the white-winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) is a dove whose native range extends from the south-western united states through mexico , central america , and the caribbean .

in recent years with increasing urbanization and backyard feeding , it has expanded throughout texas , into oklahoma , louisiana and coastal mississippi .

it has also been introduced to florida .

the white-winged dove is expanding outside of its historic range into kansas , arkansas , oklahoma , and northern new mexico .

the dove 's range has even expanded drastically northward into canada .

while the dove was introduced to alberta , it still remains a common spring and summer visitor in southern alberta and saskatchewan .

white - winged dove

white - winged dove : mourning dove is smaller , has long , pointed tail , and lacks distinct wing patches and white tail tip .
blankinship , d . 1970 . white - winged dove nesting colonies in northeastern mexico .
diet : white - winged dove feeds mainly on seeds , masts and small fruits and berries .
white - winged dove : feeds on seeds , grains , and fruits ; forages on the ground .
figure 1 . distribution of the white - winged dove in north and middle america and the western west indies .
medium - sized dove with short , white - tipped tail . wingtips are blackish , contrasting with white inner wing .
white - winged dove san antonio , tx 2010 | western u . s . birds | pinterest | bird , creatures and animal
though most dove species are conspicuous enough to easily identify , many dove surveys are done using
coo - counts
insteda of visual identification , so differentiating between species is crucial . check out the difference between the two most common doves in texas . the white - winged dove and mourning dove .
threats white - winged doves share similar feeding and nesting niches to several other dove species , including the common ground dove and the mourning dove . similar niches not only lead to increased interspecific competition , but increased risk of disease and parasite transmission . in urban and suburban areas , the white - winged dove has been shown to have a significant negative correlation with mourning dove and common ground dove populations . white - winged doves , with their larger body size and increasingly generalist feeding tendencies , may feasibly be out competing these other two species . close feeding quarters also render the mourning dove at high risk for contracting trichomoniasis , caused by the protozoan trichomonas gallinae and vectored by white - wings . t . gallinae appears to be non - pathogenic to the white - winged dove , but lethal for the mourning dove . as white - winged doves increase their range , the risk of contracting t . gallinae increases for the mourning dove as long as an overlap in feeding niches remain .
white - winged doves are found in riparian woods , mesquite rangelands , and towns .
diet of desert nesting western white - winged doves . m . s . thesis .
the song of the white - winged dove is a cooing , similar in pattern to the
who cooks for you
of the barred owl .
medium - sized dove with distinctive flight pattern : gray - brown body ; white inner wing with black wingtips ; dark tail with white corners .
although the white - winged dove is most commonly found in arizona and the southwest , its range is expanding nation - wide and into parts of canada .
saunders , g . b . 1980 . the origin of white - winged dove breeding in south florida . florida field naturalist 8 : 50 - 51 .
white - winged dove : song is a drawn out
hooo - hooo - ho - hooo
or
who - cooks - for - you .
blankinship , d . 1966 . the relationships of white - winged dove production to control of great - tailed grackles in the lower rio grande valley of texas .
the patuxent bird population center ' s white - winged dove page . they have incredible range data and natural history for nearly everything avian you could ever want .
the white - winged dove is larger than the mourning dove , but similar in overall color . it has a bold white stripe along the lower edge of each folded wing . in flight , large white patches are visible at the base of the flight feathers . its tail is squared off rather than tapered and pointed as in the mourning dove , though it does have a white rim on the end of the tail .
white - winged doves forage primarily on the ground , but also in trees or saguaro cacti .
waggergman , g . 2001 . white - winged dove and white - tipped dove density , distribution , and harvest . perf rep . , fed . aid project . w - 128 - r - 9 , job 2 . texas parks and wildlife dep . austin , tx .
mode of introduction the historical range of the white - winged dove has been augmented by the expansion of available food resources , rather than by an ‘introduction’ event . despite mounting hunting pressures , the white - winged dove is still able to expand its range northward by approximately 20 km per year , due to increasing grain production , a feeding niche the white - wing has recently begun to exploit . white - winged dove were deliberately introduced into southern florida from an aviary , those populations have established and are nesting in citrus groves and feeding in suburban areas .
stabler , r . 1961 . a parasitological survey of fifty - one eastern white - winged doves .
cottam , c . , j . b . trefethen . 1968 white - wings : the life history , status and management of the white - winged dove . d . van nostrand company , inc . princeton , nj .
waggerman , g . 2002 . white - winged doves , in birds of north america . in press .
hunting the white - winged dove continues to be a desired recreational sport . due to continued hunting pressures and loss of habitat in the lrgv , tpw initiated a sanctuary system in 1978 that alternated hunting areas along the rio grande river by years to keep from over harvesting certain areas . in 1999 an estimated 607 , 000 white - wings were harvested in texas . approximately 50 , 700 white - winged doves were bagged in upper south texas compared to 44 , 400 in the lrgv . the special white - winged dove season in the lrgv consists of two weekends with shooting hours from noon to sunset . it is advisable to read the regulations to regarding white - winged dove hunting and determine the hunting areas .
note large white crescent along wing when perched ; in flight it becomes a large white patch .
habitat : white - winged dove lives in scrub , woodlands , desert and cultivated areas . it occupies arid to semi - arid areas , from sea level to 1 , 500 metres .
white - winged doves are plump , square - tailed doves with relatively long , thin bills and small heads .
protection / threats / status : white - winged dove populations seem to be stable in their range . some declines are observed , due mainly to habitat loss and disturbances at nest - site .
medium - sized dove with small head and short , square - tipped tail . pale brown overall with white stripe along wing ; becomes large white patch on inner wing in flight .
cottam , c . and j . b . trefethen . 1968 . white - wings : the life history , status , and management of the white - winged dove . princeton , nj : d . van nostrand co . , inc . close
random , but this newspaper article gives a sense about the way white - winged dove expansion is percieved of in texas , an opportunity for more hunting . gary waggerman , who is quoted several times within this article is the leading expert on white - winged doves , and works with texas parks and wildlife .
i would recommend that the white - winged dove be controlled with only with increased bag limits in hunting season in the newly colonized regions . the white - winged dove is not currently thought to be a significant threat to other bird species , although future research to determine interspecific competition is needed . like several other dove species , the white - winged is able to increase its range because of increasing human land use change , a trend which is unlikely to slow in the foreseeable future . opening or increasing bag limits in northern and eastern areas of its new range will likely slow the inevitable expansion into these areas , and allow researchers to determine the relative impacts of white - winged doves on other avifauna .
anonymous . 1978 . resident white - winged doves in florida . florida field naturalist 6 ( 2 ) : 56 .
small , m . , r . hilsenbeck , j . scuddy . 1989 . resource utilization and nesting ecology of the white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) in central trans - pecos , texas .
white - winged doves are often compared to mourning doves ( zenaida macroura ) , but mourning doves are slightly smaller , with smaller heads and bills . additionally , mourning doves’ tails are pointed instead of squared , and they lack the distinct bright wing patches or white tail tips of white - winged doves .
white - winged dove : two creamy buff eggs are laid on a frail platform made of loose twigs set in a low bush . incubation ranges from 13 to 14 days and is carried out by both parents .
white - winged doves are important to the saguaro cactus because they help disperse seeds through either feces or regurgitation to their young .
the white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) closely resembles the slightly smaller , grayish - brown mourning dove . its name is derived from the noticeable white - marked feathers on the upper wing surface . the tail is shorter compared to wing length , and more bluntly or rounded when compared to the mourning doves ' long , pointed tail . the call of the white - winged dove is distinctive with loud a loud cooing sequence that sounds like
who cooks for you
with emphasis on the last note . they are colonial nesters and also congregate while roosting and during feeding activities .
behaviour : white - winged dove is usually found singly , in pairs or in large flocks . it feeds mainly on seeds , masts and fruits . it feeds in leaf - litter in undergrowth , fields and parks in urban areas . this dove can occasionally ingest small stones which aid in digestion , and shells and small bones fragments which provide calcium necessary for production of crop milk and for eggshells . white - winged dove sometimes performs attack flights with other male , during territorial defence , courtship and early stages of nesting . these flights are performed with slapping wings while they strike with bills . when threatened by terrestrial predator , white - winged dove has reddened eyes and flails wings aggressively at intruder . it also raises and lowers its tail nervously when alarmed .
current distribution the white - winged dove is currently found over the majority of the united states in low density , while novel areas of high density can be found in texas , florida , arizona and louisiana . this distribution is the result of gradual range expansion following expansion of agricultural lands , and concomitant suburban expansion . the nature of suburban areas creates a savanna like setting ideal for dove nesting , and agricultural lands in some areas offer a year round food source , enabling birds to overwinter . link to past and current white - winged dove distribution
george , r . , r . tomlinson , r . engel - wilson , g . waggerman , a . spratt . 1994 . white - winged dove . pp . 29 - 50 in t tacha , c braun , eds .
the white - winged dove has been able to expand its range because of increasing agricultural lands in the southwest . these additional food sources and the concomitant suburban habitat expansion have offered both increased food and nesting resources for the white - winged dove . their larger body size enables them to more effectively out compete mourning doves sharing similar food and nesting resources . in addition , their plastic nature with respect to these two resources has served them well , as humans land use change has altered their preferred nesting spots , and food availability . white - winged doves appear to more readily adapt to new resources than closely related species .
