halobatrachus didactylus , the lusitanian toadfish , is a species of toadfish found along the atlantic and mediterranean coasts of western europe and western africa .

this species grows to a length of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) , and has venomous spines that can pose a danger to humans .

this species is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries .

locally , it is known as gripau ( catalan ) , charroco , encharroco , xarroco ( portuguese ) , and pez sapo ( spanish ) ) .

the fish is also known to make a variety of noises , such as whistles , grunts , croaks , and a boatwhistle that is used both to attract females , as well as keep intruding males away .

halobatrachus didactylus

sarasquete c : estudios de las series eritrocítica , leucocítica y trombocítica de la sangre periférica del pez sapo marino , halobatrachus didactylus . inv pesq . 1983 , 47 : 403 - 412 .
palazón jl , nirchio m , sarasquete c : conventional karyotype and nucleolar organiser regions of the toadfish halobatrachus didactylus ( schneider , 1801 ) ( pisces : batrachoididae ) . sci . 2003 , 67 : 445 - 449 .
palazón jl , arias am , sarasquete c : aspects of the reproductive biology of the toadfish , halobatrachus didactylus ( schneider , 1801 ) ( pisces : batrachoididae ) . sci . 2001 , 65 : 131 - 138 .
sarasquete c , gutiérrez m , establier r : efecto del mercurio inorgánico ( hgcl2 ) sobre la sangre y riñón del pez sapo marino , halobatrachus didactylus ( schneider , 1801 ) . inv pesq . 1982 , 46 : 323 - 330 .
desantis s , cirillo f , deflorio m , megalofonou p , palazón jl , sarasquete c , de metrio g : histochemical study of glycoconjugates in the toadfish , halobatrachus didactylus oesophagus epithelium . histol histopathol . 2007 , 22 : 23 - 35 .
phylogenetic maximum likelihood tree of nts sequences based on gtr substitution model . type β clones of halobatrachus didactylus are shown . western batrachoid clones have been collapsed . dicentrarchus labrax clones have been rooted as an outgroup . sparus aurata clones are also shown , preceded by a rhombus .
merlo a , cross i , palazón jl , sarasquete c , rebordinos l : chromosomal mapping of the major and minor ribosomal genes , ( gata ) n and ( ttaggg ) n by one - color and double - color fish reveals three chromosomal markers in the toadfish halobatrachus didactylus ( teleostei : batrachoididae ) . genetica . 2007 , 131 : 195 - 200 . 10 . 1007 / s10709 - 006 - 9131 - 4 .
( of batrachus didactylus bloch & schneider , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachoides didactylus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
torchio , m . 1968a . prima sicura segnalazione in acque italiane di batrachoides didactylus ( bl . schn . ) ( osteichthyes , batrachoidiformes ) , natura , milano , 59 ( 2 ) : pp . 131 - 133 , 2 phot .
agarose gel electrophoresis of 5s rdna type β species - specific pcr . positive products of 190 bp are marked by an arrow . hdi : halobatrachus didactylus ; ppl : porichthys plectrodon ; tma : thalassophryne maculosa ; acr : amphichthys cryptocentrus ; bma : batrachoides manglae ; sau : sparus aurata ( positive control ) ; ppa : pagrus pagrus ; dsa : diplodus sargus ; dla : dicentrarchus labrax ; are : argyrosomus regius ; pme : plectorhinchus mediterraneus ; sse : solea senegalensis ; een : engraulis encrasicholus ; c - : negative control .
collette , b . b . , greenfield , d . w . and costa , j . l . 2006 . are there one or two species of halobatrachus toadfishes ( teleostei : batrachoididae ) in the eastern atlantic ? proceedings of the california academy of science 57 : 937 - 943 .
a second morphotype found in the gulf of guinea , with larger eyes and a narrower interorbital width , is currently considered , with some question , as part of this species but may represent another valid species , halobatrachus conspicillum ( cuvier , 1829 ) according to collette et al . ( 2006 ) .
in this work a molecular characterization has been made of three multigene families : 5s rdna , its - 1 ( from 45s rdna ) and the u2 snrna gene of h . didactylus . in addition , double - fish technique was used to ascertain the u2 snrna gene localization and the possible co - localization of this probe with the 5s rdna , 18s rrna gene and ( gata ) n probes . the co - localization of ( gata ) n and the 18s rrna gene was also tested . this technique not only provides various different cytogenetic markers , but also represents a starting point for the production of a genetic map in h . didactylus . the nucleotide variation has been estimated to assess the homogenizing forces which support the concerted evolution in the three multigene families . finally , the results have been compared with those obtained from other members of the batrachoididae family , and the evolutionary difference between those and h . didactylus has been established .
the batrachoididae family is a group of marine teleosts that includes several species with more complicated physiological characteristics , such as their excretory , reproductive , cardiovascular and respiratory systems . previous studies of the 5s rdna gene family carried out in four species from the western atlantic showed two types of this gene in two species but only one in the other two , under processes of concerted evolution and birth - and - death evolution with purifying selection . here we present results of the 5s rdna and another two gene families in halobatrachus didactylus , an eastern atlantic species , and draw evolutionary inferences regarding the gene families . in addition we have also mapped the genes on the chromosomes by two - colour fluorescence in situ hybridization ( fish ) .
up to six specimens ( 3 males and 3 females ) of h . didactylus were collected from natural populations in the bay of cadiz ( sw spain ) for molecular purposes . meanwhile , cytogenetic analysis was made from three specimens . sampling procedures comply with the arrive guidelines and with the ucacg052009 regulation of the bioethical committee from the university of cádiz .
two types of 5s rdna were observed , named type α and type β . molecular analysis of the 5s rdna indicates that h . didactylus does not share the non - transcribed spacer ( nts ) sequences with four other species of the family ; therefore , it must have evolved in isolation . amplification with the type β specific primers amplified a specific band in 9 specimens of h . didactylus and two of sparus aurata . both types showed regulatory regions and a secondary structure which mark them as functional genes . however , the u2 snrna gene and the its - 1 sequence showed one electrophoretic band and with one type of sequence . the u2 snrna sequence was the most variable of the three multigene families studied . results from two - colour fish showed no co - localization of the gene coding from three multigene families and provided the first map of the chromosomes of the species .
the u2 snrna gene was not co - located with the other repetitive sequence , so four different chromosomal markers have been obtained in h . didactylus , which is important for producing a preliminary physical map of the species . moreover , cytogenetic data have shown that the u2 snrna gene have experienced a transition from a dispersed organization to a clustered organization during the batrachoididae evolution . a similar case has been detected for ( gata ) n repeats . all these characteristics make the batrachoididae family an interesting group for studying the multigene families from the evolutionary perspective .
a highly significant finding was observed in the analysis of the 5s rdna , since two such distant species as h . didactylus and sparus aurata share a 5s rdna type . this 5s rdna type has been detected in other species belonging to the batrachoidiformes and perciformes orders , but not in the pleuronectiformes and clupeiformes orders . two hypotheses have been outlined : one is the possible vertical permanence of the shared type in some fish lineages , and the other is the possibility of a horizontal transference event between ancient species of the perciformes and batrachoidiformes orders . this finding opens a new perspective in fish evolution and in the knowledge of the dynamism of the 5s rdna . cytogenetic analysis allowed some evolutionary trends to be roughed out , such as the progressive change in the u2 sndna and the organization of ( gata ) n repeats , from dispersed to localized in one locus . the accumulation of ( gata ) n repeats in one chromosome pair could be implicated in the evolution of a pair of proto - sex chromosomes . this possibility could situate h . didactylus as the most highly evolved of the batrachoididae family in terms of sex chromosome biology .
after pcr amplification , two electrophoretic bands of 5s rdna sequence could be observed , named type α and type β , and whose sizes were 420 and 200 bp respectively . the amplification with the type β specific primer gave a 190 bp band in 9 specimens of h . didactylus ( data not shown ) . the sequencing results demonstrate that the 5s rdna sizes varied from 413 to 424 bp in type α , and from 197 to 207 bp in type β 5s rdna sequences . in the former the variability was due a variable poly - a region at position −71 , and in the latter by a 10 bp insertion - deletion ( indel ) localized immediately after the poly - t termination signal . in two clones an electrophoretic band of 840 bp was obtained ; this corresponded to a dimeric form of 5s rdna type α . from these findings , it would therefore be possible to ascertain the complete sequence for 5s rdna of type α .
