . although humboldt’s description of an eel pressing itself against the belly of one of the horses ( 1 ) does not include leaping , schomburgk’s ( presumably commissioned ) illustration bears a striking similarity to the eel behaviors described here ( 3 ) . robert schomburgk knew and greatly admired humboldt ( 40 ) . humboldt helped the schomburgk brothers obtain funding for a trip to south america in 1840 ( 41 ) , and provided at least some advice ( 42 ) . however , whether the detailed illustration of humboldt’s experience ( fig . 1 a ) included any input from humboldt or was simply the artist’s interpretation may be lost to history .
electric eels are shown to leap from the water to directly electrify threats . this shocking behavior likely allows electric eels to defend themselves during the amazonian dry season , when they may be found in small pools and in danger of predation . the results support alexander von humboldt’s story of electric eels attacking horses that had been herded into a muddy pool during the dry season in 1800 . the finding highlights sophisticated behaviors that have evolved in concert with the eel’s powerful electrical organs .
the voltage drop across this resistance was measured in the experiments illustrated in fig . 3 ( movies s2–s5 ) . when considering the results , it is important to note that eels do not modulate the amplitude of their high - voltage output during a volley . volleys consist of a series of roughly 1 - ms duration , monophasic , head - positive pulses . all three of the eel’s electric organs participate in the high - voltage output , and there is no mechanism for eels to increase the total power during a volley ( 16 , 17 ) .
from the greek ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ( apteron ) , without fins , and ? ? ? ? ? ( ichtus , more correctly written ichthys ; masculine ) , fish .
marine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 38 m ( ref . 101270 ) . subtropical ; 37°n - 33°s , 81°w - 33°w
western atlantic : usa ( from the carolinas and southern florida keys ) , bermuda , bahamas , lesser antilles , and off brazil .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 54 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 )
vertebrae : 123 - 132 . this elongate species is distinguished by the following characters : tail 1 . 7 - 1 . 8 , head 12 - 15 , and body depth 43 - 53 in total length ; preopercular pores 4 and pores in supratemporal canal 5 ; teeth conical , uniserial on jaws and vomer ; vomerine teeth 3 - 4 ; body coloration is nearly uniform pale to tan , fresh specimens have a fine sprinkling of melanophores over the dorsal surface of the head and body , with pale areas behind eye and along lower jaw ; mvf 54 - 128 , total vertebrae 123 - 132 ( ref . 101270 ) .
mccosker , j . e . and y . hibino , 2015 . a review of the finless snake eels of the genus apterichtus ( anguilliformes : ophichthidae ) , with the description of five new species . zootaxa 3941 ( 1 ) : 49 - 78 . ( ref . 101270 )
) : 17 . 9 - 27 . 3 , mean 24 . 8 ( based on 155 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00151 ( 0 . 00061 - 0 . 00373 ) , b = 2 . 91 ( 2 . 70 - 3 . 12 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 ±0 . 7 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 32 of 100 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is widely distributed and occurs in sandy surf zones . there are no known major threats , therefore , it is listed as least concern .
bahamas ; bermuda ; brazil ; saint barthélemy ; united states ; virgin islands , u . s .
there are 77 museum records for this species with lot counts of up to six individuals ( accessed through fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . org , 16 april 2013 ) . the leptocephali of apterichtus ansp are uncommon at lower latitudes within the known range and appear to increase in abundance northward ( fahay and obenchain 1978 , powell and robbins 1994 , miller 1995 ) .
this demersal species burrows in sand in surf areas . the maximum length is 41 cm ( mccosker 2002 ) .
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fighting for the soul of the republic , in the s . f . mime troupe ' s schooled
when the ancient polynesians invented surfing , they often used a paddle to help them navigate . fast - forward a few millennia , and stand - up paddleboarding , or sup , finds itself trendy again . part of its increasing popularity is that standing upright allows surfers to spot waves more easily and thus catch more of them , multiplying the fun factor . paddling back to the wave becomes less of a strain as well . the ability to cruise along on flat inland water , surveying the sights , is another advantage . finally , its a good core workout . if youre sold on the idea , schedule an intro sup lesson , free with board and paddle rental , and you may find yourself riding the waves like a polynesian king .