original distribution the native range of the white - winged dove extends from the southwestern u . s . through mexico and central america , into parts of western south america . the majority of white - winged doves are seasonally migratory , with a breeding season in the southwestern united states from april - september , and wintering grounds in mexico and central america , the desert southwest has some permanent residents . the area with the highest historical white - winged density is the rio grande river valley in south texas , with a concentrated population in the several millions over a hundred years ago . after wholesale destruction of their nesting habitat ( scrub forest ) for conversion to citrus plantations , the populations fell to several hundred thousand . the white - winged dove then switched its nesting preferences to citrus trees , and has been rebounding since . after the initial rebound , an increase in white - winged dove began to be noticed throughout south and central texas . though occurring in reduced density , the white - wing began to expand north and east , and populations in the west swelled .
white - winged doves are the second most numerous migratory game bird species in north america ( mourning doves are the first ) . in 1968 , cottam and trefethen reported that hunting tourism during the two week hunting season in september brought an estimated $ 3 to $ 7 . 5 million annually to the local economy of texas’ lower rio grande valley . although tighter hunting regulations in recent years have limited dove take , white - winged dove hunting continues to contribute to the economies of texas , arizona , and tamaulipas states , where hunters from throughout north america gather each year for dove season .
benefits the white - winged dove is an important cultural symbol of the southwest to many . the hunting cultures of texas and louisiana celebrate dove hunting , and enact practices to increase dove populations , such as offering watering areas in times of drought , and spreading corn in open areas to attract birds during open season . because the white - winged dove is native to parts of texas , it is an important natural prey item for several bird and mammal species , and its increasing numbers may aid in maintaining populations of these predators . since they are also important seed dispersers and pollinators , particularly in the southwest , augmenting their numbers may help the persistence of saguaro cactus ( carnegia gigantea ) populations .
george , r . r . 1991 . the adaptable white - winged . texas parks and wildlife . 49 ( 9 ) : 10 - 15
in the early 1900’s , white - winged dove breeding populations increased as irrigation and grain farming brought new sources of food and water to their historic range . as agricultural development and urban development began to eliminate traditional native brush nesting areas , doves shifted to nesting in citrus orchards . as a result of these habitat modifications , white - winged dove populations have fluctuated throughout much of their range in response to changing nesting and feeding conditions . for example , after freezes , the citrus orchards that serve as major nest sites for eastern doves are unusable for 5 - 8 years until branches grow back to enough to provide sufficient cover . dove populations decline with the lack of nest sites , then increase as they become available again . likewise , increases or decreases in dove numbers have often been linked to availability of agricultural grain crops . since the 1960’s , the overriding trend amid these fluctuations has been a steady decline in eastern and western white - winged dove populations on their traditional breeding grounds .
juveniles look similar to adults , but with small white tips to most of the upperparts feathers , and white markings in the face .
white - winged doves arrive in their northern breeding grounds in late april . western white - winged doves will nest as isolated pairs in the southwest deserts , whereas eastern white - winged doves commonly nest in large colonies . males seek out and defend nesting territories in woody habitat within flying distance of food and water . banding of desert - nesting birds has shown that they will regularly fly up to 8 km from the nest site to a water source . urban white - winged doves nesting in san antonio , texas have been observed taking daily feeding forays to farms 5 - 20 km from their nest sites .
white - winged doves often eat at elevated bird feeders . they’re fond of seeds , including sunflower , milo , corn , safflower , and they may also eat berries from shrubs . white - winged doves sometimes fly into windows when startled , so it’s important to make sure your windows are bird - safe .
olin , g . , s . alcorn , j . alcorn . 1989 . dispersal of viable saguaro seeds by white - winged doves , ( zenaida asiatica ) .
wolf , b . , c . martinez del rio . 2000 . use of saguaro fruit by white - winged doves : isotopic evidence of a tight ecological association .
while texas parks and wildlife ( tpw ) have been monitoring white - winged dove populations since 1951 , an intensive survey was conducted in 1989 and 1990 throughout south texas to determine the extent of this expansion and the population of nesting white - wings outside of the lrgv . several techniques were used including rural coo counts , urban coo counts and fall flight counts .
across much of its range , the vegetarian white - winged dove eats mostly grains and other agricultural crops like wheat , sunflower , milo , corn , and safflower . it also eats fruits and large seeds from plants like spurge , panic grass , bristlegrass , mexican jumping beans , chinese tallow , leatherweed , saguaro , lime prickly - ash , brasil , privet , pigeonberry , and ocotillo . the white - winged dove seems to be predisposed toward large seeds because of its large bill and gape , along with its slower eating style ( it never pecks quickly , the way mourning doves do ) . white - winged doves also commonly feed above ground level , unlike mourning doves , on seedheads , berries , and raised bird feeders . like many birds , white - winged doves consume small stones to help pulverize plant material in their gizzards , and they may eat snails and bone fragments as a source of calcium . back to top
doves and pigeons are known carriers of the avian parasite trichomonas gallinae and as a result , can spread the avian disease trichomoniasis . virulent strains of the disease can cause severe lesions that can block the mouth and pharynx of infected birds , resulting in starvation or infection . outbreaks of virulent strains have been responsible for mourning dove mortality , but no white - winged doves deaths have been documented from trichomoniasis . white - winged doves have been shown to be important carriers of a virulent strains of t . gallinae , leading researchers to speculate that white - winged doves may spread the disease to mourning doves . research to this point has not confirmed this concern .
and small , black crescent below eye . wings are dark gray with broad white stripes . tail is short and brown with white corners . sexes are similar .
conti , j . , r . frohlich , d . forrester . 1985 . experimental transfer of trichomonas gallinae ( rivolta , 1878 ) from white - winged doves to mourning doves .
trichomoniasis is spread , however , to dove - eating raptors such as cooper’s hawks ( accipiter cooperi ) , where it contributes to nestling mortality among populations that utilize doves as a primary food source . this is the case among urban populations of cooper’s hawks in tucson , where higher incidences of trichomoniasis among urban populations are linked to prey selection . no research has been done on the affects of trichomoniasis on white - winged dove avian nest predators .
food web : white - winged dove mainly eat seeds , grains , and fruits from trees , shrubs , and cacti . they often feed in flocks with many other birds . they are mainly predat ed upon by birds of prey such as hawks . their coloration helps them blend in with the bushes and shadows .
control method : white - winged have not yet been controlled as an invasive species . population numbers have historically been kept in check through hunting . the current season on white - winged doves in texas ( their native home - range ) is september 7 , 8 , 14 , and 15th , on properties within south texas , where the daily bag limit is 10 .
in the event that white - winged doves continue to increase their range into urban and suburban habitats , the greatest threat posed to humans appears to be building fouling . its cousin the common city pigeon , perches on building ledges and the resultant defecation is considered an ascetic menace . a similar situation may occur with white - winged doves if its populations continue to expand into cities .
like most doves , the young are fed
pigeon milk
, a secretion from the crop of each parent bird . in the sonoran desert , white - winged doves help pollinate saguaro cacti .
glass , j . w . , a . m fedynich etal . 2001 . trichomonas gallinae in an expanding population of white - winged doves from texas . southwest nat . 46 : 234 - 237
geographic range : white - winged dove are desert birds who only live year - round in the warmer areas of the sonoran desert in arizona and chihuahuan desert of southwestern new mexico . their breeding grounds in the spring and summer , however , occur from southeastern california to the big bend areas of texas . they are even found in florida .
white - winged doves feed on a variety of seeds , grain , and fruit that vary depending on their range and seasonal availability . they consume seeds and fruits of wild trees , grasses , and herbaceous plants , as well as those of ornamental cultivars . domestic grain crops including sunflower , barley , sesame , sorghum , wheat , corn , and safflower are also an important food source in many parts of white - winged dove’s range . to supplement their seed - based diet , white - winged doves will also ingest shells of small snails and other gastropods , or bits of bone extracted from raptor pellets or mammal feces . the bones and shell are an important source of calcium for the doves , necessary for eggshell and crop milk production .
because it is an important game species , management of the white - winged dove is an issue of concern . recommendations for conservation and management include restoration and conservation of critical breeding habitats . state and federal wildlife agencies in texas are attempting to restore habitat for white - winged doves and other wildlife by planting native vegetation on former cropland along the lower rio grande valley in texas . in tamaulipas , the brushy native vegetation used by the largest colony of nesting white - winged doves was recently set aside as a sanctuary by the mexican government . more of this type of protection is needed in additional breeding areas as well as in the non - breeding areas of southern mexico and central america where the doves spend the other half of the year .
white - winged doves are hunted by a variety of predators . raptors take young and adults during nesting season , but take of eggs and nestlings by grackles , jays , and crows is a more significant source of white - winged dove predation . great - tailed grackles ( quiscalus mexicanus ) and mexican crows ( corvis imparatus ) are the highest cause of white - winged dove mortality in eastern breeding areas where they take eggs and nestlings to feed to their own broods . mammals and reptiles will also take young and eggs from nests , but they are principle predators on the ground . when aware of predators , nesting doves rarely perform distraction displays . more often , they readily flee from their nests in explosive flight that can result in eggs or chicks being ejected from the nest . terrestrial predators consume these young . finally , ants will sometimes swarm and eat hatching or newly - emerged chicks .