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it whistles , grunts and croaks . the lusitanian toadfish is quite musical for a fish . it makes at least five kinds of calls , and males even sing in choruses to attract mates with their boatwhistles – long , rhythmical , tonal sounds .
now it seems the boatwhistle has another function & colon ; keeping intruding males away . lusitanian toadfish can reach over half a metre in length and weigh over 2 kilograms . they have large , flat heads and wide mouths , giving them the toad - like appearance that they’re named after .
during the mating season , from may to july , males create nests under rocks and then sing to attract females . males are territorial and they defend their nests from intruders . after mating , females leave their sticky eggs in the nest for the male to care for until the young are old enough to fend for themselves , at about three to four weeks .
although boatwhistles were already thought to act as a keep - out signal to other males , there was no direct evidence of this . so clara amorim , from ispa university institute in portugal and her colleagues decided to test this hypothesis by muting male toadfish and seeing what happened .
lusitanian toadfish call by contracting muscles on their swim bladders , which releases air . different sounds result from different contraction rates . think of it as an underwater bagpiper .
amorim and her colleagues muted some toadfishes by cutting and deflating their swim bladders under anaesthesia . these fish could still contract their muscles , but couldn’t make any sound .
they found that the nests of muted males were more likely to be intruded upon , probably because they were unable to sing . their results suggest that boatwhistles are effective keep - out signals , reducing the risk of territorial intrusions and therefore nest takeovers .
“boatwhistles are a cheap way to exclude intruders without engaging in a fight , ” says amorim . “seeing that a nest is occupied is not as effective as hearing that there is a male in the nest eager to defend its territory . ”
some aspects of toadfish boatwhistles , such as frequency and pulse interval , are associated with the size of the fish , meaning that others can use it to assess the quality of potential mates or the fighting ability of rivals .
the lusitanian toadfish is not unique in making underwater noise . herrings fart to find each other in the dark , clown fish chatter by clacking their jaws together to warn intruders to stay away and another species of toadfish cries like a baby .
journal reference & colon ; journal of experimental biology , doi & colon ; 10 . 1242 / jeb . 116673
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greek , als , alis = salt + greek , batrachos = frog ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; demersal ; depth range 10 - 50 m ( ref . 2683 ) . subtropical ; 45°n - 4°n , 18°w - 17°e
eastern atlantic : southern bay of biscay to ghana , including the western mediterranean . reported from the gambia river ( ref . 28587 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 50 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26999 ) ; common length : 35 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 )
dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 19 - 21 . caudal fin rounded ( ref . 5377 ) .
sedentary species which occurs on soft sand or mud , often partly buried or concealed in rock crevices , solitary in shallow water . feeds on crustaceans , mollusks and small fishes ( ref . 7405 ) . the female lays eggs which are large enough and which are turned over to the males who guard them ( ref . 5377 ) .
bauchot , m . - l . , 1987 . poissons osseux . p . 891 - 1421 . in w . fischer , m . l . bauchot and m . schneider ( eds . ) fiches fao d ' identification pour les besoins de la pêche . ( rev . 1 ) . méditerranée et mer noire . zone de pêche 37 . vol . ii . commission des communautés européennes and fao , rome . ( ref . 3397 )
) : 15 . 5 - 27 . 5 , mean 19 . 8 ( based on 74 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01175 ( 0 . 00466 - 0 . 02963 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 ±0 . 64 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 59 of 100 ) .
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justification : the reported range for this species extends from europe south to nigeria . however , the taxonomic status of the african big - eyed population needs to be resolved . it is widely distributed and common throughout its range and is found in marine protected areas . its distribution extends into deeper water , affording it some protection from threats . it is listed globally as least concern .
form is known from an old northern record from the kattegat in norway south along the coast of the iberian peninsula into the mediterranean and along the coast of northern west africa . the large - eyed form is found from the straits of gibraltar south to at least ghana and with museum records in eastern nigeria , with some old literature records from the canary islands ( collette
in the eastern atlantic , this species is present from south of the bay of biscay to ghana ( diouf 1996 ) . it is also reported from the gambia river ( diouf 1996 ) . in the mediterranean sea , it mainly occurs in the western part , but it is also recorded in the west ionian sea ( argyriou
2006 ) . diouf ( 1996 ) recorded this species in gambia estuary and rio buba estuary in guinea - bissau .
albania ; algeria ; benin ; côte d ' ivoire ; denmark ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; gambia ; ghana ; gibraltar ; greece ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; italy ; liberia ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; morocco ; nigeria ; portugal ( madeira , portugal ( mainland ) ) ; senegal ; sierra leone ; spain ( baleares , canary is . , spain ( mainland ) , spanish north african territories ) ; sweden ; togo ; tunisia ; western sahara
there is no population information for this species and it is infrequently recorded . the portuguese subpopulation is well - studied but information from the remainder of its range is lacking . it is much less abundant than
in the southern portion of its range ( luis pers . comm . 2012 ) .
this is a benthic , sedentary species that occurs on soft sand or mud , often partly buried or concealed in rock crevices . it is solitary in relatively shallow water . it feeds on crustaceans , molluscs and small fishes ( roux 1986 ) . it is a bottom - dwelling species inhabiting mainly shallow coastal waters to about 60 m depth , although it has been reported from deeper waters ( to about 250 m ) . in the northern part of the range , spawning extends from march to april ( b . b . collette pers . comm ) . the female lays eggs which are large and which are turned over to the males who guard them ( maigret and ly 1986 ) . the igfa all - tackle angling record is 2 . 50 kg for a fish taken in dahkla , western sahara in 2003 ( igfa 2009 ) . fecundity is 227 - 1 , 233 eggs per female ( b . b . collete pers . comm . ) .
this is a species with minor commercial importance . it is caught with bottom trawls and artisanal fishing gear . it is marketed mostly fresh but also used for fishmeal and oil . it has received special attention in recent years because of its use an an experimental species in toxicology and cardiology experiments ( collette and greenfield in press ) .
this is a species with minor commercial importance . it is taken in artisanal fisheries and as bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its range . separate statistics are not reported for this species . it is caught with bottom trawls and artisanal fishing gear .
no specific conservation measures are known for this species . this species may be present in marine protected areas that occur within its distribution . in mauritania , this species has only been found outside marine protected areas ( luis pers . comm . 2012 ) . gushchin and fall ( 2012 ) recorded this species inside a marine protected area ( pnba ) in the gulf of arguin . the taxonomic status of the gulf of guinea subpopulation needs to be resolved .
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van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
dyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachoides planifrons ( guichenot , 1850 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus algeriensis guichenot , 1850 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus borealis nilsson , 1832 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus conspicillum cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus guentheri bleeker , 1863 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus planifrons guichenot , 1850 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus punctatus agassiz , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of batrachus punctulatus agassiz , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
sedentary species which occurs on soft sand or mud , often partly buried or concealed in rock crevices , solitary in shallow water . feeds on crustaceans , mollusks and small fishes ( ref . 7405 ) . the female lays eggs which are large enough and which are turned over to the males who guard them ( ref . 5377 ) .
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fins in advance of pectorals ; anal finrays 15 - 17 . scales present , small , embedded and not obvious ; 2 lateral lines , the upper with about 48 pores , the lower with about 40 .
( western part , but including adriatic ) . elsewhere , southward along coast of west africa to ghana .