many of us remember coming home from our elementary schools with freshly glazed pinchpots , cups , or whatever else our young imaginations could conjure up . saturday mornings at the randall museum can bring that memory back , or create a new one for the youngsters . ceramics make great gifts — especially on mothers ' and fathers ' day . hop on board for the randall ' s once - weekly class , and for $ 6 and two weeks to have your work fired and glazed , you ' ll have all the materials you need .
december is almost over - the new year is coming up and everyone is busy drying off from the rain or holiday shopping . let ' s take a look at what ' s happened this month .
cirque du soleil returns to at & t ; park with their current production kurious : cabinet of curiosities . photographs by richard haick .
the true tenderloin dive bar is an endangered species , a fact driven home by the sudden demise last year of the 21 club at turk and taylor .
let ' s face it : grabbing a drink is the least exciting first date imaginable .
you suddenly become aware of the muscles in your finger as a non - damaging electrical charge surges through them for an instant , and you ' ll very much understand how electric eels catch their dinner . learning is fun !
when you ' re done with that , you may want to check out the the anaconda arm - squeeze simulator nearby . y ' know , if you ' re into that sort of thing .
we ' re not here to judge . this is san francisco , after all .
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sub pop recording artists ' clipping . ' brought their brand of noise - driven experimental hip hop to the closing night of 2016 ' s san francisco electronic music fest this past sunday . the packed brava theater hosted an initially seated crowd that ended the night jumping and dancing against the front of the stage . the trio performed a set focused on their recently released sci - fi horror concept album , ' splendor & misery ' , then delved into their dancier and more aggressive back catalogue , and recent single ' wriggle ' . opening performances included local experimental electronic duo ' tujurikkuja ' and computer music artist ' madalyn merkey . '
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edited by john g . hildebrand , university of arizona , tucson , az , and approved april 28 , 2016 ( received for review march 9 , 2016 )
in 1807 , alexander von humboldt published his account of a battle between electric eels and horses ( 1 ) . the stage for this event was set when humboldt hired local fishermen to supply him with eels for research . their method was to “fish with horses” ( 1 ) . about 30 horses and mules were herded into a pool containing eels , which ( according to humboldt ) emerged from the mud , swam to the surface , and attacked by pressing themselves against the horses while discharging . the fishermen kept the horses from escaping by surrounding the pool and climbing nearby trees with overhanging branches while crying out and waving reeds . two horses drowned , and others stumbled from the pool and collapsed . humboldt thought more horses would be killed , but the eels were exhausted before this happened . five eels were then captured and humboldt was able to conduct his experiments ( 2 ) .
) ] gently suggested humboldt’s accounts were “tales . ” the aggressive behavior of the eels , taking the offensive against horses , seems the most fantastic and questionable part of the story . why would electric eels do this ? no similar behavior has been reported since humboldt’s (
) . for these previous investigations , eels were transferred from a home cage to an experimental chamber with a net that had a metallic rim and handle . from the outset , eels regularly transitioned from a retreat to an explosive attack when the net approached . they swam rapidly toward the net , followed the metal rim to the point of exit from the water , and leaped upward along the rim and handle , keeping their chin in contact while discharging high - voltage volleys . this behavior was both literally and figuratively shocking (
) . under no other circumstances were eels observed to leap out of the water .
the high potential developed between the head and water should reflect a prominent current path if a conductor were present in place of the voltmeter . to directly measure the current flow between the head and water during this behavior , the top and bottom segments of the conductive plate arrangement were directly connected with wires . the current through the wires was measured with a hall effect sensor that was independent of the circuit ( fig . 4 a and movie s6 ) . as predicted , the magnitude of the measured current for each pulse increased dramatically as the eels ascended ( five trials each , eels a and c ) , paralleling the results for voltage ( fig . 4 b ) . fig . 4 c shows the summed results for voltage and current versus height of leap for eels a and c .