white - winged doves live in dense , thorny forests , streamside woodlands , deserts full of cactus and palo verde , and , more recently , urban and suburban areas of the southern u . s . they tend to breed in the interiors of forests rather than near the edges . white - winged doves now breed as far north as oklahoma , possibly taking advantage of bird feeders and artificial heat sources in cities . their breeding range extends south to panama and east to cuba . throughout their range white - winged doves prefer places where nesting habitat is interspersed with feeding habitat , like grain fields or desert cactus communities . in the winter white - winged doves are found throughout most of their breeding range as well as in the southeastern united states , and some individuals wander widely across the continent . back to top
white - winged doves eat seeds from desert willow trees , ocotillo , agave , as well as fruit from saguaro , organ - pipe and other cacti . they also sip nectar from saguaro cactus fruit .
ecological role white - winged doves feed on a variety of wild and domestic seeds , grain , and fruit depending on their range and seasonal availability . domestic grain crops include sunflower , barley , sesame , sorghum , wheat , corn , and safflower . these doves are important seed dispersers and pollinators , especially of columnar cacti such as the saguaro ( carnegia gigantea ) in western states . the cactus pollen , nectar , fruit and seed provide practicaly all of the obtainable food and moisture for the desert white - winged doves in summer months . white - winged doves regurgitate cactus fruit for their young ; after digestion these seeds fall to the shaded ground beneath the nest . saguaro seeds are shade dependent for germination ; tightly linking the dove to the desert ecosystem of the southwest .
schwertner , t . w . , h . a . mathewson , j . a . roberson and g . l . waggerman . 2002 . white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
white - winged dove : breeds in the southwestern u . s . and southern texas . introduced to florida where it is expanding northward . spends winters south of the u . s . or in small numbers on the gulf coast east to florida . preferred habitats include open country with dense thickets of shrubs and low trees as well as in suburban and agricultural areas .
site and date of introduction the white - winged dove is a home grown exotic . by definition , this native species has expanded beyond its historical boundaries without a specific introduction event . the only known introduction event was in south florida in the 1970’s , where several hundred birds were released from an aviary . because of the popularity in dove hunting , it is not unlikely that the northern expansion of these doves has been augmented by humans transport to stock fields for recreational shooting , however , this has not been officially documented .
once this is established , farms with grain or corn stubble , sunflowers , or sesame are the best areas . also , look for watering areas and roosting trees in the vicinity . if unfamiliar , there are numerous outfitters , guides and even local farmers that advertise white - wing hunting . the lrgv chambers of commerce ' s are excellent sources of information . in the remaining area of south texas , white - winged doves are concentrated around the urban areas and towns . generally , the majority of white - wings are harvested in conjunction with mourning dove season and are incidental or bonuses in the bag . hunting in close proximity of san antonio , uvalde , del rio , beeville , mathis , will usually increase the numbers of birds . as the white - winged dove population continues to expand and increase throughout south texas it is obvious that the numbers of birds harvested will also increase , thus giving more recreation for south texas sportsmen .
eyes closed and dark skin coated with long off - white down feathers . weak and uncoordinated .
white - winged doves breed along the gulf coast , in texas , and the desert southwest south through parts of south america . their range has been expanding northward in recent years . the population is stable to increasing .
conti , j . a . and d . j . forrester . 1981 . interrelationships of parasites of white - winged doves and mourning doves in florida . j . wildl . dis . 17 : 529 - 536 .
historically , the white - winged dove has nested primarily in the lrgv with their distribution apparently restricted to the sub - tropical to temperate environment that reaches its northern limit here . within the last 20 years however , a dramatic increase in nesting populations have increased throughout texas and even into other states . the range expansion apparently started during the 1980 ' s when citrus groves that had become major nesting areas for white - winged doves , were decimated with killing freezes . many of the citrus groves were never replaced and an increasing human population in the lrgv has caused additional loss of habitat through development .
this is a light gray / brown bird with a white area on the wing . when the wings are folded , this area looks like a white stripe on the leading edge of the wing .
in captivity , one dove was know to have lived 25 years . in the wild they don ' t live as long , only 10 - 15 years .
schwertner , t . w . , h . a . mathewson , j . a . roberson , m . small , and g . l . waggerman . 2002 . white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) . in the birds of north america , no . 710 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia and american ornithologists’ union .
white - winged doves are brown overall , with a dark line on the cheek . a white stripe at the edge of the folded wing becomes , as the bird takes flight , a bright flash in the middle of a dark wing . the tail is tipped in white and set off with black stripes from the gray underside . their faces are ornately marked with a black streak on the cheek , and blue skin around the red eyes .
since the early 1930 ' s , the white - winged dove has been an important game bird for many generations of texas hunters in the lower rio grande valley ( lrgv ) . following the introduction of irrigation and grain farming to the lrgv in the early 1900 ' s , the white - winged dove population increased to an estimated 4 - 12 million birds by 1923 . however , due to the continued loss of native habitat that was being put into farming the population declined to about 500 , 000 birds by 1939 . the destruction of 90 % of its critical nesting habitat through intensive agricultural farming and heavy hunting in the 1920 ' s and 1930 ' s contributed to this decline . the average number of hunters that traditionally traveled to the lrgv was 35 , 000 - 40 , 0000 each year . distribution
behavior : the soft cooing calls of the white - winged dove make a comforting desert sound in the southwestern deserts of the united states . living in the harsh deserts , they are dependent upon finding reliable sources of water . fortunately , they can fly directly to a water source , even one as far away as 20 miles . they can suck up water directly into their mouths and therefore can rehydrate easily . white - winged doves nod their heads as they walk . their call is a sound like , “who cooks for you ? ” also , ooo - uh - cuck ' oo , sounding a little like the crowing of a young rooster .
mourning doves have pointed tails and lack white in the wings . eurasian collared doves have a black collar .
) are semi - tropical doves whose native range extends from the southwestern u . s . through mexico and central america , into parts of western south america , and to some caribbean islands . they are also residents in florida , where they were introduced . the majority of white - winged doves are seasonally migratory . they overwinter in mexico and central america and come to the southwestern united states and northern mexico in april to breed , departing again in september . some will overwinter in their breeding range , especially in residential areas where food remains available . in the southern parts of their range , they are year - round residents . there are twelve subspecies of white - winged doves . western or desert white - winged doves (
related to the mourning dove , but a larger and bulkier bird , the white - wing is mainly a summer resident in the southwestern states . it is abundant in some regions , and streamside groves or desert washes may echo with the crowing calls of males on spring mornings . in some desert areas , this dove often feeds on the fruits of cactus , and visits their flowers for nectar ; it is an important pollinator of the giant saguaro cactus .
description : white - winged dove adult has greyish - brown plumage . when wings are spread , we can see conspicuous white wing - patch ( visible at rest too ) across outer wing coverts . blackish flight feathers on upper wing contrast with white patch . underwings show greyish coverts , and brown flight feathers . tail is slightly rounded . central feathers are brown . outer tail feathers have grey bases and broad white tips , separated by black line . belly is greyer than upperparts . head is greyish - brown , with black line on lower cheek . eyes are bright red - orange , surrounded by bright blue bare skin . bill is blackish . legs and feet are pinkish - red , brighter in breeding plumage . both sexes are similar .
conti , j . a . 1993 . diseases , parasites and contaminants . pp 205 - 224 in ecology and management of the mourning dove . stackpole books , harrisburg , pa
george , r . r . , r . e . tomlinson , r . w . engel - wilson , g . l . waggerman and a . g . spratt . 1994 .
white - winged dove .
in migratory shore and upland game bird management in north america . , edited by t . c . tacha and c . e . braun , 29 - 50 . lawrence , ks : allen press . close
description : white - winged dove are plump , fast - flying birds with small heads and low , cooing voices . as adults , they reach 11 - 11 ½” ( 28 - 29 cm . ) in size . unlike other doves and pigeons , they have distinctive white patches on their wings . they also have a rounded tail with broad white corners on the tip of the tail . they have an iridescent greenish gold shine on their neck and black marks below their ear coverts . they have orange - red eyes surrounded by bare blue skin and a dark blue bill . their bodies are mostly brownish in color with dark gray flight feathers . females and males look similar .
look for white - winged doves in desert habitat in the southwest and in cities and suburbs of texas and the coastal southeast . they often visit backyards , especially those with birdbaths and feeders . individuals wander widely and irregularly across the continent after the breeding season ends .
and small , black crescent below eye . the wings are dark gray with broad white stripes . tail is short and brown with white corners . bill is gray . legs and feet are red . fast direct flight with rapid wing beats .
western white - winged doves are important pollinators of the saguaro cactus . this behavior serves them well since they also feed on saguaro fruits and seeds . although they are primary seed consumers , white - winged doves also serve as dispersers of saguaro seeds . some of the seeds the doves regurgitate and feed to their young fall to the ground , concentrating seeds beneath the nest . since saguaro seedlings require shade to become successfully established , the doves may be inadvertently placing saguaro seeds in some of the most viable spots for development beneath their nest trees .
