common names : neuwied 's lancehead , jararaca pintada .

bothrops neuwiedi is a venomous pit viper species endemic to south america .

this relatively small snake has a wide range and is a major source of snakebite in argentina .

it was named after german naturalist prince maximilian of wied-neuwied ( 1782-1867 ) , who made important collections in brazil ( 1815-1817 ) .

twelve subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

bothrops neuwiedi

bothrops neuwiedi wagler 1824 : 56 bothrops leucurus wagler 1824 : 57 bothrops urutu lacerda 1884 bothrops atrox meridionalis müller 1885 : 699 lachesis neuwiedi — boulenger 1896 bothrops neuwiedi goyazensis amaral 1925 : 58 bothrops neuwiedi paranaensis amaral 1925 : 61 bothrops neuwiedi neuwiedi — amaral 1925 : 57 bothrops neuwiedii minasensis amaral 1925 : 59 bothrops neuwiedi meridionalis amaral 1930 bothrops neuwiedi fluminensis amaral 1932 : 97 bothrops neuwiedii fluminensis amaral 1933 : 97 [ 1932 ] bothrops neuwiedi urutu — amaral 1937 : 160 bothrops neuwiedi meridionalis — hoge 1966 : 128 bothrops neuwiedi — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 49 bothrops neuwiedi meridionalis — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 50 bothrops neuwiedi neuwiedi — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 50 bothrops neuwiedi urutu — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 50 bothrops neuwiedi goyazensis — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 50 bothrops neuwiedi — welch 1994 : 35 bothrops neuwiedi — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 267 bothrops neuwiedi — da silva & rodrigues 2008 bothropoides neuwiedi — fenwick et al . 2009 bothrops neuwiedi — linares & eterovick 2013 bothrops neuwiedi — carrasco et al . 2012 bothropoides neuwiedi — wallach et al . 2014 : 114
canonical name : bothrops neuwiedi pubescens name string : bothrops neuwiedi subsp . pubescens ( cope , 1870 )
key words : skeletal muscle , neuwiedase , snake venom metalloproteinases , bothrops neuwiedi .
coagulopathy after snake bite by bothrops neuwiedi : case report and results of in vitro experiments .
taxonomic revision of the bothrops neuwiedi complex ( serpentes , viperidae ) with description of a new species .
characterization of inflammatory reaction induced by neuwiedase , a p - i metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops neuwiedi venom .
diversity of metalloproteinases in bothrops neuwiedi snake venom transcripts : evidences for recombination between different classes of svmps .
silva , v . x . 2000 . revisão sistemática do complex bothrops neuwiedi . universidade de sao paulo .
coagulopathy after snake bite by bothrops neuwiedi : case report and results of in vitro experiments . - pubmed - ncbi
characterization of inflammatory reaction induced by neuwiedase , a p - i metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops neuwiedi venom . - pubmed - ncbi
diversity of metalloproteinases in bothrops neuwiedi snake venom transcripts : evidences for recombination between different classes of svmps . - pubmed - ncbi
yuki , rubens nobuo 1997 . geographic distribution . bothrops neuwiedi . herpetological review 28 ( 3 ) : 158 - get paper here
molecular phylogeny based on mtdna genes recovered monophyly of the b . neuwiedi group .
key words : myonecrosis , b . neuwiedi venom , low - level laser .
bnp1 , a novel p - i metalloproteinase from bothrops neuwiedi venom : biological effects benchmarking relatively to jararhagin , a p - iii svmp .
phylogenetic relationships within bothrops neuwiedi group ( serpentes , squamata ) : geographically highly - structured lineages , evidence of introgressi . . . - pubmed - ncbi
phylogenetic relationships within bothrops neuwiedi group ( serpentes , squamata ) : geographically highly - structured lineages , evidence of introgressive hybridization and neogene / quaternary diversification .
phylogenetic relationships within bothrops neuwiedi group ( serpentes , squamata ) : geographically highly - structured lineages , evidence of introgressive hybridization and neogene / quaternary diversification .
neuwiedi : brazil ( s bahia ) ; type locality : estado da bahía , brazil .
bnp1 , a novel p - i metalloproteinase from bothrops neuwiedi venom : biological effects benchmarking relatively to jararhagin , a p - iii svmp . - pubmed - ncbi
avila , l . j . ; moreta , j . c . 1995 . bothrops neuwiedi bolivianus amaral . cuadernos de herpetología 9 ( 1 ) : 57 - get paper here
neuwiedase was isolated from bothrops neuwiedi venom according to rodrigues et al . ( 8 ) . rabbit anti - neuwiedase polyclonal antibody was produced , as previously described ( 9 ) .
this product is a snake venom found in bothrops neuwiedi diporus ; it exhibits hemolytic and coagulant activities and may inhibit muscle contractions , acting as a neuromuscular junction ( nmj ) blocker .
amaral , a . do 1930 . studies of neotropical ophidia xxv . a new race of bothrops neuwiedi . bull . antiven . inst . amer . 4 ( 3 ) : 65 - 67
xavier , v . 2002 . variação entre filhotes de representantes do complexo bothrops neuwiedi ( serpentes , viperidae , ctoralinae ) . phyllomedusa 1 ( 1 ) : 11 - 30 - get paper here
saldarriaga mm , otero r , núñez v , toro mf , díaz a , gutiérrez jm . ontogenetic variability of bothrops atrox and bothrops asper snake venoms from colombia .
the bothrops neuwiedi ( neuwied ' s lancehead ) species complex consists of a variety of subspecies widely distributed throughout south america ( 1 ) . in general , the prevalence of bothrops ophidian accidents in brazil is approximately 85 % when compared with other species ( 24 ) . bothrops neuwiedi venom causes fibrinolytic , hemorrhagic and anticoagulant effects ( 9 , 12 ) . the main local actions are tissue necrosis and endothelial injury , while systemic effects include release of inflammatory and vasoactive mediators ( 1 , 17 , 22 ) . envenomation by bothrops snakes results in serious wounds , muscular necrosis , pain , edema , ecchymosis , abscess and hemodynamic changes ( 24 ) .
valdujo , p . h . et al . 2002 . ecology of bothrops neuwiedi pauloensis ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) in the brazilian cerrado . journal of herpetology 36 ( 2 ) : 169 - 176 - get paper here
reptilia , squamata , serpentes , viperidae , bothrops lutzi : distribution extension , geographic distribution map .
fernandes , w . ; abe , a . s . 1991 . electrophoretic approach to the relationships among the subspecies of the lancehead bothrops neuwiedi ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zool . anz . 226 ( 3 / 4 ) : 195
torres am , camargo fj , ricciardi ga , et al . neutralizing effects of nectandra angustifolia extracts against bothrops neuwiedi snake venom . nat prod commun . 2011 sep ; 6 ( 9 ) : 1393 - 6 . pmid : 21941922 .