several features of the leaping behavior suggest it has been selected to maximally electrify terrestrial , or perhaps semiaquatic , animals . for example , the attack is directed at a novel , moving conductor emerging from the water . in the slow - motion video , the eels can be seen bending their necks to keep their chin in contact with the conductor during the leap . finally , in some trials , the high - voltage pulse rate was modulated in relationship to conductor contact . see , for example , fig . 3 c and f ( movies s2 and s5 ) , showing that the pulse rate rapidly declined to zero once contact was lost , but a new volley was initiated when contact was regained . thus , the eels are not arbitrarily shocking while they leap ; rather , the shocks appear to be directed specifically toward the conductor , based on both body movements and electric organ discharge ( eod ) frequency .
the results show that electric eels often respond to a large , moving , and partially submerged conductor with a rapid approach , contact , and then leap up the conductor , keeping the chin in contact while discharging high - voltage volleys . ascending the conductor progressively increases the resistance of the normal current path from head to tail through the water , replacing it with a new path through the conductive target . the efficacy of this behavior as a defensive strategy seems obvious , but many questions remain . for example , why would electric eels take the offensive , rather than retreating from a potential threat ? why would not hundreds of volts delivered to the surrounding water be a sufficient defense , without the need for a directed attack ? what is the likely effect of this behavior on a potential predator ? how might the behavior have evolved ? finally , what do these findings suggest about humboldt’s account from 1800 ( 1 ) ?
electric eels most likely use an aggressive attack to defend themselves because they often cannot retreat . amazonia and nearby areas are subject to huge variations in seasonal rainfall that produce a rainy season and a dry season , with major effects on fish communities (
) . during the rainy season , vast areas of forest and savannah are inundated with water , and dry or low streams and rivers are filled , often rising by several meters . these flooded areas are populated by myriad species of fish , including electric eels (
) . when the water rapidly recedes in the dry season , many isolated pools , water - filled holes , and oxbows remain , containing large assemblages of fish . these fish are trapped , either by design or circumstance , until the next rainy season . electric eels are obligate air breathers (
) . the yearly rainfall cycle is well known to native fishermen and investigators of south american fish , and both groups take advantage of the dry season for collecting . predators are thought to take advantage of the same opportunities (
) . therefore , there may be a number of circumstances under which electric eels do not have an escape route or are motivated to stand their ground . aquarium housing likely mimics the former condition .
it seems obvious that electric eels are the product of selection for increasing power output . this has resulted in an extraordinary animal that has fascinated scientists for centuries (
) that shows electric eels have been selected not only for extreme anatomical and physiological traits but also for remarkable behaviors that allow them to use electricity to maximal effect .
i thank elizabeth catania for comments on the manuscript and advice on experimental approaches . this work was supported by nsf grant 1456472 ( to k . c . c . ) .
author contributions : k . c . c . designed research , performed research , analyzed data , and wrote the paper .
jagd und kampf der electrischen aale mit pferden . aus den reiseberichten des hrn . freiherrn alexander v . humboldt
the fishes of the rupununi savanna district of british guiana , south america part 1 . ecological groupings of fish species and effects of the seasonal cycle on the fish
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researchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .
a survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .
a study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .
the mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena—but this rigor hasn’t always been enough to spur policy changes .


the spotted snout-burrower or spotted shovelnose frog ( hemisus guttatus ) is a species of frog in the hemisotidae family , found in south africa and possibly swaziland .

its natural habitats are dry savanna , moist savanna , temperate shrubland , temperate grassland , rivers , intermittent rivers , swamps , intermittent freshwater lakes , intermittent freshwater marshes , and canals and ditches .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

spotted snout - burrower

spotted burrowing frog , spotted pig - nosed frog , spotted shovelnose frog , spotted shovel - nosed frog , spotted shovel - snouted frog .
the spotted snout - burrower , for instance , has no webbing between its back toes . more
spotted snout - burrower statusclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .
the spotted snout - burrower is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .
spotted snout - burrower , at 3 in ( 80 mm ) . the back and sides are generally brown or purple with yellow spots or blotches . more
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wikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article
spotted snout - burrower
.
the spotted snout - burrower ( hemisus guttatus ) is a species of frog in the hemisotidae family . it is found in south africa and possibly swaziland . more
glenn , c . r . 2006 .
earth ' s endangered creatures - spotted snout - burrower facts
( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed
the spotted snout - burrower , for instance , has no webbing between its back toes . the head of all species is short and blends back into the body without a noticeable neck . more
facts summary : the spotted snout - burrower ( hemisus guttatus ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group
amphibians
and found in the following area ( s ) : south africa .