results of these rural coo counts indicated many white - winged doves were nesting in the breaks of the edwards plateau in the area of northern uvalde , kinney and medina counties with a substantial number of nesting pairs in the vicinity of medina lake and the concan area of uvalde county . the area around lake corpus christi showed a steady increase in nesting birds also . there was very little nesting activity in the typical south texas chaparral , due to the lack of tall mature trees . the cities and towns scattered throughout south texas have extensive nesting occurring with the greatest activity in the cities of san antonio , del rio , uvalde , beeville and alice . currently , white - winged dove surveys are conducted in numerous cities and towns throughout texas .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto white - winged dove utters cooing calls “hooo - hooo - hooo” . when perched , male utters elaborate call of several notes , with first section short and low , and second louder . following sounds are more musical and strongly accented , ending in lower and slurred sounds . it is described as “who hoo , hoo - ah , hoo - hoo - ah , who - oo » . advertising call is shorter and more abrupt .
reproduction : breeding season varies , according to the place . female selects nest - site within territory . nest is a loose platform made with twigs . it is sometimes lined with rootlets . it may be built in dense low shrub . in other parts of the range , white - winged dove may build its nest in trees . western species are rather solitary nesters , whereas eastern birds breed in huge colonies . nest is often situated between 3 and 8 metres above the ground .
number : usually lay 2 eggs . color : white or off - white . incubation and fledging : the young hatch at about 13 - 14 days and leave the nest in another 13 - 16 days but continue to associate with the adults for some time .
range : white - winged dove lives from sw of the united states , in mexico and central america , and into parts of south america , and in caribbean . they are introduced in florida where they are resident . they breed in sw of us and northern mexico in april , and winter in mexico and central america . birds of southern parts of the range are residents . most of them are seasonally migratory , and if food resources are available as in urban areas , they winter in their breeding range .
the white - winged dove is a year - round resident of the southwestern u . s . and mexico ( sibley 2014 ) . populations are expanding in florida and the gulf coast ( schwertner et al . 2002 ) . in montana , this species has several summer records over the past decade ( montana bird distribution committee 2012 ) . for a comprehensive review of the conservation status , habitat use , and ecology of this and other montana bird species , please see marks et al . 2016 , birds of montana .
white - winged doves walk along tree branches and on the ground ; they fly in a swift and straight path . courting and nesting males will occasionally strike bills and slap wings with each other , but they mostly defend their cooing perches and nests by calling or flailing their wings and tail . males perform courtship flights , spiraling up into the sky and then returning to the branch he started from in a stiff - winged glide . they may also bow , puff up their necks , or fan the tail to entice females to mate ; white - winged doves are monogamous and stay together for at least one breeding season . when a predator comes to call at the nest , white - winged doves may feign a broken wing to lead the intruder away . in other situations , they escape by flying directly into the bushes . predators of adults or young include great - tailed grackles , green jays , cactus wrens , gila woodpeckers , great horned owls , woodrats , deer mice , gray foxes , norway rats , black rats , house cats , and snakes . back to top
the white - winged dove has a fairly large range reaching up to roughly 295 , 000 square kilometers . this bird can be found throughout a great area of central america , the caribbean and north america including aruba , bahamas , belize , cayman islands , colombia , costa rica , cuba , dominican republic , el salvador , guatemala , haiti , honduras , jamaica , mexico , netherlands antilles , nicaragua , panama , puerto rico , turks and caicos islands , the united states , and the u . s , virgin islands . there are also vagrant populations appearing in anguilla , antiqua and canada . this species appears in forests and shrublands as well as desert areas and locations where deforestation has occurred . the global population of this bird is estimated to be around 19 million individual birds . currently , it is not believed that the population trends for this species will soon approach the minimum levels that could suggest a potential decline in population . due to this , population trends for the white - winged dove have a present evaluation level of least concern .
being a prey item is another important ecosystem role , and white - winged doves are hunted by a variety of predators . young and adults are taken during nesting season by raptors ; eggs and nestlings are most often predated by great - tailed grackles ( quiscalus mexicanus ) and mexican crows ( corvis imparatus ) .
no living north american pigeons or doves are threatened although populations of white - crowned and red - billed pigeons have declined because of deforestation .
north american members of this family tend to be plumaged in dark gray , various shades of brown , and white ( morphs of the rock pigeon showing all of these colors ) . some species have rufous in the wings and tail , and several have black and white markings on the
in flight shows a long , fan - shaped tail with large white tips . its wings make a distinctive high - pitched whistle in flight .
note small , round head , straight , thin bill , and long , pointed tail with white edge . often found in backyards and neighborhoods .
with the arrival of agriculture in southwestern north america , western white - winged doves’ range has expanded into areas beyond the saguaroís distribution in response to newly available food resources . with the advent of new food and watering resources , it remains to be seen if the white - wing will remain intrinsically linked to the saguaro cactus , or if it will switch its food source to easily obtained agricultural grains , a move that would be disastrous for the cactus populations of the southwest .
white - winged doves are large , pigeon - like doves . adult birds are brownish - gray above and gray below , with distinct white wing markings found in no other new world dove . when perched with wings folded , the white wing bars form a narrow ( 1cm wide ) margin along the leading and lower edges of the wings . in flight , they appear as brilliant white crescents framing the body on the upper surface of each wing . both male and female adults also have a ring of blue , featherless skin around each eye , red irises , a patch of black feathers or “ear spot” beneath and behind the eye , and red or pinkish - red legs and feet . males and females are difficult to differentiate in the field , although males tend to be slightly larger and a bit more colorful than females , with a hint of purple on the neck and head , and a bolder black ear spot . juveniles are more gray - brown than adults . they have no blue eye ring , their irises are black , and their legs and feet are pink or brownish - pink .
this large , semitropical dove ranges from the southernmost u . s . and mexico ( where it is partially migratory ) south through central america and much of the west indies . in the united states , the white - winged dove occurred historically only in the southern regions of texas , new mexico , arizona , and california . prior to the 1980s , its area of greatest abundance and density was the lower rio grande valley of south texas , where it was a popular game species . since that time , however , the species has expanded its range north - ward and can now be found breeding throughout much of the southern united states , as far north as oklahoma . a growing human population in the southern united states during the final decades of the twentieth century brought increased agriculture and ornamental trees , providing additional feeding and nesting habitat for the species and perhaps contributing to its northward expansion .
a little larger than the mourning dove ; generally brownish gray above and a paler gray below ; white ends on the greater coverts form prominent patches on the wings , contrasting sharply with the blackish flight feathers ; blackish square - ended tail with prominent white terminal band . prominent black crescent framing lower edge of auricular . on perched bird , wing patch shows only as a thin white line along the leading edge of the folded wing . adult male : grayish or grayish brown head and neck , with neck and breast washed lightly with pink ; iris reddish brown ; orbital skin bright blue ; bill black ; and feet bright red . adult female : similar to male . juvenile : paler on the head ; narrow pale gray fringes on the scapulars and wing coverts .
identification white - winged doves are large , chunky members of the doves family columbidae . adult birds are brownish - gray , with distinctive white wing bars visible at rest and in flight . . males and females have similar plumage , both with an orbital ring of blue featherless skin , a black “ear spot” beneath the eye , red irises , and pinkish - red legs and feet . males tend to be slightly larger than females , with a hint of iridescent purple on the neck and head . juveniles have black irises , and no blue eye ring .
white - winged doves inhabit brushlands and woodlands or desert scrub and cacti , as well as agricultural fields and residential areas throughout their range . eastern migratory populations breed in the semi - tropical , thorny woodlands in the states of tamaulipas , coahuila , nuevo leon , and veracruz in mexico and along the lower rio grande valley in texas , usa . they also nest extensively in citrus orchards , accounting in some years for 50 - 90 % of all nesting activity . in texas , nesting colonies and individuals also rely on residential shade and ornamental trees as nest sites from which they utilize bird feeders and bird baths in town and take feeding forays into nearby agricultural fields . western white - winged doves breed in regions of desert scrub and cacti or riparian woodlands throughout sonora and baja california in mexico , and in southeastern nevada and california , southern arizona , and western new mexico , usa . they also utilize citrus groves and residential areas as nesting sites and agricultural fields for feeding grounds . when they migrate south for winter , both populations join resident white - winged doves in semi - arid regions of thornscrub , deciduous dry forest , cacti forest , savannah , and agricultural and riparian areas with scattered trees .
incubation lasts about 14 days , and the older chick hatches about a day earlier than its sibling . for the first four days of life , white - winged dove parents feed their chicks “crop milk” , a protein - and fat - rich secretion of the esophageal lining that is chemically similar to mammalian milk . this diet is then supplemented with regurgitated seeds , and by the second week , the chicks’ diet is mostly composed of seeds . the chicks grow quickly and can leave the nest within 13 - 16 days of hatching . the male continues to feed the young near the nest until they are about four weeks old , while the female may start a new clutch as early as three days following the fledging , or loss , of the first clutch . research in texas has shown that on average , eastern white - winged doves successfully fledge about 2 . 2 chicks in a breeding season . by early august , nesting is over , and the adults and young doves aggregate in large feeding flocks where food is available . they move between nightly roost sites and daily foraging grounds until mid to late september , when they begin to migrate south .