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. chaine , 1938 : 88 - 94 , pl . xi ( 3 upper rows ) | bauzá rullán , 1959 : 92 - 93 , pl . i ( fig . 15 ) & ii ( fig . 16 ) | schmidt , 1968 : 64 , pl . 13 ( fig . 182 ) & 25 .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
) , a member of the batrachoididae family , is found in natural habitats of soft sand and rocky sea beds , and reefs . the batrachoididae family comprises 71 species , belonging to three subfamilies [
] that are widely distributed across the atlantic , pacific , and indian oceans .
on the coasts of portugal and southwestern spain , this species is of moderate commercial importance . however , the real importance of this species is for research purposes rather than its commercial value . it has traditionally been used as a model animal in toxicology experiments [
] . in the last two decades , a new model has been proposed to explain controversial situations found in some multigene families : the “birth - and - death evolution model” . under this model new genes arise by duplications during the evolution of a group of organisms , and these new genes are either fixed as functional genes or become pseudogenes [
the ribosomal genes are divided in two clusters : the major ( 45s rdna ) and the minor ( 5s rdna ) clusters . the 45s rdna has a transcribed unit which comprises two external transcribed spacers ( 5’ ets and 3’ ets ) , the coding for 18s , 5 . 8s and 28s rrnas , and two internal transcribed spacers , which separate the 18s rrna from the 5 . 8s rrna ( its - 1 ) and the 5 . 8s rrna from the 28s rrna ( its - 2 ) ; the transcribed units are separated by intergenic spacers ( igs ) . meanwhile , the 5s rdna comprises a conserved coding region of 120 bp and a non - transcribed spacer ( nts ) which is variable among species in length and sequence . the two ribosomal clusters represent well - known examples of concerted evolution .
] . within the group of fishes , there have been very few studies made of the snrna gene family at molecular and cytogenetic level . it has been presumed that the snrna gene families undergo a concerted evolution [
both types of 5s rdna sequence conserved all promoter and regulatory regions necessary for transcription by rna polymerase iii ( pol iii ) , such as the tata - like promoter element around the position −30 upstream from the transcription starting point , the poly - t terminator region situated at the 3’ end of the coding region and the internal control regions ( box a , intermediate element and box c ) located inside coding regions between the positions + 50 to + 65 , + 68 to + 73 , and + 81 to + 98 respectively . the rnastructure 5 . 2 program showed a stable secondary structure of 5s rrna in both cases ( type α and type β ) ( figure
secondary structure prediction of the two types of 5s rrna . the free energy ( δg ) of the structure is shown , and was calculated considering the mean seawater temperature ( 15°c ) .
meanwhile , the its - 1 and u2 sndna sequences showed one electrophoretic band of 650 and 800 bp respectively . the sequencing results demonstrated that the its - 1 sequence presented an exact size of 664 bp , and 820 bp in the u2 sndna sequence . furthermore , three putative promoter and regulator sequences in the u2 snrna gene have been found ( figure
) . these include the proximal sequence element ( pse ) , the distal sequence element ( dse ) and the 3’ box within the spacer region . the pse and 3’ box were located by alignment with consensus sequences obtained from the moronidae species ,
) . the more proximal of these is between position −60 and −23 , while the more distal region comprises a 17 bp box , the sequence of which has not previously been described as a promoter or regulator region . the 100 bp downstream from the coding region was also aligned and a more conserved box was found at 8 nucleotides downstream from the 3’ end of the coding region ( figure
) 3’ end alignment of the u2 spacer ; 3’b : 3’ box ; d : putative dse element ; re : regulator element ; p : pse element . (
the three multigene families studied showed low values of nucleotide variability , in both coding regions and spacers . as expected , the spacer regions had higher values than coding regions , except in the u2 snrna gene ( table
) . on the whole , the most variable multigene family was the u2 sndna . the 5s rdna type α also showed high nucleotide variability . the less variable genes were the 5s rdna type β and the 18s rrna - its - 1 - 5 . 8s rrna sequence . furthermore , divergence values between the two types of 5s rdna were different depending on the fragment considered in the study . thus , the coding region showed a low value of divergence (
% gc : gc content ; s : number of polymorphic sites ; h : number of haplotypes ; π : nucleotide variability .
the gene families under study were subjected to blastn search at the ncbi database ; all coding regions ( 5s rrna , 18s rrna , 5 . 8s rrna and u2 snrna ) showed high degrees of identity with others obtained from a wide variety of fish species . spacer regions did not present any significant homologies , except for the 5s rrna gene spacer ( nts ) type β which , surprisingly , presented a high degree of homology with the nts from
) . however , these two species showed positive bands in the parallel experiment with its - 1 primers .
. a schematic representation of 5s rdna is included , highlighting the a box , the intermediate element ( ie ) , the c box , the poly - t terminator region , and the tata - like box .
] for other species of the batrachoididae family ( western batrachoids ) . as in the nj tree , the ml tree divided the western batrachoids species in two clades , characterized by different nts types . in the clade 2 ( following the nomenclature devised by [
were grouped on the same branch , but within that branch , the type β clade formed a monophyletic group with the clade 2 of the western batrachoids . the two sequences of
did not group with the two other sparid species , which formed a separate cluster from that of the batrachoididae . within clade 1 of the western batrachoids , the clones of the species
) . the 5s rdna probe only includes the type α . the double - fish treatments with 5s - 18s and 5s - gata probes had been performed in previous work [
] . the u2 sndna probe was localized in the middle of the long arm of a medium - size submeta / subtelocentric chromosome pair . no co - localization between the u2 snrna gene probe and the remaining probes was detected . double - fish treatment with ( gata )
) ( gata ) n sequence ( green signals ) versus 18s rrna ( red signals ) .
, named here as type α and type β . the nts sequences between the two types do not share significant homologies . furthermore , the degree of divergence of the coding region between the two types is more than 5 times higher than the nucleotide variability within the coding region of type α , and more than 28 times higher than such variability in type β ( table
) . both types presented all the regulatory elements which make them functional genes . the existence of two types of 5s rdna appears to be common in fish species [
] with four species of the batrachoididae family from the western atlantic , it has been found that two species also shared two types of 5s rdna , and the two other species have only one type . therefore , it cannot be concluded that a dual system of 5s rdna is generally established in the batrachoididae family . in the four western atlantic species the nts sequences are each similar to the others ( see figure
these sequences are distantly related to those of the four species . this feature could indicate that
has evolved independently from the western atlantic species , due to the geographic isolation between them , which could have contributed to the greater divergence found between eastern and western atlantic species .
) . therefore , concerted evolution is the more feasible model which is acting in each locus of this multigene family . under this model , the different units of the gene family tend to homogenize their sequences by means of mechanisms such as unequal cross - over and gene conversion [
] , thus spreading mutation events along the multigene family . concerted evolution makes the sequence more similar within the species than it is among related species [
] . traditionally it has been established that the 5s rdna gene family is a paradigm for the concerted evolution model ; however , although this is the most common model observed for this gene , in more and more studies that are published , it is concluded that the 5s rdna gene family can follow a different evolution model . some authors have described 5s rdna gene families which fit better with a birth - and - death evolution model than with the concerted model [
case , although the concerted model is acting at locus level , at genome level , the presence of two types and the between - species clustering of the multigene family indicate a birth - and - death evolution model .
] . both species could have inherited the type β from an ancestral species common to the two supeorders , and could have maintained in some lineages and lost in others along the fish evolution . using the type β specific primer , we were able to conclude that this sequence is found in all specimens studied of
) . nevertheless , taking into account the highly dynamism to which the nts are subjected , and the period elapsed since the two superorders began to diverge , another theory could be applied : a horizontal transference ( ht ) between ancient species of perciformes and batrachoidiformes groups . therefore , the new type found in
was not generated by a duplication within the own genome , but rather by an “extragenomic duplication” .
] . thus , htt could be the mechanism responsible for a lateral movement of genes between eukaryotes .