50 . xavier da silva v , rodrigues mt . taxonomic revision of the bothrops neuwiedi complex ( serpentes , viperidae ) with description of a new species . phyllomedusa . 2008 ; 7 ( 1 ) : 45 - 90 . [ links ]
silva , v . x . da ; rodrigues , m . t . 2008 . taxonomic revision of the bothrops neuwiedi complex ( serpentes , viperidae ) with description of a new species . phyllomedusa 7 ( 1 ) : 45 - 90 - get paper here
main distribution area south america . b . asper is the only bothrops species in central america and mexico . see link
distribution
at the top of the page for detailed information . map 46 bothrops spp .
through morphological and biochemical analysis , we found that the gaalas laser efficiently reduced myonecrosis caused by b . neuwiedi venom in the gastrocnemius muscle of wistar rats .
sibynomorphus neuwiedi ( ihering , 1911 ) ( serpentes ; dipsadidae ) and potamojanuarius lamellatus ( semper , 1885 ) ( gastropoda ; veronicellidae ) : a trophic relationship revealed .
de oliveira vc , lanari lc , hajos se , et al . toxicity of bothrops neuwiedi complex (
yarará chica
) venom from different regions of argentina ( serpentes , viperidae ) . toxicon . 2011 apr ; 57 ( 5 ) : 680 - 5 . pmid : 21300078 .
hartmann , m . t . , o . a . v . marques and s . m . almeida - santos 2004 . reproductive biology of the southern brazilian pitviper bothrops neuwiedi pubescens ( serpentes , viperidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 25 ( 1 ) : 77 - 85 - get paper here
51 . lopes ds , baldo c , oliveira cdef , alcântara tm , oliveira jdd , goulart lr . characterization of inflammatory reaction induced by neuwiedase , a p - i metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops neuwiedi venom . toxicon . 2009 ; 54 ( 1 ) : 42 - 9 . [ links ]
7 . petricevich vl , teixeira cfp , tambourghi dv , gutiérrez jm . increments in serum cytokine and nitric oxide levels in mice injected with bothrops asper and bothrops jararaca snake venom . toxicon . 2000 ; 38 1253 - 66 . [ links ]
9 . rodrigues vm , soares am , andrião - escarso sh , franceschi am , rucavado a , gutiérrez jm , et al . pathological alterations induced by neuwiedase , a metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops neuwiedi snake venom . biochimie . 2001 ; 83 ( 6 ) : 471 - 9 . [ links ]
in a clinical study from ecuador , around 60 % of verified bites were due to bothrops sp . ( kerrigan 1991 ) .
machado , taís , vinícius x . silva & maria josé de j . silva 2013 . phylogenetic relationships within bothrops neuwiedi group ( serpentes , squamata ) : geographically highly - structured lineages , evidence of introgressive hybridization and neogene / quaternary diversification . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 71 : 1 - 14 - get paper here
10 . lopes ds , baldo c , oliveira cde f , de alcântara tm , oliveira jd , goulart lr , et al . characterization of inflammatory reaction induced by neuwiedase , a p - i metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops neuwiedi venom . toxicon . 2009 ; 54 ( 1 ) : 42 - 9 . [ links ]
the study of clinical and immunological aspects of bothrops envenomation would help us to understand the patient ' s evolution , aiming new therapies .
bothrops leucurus ( serpentes , viperidae ) preying on micrurus corallinus ( serpentes , elapidae ) and blarinomys breviceps ( mammalia , cricetidae ) .
the present study aimed to assess the effects of low - level laser ( 660 nm ) on myonecrosis caused by the injection of b . neuwiedi venom into the gastrocnemius muscle of wistar rats .
venomous ! distribution : not in uruguay fide carreira et al . ( 2005 ) ; only the former subspecies b . ( n . ) pubescens occurs in uruguay . not in bolivia , nor in peru ; specimens reported from bolivia or peru are either b . mattogrossensis or b . pauloensis , based on the new definition of bothropoides neuwiedi by silva and rodrigues ( 2008 ) . not in paraguay ; paraguayan populations were split into b . matogrossensis , pauloensis , ( paul smith , pers . comm . , 27 apr 2014 ) . synonymy after da silva & rodrigues 2008 who elevated a number of subspecies to full species status and synonymized the remainder ( neuwiedi , urutu , meridionalis , goyazensis , paranaensis ) with b . neuwiedi . other synonymy partly after peters & orejas - miranda 1970 , who mention 12 subspecies , and cei 1993 . type species : bothrops neuwiedi wagler 1824 is the type species of the genus bothropoides fenwick et al . 2009 . note , however , that bothropoides has been synonymized with bothrops by carrasco et al . 2012 .
jansen , martin 2008 . die lanzenottern der gattung bothrops in bolivien . draco 8 ( 33 ) : 50 - 56 - get paper here
8 . rodrigues vm , soares am , guerra - sá r , rodrigues v , fontes mr , giglio jr . structural and functional characterization of neuwiedase , a non - hemorrhagic fibrin ( ogen ) olytic metalloprotease from bothrops neuwiedi snake venom . arch biochem biophys . 2000 ; 381 ( 2 ) : 213 - 24 . [ links ]
saldarriaga mm , otero r , núñez v , toro mf , díaz a , gutiérrez jm : ontogenetic variability of bothrops atrox and bothrops asper snake venoms from colombia . toxicon . 2003 , 42 : 405 - 411 . 10 . 1016 / s0041 - 0101 ( 03 ) 00171 - 5 .