the 2000 spring breeding survey revealed an estimated 507 , 335 white - wings in the lrgv and 720 , 000 in upper south texas . the term upper south texas includes all counties located outside the lrgv and within the south texas ecological area . of the 507 , 335 birds in the lrgv , less than 8 % utilized citrus trees for nesting while 92 % used native brush and urban areas . this was the tenth year in the last eleven that the numbers of white - winged doves in upper south texas exceeded the number of counted in the lrgv . outside of the south texas ecological region , travis county in central texas had 264 , 000 birds and west texas had an estimated population of 33 , 150 . again , the majority of nesting occurs within the cities . the nesting white - winged doves seem to prefer the older more established residential neighborhoods with large live oak , pecan , and ashe trees . this may be due to better protection from predators and a consistent food and water sources due to watering of lawns and bird feeders .
mourning doves often match their open - country surroundings . they’re delicate brown to buffy - tan overall , with black spots on the wings and black - bordered white tips to the tail feathers .
white - winged doves forage on waste grain and seeds on the ground , or take to trees to eat berries . in the sonoran desert , they eat many saguaro cactus fruits . they often gather in huge flocks for trips between roosting and foraging areas , as well as during migration . their long , hooting “ whoo - ooo - oo , ooo - oo ” calls are an increasingly common sound in the southern u . s .


the electric eel ( electrophorus electricus ) is an electric fish , and the only species in its genus .

despite the name , it is not an eel , but rather a knifefish .

electric eel

electric eels make electricity using special cells called electrocytes . an electric eel has three organs made out of electrocytes :
an electric eel reaches for its prey . photo by ken catania , vanderbilt university
to tire the eel out by goading it into continually discharging its electricity . electric eels
an electric eel has multiple cells along its body that create a change in potential of over 500 volts . the typical current produced in an electric eel attack is around 1 amp .
electric eel : moody institute of science . ( 1954 educational film ) part 1 of 2
information on the electric eel is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
by locals of the amazon area . although there is no commercial value , the electric eel
most of the electric eel is made up of electric organs . the main organ and hunter’s organ are responsible for producing and storing the strong electric charge . sachs’ organ produces the low voltage electric field used for electrolocation .
this series of photographs shows an electric eel leaping onto a human arm . credit : kenneth catania
this diagram shows how electric shock was measured in eel to human interaction . credit : kenneth catania
electric eel , cleveland metroparks resource library ; urltoken last accessed july 2013 . return to text .
the prey capture behaviour and the pattern of the associated electric organ discharge ( eod ) were studied in the electric eel , electrophorus electricus .
a diagram of how catania measured the electric shock delivered by a young eel . image by kenneth catania
once prey is found the electric eel will use a much larger electrical current to stun the fish .
solved this longstanding mystery . weakly electric fish , including close relatives of the electric eel , are able to discriminate objects with electricity by monitoring distortions in a self - generated electric field surrounding their body
the prey capture discharge may be easily elicited by water displacement directed towards the head of the electric eel .
miguel wattson , the tennessee aquarium ' s newly installed amazonian electric eel , is set up to automatically post to twitter with each spike in his electric activity .
“for obvious reasons , ” the paper says , “a comparatively small electric eel was used for these experiments . ”
electric eel responding to fish twitch ( triggered through stimulator by eel doublet ) in the absence of a conductor - all 7 stimuli are plastic rods . in contrast to trials with a conductor present , here the eel aborts strikes without a suction feeding attempt .
the electric eel , despite its name , is not technically an eel , according to national geographic . it is a type of gymnotiform , or
knife - fish ,
a group of teleost bony fishes capable of producing an electric field .
the electric organ is used by fish in murky environments to communicate with mates , navigate , stun prey and as a shocking defense , probably a reason why the muddy amazon and its tributaries teem with electric fish , including the electric eel , the most potent of them . not really an eel but a fish more closely related to the catfish , the electric eel produces a jolting electric field of up to 600 volts , about 100 volts per foot of fish , notes albert .
, the main and hunters organs . it is the strength of these two organs and the electric eels pulsating electric current that classifies it as a strongly electric fish .
electrolocation of capacitive objects in four species of pulse - type weakly electric fish : ii . electric signalling behaviour
the electric eel is different from other electric fish in its ability to generate a stunning or even a killing electrical discharge . the electric eel can produce up to 600v in a single dischange - - this is 5 times the shock you would get from sticking your finger into an electrical socket . david attenborough , in his tv series
the powerful electric shocks that the electric eel offers can be something for self defense and for hunting . they have three pairs of organs along the abdomen that produce the electric current . they are able to offer two currents – low voltage and high voltage .
although there are a number of fish that produce an electric charge , the species that is called
electric eel ,
e . electricus , is a member of the fish order , ostariophysian .
this lower voltage can be used to
see
surrounding objects . objects with a different conductivity will distort the electric field that the eel produces , thus making the eel aware of the object ' s presence .
in addition to sequencing and assembling dna from the electric eel genome , the team produced protein sequences from the cells of the electric organs and skeletal muscles of three other electric fish lineages using rna sequencing and analysis . a computationally intense comparative study of the sequences showed that electric organs in fish worldwide used the same genetic tools and cellular and developmental pathways to independently create the electric organ .
in addition to sequencing and assembling dna from the electric eel genome , the team produced protein sequences from the cells of the electric organs and skeletal muscles of three other electric fish lineages using rna sequencing and analysis . a computationally intense comparative study of the sequences showed that electric organs in fish worldwide used the same genetic tools and cellular and developmental pathways to independently create the electric organ .
other studies have shown that such doublets of electric pulses delivered to motor neurons can trigger high rates of muscle tension . and watching the pattern of the eel ' s electric zaps , it ' s almost as if the eel understands the way these neurons work , catania said .
who considered electric organs under ‘special difficulties of the theory of natural selection ' . the difficulty in the case of strongly electric fish was that no function had been ascribed to the smaller electric organs that were present in many extant species and that must have been present in eel ancestors . the discovery in the 1950s that weakly electric fish generate minute electric fields as part of an elaborate sensory system
a discharge from an electric eel can kill the small fish that are its primary food , but electric eels can also shock potential predators . a touch from the electric eel ' s tail can effectively disable a human or a large animal with a stunning shock , although a single discharge is usually not enough to kill . however repeated shocks could kill , and falling over in the water after a disabling discharge could result in drowning . an electric eel would not make a good pet !
fish that can detect electric fields are called electroreceptive and those that can generate strong electric fields like these eels are called electrogenic .
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did you know , though commonly referred to as an eel , this fish is not considered a “true” eel ? while true eels are classified in the order anguilliformes , the electric eel is actually in the order gymnotiformes , the knife fishes . knife fishes have no dorsal fin and a long , extended anal fin .
riis - johannessen , t . 2001 .
the electric eel
( on - line ) . accessed oct . 30 , 2002 at urltoken .
catania , k . ( 2014 ) . the shocking predatory strike of the electric eel . science , 346 : 1231 - 34 . [ pdf ]
a series of photos captures finless , a juvenile electric eel , jumping out of the water to shock catania’s arm . ( ken catania / vanderbilt university )
the new research identifies the genetic factors the electric eel used to create an organ that can deliver a jolt several times more powerful than standard household current .
electric eels have just one fin , called an anal fin . this fin runs all the way along the bottom of the eel ' s body , from the head to the tail . the eel uses the anal fin to move through the water .
the electric eel is a fascinating creature , and one that allows electric currents to be able to be generated . they may look like a snake , but they aren’t even a real eel . they are closely related to the catfish . it can offer very powerful electric shocks . they don’t have any scales and that is one difference that sets them apart from many other forms of aquatic life .
demonstrated how the electrical current produced by an electric eel could be used to turn one of more light bulbs ! the electric organ , which consists of a series of modified tail muscles , is similar to a row of batteries connected in a series . it is subdivided into three sections : two small and one large . one small battery is used for navigational signals . the large battery and the other small one is used to generate the stunning discharge . after delivering a strong shock , the electric eel must then allow the electric organ to recharge . batteries have to be recharged using an external source of energy ; in the electric eel the energy to recharge the electric organ comes from the fish ' s metabolism .
see video of the tennessee aquarium’s electric eel being fed . ( you’ll hear the level of discharges increase dramatically as the food is being released from the surface . )
while handling electric eels using a net on a metal rod , our favorite electric eel researcher catania noticed the eels would attack the rod as it approached , lunging up from the water to hit it with electric shocks . in a series of experiments , catania realized this is not just a mindless lunge but a strategy .
the shock from a young electric eel feels like accidentally touching a horse fence . a big one is more like getting tasered — by nine of those devices at once .
keynes , r . d . : the feeding habits of the electric eel ( film ) . proc . physiol . soc . 27 . 28 . 4 ( 1962 )
the electric eel’s power plant eclipses anything produced by man , being compact , flexible , portable , eco - friendly and self - repairing . all its parts are perfectly integrated into a sleek body which enables the eel to swim with both speed and great agility . from the tiny cells that generate the electricity to the sophisticated software that analyzes distortions in the eel’s self - generated electric fields , it is a tribute to an awesome creator .