] . similarly , this interaction could “open the door” for a 5s rrna gene lateral transfer . the precise mechanism whereby a sequence is transferred horizontally from one species to another remains elusive , although various different mechanisms have been proposed in which some particles or organisms could take part as an intermediate , such as a virus [
] have been described . typically , there are different ways to detect ht : ( i ) the high degree of similarity in sequences between two species phylogenetically distant ; ( ii ) the rate of nucleotide variability of a transferred gene might be lower than that of the other orthologous genes ; and ( iii ) in a phylogenetic analysis there should be incongruence between the phylogenies of the gene and of the organism [
case . secondly , the nucleotide diversity of the putative transferred genes ( type β ) is lower than that of the orthologous genes ( type α ) . lastly , the phylogenetic analysis supports with high branch confidence an event of ht , since the
) , thus leading to incongruence between the taxonomic situation and the nts - based phylogeny .
another alternative way of horizontal transfer should not be discounted : the sperm - mediated gene transfer ( smgt ) . it is well - known that sperm cells are able to capture exogenous dna and to transfer it to the oocyte at fertilization [
] reported that the dna content in sediments is 3 to 4 orders of magnitude higher than in the water column . taking this into account and the benthic behaviour of the majority of species of the batrachoidiformes order , the possibility of a smgt is plausible .
] . however , there are few studies with this gene to conclude unequivocally that the concerted evolution is the general model followed by the u2 snrna gene . the organization of u2 snrna has only been investigated in humans [
] , and the same characteristics are shared , i . e . , u2 snrna are clustered in tandem arrays and undergo a concerted evolution model . the u2 sequence homology observed in many different specimens and units has led us to confirm a similar situation with the u2 snrna of
. in all the studies mentioned above ( including the present work ) the u2 snrna gene is localized in one chromosome pair , although the position inside the chromosome is not conserved . a dispersed gene arrangement facilitates a birth - and - death evolution model [
] ; therefore a clustered arrangement could be propitious for a concerted evolution model . moreover , taking into account the results obtained by [
] with other species from the batrachoididae family , it is possible that there has been a transition from a birth - and - death to a concerted evolution model within this fish family , since three distinct patterns of hybridization have been seen in only five species analyzed : dispersed , clustered , and both patterns together .
] all showed a close linkage with another member of the u snrna family . this linkage has been applied as a useful tool for the identification of different species of sole [
, the u2 was not found in linkage with any other u snrna ; this absence is , so far , the only instance found within a fish group . there are insufficient data to conclude whether the u2 linkage in fishes is a general rule or is an exceptional case of only some fish families . in either case , the analysis of this gene family could be an interesting tool for evolutionary and phylogenetic purposes .
] , the pse element is located between positions −60 and −50 ; therefore , the box found at position −60 could be the pse regulatory element . a putative 3’ box was also localized at 8 nt downstream from the coding region , which is close to the localization described by [
] for this box ( 9 nt downstream ) . the dse enhancer element is independent of the position and orientation , so these characteristics make it difficult to find a possible dse by aligning with other sequences . despite this , it has been reported that the dse element is usually found around 200–250 bp upstream from the pse [
at −244 bp upstream from the pse , so that could be the enhancer element . the presence of all these regulator elements favours the supposition of a transcriptionally active gene .
the its - 1 region without 18s and 5 . 8s coding regions comprises 388 bp , and the gc content is between 62 . 89 % and 63 . 40 % . although this gc content is similar to the average for the osteichthyes group ( 68 . 0 % ± 4 . 2 ) , the its - 1 size is one of the smallest within this group , which varies between 318 and 1518 bp [
] . when the its - 1 sequence was subjected to blastn search , an its - 1 fragment aligned with another from many fish species , reflecting the moderate nucleotide conservation of this sequence compared with other spacer regions ( igs , nts , etc . ) . this region undergoes some selective pressure , because their secondary structures are necessary for the rrna maturation process [
] . these features make this sequence suitable for phylogenetic analysis at the species level .
) leads us to accept that their evolution has been according to the concerted model . unequal cross - over and gene conversion are the common mechanisms that the multigene families undergo with a concerted evolution model . however , coding regions undergo another additional mechanism , such as the purifying selection , which makes them less variable . the differences in the variability found in the coding region in each gene could be due to opposing differences between homogenizing and diversifying forces . therefore , the dynamic of the concerted evolution process depends on two conflicting forces : the homogenizing forces and the forces which generate variability [
] , thus increasing the effectiveness of concerted evolution . on this point , cytogenetics data support the conclusions already obtained with nucleotide diversity , i . e . , the concerted mechanisms are more frequent in the multigene family which is situated in the telomeric position , as is the 18s rrna , resulting in less nucleotide variation . conversely , the two most variable multigene families ( 5s rdna and u2 snrna gene ) are localized in internal positions .
) ; therefore they represent four different chromosomal markers , which is useful in a preliminary genome mapping . comparisons with similar results obtained from other species of batrachoididae family offer some evolutionary trends ( table
] , some further relevant comments can be made . firstly , u2 snrna and ( gata )
. second , the ancestral ( plesiomorphic ) localization for 5s rdna in the batrachoididae family is in only one chromosome pair and in an internal position of the long arm ( q arm ) , because this organization has been observed in 3 out of the 5 species . finally , the major ribosomal probe shows the most conservative pattern , which also matches with the plesiomorphic condition in the fish group , i . e . , in an internal position and near the centromere [
+ : low abundance ; + + : medium abundance ; + + + : high abundance ; a : acrocentric ; stl : subtelocentric ; smt : submetacentric ; mt : metacentric ; q : long arm ; p : short arm ; sc : subcentromeric ; i : internal ; stl ; subtelomeric ; tl : telomeric .
for 5s rdna , a mixed evolutionary model has been proposed , in which the presence of two different types that group in a between - species pattern reveals a birth - and - death model , but the high homogeneity of the sequences in each type indicates a homogeneization derived by the concerted model . moreover , the existence of the birth - and - death process could not be originated by a duplication of a pre - existing 5s rdna ; instead , an ancient ht event between batrachoidiformes and perciformes could have introduced the new type . the 5s rdna provides the requirements for a ht because of its recognized ability to transpose to other loci [
] . therefore future research on this type of transfer should also be directed towards ascertaining the specific mechanism by which the transfer took place .
genomic dna was isolated from muscle tissue of the six specimens using fastdna kit® ( q - biogene ) . extraction quality was validated by electrophoresis in agarose gel ( 1 . 5 % ) containing 0 . 5 μg ml
] for 18s rrna - its - 1 - 5 . 8s rrna amplification ; and u2ang - fwd and u2ang - rev described by [
] for u2 sndna amplification . an internal reverse primer specific to the nts of the 5s rdna type β ( 5sbetaint : 5’ - cgaggtgcaggagacaaacac - 3’ ) was designed to corroborate the amplification in the following fish species :
( engraulidae family ) . parallel to this experiment another pcr was carried out with the its - 1 primers in the same species , as positive control for genomic dna . reactions were carried out in a final volume of 50 μl containing 60–80 ng of genomic dna , 3 mm cl
mg , 300 μm dntp , 0 . 2 pmol of the forward and reverse primers and 3 u of taq polymerase ( euroclone ) . the pcr conditions were according to [
] and were performed in a gene amp® pcr system 2700 ( applied biosystems ) thermal cycler .
the specimens are denoted by a female or male symbol followed by a number .
the pcr products were purified using the nucleospin® extract ii kit ( macherey - nagel ) , and cloned into pgem® - t easy vector ( promega ) . plasmid dna was extracted using nucleospin® plasmid ( macherey - nagel ) . dna sequencing was performed with fluorescence - labeled terminator ( bigdye terminator 3 . 1 cycle sequencing kit ; applied biosystems ) in an abi3100 genetic analyzer .