16 lira ms . , furtado mf . , martins lmp . , lopes - ferreira m . , santoro ml . , barbaro kc . enzymatic and immunochemical characterization of bothrops insularis venom and its neutralization by polyspecific bothrops antivenom . toxicon , 2007 , 49 , 982 - 94 . [ links ]
12 gutierrez jm . , lomonte b . phospholipase a2 myotoxins from bothrops snake venoms . toxicon , 1995 , 33 , 1405 - 24 . [ links ]
at three hours , the wistar rats inoculated with 40 µ g / ml of raw bothrops neuwiedi venom exhibited the following clinical signs after the venom administration : irritability , aggressiveness , muscle contraction and itching at the inoculation site as well as swelling throughout the extension of the inoculated leg for up to 12 hours . the animals inoculated with the saline solution did not exhibit any of these symptoms .
abreu va , dal belo ca , hernandes - oliveira ss , borja - oliveira cr , et al . neuromuscular and phospholipase activities of venoms from three subspecies of bothrops neuwiedi ( b . n . goyazensis , b . n . paranaensis and b . n . diporus ) . comp biochem physiol a mol integr physiol . 2007 sep ; 148 ( 1 ) : 142 - 9 . pmid : 17524691 .
trutnau , ludwig 2008 . momente aus dem leben der chaco - lanzenotter bothrops diporus garman , 1862 . draco 8 ( 33 ) : 39 - 42 - get paper here
menezes mc , furtado mfd , travaglia - cardoso sr , camargo ac , serrano smt . sex - based individual variation of snake venom proteome among eighteen bothrops jararaca siblings .
baldo c , tanjoni i , león ir , batista if , della - casa ms , clissa pb , weinlich r , lopes - ferreira m , lebrun i , amarante - mendes gp , rodrigues vm , perales j , valente rh , moura - da - silva am . bnp1 , a novel p - i metalloproteinase from bothrops neuwiedi venom : biological effects benchmarking relatively to jararhagin , a p - iii svmp .
guércio rap , shevchenko a , shevchenko a , lópez - lozano jl , sousa mv , ricart cao . ontogenetic variations in the venom proteome of the amazonian snake bothrops atrox .
16 . gutiérrez jm , lomonte b . phospholipase a 2 myotoxins from bothrops snake venoms . toxicon . 1995 ; 33 ( 11 ) : 1405 - 24 . [ links ]
17 . mandelbaum fr . isolamento e caracterização de dois fatores hemorrágicos do veneno de bothrops jararaca [ thesis ] . são paulo : escola paulista de medicina ; 1976 . [ links ]
dipsadids , elapids and viperids from north coast of bahia : a erythrolamprus miliaris merremi b erythrolamprus poeilogyrus schotti ( juvenile with a erythrolamprus poeilogyrus poecilogyrus - like pattern ) c erythrolamprus poecilogyrus schotti ( adult ) d erythrolamprus reginae semilineatus , e erythrolamprus taeniogaster f erythrolamprus viridis viridis g xenodon merremii h xenodon rhabdocephalus rhabdocephalus i micrurus corallinus j micrurus ibiboboca k bothrops erythromelas l bothrops leucurus m bothrops lutzi n crotalus durissus cascavella o lachesis muta rhombeata ( photos f , g , k by m . l . o . travassos ; o by w . pessoa ) .
jansen , m . 2006 . primeros registros de bothrops pauloensis amaral , 1925 ( serpentes : viperidae ) en bolivia . kempffiana 2 ( 1 ) : 66 - 71 - get paper here
27 . santoro ml , sano - martins is . platelet dysfunction during bothrops jararaca snake envenomation in rabbits . thromb haemost . 2004 ; 92 ( 2 ) : 369 - 83 . [ links ]
myonecrosis is also a common result of envenomations by bothrops snakes . the venom affects muscle cells due to the action of myotoxins on ionic channels , which alters the permeability of the cell membrane , and because of the indirect action of proteases , which causes disruption of vessels leading to muscle cell ischemia ( 33 ) . b . jaracussu presents the higher myotoxic activity among the bothrops genus ( 45 ) .
amaral , a . d . 1932 . contribuicao ao conhecimento dos ofidios do brasil v . uma nova raca de bothrops neuwiedii . mem . inst . butantan 7 : 97 - 101 - get paper here
hoge , alphonse richard 1959 . note sur la position systematique de trigonocephalus ( bothrops ) pubescens cope 1869 . mem . inst . butantan 28 [ 1957 - 1958 ] : 83 - 84 - get paper here
1 abreu va . , dal belo ca . , hernandes - oliveira ss . , borja - oliveira cr . , hyslop s . , furtado mde f . , rodrigues - simioni l . neuromuscular and phospholipase activities of venoms from three subspecies of bothrops neuwiedi ( b . n . goyazensis , b . n . paranaensis and b . n . diporus ) . comp . biochem . physiol . a . mol . integr . physiol . , 2007 , 148 , 142 - 9 . [ links ]
in this study , we have unveiled the diversity of svmps expressed by a specimen of bothrops neuwiedi snake by cloning , sequencing and analyzing the svmp cdnas transcribed in a single venom gland . a great diversity in the svmp repertoire was confirmed . moreover , evidences emerged for recombination between genes of svmp sequences from different classes and also between their primary mrna transcripts , enlarging the possibilities of mechanisms involved in generation of diversity of this class of toxins and defining new perspectives in the classification and function prediction of this group of toxins .
28 . santoro ml , sano - martins is , chamone da . in vivo platelet activation induced by bothrops jararaca venom in rabbits . platelets . 1994 ; 5 ( 3 ) : 162 - 70 . [ links ]
strongly marked polymorphism of bothrops lutzi from são desidério , bahia ( a ) and grande sertão veredas national park , minas gerais ( b ) ( photos a by r . gaiga ; b by m . sacramento ) .
alape - girón a , sanz l , escolano j , flores - díaz m , madrigal m , sasa m , calvete jj . snake venomics of the lancehead pitviper bothrops asper : geographic , individual , and ontogenetic variations .
the pathogenesis of systemic effects of bothrops envenomations is complex . the role of cytokines , no and the complement system in the pathology of envenomations has been the subject of studies ( 7 , 12 , 13 , 34 ) .
guércio rap , shevchenko a , shevchenko a , lópez - lozano jl , sousa mv , ricart cao : ontogenetic variations in the venom proteome of the amazonian snake bothrops atrox . protein sci . 2006 , 4 : 11 -
thus , studies involving the participation of the no , cytokines and the complement system provide experimental evidence that the direct action of venom toxins in various tissues have a relevant role in the pathogenesis of systemic alterations characteristic of bothrops envenomations .
baldo c , tanjoni i , león ir , batista if , della - casa ms , clissa pb , weinlich r , lopes - ferreira m , lebrun i , amarante - mendes gp , rodrigues vm , perales j , valente rh , moura - da - silva am : bnp1 , a novel p - i metalloproteinase from bothrops neuwiedi venom : biological effects benchmarking relatively to jararhagin , a p - iii svmp . toxicon . 2008 , 51 ( 1 ) : 54 - 65 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2007 . 08 . 005 .
18 . gutiérrez jm , bolaños r arroyo o . mionecrosis , hemorragia y edema inducidos por el veneno de bothrops asper en ratón blanco . toxicon . 1980 ; 18 ( 5 - 6 ) : 603 - 10 . [ links ]
natural venom was extracted from b . neuwiedi snakes that were captured in the pantanal region on mato grosso do sul state , brazil , and kept at the zoology laboratory of the university for the development of the state and of the region of pantanal , uniderp , campo grande . this extracted venom was lyophilized and stored at 20º c .