from the tiny cells that generate the electricity to the sophisticated software that analyzes distortions in the eel’s self - generated electric fields , it is a tribute to an awesome creator .
in the first set of experiments eel attacks were elicited by twitch artificially generated from a prey fish . electric eels use hunting ‘doublets ' ( two closely spaced high - voltage discharges
the electric eel’s vital organs are contained in just one - fifth of its body , directly behind its head . the rest of the body contains the organs that generate electricity .
previously , in another paper , catania showed that the eel can totally inactivate its prey in just three milliseconds . the electric eel is very sneaky . the animal , which has very bad eyesight , detects prey by sending a specific electric signal which produces a very rapid contraction in the muscles of its prey . it’s like hunting with a remote control .
research published today in the journal current biology reveals yet another of the electric organ’s remarkable features . when struggling to capture large prey , the electric eel curls its long , flexible body to bring its tail round towards its head . this simple manoeuvre not only traps the prey , but also superimposes the electrical fields generated by the opposite ends of the eel’s body , concentrating the fields and doubling their strength so that the eel can subdue its unruly victim .
preliminary trials showing effect of conductor on eel strike behavior . in the first trial , the eel responds to fish twitch in the absence of a conductor and does not make a final suction feeding attempt . when a conductor is present , the eel changes course mid - strike and attacks the conductor .
electric eels are shockingly powerful creatures . ( photo : stacey newman / shutterstock )
electric eels can be very dangerous to humans because of their strong electric capabilities . they are able to produce enough voltage to severely injure humans and other animals .
malapterurus electricus , the electric catfish , in the laboratory . credit : jason gallant
new research , which includes the first draft assembly of the complete genome of an electric fish , the south american electric eel , identifies the genetic factors the animals used to create an organ that can deliver a jolt several times more powerful than standard household current .
, more commonly known as the electric eel , occupies the northeastern portions of south america . this includes the guyanas and orinoco rivers as well as the middle and lower amazon basin .
the electric eel , the sole species of its genus , does much more than this . with the help of multiple separate organs , the fish can produce much more violent discharges .
the new research provides crucial measurements of currents and resistances formed by the leaping eel , giving a baseline for comparisons with other ( perhaps bigger ) eels , under varying conditions . it also shows that in times of emergency , the electric eel can set its phaser from stun to pain .
if there is just one species that can be shown as impossible to have been achieved by evolution it must throw doubt upon the whole evolutionary hypothesis . could the electric eel be one ?
the electric eel ( electrophorus electricus ) does not have any natural predators . it is the apex predator in its food chain in the fresh waters of the amazon and orinoco river basins .
fish twitch again elicited eel high - voltage attack volleys and rapid strikes . the eel strikes took variable and often indirect paths , but always culminated with an aggressive suction - feeding attempt directed at the conductor (
leaping shocks — in the air — are more powerful than the shocks eels can deliver in the water . when an eel presses its chin against its victim to deliver a shock , electricity flows through the eel to the target . but water carries electricity , so the if the eel’s still submerged when it delivers the shock , the charge dissipates . when the eel’s airborne , more of the electrical current flows through its victim .
“each of these pulses the eel gives off is activating the nervous system of the prey , ” catania said . “the eel essentially has remote control over the prey’s muscles and runs them to exhaustion , leaving the prey temporarily helpless . ” the eel then maneuvers its meal to a favorable swallowing position and finishes the job .
learn about the anatomy of electric eels : how their bodies work and how they make their famous electricity using electrocytes . in this lesson , you ' ll learn how electric eels breathe , swim , and make electric shocks to navigate and catch their prey .
1910 - the electric vampire - f . h . power ( british ) - urltoken
electric eels reproduce sexually . a strange thing that male electric eels do is they make a nest made of their own saliva . in this next , female electric eels will lay almost 17 , 000 eggs . less than 12 , 000 eggs will hatch .
of course , the current received by any small prey is also only a small portion of the total current generated by the eel . nevertheless , the current discharged into their smaller bodies is much larger proportionally . for example , a prey 10 times smaller in length than an eel is about 1 , 000 times smaller in volume . therefore , the small animals close to the eel get shocked , rather than the discharging eel itself .
to find out , catania needed something living to get on the eel’s bad side . well , catania was something living . so he decided to test the might of the hair - drier - dropped - in - the - bath fury of an electric eel by having one shock his own damn arm .
“results suggest that the main purpose of the leaping attack is to strongly deter potential eel predators by briefly causing intense pain . apparently a strong offense is the eel’s best defense , ” the authors wrote in their paper .
new research by a team led by uw - madison biochemistry professor michael sussman shows that electric fish , including the electric eel , evolved their electric organ six times independently over the course of evolutionary history . sussman ' s team identified the molecular levers and developmental pathways that all six lineages of electric fish worldwide have in common , resolving a longstanding mystery of what scientists call convergent evolution , a problem darwin himself pondered . credit : jason gallant , michigan state university
electric eels are interesting and unusual animals , who are famous for their electricity - generating abilities . electric eels are not actually eels ; instead , . . . full answer >
the animals continue to electrify scientists . kenneth catania , a biologist at vanderbilt university in nashville , continued the tradition of getting zapped by eel . he allowed a young electric eel to shock his forearm while he recorded the current . catania reported the results of the experiment in the journal current biology on thursday .
electric eels are famous for their ability to wield a power that humans have only really harnessed in the last couple of centuries . and alessandro volta , who invented the forerunner of the modern battery in 1800 , actually took some inspiration from the structure of the electric eel ' s organs .
habitat : the electric eel is found in the amazon basin , in marshy areas or stagnant arms of rivers - areas where other fishes find it difficult to live because of the deficiency of dissolved oxygen .
in fact , evolutionists have to argue that electric organs in fish evolved independently eight times .
but how do electric eels make electricity from just their bodies ? in this lesson , you ' ll learn all about the anatomy of electric eels , or how their bodies work .
keynes rd , martins - ferreira h . resting and action potentials in the electric organ .
the only creatures to ever kill electric eels , although this is rare . even capturing an
nonhuman genetics . genomic basis for the convergent evolution of electric organs . - pubmed - ncbi
the electric eel generates large electric currents by way of a highly specialized nervous system that has the capacity to synchronize the activity of disc - shaped , electricity - producing cells packed into a specialized electric organ . the nervous system does this through a command nucleus that decides when the electric organ will fire . when the command is given , a complex array of nerves makes sure that the thousands of cells activate at once , no matter how far they are from the command nucleus .
the electrocytes might take up most of the body , but about one - fifth of the eel ' s body holds its other organs , like its heart . these organs are all located right behind the eel ' s head .
adds gallant : “the surprising result of our study is that electric fish seem to use the same ‘genetic toolbox’ to build their electric organ , ” despite the fact that they evolved independently .
electric fish have long fascinated humans . the ancient egyptians used the torpedo , an electric marine ray , in an early form of electrotherapy to treat epilepsy . much of what benjamin franklin and other pioneering scientists learned about electricity came from studies of electric fish . in victorian times , parties were organized where guests would form a chain to experience the shock of an electric fish .
catania , k . ( 2015 ) . electric eels concentrate their electric field to induce involuntary fatigue in struggling prey . curr . biol . , 25 , 1–10 . [ full text ]
) . but the possibility that the eel ' s high - voltage discharge plays a sensory role has been overlooked .
measuring an eel ' s electric shock is tricky , and rhett allain over on science blogs does a great job of explaining why that ' s the case . it ' s the confusion between electric potential ( measured in volts ) , power ( measured in watts ) and current ( measured in amps ) :
electric eels can grow to more than 8 feet in length and can weigh nearly 45 pounds .
us scientists believe it could be possible to use artificial electric eel cells grafted into the human body to generate power for cybernetic implant devices . the pseudo - electrocytes would harvest the necessary energy from body fats and sugars .
frame - by - frame stills of an eel leaping out of the water to shock kenneth catania . photo by kenneth catania
“i wanted to know more about the circuit that develops when the eel leaps out of the water , ” he said .
at full volume , the eel sent currents of 40 to 50 milliamperes coursing through catania ' s arm . ten milliamperes is painful . quintupling that triggered catania’s “involuntary withdrawal reflex , ” which is to say that his body jerked his hand away from the eel . in terms of wattage , the eel ' s pulses were nearly 10 times that of a stun gun .
if your knowledge of electric eels is limited to what you ' ve seen in cartoons or movies , we wouldn ' t be shocked . these odd animals are a strange feat of evolution . you may think hollywood has overplayed the electric eel ' s abilities , but it really is a creature to avoid . here are eight facts to set the record straight about electric eels — and probably scare you a bit !
but catania also noticed that the eels were occasionally firing off doublets of electric pulses and , when they detected the brain - dead fish spasm , trying to attack it through the translucent agar barrier . it seemed the eels were using another clever electric trick - - they were forcing hidden prey to reveal themselves by sending out electric pulses that made the hapless animals twitch uncontrollably . the eel , sensing this movement , could then attack with its full - fledged electric volley and paralyze the fish , rendering it easy pickings .