) . sequence data have been deposited with the genbank data library under accession numbers jn406320 to jn406370 .
] using the slow and iterative refinement method strategy ( fft - ns - i ) . consensus sequences were obtained with the bioedit software [
] to determine the similarities of the sequences obtained with other sequences from the genbank database . promoter and regulator regions of the 5s gene were detected by comparison with models previously described [
] was used to obtain the nucleotide variability ( π ) , the number of polymorphic sites ( s ) and the number of haplotypes ( h ) in both coding and spacer regions of the three gene families . on the other hand , evolutionary distance between 5s rdna types was calculated , using mega5 program [


the ibaliidae are a small family of hymenopteran superfamily cynipoidea .

ibaliidae differ from most of the cynipoids by the larvae being parasitoids on other wasp larvae in the group siricidae .

the ibaliidae comprise three extant genera of fairly large wasps , with a total of 20 species , and is a sister group to the rest of the cynipoids except the small subfamily austrocynipidae .

ibaliidae

ibaliidae .
a dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
ibaliidae .
a dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
fukuda h , hijii n . different parasitism patterns of two hymenopterous parasitoids ( ichneumonidae and ibaliidae ) depending on the development of
hansen , lars ove . the family ibaliidae ( hymenoptera , cynipoidea ) in norway . norwegian journal of entomology . 2010 , 57 , 139
species ( himenoptera : ibaliidae ) to the fungal symbiontes of siricid woodwasp host . j entomol , serie a 48 ( 2 ) : 217–222
a worldwide perspective of the management of sirex noctilio using the parasitoid ibalia leucospoides ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) . bulletin of entomological research , 105 , 1 - 12 .
phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cynipoid wasp family ibaliidae ( hymenoptera ) g . nordlander , z . liu , f . ronquist . 1996 . systematic entomology 21 : 151–166 .
review of the family ibaliidae ( hymenoptera : cynipoidea ) with keys to genera and species of the world liu z . , nordlander g . 1994 . entomologica scandinavica 25 : 377 - 392 .
the fsca collection of ibaliidae is housed in one drawer . the collection currently includes three identified species in one genus . of the 53 specimens , two have yet to be identified to species .
smith dr , schiff nm . a review of the siricid woodwasps and their ibalid parasitoids ( hymenoptera : siricidae , ibaliidae ) in the eastern united states , with emphasis on the mid - atlantic region .
foramen by ronquist , f . , and g . nordlander . 1989 . skeletal morphology of an archaic cynipoid , ibalia rufipes ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) . entomologica scandinavica , supplement 33 : 1 - 60 .
reference : ronquist , f . , and g . nordlander . 1989 . skeletal morphology of an archaic cynipoid , ibalia rufipes ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) . entomologica scandinavica , supplement 33 : 1 - 60 .
nordlander , göran , zhiwei liu , and fredrik ronquist , 1996 : phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cynipoid wasp family ibaliidae ( hymenoptera ) . systematic entomology , vol . 21 , no . 2 . 151 - 166 .
liu , zhiwei , and göran nordlander , 1994 : review of the family ibaliidae ( hymenoptera : cynipoidea ) with keys to genera and species of the world . entomologica scandinavica , vol . 25 , no . 4 . 377 - 392 .
fischbein d ( 2011 ) influence of life history traits and information use on resource acquisition and dispersal in the parasitoid ibalia leucospoides hochenwarth ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) . phd thesis , buenos aires university ( argentine ) and lyon 1 university ( france )
robertson , d j and gandhi , k j k 2018 . morphology of male and female antennal sensilla of ibalia leucospoides ensiger ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america , vol . 111 , issue . 1 , p . 13 .
corley jc , villacide jm , van nouhuys s ( 2010 ) patch time allocation by the parasitoid ibalia leucospoides ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) : the influence of con - specifics , host abundance and distance to the patch . j insect behav 23 ( 6 ) : 431–440
the cynipoid family ibaliidae is revised for norway . eight specimens where traced , all belonging to ibalia rufipes cresson , 1879 . records are present from rollag municipality in buskerud , ullensaker , sørum , and skedsmo in akershus , and most probably oslo . the biology and distribution of the family in northern europe are briefly discussed . posted here with permission from the journal . norwegian journal of entomology : urltoken norsk entomologisk forening : urltoken
dead siricid larvae were tallied , and typically either had a completely blackened cuticle , or were covered in a white or green fungus . siricid larvae that were parasitized by rhyssines ( ichnuemonidae : rhyssinae ) were tallied during examination of the siricid gallery because they are ectoparasitoids , and easily detectable on a siricid larva . all other live siricid larvae were placed individually in vials sorted by tree , and dissected to determine if they had been parasitized by ibalia spp . ( ibaliidae ) or parasitic nematodes ( deladenus spp . ) .
. however , molecular confirmations were not used in identification of the larvae , and so they are referred to as siricids because of the possibility of native species being present . among the three different host species , a total of 2 , 125 siricid larvae were found in the sampled scots pine trees , 443 in the red pine , and 76 in the white pine . of the three host species combined , there was a total of 2 , 644 siricid larvae found developing in the logs . out of the 2 , 644 larvae , 1 , 743 were found healthy , 264 larvae were parasitized by ichneumonidae , 484 were parasitized by ibaliidae , 30 were parasitized by nematodes , and 123 larvae were found dead at the time of sampling . parasitism by
in the field survey , we observed a total of 10 tremex apicalis ( 3 males , 7 females ) and 24 parasitoid wasps , i . e . ibalia japonica matsumura ( hymenoptera : ibaliidae ) , megarhyssa jezoensis ( matsumura ) and megarhyssa sp . 1 ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) , that landed on the tree ( fig . 2 , table 1 ) . in addition , six dead bodies of female tremex apicalis were observed on the tree trunk . two of them were whole bodies and the others were only ovipositors with abdomens attached to the trunk ( fig . 2b ) . some females of the hymenopteran species were observed inserting their long ovipositors into the trunk ( fig . 2 ) . of the three males of tremex apicalis , two males were mounting the female on the trunk . one female was observed inserting her ovipositor into the trunk with a male on her back . no tremex apicalis adults were observed on the trunk between june 2015 until march 2016 .
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1 : department of entomology , swedish university of agricultural sciences , p . o . box 7044 , 750 07 uppsala , sweden , division of entomology , central south forestry college , zhuzhou , hunan , 412006 china ( p . r . c . ) ; 2 : department of entomology , swedish university of agricultural sciences , p . o . box 7044 , 750 07 uppsala , sweden
r . de jong ; r . i . vane - wright and p . r . ackery
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ibaliids have been reared from wood - boring insects in the families siricidae and anaxyelidae ( hymenoptera ) .
there are 2 genera ( ibalia and eilleniella ) and ~ 15 described spp .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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parent taxon : cynipoidea according to m . s . engel and z . w . liu 2012
this genus - level inventory covers the identified material from the following sections of the hymenoptera collection . types are not listed and found in a separate file on the hymenoptera collection homepage .
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benton , m . j . ( ed ) . ( 1993 ) . the fossil record 2 . chapman & hall , london , 845 pp .
burks , b . d . / krombein , k . v . , p . d . hurd , d . r . smith , and b . d . burks , eds . , 1979 : superfamily cynipoidea . catalog of hymenoptera in america north of mexico , vol . 1 . 1045 - 1107 .
kerrich , g . j . , 1973 : on the taxonomy of some forms of ibalia latreille ( hymenoptera : cynipoidea ) associated with conifers . zoological journal of the linnean society , vol . 53 , no . 1 . 65 - 79 .
parker , s . p . ( ed ) . ( 1982 ) . synopsis and classification of living organisms . mcgraw - hill , new york . 2 volumes .
ronquist , fredrik , 1999 : phylogeny , classification and evolution of the cynipoidea . zoologica scripta , vol . 28 , issue 1 - 2 . 139 - 164 .