48 . barros sf , friedlanskaia i , petricevich vl , kpinis tl . local inflammation , lethality and cytokine release in mice injected with bothrops atrox venom . mediators inflamm . 1998 ; 7 ( 5 ) : 339 - 46 . [ links ]
justification : bothrops lutzi has been assessed as least concern owing to its wide distribution within brazil . no specific threats have been reported and this species is not thought to be undergoing significant population declines . no conservation measures are required for this species .
epicrates assisi , drymarchon corais corais , drymoluber dichrous , mastigodryas bifossatus , clelia plumbea , phimophis guerini ,  pseudoboa nigra , erythrolamprus aesculapii venustissimus , erythrolamprus miliaris merremii , erythrolamprus poecilogyrus schotti , erythrolamprus viridis viridis , xenodon rhabdocephalus rhabdocephalus , micrurus corallinus , bothrops erythromelas , bothrops lutzi and lachesis muta rhombeata were detected only through museum vouchers , and appear to be rare ( n ≤ 4 ) , except for erythrolamprus poecilogyrus schotti ( n = 21 ) and pseudoboa nigra ( n = 7 ) .
the most dangerous species , which are responsible for many bites and which are known to regularly cause deaths , are b . asper in central america , b . atrox , b . jararaca and b . jararacussu , and to a lesser extent also b . alternatus , b . moojeni , b . neuwiedi and b . erythromelas in south america .
sequence alignment of class p - ii svmps predicted by the cdnas isolated from b . neuwiedi venom gland . sequences were aligned by clustalw program . cysteines are shadowed in gray ; circles indicate the putative n - glycosylation sites ; rectangles indicate the zinc - binding and rgd motif and dark gray the substitution by tyrosine of the histidine involved in zinc coordination .
the gastrocnemius muscle was irradiated once a day with 4 j / cm² for seven days following the injection of the b . neuwiedi venom . the animals were placed in lateral decubitus position and the paw to be treated was extended and externally rotated . the laser was applied directly to the shaved skin on the right side of medial prominence of the gastrocnemius muscle .
coagulation studies were performed in a patient who had been bitten by a snake of the species bothrops neuwiedi . the patient presented with hemorrhagic necrosis at the envenomization site and considerable bleeding from venous puncture sites . he developed a severe defibrination syndrome with a clottable fibrinogen level of approximately 0 . 1 g / l . fibrinogen was not measurable by clotting time assay . fibrin degradation products were greatly elevated . treatment with antivenom caused an anaphylactic reaction within ten minutes and serum sickness after three days . in vitro experiments revealed that b . neuwiedi venom directly activates factors ii and x , but does not activate factor xiii . in vivo consumption of factor xiii after b . neuwiedi envenomization is ascribed to the action of factor iia . at low venom concentrations clotting is initiated by activation of prothrombin by the venom either directly or via factor x activation . treatment with heparin might be beneficial in coagulopathy secondary to snake bite by reducing circulating active thrombin . the venom contains thrombin - like proteases which cause slow clotting of fibrinogen , and plasmin - like components causing further proteolysis of fibrinogen and fibrin . antivenom has no effect on the proteolytic action of the snake venom . the in vivo effects of antivenom are presumably caused by acceleration of the elimination of venom components from the circulation . intravenous administration of antivenom caused normalization of blood coagulation parameters within 48 h .
the affected area exhibits ischemia as a consequence of serious vascular lesions and profuse bleeding . hemorrhage is caused by the action of metalloproteases , which damages the collagen and other capillary vessel components of the basal lamina . as a result , the capillary vessels are broken , causing ecchymosis . these dysfunctions and local wounds are specific clinical symptoms of b . neuwiedi envenomation ( 17 ) . several myotoxins have been isolated from bothrops snake venoms and their effects appear to be similar to other toxins found in crotalic venoms , such as crotalus durissus terrificus ( 23 ) . intramuscular injection of bothrops myotoxins leads to a rapid series of drastic degenerative events , probably initiated at the plasma membrane level , that culminate in selective skeletal muscle necrosis . muscle damage , cytolysis and liposome disruption occur under conditions in which phospholipase a2 activity is inhibited , while enzymatic activity may enhance the myotoxin action ( 9 ) .
dipsadids from the northern coast of bahia : a sibynomorphus neuwiedi b imantodes cenchoa cenchoa c leptodeira annulata annulata d taeniophallus occipitalis e helicops angulatus f helicops leopardinus g philodryas nattereri h philodryas olfersii herbeus i philodryas patagoniensis j clelia plumbea k oxyrhopus petolarius digitalis l oxyrhopus trigeminus m phimophis guerini n pseudoboa nigra o siphlophis compressus p thamnodynastes pallidus q erythrolamprus aesculapii venustissimus r erythrolamprus almadensis .
45 . moura - da - silva am , desmond h , laing g , theakston rdg . isolation and comparison of myotoxins isolated from venoms of different species of bothrops snakes . toxicon . 1991 ; 29 ( 6 ) : 713 - 23 . [ links ]
the herpetofauna of the north coast of bahia is mainly threatened by habitat loss and degradation , including the ongoing expansion of residential areas and hotel - resorts ( tinôco 2011 ) . iucn ( 2014 ) lists only siphlophis compressus , thamnodynastes pallidus , erythrolamprus viridis , bothrops erythromelas , bothrops lutzi and crotalus durissus as species of low concern . the threat of habitat loss is listed for siphlophis compressus , whereas the status of erythrolamprus viridis only relates to caatinga specimens , and is not including erythrolamprus viridis viridis found in the atlantic forest .
in addition , bothrops toxins may provoke shock by activating hypotensive substances that trigger the kallikreins - kininogen - kinin system , increasing vascular permeability and facilitating circulation outside of vessels . in non - pathological states , the substances responsible for this activity are kinins ( 46 ) .