the development of electric organs in the electric eels happens almost instantly after birth . there has been evidence that fish as small as 15 mm have begun electrical organ development . this initial growthof a weak electrical organ allows for orientation . strong electric organs do not develop until the fish is approximately 40 mm . observations have shown small juveniles surrounding the head of the parent ; this is most likely before the young develop their own orientation organs . as the electric eel gets older , its electrical organs will also get stronger .
electric eel : http : / / channel . nationalgeographic . com . . . brady and his team finally catch a large electric eel - but will it prove to be an entirely different species ? ➡ subscribe : urltoken about national geographic : national geographic is the world ' s premium destination for science , exploration , and adventure . through their world - class scientists , photographers , journalists , and filmmakers , nat geo gets you closer to the stories that matter and past the edge of what ' s possible . get more national geographic : official site : urltoken facebook : urltoken twitter : urltoken instagram : urltoken brady gets a shock | electric eel urltoken national geographic urltoken
adds gallant :
the surprising result of our study is that electric fish seem to use the same ' genetic toolbox ' to build their electric organ ,
despite the fact that they evolved independently .
much as human siblings can have vastly different personalities despite their similar resemblance and genetics , two closely related species of electric fish from the amazon produce very different electric signals . these species , . . .
another adaptation for the muddy and poorly oxygenated waters in which they live is that electric eels don’t rely on their gills to breathe . they get around 80 percent of their oxygen by gulping air at the surface of the water . indeed , if an electric eel is denied access to air at the surface , it will die .
electric eels reproduce during the dry season . the eggs are deposited in a well - hidden nest made of saliva , built by the male . in field observations , an average of 1200 embryos were hatched . fecundity counts have been documented as high as 17 , 000 eggs . the electric eel is thought to be a fractional spawner .
there ' s more to an electric eel than its shock ! eels have a long , snakelike body and dark skin , usually gray or black - brown . they can be up to 8 feet long - for comparison , a grown man is about 6 feet tall . their skin also has a lot of slime that helps protect the eel from its own electricity .
experiments and observations on the gymnotus electricus , or electrical eel . by hugh williamson , md communicated by john walsh , esq . frs
these organs contain hundreds of thousands of electrocytes lined up like cells in a battery . all these electrocytes work together to create electric power . the sachs organ is used to create the smaller electric charges for navigation and communication . the main and hunter ' s organs are used to create the more powerful charges that stun the eel ' s prey .
shock factor : electric eels can make their prey move or freeze on command , a new study finds .
keynes , r . 1957 . electric organs . pp . 323 - 343 in m brown , ed .
( a ) schematic of paradigm and eel tracking behaviour and suction - feeding strike to conductor . ( b ) eel low and high voltage discharge marked with short , and tall ticks , respectively , illustrating the exclusive use of high - voltage during strike movement . ( c ) eel track relative to conductor movement . inset shows hole in agar ( arrow ) that was directly over conductor at suction onset .
before he was shocked by a leaping electric eel , kenneth catania wasn’t sure what it would be like . in fact , no one was really sure . so , in the name of finding out exactly how much of a jolt the creatures could deliver , catania , a professor at vanderbilt university , volunteered his own arm . the eel jumped out of the water and into the air to deliver its shock . it looked like a nuzzle , but it packed the wallop of an electric fence .
“it ' s a brilliant strategy , ” he said . “it ' s almost like the eel is turning up a volume knob . ”
a graphic of the device ken catania used to complete the circuit among eel , arm and water . ( ken catania / vanderbilt university )
( a ) eel colourized to show electroreceptors ( magenta ) and mechanoreceptors - neuromast canals ( blue ) . ( b ) the weak , low - voltage output used for electrolocation and the high - voltage , high - frequency output used as a weapon . ( c ) schematic illustration of electrolocation based on the convergence of electric field lines on the eel ' s skin ( arrow ) .
making electrolocation the most accurate sensory modality for guiding pursuit . and unlike mechanoreception , active electroreception is presumably unaffected by the eel ' s own movement through the water . finally , the ability to simultaneously immobilize and track prey with high voltage is an unusual combination of dichotomous functions . these results cast the electric eel in a new light , as both a formidable predator and unique sensory specialist .
a small , self - contained computer translates electrical impulses in the electric eel tank into sound at the tennessee aquarium . the amplifier broadcasts static - y pops that reverberate throughout the gallery and draw guests to the tank to observe the mostly motionless fish .
the electric eel is found in many bodies of water around south america . they are mainly found living along the amazon and orinoco rivers . they tend to live close to coastal plains , swamps , and other locations that provide them with food supplies .
electric eels are top predators , with few other animals willing or able to take on these highly charged fish .
by wrapping around their prey , electric eels can deliver twice the voltage . image by ken catania , vanderbilt university
the electric eel boasts what must surely be one of the most sophisticated and versatile weapon systems in the whole animal kingdom . this large amazonian fish is well known for its ability to discharge pulses of electricity that are powerful enough to incapacitate a human , or even a horse . but its electric organ also acts as a tracking system , enabling the eel to locate fast - moving prey rapidly and precisely , and as a wireless taser , with which it can stun prey and control their movements from a distance .
worldwide , there are hundreds of electric fish in six broad lineages . their taxonomic diversity is so great that darwin himself cited electric fishes as critical examples of convergent evolution , where unrelated animals independently evolve similar traits to adapt to a particular environment or ecological niche . the new work , which includes the first draft assembly of the complete genome of an electric fish , the south american electric eel , identifies the genetic factors and developmental paths the animals used to create an organ that , in some instances , can deliver a jolt several times more powerful than the current from a standard household electrical outlet .
electric eels are capable of generating powerful electric shocks of up to 600 volts , which they use for hunting , self - defense and communicating with others of their kind . juveniles produce smaller amounts of electricity , around 100 volts .
( physorg . com ) - - just as people plug in to computers , smart phones and electric outlets to communicate , electric fish communicate by quickly plugging special channels into their cells to generate electrical impulses , university . . .
sam m says ,
the earlier stages of the electric eel would not have paralyzed their prey , but would they have simply confused it ?
yet dominic already argued that they had to produce protective mechanisms at the same time as they developed their deadly electric generation ability , to protect them from paralyzing themselves . so if they were only able to confuse their prey , this doesn ' t resolve the issue of having to develop a protective mechanism at the same time , or they would have confused themselves . then you would have a confused eel and a confused fish at the same time . i doubt whether a confused eel could catch a confused fish .
personal observations : when first observing the electric eel , he had very little motion . then , he would swim to the top with its head upward . he would stay on top of the water for a few seconds , navigate around the water , then swim into a corner and stay there for a few minutes . the electric eel repeats the cycle of swimming to the top of the water , navigating the floor of the tank , and then lying still in a cormer of the tank throughout the time he was observed .
despite their serpentine appearance , electric eels are not actually eels . their scientific classification is closer to carp and catfish .
in victorian times , parties were organized where guests would form a chain to experience the shock of an electric fish .
take a muscle cell , modify it over millions of years , and you end up with an exciting and literally shocking evolutionary result : the electric fish . electric fish have evolved several times in varying levels of complexity . . . .
. for one eel ( eel a ) , preliminary data were collected for attacks either in the presence of only the insulated fish preparation , or alternatively in the presence of the fish preparation and a conductive carbon rod . when only the insulated fish preparation was present , the eel responded to fish twitch with a high - voltage volley and rapid strike often towards and over the fish , but the strike never culminated in a suction - feeding attempt (
the electric eel is capable of generating over 800 volts of electricity ! it uses that large electrical discharge for defense and to stun prey . most of the time they only generate about 10 volts for navigation and to locate prey because they have poor eyesight and live in murky waters . electric eels have three different electrical organs that are made up of thousands of electrical generating cells called electrocytes .
in fact , the size of the zap depends on the size of the eel and where on the body it shocks you . that’s why catania picked a small , young eel to shock him on his arm . he calculated , however , that if person who was standing in water were to be shocked square in the torso by a full - sized eel , they’d experience a jolt “an order of magnitude greater” than the shocks delivered by a taser .
given that an electric eel ' s emissions are silent and invisible , the aquarium ' s exhibit design team installed a set of underwater probes connected to an amplifier to translate miguel ' s near - continuous electrical discharges into static - y pops that reverberate throughout the gallery .
electrophorus electricus - - the name alone is a clue to the shocking power of this nearly scaleless knifefish commonly called an electric eel . lurking in the shallow muddy waters of the amazon and orinoco basins of south america , these fish can deliver lethal shocks to unwary humans .