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info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : ctx & ctx _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & rft _ val _ fmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : journal & rft . jtitle = norwegian journal of entomology & rft . volume = 57 & rft . spage = 139 & rft . date = 2010
name : nje - vol57 - no2 - hansen . pdf size : 810 . 9kb format : application /
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this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .
coyle , david r . and gandhi , kamal j . k . 2012 . the ecology , behavior , and biological control potential of hymenopteran parasitoids of woodwasps ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) in north america . environmental entomology , vol . 41 , issue . 4 , p . 731 .
kerrich , g . j . 1973 . on the taxonomy of some forms of ibalia latreille ( hymenoptera : cynipoidea ) associated with conifers . zoological journal of the linnean society , vol . 53 , issue . 1 , p . 65 .
, is described from material received from the forestry station in calgary , alberta , and from the canadian national collection in ottawa .
. les spécimens examinés proviennent de la station forestière de calgary , alberta et de la collection nationale canadienne à ottawa .
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that is surrounded by sclerites and allows for the passage of haemolymph , nerves and tracheae .
written by : bertone , m . a . 2009 . hao curator . .
foramen by miko , i . 2009 . - 2014 curator . hymenoptera anatomy ontology .
do we need foramen ? if we define it based on gibson 1998 and ronquist and nordlander 1989 , than the oral foramen is not a foramen . insetad , we should define all foramina as is _ a anatomical space . he ?
any opening in a body wall through which organs pass from one region to another .
reference : gibson , g . a . p . , j . d . read , and r . fairchild . 1998 . chalcid wasps ( chalcidoidea ) : illustrated glossary of positional and morphological terms . .
the anatomical space that is located where appendages and / or tagmata articulate on the body .
reference : miko , i . 2009 . - 2014 curator . hymenoptera anatomy ontology .
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© a dictionary of zoology 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .
being almost sessile . the fore wing has brownish spots medially and apically . the abdomen is laterally flattened like a knife edge , and the
is curled up beneath in a sheath . the sensitive antennae of the ibaliids seek out the tunnels made by the woodwasp , and eggs are laid in the body of the host .
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fischbein , deborah ; corley , juan c . ; villacide , josé m . ; bernstein , carlos
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kelley e . zylstra 1 , a , * and victor c . mastro 2 , b
1 u . s . department of agriculture , aphis , ppq , 374 northern lights dr . north syracuse ny 13212 . vog . adsu . sihpa @ artslyz . e . yellek
2 u . s . department of agriculture , aphis , ppq , 1398 west truck rd . , buzzards bay , ma 02542 . vog . adsu . sihpa @ ortsam . civ
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field sampling was conducted during december and january of 2007 and 2008 in pine stands that had known infestations of s . noctilio . two different field sites were chosen for each host tree species , scots pine , pinus sylvestris l . , red pine , p . resinosa solander ex alton , and white pine , p . strobus l . ( pinales : pinaceae ) per sampled year , for a total of four sites per host species . field sites were unmanaged pine stands located in oswego and onondaga counties in central new york , usa . five host trees were felled at each field site , resulting in a total of 20 trees felled per host species , and 60 trees felled between the two years of the study . the dbh of the trees chosen ranged from 6 . 5 – 9 inches . host trees , symptomatic to a s . noctilio infestation , were chosen based on crown decay class , resin class , other insect activity ( coleoptera : scolytidae , cerambycidae , buprestidae ) , and woodpecker activity . trees were felled , and ten bolts of the same approximate length ( 51 cm ) were chosen at random from the whole length of each tree . bolts were labeled and brought back to the usda laboratory in north syracuse , ny .
in the laboratory , each bolt was split using a 4 - ton electric log splitter ( ryobi limited , usa inc . ) . bolts were split length - wise into pieces of approximately one - half inch or less width . all larvae were collected , identified to family , and tallied . currently , there is no morphological key for identifying siricid larvae , and molecular techniques were not developed and available at the time that this study took place . therefore , all horntail larvae were identified to family only .
the remaining siricid larvae that were not dead or parasitized were considered to be healthy at the time of sampling . in addition , 20 siricid galleries , chosen at random from several different log billets from several trees of each tree species , were measured ( mm ) from the center of the long axis of the gallery to the edge of the bark layer in order to determine if gallery depth has an effect on parasitism .
data presented as the overall percentage of larvae in each mortality category ( i . e . , healthy , dead , parasitized , etc . ) were estimated using the following formula , modeled after fukuda and hijii ( 1996 ) :
where “x” is the number in the mortality category being determined ( i . e . , % parasitism by rhyssines ) , “h” denotes the number of healthy larvae found throughout the 200 log bolt samples per host species , “r” denotes the number of rhyssine larvae , “i” denotes the number of ibalia spp . larvae , “n” denotes the number of siricid larvae that had nematodes inside the body cavity , and “d” denotes the number of siricid larvae found dead from other or unknown causes in the galleries .
an oneway anova was used to analyze the arcsin square root transformation of the proportion of siricid larvae found in each mortality category by host species . each tree was considered a replicate . an oneway anova was also used to analyze the distance of siricid galleries to the bark edge by host species , with each gallery treated as a replicate . a tukey - kramer hsd was used for analysis among treatments for statistically significant results ( jmp 8 . 0 , sas institute inc . , 2008 ) .
spp . was the greatest mortality factor ( 18 % ) on siricid larvae in this study when all three host species data were combined . the total and percentage of larvae in each fate category per host species can be found in
the total number ( and percentage ) of larvae found in each mortality category from 200 billets out of the 20 trees of each host species that were examined .
although the proportion of larvae that appeared healthy varied from 31 . 6 % in white pine to 69 . 4 % in scots pine , there was no significant difference in the proportion of healthy larvae found among host species ( f 2 , 58 = 1 . 46 ; p = 0 . 24 ) . proportions of larvae parasitized by ibalia spp . ( f 2 , 58 = 1 . 54 ; p = 0 . 22 ) and rhyssines ( f 2 , 58 = 2 . 21 ; p = 0 . 12 ) also did not differ significantly by host species . there were , however , significant differences detected among tree host species for siricid larvae parasitized by nematodes ( f 2 , 58 = 5 . 71 ; p = 0 . 006 ) . more nematode parasitism was detected in siricid larvae from scots pine ( 0 . 014 ± 0 . 003 ) than larvae from white pine ( 0 ± 0 . 003 ) and red pine ( 0 . 002 ± 0 . 003 ) . the nematodes that were found associated with the siricids in this study were not identified using molecular techniques , but are presumed to be an endemic strain of beddingia siricidicola introduced with s . noctilio ( yu et al 2009 ; williams et al . 2010 ) .
= 0 . 14 ) . additionally , we found that there was a significantly shorter distance in the average siricid gallery to the bark edge in white pine ( 1 . 03 ± 0 . 19 mm ) compared to both scots pine ( 2 . 21 ± 0 . 19 mm ) and red pine ( 1 . 85 ± 0 . 19 mm ) (
siricid galleries were found significantly closer ( f 2 , 57 = 9 . 74 ; p = 0 . 0002 ) to the edge of the bark layer in white pine ( 1 . 03 ± 0 . 19 ) than in red pine ( 1 . 85 ± 0 . 19 ) or scots pine ( 2 . 21 ± 0 . 19 ) . small bars represent sem . capitalized letters represent treatment groups that are statistically different from one another . high quality figures are available online .
the greatest mortality factor for siricids in scots pine is parasitism by ibalia spp . ( 18 % ) ( f 3 , 80 = 7 . 93 ; p = 0 . 0001 ) . there were no statistically significant differences in mortality factors found in red pine ( f 3 , 76 = 2 . 65 ; p = 0 . 0548 ) . in white pine , there was no significant difference between the level of parasitism by rhyssines and larvae that were found dead in the galleries , though rhyssine parasitism was more frequent than parasitism by ibalia and nematodes ( f 3 , 76 = 5 . 11 ; p = 0 . 0028 ) .