these frogs get to be about eight centimetres long , and are about as round as a frog can be . one website describes the snout - burrower as having a ‘globular body’ , which is a fairly apt description . they have dark brown or black skin , and are covered in irregular yellow spots . snout - burrowers have a tiny , pointed head and a hard snout .
channing , a . ( 2003 ) . ' ' spotted snout - burrower , hemisus guttatus . ' ' grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , volume 6 , amphibians . 2nd edition . m . hutchins , w . e . duellman , and n . schlager , eds . , gale group , farmington hills , michigan .
though spotted snout - burrowers are not yet threatened , their small range and fragmented habitat mean that they are vulnerable to habitat loss . hopefully with some foresight we can stop this species from declining , and keep these weirdos around for a long time .
spotted snout - burrowers are frogs found in south africa . they live in woody savannahs or arid areas , and spend most of their time underground . their favourite kind of burrows are in flat areas with sandy soils , near a source of water . this means that when it rains , the frogs’ burrows are flooded , which is good news for an amphibian . during the dry season , snout - burrowers enter a kind of hibernation , to avoid drying out .
as burrowing frogs , snout - burrowers have to be quite adept diggers . they have very strong arms and fingers , with each foot equipped with tough claws . snout - burrowers have a keratinized ridge on each of their heels , which aids in burrowing . and don’t forget that hard snout , which is used like a spade while the front legs dig into the ground . snout - burrowers are nocturnal animals , and will quickly burrow into the ground upon sensing danger . all members of the genus hemisus , or shovelnose frogs , burrow head first , and are the only group of frogs known to do so .
hemisus guttatus females can reach 80 mm ( channing , 2003 ) , or 3 inches ; the males can reach up to 2 inches ( wager , 1965 ) . this frog has a globular body with a small pointed head and pointed snout , and tiny eyes ( channing , 2003 ) . it is dark purple or brown , with numerous yellow dots on the dorsum ( channing , 2003 ) . the snout is hardened and flattened , with the mouth on the underside ( wager , 1965 ) and is used for burrowing head - first , as the common name of spotted snout - burrower suggests ( channing , 2003 ) . the arms and fingers are strong and muscular ( channing , 2003 ) . fingers bear strong claws , like those of a mole ( wager , 1965 ) . toes are not webbed and the skin is smooth ( channing , 2003 ) . each heel bears a small , keratinized ridge on the inner surface , facilitating burrowing ( wager , 1965 ) . the inner metatarsal tubercle is not as long as the second toe ( channing , 2003 ) . the male does not appear to have a vocal sac , but in males the throat is dark - colored ( wager , 1965 ) .
this striking species is quite unmistakable . the largest of its genus , h . guttatus reaches 80 mm in body length . the dorsum is uniform olive to dark brown with scattered , small yellow spots ; the ventrum is white ( lambiris 1989a ) . it resembles other hemisus species in having a small head , small eyes and a pointed snout with a hard tip . other adaptations to its burrowing lifestyle include a lack of webbing between the toes , muscular legs and arms , and thick , strong fingers .
h . guttatus resembles other hemisus species in having a small head , small eyes and a pointed snout with a hard tip . other adaptations to its burrowing lifestyle include a lack of webbing between the toes , muscular legs and arms , and thick , strong fingers . h . guttatus reaches 80 mm in body length . lambiris ( 1989 ) found the dorsum of h . guttatus to be uniform olive to dark brown with scattered , small yellow spots ; with a ventrum that is white ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , © si / mab biodiversity program ) .
since snout - burrowers are so fond of being underground , it’s no surprise that mating takes place in burrows as well . the male frog will grasp the female while she digs a burrow , and then the pair will continue mating once she pulls him inside . she then lays around two hundred eggs in a cavity underground . she will cover the eggs with jellied capsules to stop them from drying out . she stays with the eggs until they hatch , after about twelve days . the female then digs until she reaches water , where the tadpoles can gleefully swim around until they’ve turned into adults .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
channing , a . , rebelo , a . , turner , a . a . , de villiers , a . , becker , f . , harvey , j . , tarrant , j . , measey , g . j . , tolley , k . , minter , l . , du preez , l . , burger , m . , cunningham , m . j . , baptista , n . , hopkins , r . , davies , s . , conradie , w . & chapeta , y .