22 . rucavado a , nunez j , gutierrez jm . blister formation and skin induced by bap1 , a haemorrhagic metalloproteinase from the venom of the snake bothrops asper . int j exp pathol . 1998 ; 79 ( 4 ) : 245 - 54 . [ links ]
12 . farsky sh , walber j , costa - cruz m , cury y , teixeira cf . leukocyte response induced by bothrops jararaca crude venom : in vivo and in vitro studies . toxicon . 1997 ; 35 ( 2 ) : 185 - 93 . [ links ]
20 . rucavado na , núñez j , gutiérrez jm . blister formation and skin damage induced by bap1 , a hemorrhagic metalloproteinase from the venom of the snake bothrops asper . int j exp pathol . 1998 ; 79 ( 4 ) : 245 - 56 . [ links ]
26 . sano - martins is , santoro ml , castro sc , fan hw , cardoso jl , theakston rdg . platelet aggregation in patients bitten by the brazilian snake bothrops jararaca . thromb res . 1997 ; 87 ( 2 ) : 183 - 9527 . [ links ]
36 . lomonte b , tarkowski a , hanson la . host response to bothrops asper snake venom . analysis of edema formation , inflammatory cells , and cytokine release in a mouse model . inflammation . 1993 ; 17 ( 2 ) : 93 - 105 . [ links ]
62 . luna kp , xavier em , pascoal vp , martins - filho ao , pereira vr . humoral immune response of patients bitten by the snake bothrops erythromelas . rev soc bras med trop . 2010 ; 43 ( 6 ) : 731 - 2 . [ links ]
59 . luna kpo , melo cml , pascoal vpm , martins - filho ao , pereira vra . bothrops erythromelas snake venom induces a proinflammatory response in mice splenocytes . int j interf cytok mediator res . 2011 ; 2011 ( 3 ) : 9 - 18 . [ links ]
in b . neuwiedi venom gland , class p - ii svmps were represented by three different types of transcripts that may have arisen by interclass recombination with p - i and p - iii sequences after the divergence of the different classes of svmps . our observations indicate that exon shuffling or post - transcriptional mechanisms may be driving these recombinations generating new functional possibilities for this complex group of snake toxins .
35 . barraviera b , lomonte b , tarkowski a , hanson la , meira da . acute - phase reactions including cytokines in patients bitten by bothrops and crotalus snakes in brazil . j venom anim toxins . 1995 ; 1 ( 1 ) : 11 - 22 . [ links ]
61 . farsky sh , gonçalves lr , gutiérrez jm , correa ap , rucavado a , gasque p , et al . bothrops asper snake venom and its metalloproteinase bap1 activate the complement system . mediators inflamm . 2000 ; 9 ( 5 ) : 213 - 21 . [ links ]
10 dourado dm . , favero s . , baranauskas v . , da cruz - höfling ma . effects of the ga - as laser irradiation on myonecrosis caused by bothrops moojeni snake venom . lasers surg . med . , 2003 , 33 , 352 - 7 . [ links ]
16 . kamiguti as , cardoso jlc , theakston rdg , sano - martins is , hutton ra , rugman fp , et al . coagulopathy and hemorrhage in human victims of bothrops jararaca envenoming in brazil . toxicon . 1991 ; 29 ( 8 ) : 961 - 72 . [ links ]
19 . gutiérrez jm , romero m , díaz c , borkow g , ovadia m . isolation and characterization of a metalloproteinase with weak hemorrhagic activity from the venom of the snake bothrops asper ( terciopelo ) . toxicon . 1995 ; 33 ( 1 ) 19 - 29 . [ links ]
15 . gutiérrez jm , arce v , brenes f , chaves f . changes in myofibrillar components after skeletal muscle necrosis induced by a myotoxin isolated from the venom of the snake bothrops asper . exp mol pathol . 1990 ; 52 ( 1 ) : 25 - 36 . [ links ]
41 . numeric p , moravie v , didier m , chatot - henry d , cirille s , bucher b , et al . multiple cerebral infarctions following a snakebite by bothrops caribbaeus . am j trop med hyg . 2002 ; 67 ( 3 ) : 287 - 8 . [ links ]
52 . fernandes cm , zamuner sr , zuliani pj , rucavado a , gutiérrez jm , teixeira cf . inflammatory effects of bap1 a metalloproteinase isolated from bothrops asper snake venom : leukocyte recruitment and release of cytokines . toxicon . 2006 ; 47 ( 5 ) 549 - 59 . [ links ]
20 . moreira l , borkow g , ovadia m , gutiérrez jm . pathological changes induced by bah1 , a hemorrhagic proteinase isolated from bothrops asper ( terciopelo ) snake venom , on mouse capillary blood vessels . toxicon . 1994 ; 32 ( 8 ) : 977 - 87 . [ links ]
several bothrops snake venoms may cause brain bleeding , such as those from caribean snakes . thomas et al . ( 39 ) evaluated three patients bitten by bothrops lanceolatus . the first patient , even though arrived at the hospital 45 minutes after the bite , presented coagulopathy and thrombocytopenia , and was treated with 20 ml of antivenom . magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) showed acute bilateral infarction and , on this basis , the patient was diagnosed with a grade 4 envenomation and more 20 ml of antivenom was administered . blood coagulation returned to normal in three days and the patient was discharged from the hospital .
30 . santoro ml , sano - martins is , fan hw , cardoso jl , theakston rdg , warrell da , et al . haematological evaluation of patients bitten by the jararaca , bothrops jararaca , in brazil . toxicon . 2008 ; 51 ( 8 ) : 1440 - 8 . [ links ]
menezes mc , furtado mfd , travaglia - cardoso sr , camargo ac , serrano smt : sex - based individual variation of snake venom proteome among eighteen bothrops jararaca siblings . toxicon . 2006 , 47 : 304 - 12 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2005 . 11 . 007 .
frança , f . g . r . ; r . c . frança ; c . e . s . germano ; j . m . oliveira filho . 2012 . bothropoides neuwiedi ( wagler , 1824 ) ( squamata : serpentes : viperidae ) : distribution extension for the atlantic forest , first vouchered record for paraíba , and geographic distribution map . check list 8 ( 1 ) : 170 - 171 - get paper here
neiva m , arraes fb , de souza jv , rádis - baptista g , prieto da silva ar , walter me , brigido mde m , yamane t , lópez - lozano jl , astolfi - filho s . transcriptome analysis of the amazonian viper bothrops atrox venom gland using expressed sequence tags ( ests )
5 barbosa am . , villaverde ab . , guimaraes - souza l . , ribeiro w . , cogo jc . , zamuner sr . effect of low - level laser therapy in the inflammatory response induced by bothrops jararacussu snake venom . toxicon , 2008 , 51 , 1236 - 44 . [ links ]
29 . maruyama m , kamiguti as , cardoso jl , sano - martins is , chudzinski am , santoro ml , et al . studies on blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in patients bitten by bothrops jararaca ( jararaca ) . thromb haemost . 1990 ; 63 ( 3 ) : 449 - 53 . [ links ]
núñez v , cid p , sanz l , torre p , angulo y , lomonte b , gutiérrez jm , calvete jj . snake venomics and antivenomics of bothrops atrox venoms from colombia and the amazon regions of brazil , perú and ecuador suggest the occurrence of geographic variation of venom phenotype by a trend towards paedomorphism .
hence , studies on mediators of the immune response such as no , cytokines and complement system are necessary in order to clarify the role played by them in the evolution and emergence of clinical manifestations of patients envenomed by bothrops snakes , enabling new advances in preventive strategies and immunochemotherapy ( at regional and global levels ) .
mazzi mv , magro aj , amui sf , oliveira cz , ticli fk , stábeli rg , fuly al , rosa jc , braz ask , fontes mrm , sampaio sv , soares am . molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of bjussump - i : a rgd - p - iii class hemorrhagic metalloprotease from bothrops jararacussu snake venom .
according to a study of the first half of this century for central and south america , of a total of 6 , 601 recorded cases of snakebite envenoming , 4 , 902 cases were attributed to various bothrops species ; of these , 3 , 446 cases were attributed to the species b . jararaca ( rosenfeld 1971 ) .