for the management of s . noctilio , it is important to understand the effect natural enemies currently have in the north american siricid complex . there were far more siricid larvae in the infested scots pine trees sampled ( 2 , 125 ) than in red pine ( 443 ) or white pine ( 76 ) . this finding may be attributed to differences in host volatile emissions that alter attractiveness to ovipositing females . boröczky et al . ( 2012 ) found that scots pine are releasing quantitative and qualitatively different volatile blends , rendering them more attractive to s . noctilio females than other hosts . similarly , dodds et al . ( 2010 ) found that scots pine exhibit higher level basal area loss from s . noctilio colonization over other host species in the northeastern u . s .
was specifically keying into the fungus - produced odor in the frass nearest the developing larva . additionally , long et al . (
as tree diameter increased . thus , it seems likely that to the closer the gallery to the bark surface , the more attractive and accessible it would be for parasitism by natural enemies , specifically the hymenopteran parasitoids . in this study , we found galleries were closer to the bark surface in white pine (
) , with more observed parasitism by both hymenopteran families combined in white pine ( 48 . 7 % ) than in red pine ( 38 . 8 % ) and scots pine ( 25 . 3 % ) (
this information is important because it sheds light on the impact natural enemies may have on the local populations of siricids in three different host species , and it provides background information for north american management programs of s . noctilio .
the authors thank michael crawford ( usda aphis ) for his help with the tree felling , splitting , and dissections . david lance ( usda aphis ) , david w . williams ( usda aphis ) , fred hain ( ncsu ) , and kevin dodds ( usda usfs ) provided valuable suggestions to earlier revisions of the manuscript .
species ( nematoda : neotylenchidae ) parasitic in siricid woodwasps and associated hymenopterous parasitoids .
boröczky k , zylstra ke , mccartney nb , mastro vc , tumlinson jh . volatile profile differences and the associated
north american survey for natural enemies of the siricidae , may - october , 1962 .
carnegie aj , matsuki m , haugen da , hurley bp , ahumada r , klasmer p , sun j , iede et . predicting the potential distribution of
fukuda h , hijii n . bark thickness of host pine trees and female body size affecting ovipoisitional success of
hurley bp , slippers b , croft pk , hatting hj , van der linde m , morris ar , dyer c , wingfield mj . factors influencing parasitism of
lopez a , demaestri m , garcia j , zupan e , santa g . control biológico de
neumann fg , morely jl , kassaby fy , minko g . an improved technique for early detection and control of the
fabricius ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) in south african pine plantations and the introduction and establishment of its biological agents .
in north america . in : slippers b , wingfield m , de groot p , editors .
yu q , de groot p , leal i , davis c , ye w , foord b . characterization of
gall wasps , also called gallflies , are a family ( cynipidae ) of the order hymenoptera and are classified with the apocrita suborder of wasps in the superfamily cynipoidea . their common name comes from the galls they induce on plants for larval development . about 1300 species of this generally very small creature ( 1 - 8 mm ) are known worldwide , with about 360 species of 36 different genera in europe and some 800 species in north america .
like all apocrita , gall wasps have a distinctive body shape , the so - called wasp waist . the first abdominal tergum ( the propodeum ) is conjoined with the thorax , while the second abdominal segment forms a sort of shaft , the petiole . the petiole connects with the gaster , which is the functional abdomen in apocritan wasps , starting with the third abdominal segment proper . together , the petiole and the gaster form the metasoma , while the thorax and the propodeum make up the mesosoma . the antennae are straight and consist of 12 to 16 segments . in many varieties , the backside of the mesosoma appears longitudinally banded . the wings are typically simply structured . the female ' s egg - depositing ovipositor is often seen protruding from the tip of the metasoma .
the reproduction of the gall wasp is partly pure two - sex propagation , and partly pure parthenogenesis , in which a male is completely unnecessary . with most species , however , an alternation of generations occurs , with one two - sex generation and one parthenogenic generation annually . this process differentiates the various generations primarily in their appearance and the form of the plant galls they induce .
the larvae of most gall wasps develop in characteristic plant galls they induce themselves , but many species are also inquilines of other gall wasps , such as those of the genus synergus .
the plant galls mostly develop directly after the female insect lays the eggs . the inducement for the gall formation is largely unknown ; discussion speculates as to chemical , mechanical , and viral triggers . the hatching larvae nourish themselves with the nutritive tissue of the galls , in which they are otherwise well - protected from external environmental effects . the host plants and the size and shape of the galls are specific to the majority of gall wasps , whereas about 70 % of the known species live in various types of oak trees . one can find galls on nearly all parts of such trees , some on the leaves , the buds , the branches , and the roots . other species of gall wasps live in eucalyptus trees , rose bushes or maple trees , as well as many herbs . frequently , the determination of the species is much easier through observation of the galls produced rather than the insect itself .
provides the developing gall wasp with a safe refuge for the most vulnerable stage of its life cycle , but many other wasps have found a way to penetrate this defence and parasitise the larva ( e ) within . some of these
) to bore into the gall and lay an egg on the helpless gall maker . a
or robin ' s pincushions gall , collected before the autumn and kept cool , may result in at least one species of parasitoid emerging instead of the gall maker . these wasps , such as
, are beautiful , metallic insects with long ovipositors . these parasitoids may , in turn , be preyed upon by other wasps ,
most species of gall wasps live as gall - formers on oaks . one of the most well - known of these oak gall wasps is the common oak gall wasp ( cynips quercusfolii ) , which induces characteristic , 2 - cm in diameter , spherical galls on the undersides of oak leaves .
these turn reddish in the fall and are commonly known as oak apples . light lentiform galls on the undersides of the same leaves are induced by neuroterus quercusbaccarum ; darker ones with bulging edges are formed by neuroterus numismalis . also striking are the galls of cynips longiventris , which likewise can be found on the undersides of leaves , and are recognizable for their spheroidal shape and irregular red streaks . the oak potato gall wasp ( biorrhiza pallida ) has round galls that grow to about 4 cm . these are known colloquially as oak potatoes . the latter type of gall is induced by this type of wasp not on the leaves , but on the roots of the oak . on the buds of young oak twigs , one can often find the hard - shelled galls of andricus kollari and andricus quercustozae .
the galls of the rose gall wasp ( diplolepis rosae ) are also distinctive and are known as bedeguars or robin ' s pincushions . these are found on the shoots of dog roses and have a length of up to 5 cm with red , long - haired outgrowths . inside the galls are several chambers , which may be occupied by larvae .
the galls of several species , especially mediterranean variants , were once used as tanning agents .
galls formed on oak trees are one of the main ingredients in iron gall ink .
piper , ross ( 2007 ) . extraordinary animals : an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals . greenwood press .
this article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the german wikipedia .
gauld , i . d . ; bolton , b . ( 1988 ) . the hymenoptera . oxford : oxford university press . isbn 0 - 19 - 858521 - 7 .
classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .
hans - martin braun added the english common name
oak - leaf spangle - gall cynipid
to
neuroterus quercusbaccarum ( linnaeus 1758 )
.
hans - martin braun added the english common name
oak - leaf spangle - gall cynipid wasp
to
neuroterus quercusbaccarum ( linnaeus 1758 )
.
hans - martin braun removed a common name in an unknown language from
neuroterus quercusbaccarum ( linnaeus 1758 )
.
hans - martin braun added the english common name
common spangle gall wasp
to
neuroterus quercusbaccarum ( linnaeus 1758 )
.
hans - martin braun added an unknown common name in an unknown language to
neuroterus quercusbaccarum ( linnaeus 1758 )
.