listed as near threatened because , although this species is fairly widespread , its range includes few protected areas , there is continuing decline in area , extent and quality of its habitat , and its population is considered to be severely fragmented with more than 50 % of subpopulations considered to be non - viable . the species should be carefully monitored as the loss of one or more subpopulations could cause the species to qualify for a threatened category .
this species , which is known only from south africa , occurs in southern mpumalanga , and central and eastern kwazulu - natal , south to durban on the coast . the northernmost coastal record is from hluhluwe . recently the species has been recorded from witrivier town , northern mpumalanga ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . based on the currently known distribution of this species , it is likely that it occurs in swaziland , although there are no records confirming that . it ranges from sea level up to over 1 , 000 m asl on the summit of the lebombo mountains .
breeding congregations of this species appear to be relatively small and widely dispersed . due to its secretive nature , it appears very difficult to find . this species is considered to be severely fragmented as no subpopulation has > 50 % of individuals and > 50 % of subpopulations are considered non - viable .
it inhabits grassland and savanna . it breeds in seasonal pans , swampy areas , and in pools near rivers . it nests in burrows in wet soil close to temporary water , and tadpoles move to water to develop .
the bulk of the known range is along the central kwazulu - natal coast , where it is highly fragmented and pressured . the main threats to this species include : habitat loss due to afforestation , sugar cane cultivation , urbanization and invasive alien plants lowering the water table .
this species occurs in hluhluwe - imfolozi game reserve , and possibly the white river nature reserve . the coastal subpopulations occur in some protected areas , such as umlalazi nature reserve , but the areas are not substantial and are heavily pressured in surrounding catchment ( j . harvey pers . comm . august 2016 ) . it might occur in amatikulu nature reserve ( small and isolated ) and only just overlaps with isimangaliso wetland park in the south . the inland subpopulations are poorly known , but likely do not occur in protected areas . habitat protection in these areas is moderate , but not enough area is protected ( j . harvey pers . comm . august 2016 ) .
improved habitat protection is required at sites where this species is known to occur . research needed studies on its population size , distribution and trends , ability to disperse , life history and ecology ( including terrestrial habitat requirements ) , and threats are needed .
iucn ssc amphibian specialist group , south african frog re - assessment group ( sa - frog ) . 2017 .
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arkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .
iucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .
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the tadpole of hemisus guttatus reaches 62 mm in length , with a body of 21 mm and tail of 41 mm ( wager , 1965 ) . it is brown to olive - brown in color , with gray under the chin and a white belly ( wager , 1965 ) . the tail is broad with a distinctive cream stripe on either side ( rose , 1950 ) . the first third to half of the tail has a thickened sheath ( channing , 2003 ) , looking almost as though the tail has been broken off and regenerated there ; in this thickened section , the center portion horizontally is enlarged and darkened ( wager , 1965 ) . when the tadpole reaches 25 mm in length , the posterior half of the tail and fins darkens to black . the jaws are keratinized , with 2 complete and 4 divided rows of denticles above the jaws and three complete rows below the jaws , and a tooth formula of 6 ( 3 - 6 ) / 3 . the mouth has 3 to 4 rows of small papillae at the sides , plus 2 rows of papillae below , and an additional 6 larger papillae below . the head rapidly changes to being pointed when the front legs are formed ( wager , 1965 ) .
the specific name
guttatus
refers to the spotting on this species ( channing , 2003 ) .
passmore , n . and carruthers , v . ( 1995 ) . south african frogs , a complete guide . witwatersrand university press , johannesburg , south africa .
rose , w . ( 1950 ) . the reptiles and amphibians of southern africa . maskew miller , limited , cape town .
wager , v . a . ( 1965 ) . the frogs of south africa . purnell and sons , cape town , south africa .
this species , which is known only from south africa , occurs in southern mpumalanga , and central and eastern kwazulu - natal , south to durban on the coast ( extent of occurrence of 51 , 000 km 2 and area of occupancy conservatively estimated to be 1 % ) . the northernmost coastal record is from hluhluwe . it ranges from sea level up to over 1 , 000 m on the summit of the lebombo mountains . it has not been recorded from swaziland , but it presumably occurs in this country .