72 . alape - girón a , sanz l , escolano j , flores - díaz m , madrigal m , sasa m , et al . snake venomics of the lancehead pitviper bothrops asper : geographic , individual , and ontogenetic variations . j proteome res . 2008 ; 7 ( 8 ) : 3556 - 71 . [ links ]
23 . rucavado a , escalante t , teixeira cfp , fernandes cm , diaz c , gutiérrez jm . increments in cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases in skeletal muscle after injection of tissue - damaging toxins from the venom of the snake bothrops asper . mediators inflamm . 2002 ; 11 ( 2 ) : 121 - 8 . [ links ]
63 . rodrigues fgp , kanashiro mm , petrestki jh , lemos l , da silva wd , kipnis tl . the complement system is involved in acute inflammation but not in the hemorrhage produced by a bothrops atrox snake venom low molecular mass proteinase . mol immunol . 2004 ; 40 ( 16 ) : 1149 - 56 . [ links ]
74 . gutiérrez jm , sanz l , flores - días m , figueroa l , madrigal m , herrera m et al . impact of regional variation in bothrops asper snake venom on the design of antivenoms : integrating antivenomics and neutralization approaches . j proteomes res . 2010 ; 9 ( 1 ) : 564 - 77 . [ links ]
alape - girón a , sanz l , escolano j , flores - díaz m , madrigal m , sasa m , calvete jj : snake venomics of the lancehead pitviper bothrops asper : geographic , individual , and ontogenetic variations . j proteome res . 2008 , 7 ( 8 ) : 3556 - 71 . 10 . 1021 / pr800332p .
calvete jj , sanz l , pérez a , borges a , vargas am , lomonte b , angulo y , gutiérrez jm , chalkidis hm , mourão rh , furtado mf , moura - da - silva am . snake population venomics and antivenomics of bothrops atrox : paedomorphism along its transamazonian dispersal and implications of geographic venom variability on snakebite management .
57 . clissa pb , laing gd , theakston rd , mota i , taylor mj , moura - da - silva am . the effect of jararhagin , a metalloproteinase from bothrops jararaca venom , on pro - inflammatory cytokines released by murine peritoneal adherent cells . toxicon . 2001 ; 39 ( 10 ) : 1567 - 73 . [ links ]
etymology ( genus ) : the generic name is derived from the greek bothros , referring to the facial pit , and also referring to the currently named genus bothrops . the term oides means ‘similar to’ or ‘having the nature of ’ , thereby recognizing the affinity of these species with other terrestrial south american pitvipers . names ending in this suffix are masculine .
5 . gutiérrez , jm , sanz , l , flores - díaz , m , figueroa , l , madrigal , m , et al . impact of regional variation in bothrops asper snake venom on the design of antivenoms : integrating antivenomics and neutralization approaches . j proteome res . 2010 ; 9 ( 11 ) : 564 - 77 . [ links ]
fenwick , allyson m . ; ronald l . gutberlet jr , jennafer a . evans , christopher l . parkinson 2009 . morphological and molecular evidence for phylogeny and classification of south american pitvipers , genera bothrops , bothriopsis , and bothrocophias ( serpentes : viperidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 156 ( 3 ) : 617 - 640 - get paper here
sequence alignment of cdnas encoding b . neuwiedi svmps . complete cdna sequences were aligned using the blastn program for multiple sequences alignments using as query bnmp - iii 1 sequence : ( . ) identical nucleotides to the first sequence ; ( - ) gaps introduced to maximize sequence alignments ; regions coding for functional motifs as the zinc - bindin residues and rgd disintegrin tripeptide are boxed ; alignments of complementary ( - ) or repeated ( + ) regions in relation to bnmp - iii 1 sequence are highlighted in gray .
39 . thomas l , chausson n , uzan j , kaidomar s , vignes r , plumelle y , et al . thrombotic stroke following snake bites by the
fer - de - lance
bothrops lanceolatus in martinique despite antivenom treatment : a report of three recent cases . toxicon . 2006 ; 48 ( 1 ) : 23 - 8 . [ links ]
for the year 1989 , the brazilian ministry of health recorded a total of 20 , 748 snakebites , of which around 67 % were attributed to the bothrops genus ( cardoso 1990 ) . other data from brazil record 20 , 884 snakebites over a period of one and a half years ( 1986–87 ) , of which around 88 % were caused by bothrops sp . , with a mortality of 0 . 5 % . most accidents occur during the day in rural areas with basic agriculture ( ribeiro 1990b ) . in this context , the most significant species are b . atrox in the amazon region , b . moojeni in the central west , b . erythromelas in the northwest and b . jararaca in southeast brazil ( cardoso 1990 ) .
the study of bothrops jararaca venom led the brazilian researchers rocha e silva et al . ( 47 ) to the discovery of bradykinin , which directed to the formulation of captopril , widely used in the treatment of hypertension , heart failure , congestive heart failure and coronary artery disease . therefore , the study of venoms has provided the elucidation of various pharmacological mechanisms ( 47 ) .