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corley , juan c ; jofre , n . ; fischbein , d ; j . m . villacide
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kuramitsu k , kosaki a , ishihara t , yamada h , watanabe k ( 2016 ) infestation of the woodwasp tremex apicalis matsumura ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) on the large - leaf dogwood swida macrophylla ( wall . ) with biological notes on its parasitoid wasps . journal of hymenoptera research 52 : 71–79 . doi : 10 . 3897 / jhr . 52 . 10060
in may 2015 , we found a large - leaf dogwood , swida macrophylla ( wall . ) ( cornales : cornaceae ) infested by tremex apicalis in ibaraki , honshu , japan . we then observed the oviposition behavior of tremex apicalis and its parasitoid wasps . fortunately , we were able to obtain permission to split the wood , and observe the wasp biology inside the wood the next spring . the results of these observations provide new information on the host - parasitoid relationships and biology of tremex apicalis and its parasitoids . this information may contribute to the protection of japanese garden plants . in this paper , our observations on these species are described .
a field survey of tremex apicalis was carried out at the botanical garden in the agricultural and forestry research center ( 36°07 ' 10
n ; 140°05 ' 50
e ( dms ) , ca . 25 m a . s . l . ) , university of tsukuba , ibaraki prefecture , honshu , japan . in the study site , we found one swida macrophylla tree with numerous emergence holes of tremex apicalis in the trunk on may 6 , 2015 ( fig . 1 ) . the swida macrophylla tree was approximately 9 m in height and 40 cm in diameter at breast height .
infested swida macrophylla at botanical garden , university of tsukuba , honshu , japan . a a decayed swida macrophylla infested with tremex apicalis b tremex apicalis adults and their emergence holes ( red arrows ) on the tree trunk . scale lines = ( a ) 100 cm ; ( b ) 100 mm .
we observed the target swida macrophylla tree from 11 : 30 to 12 : 30 on may 6 , 2015 . species of hymenopteran insects that landed on the swida macrophylla tree and their behavior were recorded for 60 min . from the observation day until march 1 , 2016 , we observed the infested tree approximately once a week whether or not adult woodwasps visited .
the infested tree was felled with a chainsaw on march 8 , 2016 and the wood kept outside . the infested part , total 14 . 725 kg wet wt with woodwasp emergence holes , was split using a 7 . 2 ton electric wood splitting machine ( e’z - splitter ig - 700a , husqvarna zenoah co . ltd ) and a hatchet on april 10 , 2016 . insect species and their stages were tallied .
voucher specimens are deposited in the laboratory of applied entomology and zoology , university of tsukuba ( tsukuba city , japan ) and kanagawa prefectural museum of natural history ( odawara city , japan ) .
hymenopteran insects landing on and inserting their ovipositor into the swida macrophylla tree trunk . a tremex apicalis female b tremex apicalis ovipositor with abdomen inserted into the wood c ibalia japonica female d megarhyssa jezoensis . female . scale lines = 10 mm .
from the swida macrophylla wood , 35 prepupal or pupal tremex apicalis and 16 pupal or adult parasitoids were obtained ( table 2 , figs 3 , 4 ) . basidiocarps of the fungus cerrena unicolor were observed on the bark of the infested wood and the inside of the wood was partly discolored ( fig . 3a , b ) . all woodwasp prepupae and pupae collected , and their larval tunnels were found in the discolored part of the wood ( fig . 3c ) . all tremex apicalis constructed longitudinal pupal chambers in the wood ( fig . 3c ) . we also found pupae and adults but no larvae of ibalia japonica and megarhyssa spp . in the wood ( table 2 ) . all collected prepupae and pupae of tremex apicalis were individually stored in plastic bags in the laboratory . of nine tremex apicalis prepupae , only one pupated within one week after collection , while all others died . the pupated tremex apicalis also died after five days . four pupae of the 26 collected pupae emerged between 2 - 4 weeks after collection , while all others died .
swida macrophylla wood infested with tremex apicalis . a wood discoloration in the cross section with tremex apicalis infestation b basidiocarp of cerrena unicolor in the wood infested with tremex apicalis c longitudinal section through stem of the wood infested with tremex apicalis and woodwasp larvae , pupae and larval tunnels . scale lines = ( a , c ) 100 mm ; ( b ) 10 mm .
hymenopteran insects found in swida macrophylla . a tremex apicalis prepupa b pupa of tremex apicalis female c ibalia japonica pupa d pupa of megarhyssa sp . 1 female . scale lines = 10 mm .
in this study , we observed oviposition behavior of tremex apicalis on a swida macrophylla tree , and the presence of prepupae and pupae in the tree . the order cornales , which includes swida macrophylla , is a newly recorded host of tremex apicalis .
no tremex apicalis adults were observed on the tree trunk from june 2015 until the following spring . hence tremex apicalis is univoltine , active mainly in the spring . after wood splitting , we observed prepupae and pupae of tremex apicalis but no larvae in the wood . this suggests that tremex apicalis takes almost one year to develop from egg to pupal stages . since most of the collected prepupae died after wood splitting , we were unable to observe whether they would emerge within this year .
all tremex apicalis prepupae and pupae were found in the discolored part of the wood and the wood had basidiocarps of cerrena unicolor on the bark ( fig . 3 ) . adult females of siricidae carry the symbiotic fungus in their mycangia , and inject it during oviposition so hatched larvae can feed on wood infested with fungi ( tabata 2003 ) . some tremex woodwasps , i . e . tremex longicollis and tremex fuscicornis , are associated with the fungus cerrena unicolor ( tabata and abe 1995 , pažoutová and šrůtka 2007 ) . tremex apicalis probably uses cerrena unicolor as a symbiotic fungus . identification of the fungus in the woodwasp mycangia should be carried out in future studies .
because ibalia and megarhyssa are known as solitary parasitoids , their proportion in the wood ( table 2 ) can be interpreted as the parasitism rate . according to the data in table 2 , the parasitism rate of tremex apicalis larvae by all larval parasitoids species is approximately 31 . 4 % . these parasitoids appear to be the major natural enemies of tremex apicalis larvae and may regulate woodwasp populations in the study site .
we thank the agricultural and forestry research center botanical garden , university of tsukuba for permission to conduct this study including wood splitting . we also thank dr . akihiko shinohara ( national museum of nature and science ) , mr . masato ito ( kobe university ) , mr . tatsuro konagaya ( kyoto university ) and mr . jemin park ( paichai university ) for offering information on the woodwasp and parasitoid wasps and dr . yuichi yamaoka ( university of tsukuba ) and dr . tsutomu hattori ( forestry and forest products research institute ) for their help with species identification of cerrena unicolor . we are grateful to dr . yooichi kainoh , dr . demar taylor and dr . natsuko kinoshita ( university of tsukuba ) for helpful improvements in the manuscript .
) from korea , with descriptions of one new species and one unrecorded species .
with notes on certain exotic and fossil forms ( hym . sym . ) .
the braconid and ichneumonid parasitoid wasps : biology , systematics , evolution and ecology .
we thank c . lazzari and c . bernstein for discussing our work at different developmental stages . this work was partially financed by grants pict 2006 # 01200 ( anpcyt ) , pnfor 2212 ( inta ) and pics ( cnrs ) 4144 .
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damage caused by agriculture pests is one of the most important factors of crop yield reduction ( cramer , 1967 ; oerke et al . , 1994 ) and can cause billions of dollars worth of damage each year ( e . g . in brazil , insect pests cause up to us $ 17 . 7 billon year - 1 of damage , oliveira et al . , 2014 ) . due to its economic impact , controlling pest populations is a priority for agricultural scientists . chemical control is the primary method of pest management due to its relatively low costs and high effectiveness ( cooper and dobson , 2007 ) . despite the widespread use of chemical controls , the health and environmental risks associated with their use are well known ( pimentel et al . 1992 ; pimentel , 2005 ) . the risks associated with pesticide use , as well as the evolution of pesticide resistance , has lead to a surge in interest in the use of biological control for pest management over the past 50 years .
figure 1 . a female parasitic wasp ( comperiella bifasciata howard ) infesting a california red scale ( aonidiella aurantii maskell ) , from forester et al . ( 1995 ) .