“these fish have converted a muscle to an electric organ , ” explains sussman , a professor of biochemistry and director of the uw–madison biotechnology center , who first undertook the exploration of the electric organ almost a decade ago . the study published in science provides evidence to support the idea that the six electric fish lineages , all of which evolved independently , used essentially the same genes and developmental and cellular pathways to make an electric organ , needed for defense , predation , navigation and communication .
electric eels can generate an electrical charge of up to 600 volts in order to stun prey and keep predators at bay .
tags : 1910 , andrew crosse , british , f . h . power , frankenstein , philip baynes , the electric vampire
electric eels are abundant throughout their range , but cannot be collected without a scientific permit . some areas have strict laws prohibiting hobbyists from keeping electric eels because they pose a potential threat to local fish and human populations if they were to escape .
more than two centuries later , a contemporary scientist is also experimenting hands - on with the electric potential of these fish .
electric eels have a long , snakelike body and dark gray or brown skin . they make electricity using electrocytes in the hunter ' s organ , the main organ , and the sachs organ , which take up about four - fifths of the eel ' s eight - foot - long body . electric eels have gills , but they also need to come to the surface to breathe through their mouths .
secondly , electric eels produce some of their most powerful shocks when mating—but without harming the mate . however , if these voltage bursts are emitted when not mating , they can kill the other eel . 4 this suggests that they have a protection system that can be switched on .
. curling behaviour amplifies the eel’s electrical discharges , enabling it to deliver double strength shocks to large , unruly prey . photograph : kenneth catania / vanderbilt university
on dec . 15 , the tennessee aquarium ' s newly installed amazonian electric eel , miguel wattson - - get it , watts - on ? - - registered an account on twitter that automatically posts messages whenever probes in his tank detect a strong - enough electrical discharge from him .
predation of electric eels is usually prevented by their electric shocking capabilities . they can produce voltage as high as 650 volts . although this shock is rarely deadly it is enough to deter most predators . these defensive electrical pulses are created by two organs in
these fish have converted a muscle to an electric organ ,
explains sussman , a professor of biochemistry and director of the uw - madison biotechnology center , who first undertook the exploration of the electric organ almost a decade ago . the study published in science provides evidence to support the idea that the six electric fish lineages , all of which evolved independently , used essentially the same genes and developmental and cellular pathways to make an electric organ , needed for defense , predation , navigation and communication .
the additional current required for the power comes from the fact that an eel body contains many millions of such “flashlights” working together and firing their electrical discharge simultaneously .
he was spurred to his self - experimentation by a video : a fisherman shocked by a leaping eel . “i’d been using these prop arms , and put a fake wedding ring on them to make it look like my arm just for fun , ” catania says . “there was a little foreshadowing there . ” he stuck his hand in a tank with an electric eel , and measured how much current flowed through his arm when it zapped him .
check out our electric eels twitter page at urltoken . he tweets about whatever sparks his interest ! ( learn more about how a team of experts set up a way for the eel to automatically posts messages whenever probes in his tank detect a strong - enough electrical discharge from him . )
now that you know how cunning and effective their hunting strategy is , we thought we ' d throw in this one last fact , just to fully terrify you . eight . feet . long . you probably don ' t want to go swimming in electric eel territory any time soon .
feldberg w , fessard a . the cholinergic nature of the nerves to the electric organ of the torpedo ( torpedo marmorata ) .
there are , however , electric fish : eight - foot long , 600 volt , mouth breathing , alligator - killing fish .
electric eels are found in murky pools and calm stretches of the middle and lower amazon and orinoco river basins in south america .
think of all the things in your house that run on electricity . you probably have electric lights , a fridge , a computer , and a microwave . to get electricity , you have to plug all those things in - but if you were an electric eel , you could just make the electricity on your own . wouldn ' t that be handy ? you ' d never have to worry about finding a socket again !
electric eels are not aggressive ; they may produce a damaging shock when surprised or stepped on , but the primary use of its electrical talent is to repel potential predators or to immobilize their own prey . although electric eels can grow to be large fish , their prey is usually a small creature that can be managed without teeth . the most common food item for electric eels is other fish .
have very little economic value to humans . occasionally they are eaten by locals of the amazon area ; however they are commonly avoided due to the electrical shocks that can be given out up to eight hours after death . although there is no commercial value , the electric eel has been a constant source of study for many years . the scientific community is very interested in studying the electrical capabilities of these fish . of electric fish ,
during a typical predatory attack , eels discharge electricity from their head to incapacitate prey , then reposition them until they can be swallowed whole . catania noticed , however , that juvenile eels curl their bodies up when struggling with large prey . unlike other electric fish , the eel’s electric organ spans much of the length of its long body , so that the positive and negative poles of its electrical discharges are normally kept separate . catania realised that curling could , in theory , double the strength of their discharges by superimposing the electric fields from the positive and negative poles .
the electric organ is used by fish in murky environments to communicate with mates , navigate , stun prey and as a shocking defense .
few species have garnered more historical interest and investigation than electric eels . first used as a prized source of electricity in experiments by walsh
citation : catania , k . c . ( 2015 ) . electric eels concentrate their electric field to induce involuntary fatigue in struggling prey . current biology , 25 , 1 - 10 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cub . 2015 . 09 . 036
so catania put an eel and a brain - dead fish in separate compartments divided by a thin agar barrier ( which is translucent and electrically conductive ) . he got the eels to zap some tasty earthworms , and watched how those electric pulses affect the fish on the other side of the agar wall .
although not true eels , these nearly scaleless fish look the part with long , cylindrical bodies and a slightly flattened head . the electric eel’s anal fin extends from the tip of the tail nearly to the chin . fluttering like a ribbon , it allows the fish to move forward and backward with ease .
the electric organs begin to develop early in the fish ' s lifetime . the sachs , which produces only a weak electric charge and is used for echolocation , begins to develop very soon after birth . the other two electric organs , known as the main and the hunter ' s , produce much higher voltages of around 600 volts and about 1 amp , so about 600 watts for approximately 2 milliseconds .
“it was definitely a good lesson in how efficient the electric eel would be at deterring a predator , ” said catania , who worked with a 16 - inch - long juvenile eel he affectionately named finless . “eels are essentially batteries immersed in water , and i wanted to solve the question of how powerful those batteries are . what’s the internal resistance of the battery ? what’s the resistance of the water ? my past research left out the last variable : my arm . ”
the additional current required for the power comes from the fact that an eel body contains many millions of such
flashlights
working together and firing their electrical discharge simultaneously .
michael faraday , the 19th - century british physicist who discovered electromagnetic induction , the principle behind the electric transformer and generator , insisted to get an electric eel . he believed the fish would greatly accelerate his study of the role electricity plays in the nervous system . when he finally got ahold of one , the scientist touched the electric eels with his bare hands . “the shock of this animal was very powerful when the hands were placed in a favourable position , i . e . one on the body near the head , and the other near the tail , ” he wrote .
catania said the research reminded him that there’s always something more to learn about electric eels , even though they’ve been studied for 200 years .
the behavior is similar to the courtship duets of songbirds , say researchers who studied the african electric fish known to scientists as brienomyrus brachyistius .
eel tracking and capturing a fish below and an agar barrier under 940nm ir illumination . note the trial begins with a fish - stimulating doublet , which causes an escape response , followed by eel attack . the fish is periodically immobilized , but the agar barrier delays capture . the eel makes several holes in the agar , and ultimately catches the fish . this predatory sequence showing prey tracking occurs during the high - voltage discharge and is consistent with a general strategy of using conductance to identify and track prey during the strike .
e . electricus has little economic value to humans . occasionally they are eaten by locals of the amazon area . although there is no commercial value , the electric eel has been a constant source of study for many years . the scientific community is very interested in studying the electrical capabilities of these fish . of electric fish , e . electricus is the best documented species ( moller 1995 ) . not a significant level of harvest to constitute any threat .
when the electric eel finds prey , a message is sent to the brain and that causes an electrical charge to be produced . when the prey is touched then it will be enough electricity to kill it . there are some species that have enough current to kill a human if they come into contact with it .
as the young eel slid its chin higher up catania ' s arm , the fish - human combination acted like a variable resistor . if the eel was just a tiny bit out of the water , most of the current flowed back into the pool . higher up , the resistance increased , and more current was diverted through catania ' s arm .
( a ) recording and stimulator configuration that triggered pithed - fish twitch and eel attack in the presence of six plastic rods and one conductor ( arrow ) . ( b ) plates from high - speed movie ( top ) and real - time ( bottom ) of same trial illustrating circuitous path to conductor . ( c ) eel low - and high - voltage discharge marked with short , and tall ticks , respectively , illustrating the exclusive use of high - voltage during strike movement . ( d ) eel path to conductor .
) . the experiment was repeated for eel c , but using seven non - conductive plastic rods and no conductor . in this paradigm ( six trials ) the eel emitted high - voltage volleys in each trial and struck out towards the fish preparation , but ignored the plastic rods and aborted the strikes without a suction - feeding attempt to any location (
eel tracking a conductor under 940 nm ir illumination . eel strikes at conductor ( center arrow ) located below an agar barrier . paradigm includes redundant control for vision with plastic inserts of similar appearance . the clip is shown in slow motion with sound , and shows two full strikes during high - voltage discharge and several partial strikes ( not scored ) .
curling boosts an eel’s electric field to trigger hard and fast contractions in prey , leading to muscle fatigue . prey are then too tired to struggle and escape – the animals are completely paralyzed . after biting its prey , an eel moves around the victim’s body so that it become sandwiched between the predator’s head and tail – the positive and negative poles of an electric field . this maneuvre will amplify the voltage experienced by prey by bringing the two poles closer together , which enables the predator to perform a ‘dipole attack’ . through measurements using electrodes in fake prey , kenneth catania has found that curling at least doubles the strength of an eels’ shocks .