40 . malbranque s , piercecchi - marti md , thomas l , barbey c , courcier d , bucher b , et al . fatal diffuse thrombotic microangiopathy after a bite by the
fer - de - lance
pit viper ( bothrops lanceolatus ) of martinique . am j trop med hyg . 2008 ; 78 ( 6 ) : 856 - 61 . [ links ]
75 . arce - estrada v , azofeifa - cordero g , estrada r , alape - girón a , flores - díaz m . neutralization of venom - induced hemorrhage by equine antibodies raised by immunization with a plasmid encoding a novel p - ii metalloproteinase from the lancehead pitviper bothrops asper . vaccine . 2009 ; 27 ( 3 ) : 460 - 6 . [ links ]
73 . nuñez v , cid p , lomonte b , gutiérrez jm , calvete jj , et al . snake venomics and antivenomics of bothrops atrox venoms from colombia and the amazon regions of brazil , peru and ecuador suggest the occurrence of geographic variation of venom phenotype by a trend towards paedomorphism . j proteomics . 2009 ; 73 ( 1 ) : 57 - 78 . [ links ]
luna et al . ( 62 ) , who analyzed the humoral immune response presented by individuals bitten by the snake bothrops erythromelas , showed a marked 31 kda protein that was not neutralized by the commercial antivenom used in brazil . such finding shows that some venom components are not well neutralized when the venom is not part of the pool of venoms used to generate the antivenom ( 62 ) .
in 2000 , rodrigues et al . ( 8 ) described the isolation and biochemical characterization of a new p - i class svmp ( 22 kda ) from bothrops neuwiedi venom , named neuwiedase . neuwiedase is able to degrade fibrinogen , fibrin , type i collagen , fibronectin , and laminin . it is devoid of hemorrhagic activity on skin tests , but induces myotoxicity in mice models ( 8 , 9 ) . recently , it was shown that neuwiedase induced an evident inflammatory infiltrate and an increase of matrix metalloproteinase - 9 ( mmp - 9 ) , interleukin - 1 ( il - 1 ) , interleukin - 6 ( il - 6 ) , interleukin - 8 ( il - 8 ) , in the early periods after neuwiedase injection in the gastrocnemius muscle . the cytokine release was also evaluated in inflammatory and muscular cell culture and both murine peritoneal adherent cells ( mapcs ) and mouse myoblast ( c2c12 ) released proinflammatory cytokines after stimulus with neuwiedase ( 10 ) .
it has been proven that individuals bitten by bothrops jararaca and crotalus durissus terrificus in brazil showed increased levels of il - 6 and il - 8 . the increase of il - 6 could explain the lymphopenia and leukocytosis , since this cytokine is able to increase the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormones and glucocorticoids . this author suggests that snake envenomations resemble acute traumas , inducing a typical acute response ( 35 ) .
valente rh , guimarães pr , junqueira m , neves - ferreira ag , soares mr , chapeaurouge a , trugilho mr , león ir , rocha sl , oliveira - carvalho al , wermelinger ls , dutra dl , leão li , junqueira - de - azevedo il , ho pl , zingali rb , perales j , domont gb . bothrops insularis venomics : a proteomic analysis supported by transcriptomic - generated sequence data .
envenoming induced by bothrops snakes involves systemic toxic effects and striking alterations at the injection site , leading to variable degrees of local tissue damage ( 1 ) . these local effects have been defined as pain , hemorrhage , edema , myonecrosis and inflammation . the snake venom metalloproteinases ( svmps ) have been considered as playing a crucial role in the development of the local venom - induced pathogenesis ( 2 - 4 ) .
17 lomonte b . , moreno e . , tarkowski a . , hanson la . , maccarana m . neutralizing interaction between heparins and myotoxin ii , a lysine 49 phospholipase a2 from bothrops asper snake venom . identification of a heparin - binding and cytolytic toxin region by the use of synthetic peptides and molecular modeling . j . biol . chem . , 1994 , 269 , 29867 - 73 . [ links ]
the first hemorrhagin isolated from snake venom was bap - 1 ( a metalloproteinase ) , obtained from bothrops asper and which causes inflammation ( 19 ) . this class p - i hemorrhagin ( snake venom metalloproteinase type i ) is edematogenic when injected into mice paw . after intramuscular injection blisters and leukocyte infiltrate were observed on the dermis , which was associated with degranulation of mast cells and enlargement of macrophages ( 20 , 21 ) .
recently , snakebites were introduced by the world health organization in the list of neglected tropical diseases ( 2 ) . the global snake bite initiative ( gsi ) was formed to develop practical and sustainable solutions to some of the problems associated with snakebites worldwide , especially concerning the notification of accidents ( 3 , 4 ) . according to gsi , mortality associated with snake envenomations is greater than in chagas disease , dengue , cholera , leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis . in latin america , most snakebite is caused by species of the bothrops genus ( 5 ) . bothrops snakes are responsible for 90 . 6 % of the accidents reported in brazil , with a lethality index of 0 . 45 % . accidents often occur in the beginning or end of the year , affecting particularly male rural workers at the productive age ( between 19 and 45 years ) , mostly in their lower limbs ( 6 ) .
núñez v , cid p , sanz l , torre p , angulo y , lomonte b , gutiérrez jm , calvete jj : snake venomics and antivenomics of bothrops atrox venoms from colombia and the amazon regions of brazil , perú and ecuador suggest the occurrence of geographic variation of venom phenotype by a trend towards paedomorphism . j proteomics . 2009 , 73 : 57 - 78 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2009 . 07 . 013 .
the abundance of the different precursors of class p - ii svmps in b . neuwiedi venom gland was then evaluated by qpcr . specific primers for each type of bnmp - ii sequence allowed quantifying ~ 3 . 5 × 10 6 copies of bnmp - iia , ~ 5 × 10 5 copies of bnmp - iib and ~ 1 . 5 × 10 5 copies of bnmp - iix per ng cdna transcribed from the total venom gland rna . according to these numbers , sequences coding for precursors that can be processed to generate class p - i svmps and free disintegrins are the most abundant in this group of p - ii cdnas .
neiva m , arraes fb , de souza jv , rádis - baptista g , prieto da silva ar , walter me , brigido mde m , yamane t , lópez - lozano jl , astolfi - filho s : transcriptome analysis of the amazonian viper bothrops atrox venom gland using expressed sequence tags ( ests ) . toxicon . 2009 , 53 ( 4 ) : 427 - 36 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2009 . 01 . 006 .
mazzi mv , magro aj , amui sf , oliveira cz , ticli fk , stábeli rg , fuly al , rosa jc , braz ask , fontes mrm , sampaio sv , soares am : molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of bjussump - i : a rgd - p - iii class hemorrhagic metalloprotease from bothrops jararacussu snake venom . j mol graph model . 2007 , 26 : 69 - 85 . 10 . 1016 / j . jmgm . 2006 . 09 . 010 .
the authors argue that this envenomation developed signs and symptoms very similar to those developed in a b . lanceolatus envenomation case in martinique . phylogenetic studies suggest that the venoms of the two caribbean species of bothrops are very close and may have the same thrombogenic potential ( 41 ) . so , monospecific antivenom for b . lanceolatus envenomations could be useful for the treatment of b . caribbaeus envenomations as well , since a non - specific one for the latter is available ( 42 ) .
calvete jj , sanz l , pérez a , borges a , vargas am , lomonte b , angulo y , gutiérrez jm , chalkidis hm , mourão rh , furtado mf , moura - da - silva am : snake population venomics and antivenomics of bothrops atrox : paedomorphism along its transamazonian dispersal and implications of geographic venom variability on snakebite management . j proteomics . 2011 , 74 ( 4 ) : 510 - 27 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2011 . 01 . 003 .