these frogs can be found in south africa , in the kwazulu natal lowlands between hluhluwe and durban ( channing , 2003 ) , and up to the top of the lebombo mountains , over 1000 m above sea level ( iucn , 2006 ) . they inhabit arid open and woody savanna ( channing , 2003 ) . these frogs are mostly fossorial and thus spend most of their time underground in areas of flat , sandy soil that tend to flood during the rains ( channing , 2003 ) , near pools or vleis ( wager , 1965 ) .
h . guttatus is endemic to south africa , swaziland , and lesotho ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , © si / mab biodiversity program ) .
it inhabits grassland and savannah . it breeds in seasonal pans , swampy areas , and in pools near rivers . it nests in burrows in wet soil by temporary water , and tadpoles move to water to develop .
the advertisement call is a cricket - like trill , approximately 2 s in duration , with an emphasized frequency of just over 2 khz ( passmore and carruthers 1995 ; l . r . minter pers . comm ) . males call october–december during rain or light drizzle ( alexander 1987 ) . calling males are notoriously difficult to find . calling may initially take place underground , with males emerging onto the surface as the chorus intensity increases ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , © si / mab biodiversity program ) .
h . guttatus breeds on the edges of pans or swampy areas , and along rivers , especially where the gradient is slight and alluvial deposits are present ( alexander 1990 ; passmore and carruthers 1995 ) . amplexus appears to be initiated on the surface and the female then burrows down to form the brood chamber . after the eggs are laid and have hatched the female remains with the eggs during their development . wager ( 1986 ) reported that females lay c . 2000 eggs ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , © si / mab biodiversity program ) .
channing , a . , turner , a . a . , de villiers , a . , harvey , j . , tarrant , j . , measey , j . , tolley , k . , minter , l . , du preez , l . , burger , m . , cunningham , m . & davies , s .
listed as vulnerable because its area of occupancy is estimated to be 510 km 2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in its area of occupancy and the extent and quality of its habitat . the estimate of thearea of occupancy provided is conservative in nature ; if additional surveyssuggest it is more circumscribed then a higher threat category should beconsidered .
breeding congregations of this species appear to be relatively small and widely dispersed . this species is considered to be severely fragmented as no subpopulation has > 50 % of individuals and > 50 % of subpopulations are considered non - viable .
the main threats include : habitat loss due to afforestation , sugar cane cultivation , and urbanization and invasive alien plants lowering the water table .
hemisus guttatus is common and not currently threatened , but may be in the future . some of its coastal habitat is threatened by development ( channing , 2003 ) .
the highest priority for conservation research of this species is to assess its ability to disperse . understanding the impact of perceived threats and population size and trends is also required . this species occurs in the isimangaliso wetlands park , the hluhluwe - imfolozi game reserve , and other protected areas .
south african frog re - assessment group ( sa - frog ) & iucn ssc amphibian specialist group ( 2010 ) .
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leatherback sea turtles have been around since pre - historic times . and unfortunately , if the species is allowed to vanish , scientists believe it will foreshadow the extinction of a host of other marine species . it is estimated that there are less than 5 , 000 nesting female leatherback sea turtles in the pacific ocean today , down from 91 , 000 in 1980 .
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the advertisement call is a cricket - like trill , approximately 2 s in duration , with an emphasized frequency of just over 2 khz . by contrast , the call of h . mar moratus is twice as long and has a frequency of about 3 . 5 khz ( passmore and carruthers 1995 ; l . r . minter pers . comm ) .
h . guttatus is endemic to the atlas region , occurring in southern mpumalanga and central and eastern kwazulu - natal . along the coast it has been recorded from hluhluwe ( 2832ba ) in the north , to durban ( 2930dd , 2931cc ) in the south . it also occurs as far inland as dundee ( 2830aa , ab ) , newcastle ( 2729db ) and piet retief ( 2630dd ) . in 1993 , this species was unexpectedly discovered on the summit of the lebombo mountains ( 2732aa ; w . r . branch pers . comm . ) .
although h . guttatus may be locally abundant , its fossorial habitat ensures that it is rarely observed and few locality records exist . the apparently patchy distribution may be the result of an inadequate data set rather than an indication of a fragmented population . the atlas data are accurate but incomplete and inadequate for a reliable description of the distribution range .
along the coast , h . guttatus inhabits coastal bushveld / grassland , while in the interior it occurs in north - eastern mountain grassland and natal central bushveld . it has also been collected in pitfall traps in the dukuduku forest reserve ( t . bodbijl pers . comm . ) .
it breeds on the edges of pans or swampy areas , and along rivers , especially where the gradient is slight and alluvial deposits are present ( alexander 1990 ; passmore and carruthers 1995 ) . more adequate data may show that this species is restricted to particular river catchments .
males call october–december during rain or light drizzle ( alexander 1987 ) . calling males are notoriously difficult to find . calling may initially take place underground , with males emerging onto the surface as the chorus intensity increases , as is the case in h . marmor atus . a calling h . guttatus male was unearthed at the onset of a heavy downpour , in its burrow on the edge of a grassy pan ( l . r . minter pers . comm . ) .
as is usual for hemisus , amplexus appears to be initiated on the surface and the female then burrows down to form the brood chamber . the female remains with the eggs during their development . wager ( 1986 ) reported that females lay c . 2000 eggs ( cf . channing 2001 : 200 eggs ) , which form a circular compact mass c . 63 mm in diameter and 18 mm deep . the nest cavity is located c . 200 mm below the surface and has a diameter of c . 75 mm .
data on breeding imply a similar sequence of maternal care as has been recorded for h . marmoratus ( kaminsky et al . 1999 ) . however , the postulation that females escort tadpoles to water needs verification ( van dijk 1997 ) , as direct observations of this behaviour have not been published .
h . guttatus was not listed in earlier south african red data books ( mclachlan 1978 ; branch 1988 ) . however , in view of its small area of occupancy ( 501–2000 km ) , severely fragmented distribution , the rate of habitat loss ( > 20 % in the past 50 years ) , a decrease in the quality of habitat and predicted population decline ( rate unknown ) , it was accorded near threatened status ( harrison et al . 2001 ) , subsequently changed to vulnerable ( this publication ) .
this species is known to occur in the greater st lucia wetland park ( world heritage site ) , umlalazi and bluff nature reserves , hluhluwe - umfolozi park and bonamanzi private nature reserve . of concern is the fact that breeding populations appear to be relatively small , with < 10 individuals heard calling at any one site during the atlas survey .
the long - term survival of h . guttatus is threatened by rapid and extensive urban development , forestry and other agricultural practices , particularly along the kwazulu - natal north coast . these activities result in the continuing loss , fragmentation and alteration of its habitat through the draining , impoundment and eutrophication of wetlands in the vicinity of residential areas and agricultural lands . impounded wetlands are often stocked with alien fish species , which may result in the local extinction of frog populations , while plantations of exotic trees reduce the availability of surface water and lead to the disappearance of natural pans .
there is an urgent need for baseline studies to measure sizes of populations and to determine the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy so that this species’ conservation status can be properly assessed ( harrison et al . 2001 ) . in particular , the presence of h . guttatus in protected areas needs to be documented and monitored . the basic biology of this species , its life history and limiting factors , also await description .
this little - known and charismatic species should be brought to the attention of the public , and private landowners should be encouraged to participate in its protection .
web : frogmap . 2018 . hemisus guttatus rapp , 1842 . animal demography unit . accessed from urltoken ; on 2018 - 07 - 09 10 : 07 : 16 .
book : minter l . r . , burger m . , harrison j . a . , braack h . h . , bishop p . j . & kloepfer d . ( eds ) . 2004 . atlas and red data book of the frogs of south africa , lesotho and swaziland . si / mab series no . 9 . smithsonian institution , washington , d . c . published by the smithsonian institution and the avian demography unit ( now animal demography unit ) .
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they are kind of cute , if you just look at their faces . image source : urltoken
i’ve written about some pretty funny looking frogs and toads on this blog , but today’s animal has to be the winner . i would even put it in the top ten strangest - looking animals i’ve ever blogged about . you can decide for yourself , though .
they are kind of cute , if you just look at their faces . image source :
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