thirty - one svmp cdnas were full length cloned from a single specimen of bothrops neuwiedi snake , sequenced and grouped in eleven distinct sequences and further analyzed by cladistic analysis . class p - i and class p - iii sequences presented the expected tree topology for fibrinolytic and hemorrhagic svmps , respectively . in opposition , three distinct segregations were observed for class p - ii sequences . p - iib showed the typical segregation of class p - ii svmps . however , p - iia grouped with class p - i cdnas presenting a 100 % identity in the 365 bp at their 5 ' ends , suggesting post - transcription events for interclass recombination . in addition , catalytic domain of p - iix sequences segregated with non - hemorrhagic class p - iii svmps while their disintegrin domain grouped with other class p - ii disintegrin domains suggesting independent evolution of catalytic and disintegrin domains . complementary regions within cdna sequences were noted and may participate in recombination either at dna or rna levels . proteins predicted by these cdnas show the main features of the correspondent classes of svmp , but p - iib and p - iix included two additional cysteines cysteines at the c - termini of the disintegrin domains in positions not yet described .
treatment summary this treatment advice is general for most bothrops species . bites will vary from minor to life threatening . therefore manage all bites as potentially major . look for moderate to severe local effects , including pain , swelling , potential for fluid shifts and hypovolaemic shock , blistering , necrosis , abscess formation . systemic effects may be minor or severe , possibly including coagulopathy and bleeding , kidney damage , even myolytic muscle damage . all cases with significant systemic effects require iv antivenom , as will most cases with significant local effects .
schematic representation of sequence alignment of cdnas encoding b . neuwiedi svmps . complete cdna sequences were aligned using the blastn program for multiple sequences alignments using as query bnmp - iii 1 sequence ( additional file ) . boxes represent similarity regions ( 5 ' utr plus mature protein coding regions or 3 ' utr ) with % identities in relation to the query . triangles represent positions of complementary regions ( ⇆ ) and circles represent the repeated regions ( ⇉ ) relatively to bnmp - iii 1 sequence . dm corresponds to the approximate position of the rgd or ecd motifs in disintegrins or disintegrin - like domains , respectively . dots represent the gaps corresponding to cysteine - rich or disintegrin - like / cysteine - rich domains introduced to maximize sequence alignments .
schematic representation of sequence alignment of cdnas encoding b . neuwiedi svmps . complete cdna sequences were aligned using the blastn program for multiple sequences alignments using as query bnmp - iii 1 sequence ( additional file 1 ) . boxes represent similarity regions ( 5 ' utr plus mature protein coding regions or 3 ' utr ) with % identities in relation to the query . triangles represent positions of complementary regions ( ⇆ ) and circles represent the repeated regions ( ⇉ ) relatively to bnmp - iii 1 sequence . dm corresponds to the approximate position of the rgd or ecd motifs in disintegrins or disintegrin - like domains , respectively . dots represent the gaps corresponding to cysteine - rich or disintegrin - like / cysteine - rich domains introduced to maximize sequence alignments .
valente rh , guimarães pr , junqueira m , neves - ferreira ag , soares mr , chapeaurouge a , trugilho mr , león ir , rocha sl , oliveira - carvalho al , wermelinger ls , dutra dl , leão li , junqueira - de - azevedo il , ho pl , zingali rb , perales j , domont gb : bothrops insularis venomics : a proteomic analysis supported by transcriptomic - generated sequence data . j proteomics . 2009 , 72 : 241 - 255 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2009 . 01 . 001 .
a large number of researchers have been looking for new therapeutic methods to repair or at least minimize the damage caused by bothrops snake venom to the muscles ( 3 , 5 , 10 ) . low - level laser therapy can be considered an alternative if we consider its sequelae on different types of biological tissues  including its trophic - regenerative , anti - inflammatory and analgesic effects  which have been demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo studies ( 2 , 4 , 6 - 8 , 11 , 18 , 19 , 21 , 24 - 26 ) .
in the present study , harm to the gastrocnemius muscle of wistar rats injected ( im ) with b . neuwiedi venom at a dose of 40 µ g / ml was observed at all moments except at 7 days . initially , there were injuries with intensive hemorrhaging , vascular congestion as well as muscle fibers in various stages of degeneration , including condensed myofibrils , delta lesions , fibers with clear areas in the cytoplasm and vacuolized fibers ( 16 ) . the hemorrhagic condition developed after envenomation triggered muscle injury by means of the action of hemorrhagic toxins ( 10 ) , which cause damage to the walls of small blood vessels ( 20 ) . moreover , the hemorrhagic action of the envenomation process is closely associated with the metalloprotease action in the vascular endothelium , causing disturbances that could lead to cellular lysis .
local tissue damage is one of the greatest problems following envenomation by snakes of the genus bothrops ; and the range of effects depends on the type of poison , the amount injected and host characteristics . tissue damage is so intensive in many cases that it leads to serious consequences such as vascular degeneration and ischemia , which may culminate in amputation of the affected limb ( 17 ) . tissue damage is caused by the combined action of a number of venom components responsible for hemorrhaging , edema and necrosis . these toxins may be phospholipases a2 ( pla2 ) , proteases , hemorrhagic factors and endogenous mediators released by the action of the inflammatory response ( 10 , 11 ) .
bothrops envenomations cause rapid development of edema and inflammation at the bite site . the edema induced by these venoms are associated with the action of various substances such as : hemorragins ( act directly on the endothelium of capillaries and small veins , increasing permeability ) , cytotoxins ( induce the release of histamine , pla 2 , and arachidonic acid , which frees membrane phospholipids , starting the synthesis of prostaglandins that , in turn , increases capillary permeability ) , proteases ( break kininogen releasing kinins and leading to the production of nitric oxide and prostaglandins ) ; vasoactive peptides ( inhibit the action of the angiotensin converting enzyme and boost the action of bradykinin ) ; and components of the complement cascade ( 43 , 44 ) .
accidents caused by snakes , especially in tropical and subtropical countries , still constitute a serious public health problem due to the lack of knowledge of health professionals and the precariousness of health systems in the regions where most accidents occur . snake venoms contain a range of molecules that may provoke local swelling , pain , renal and respiratory insufficiencies . the study of the effects of each molecule on humans can help the development of complementary therapy . similarly , the knowledge of clinical aspects of envenomations provides a better identification and implementation of appropriate treatment . in addition , to understand bothrops envenomations and improve the therapeutic strategy , it is necessary to understand and study the role of important inflammatory mediators , particularly nitric oxide ( no ) , cytokines and the complement system .