euspira nitida ( common name : common necklace shell ) is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family naticidae , the moon snails .

euspira nitida

subgenus polinices ( euspira ) agassiz in j . sowerby , 1837 accepted as euspira agassiz , 1837
species euspira canonica dall , 1919 accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
species euspira politiana dall , 1919 accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
polinices pulchellus ( risso , 1826 ) , polinices polianus ( delle chiaje , 1827 ) , polinices alderi ( forbes , 1838 ) , polinices nitida auctt . , non ( donovan , 1804 ) , euspira pulchella , polinices pulchella ( risso , 1826 ) , nerita nitida donovan , 1804 , natica alderi forbes , 1838 , natica poliana delle chiaje , 1826
» species polinices ( euspira ) napus ( e . a . smith , 1904 ) accepted as euspira napus ( e . a . smith , 1904 )
species euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . euspira nitida ( donovan , 1804 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
species polinices groenlandicus ( möller , 1842 ) accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
species polinices napus ( e . a . smith , 1904 ) accepted as euspira napus ( e . a . smith , 1904 )
taxonomy torigoe & inaba ( 2011 ) provided a rather arbitrary assignment of species to respectively euspira and lunatia and this has . . .
species polinices pallidus ( broderip & sowerby , 1829 ) accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
natica glaucinoides j . sowerby , 1812 † accepted as euspira glaucinoides ( j . sowerby , 1812 ) † ( type by subsequent designation )
» species polinices ( euspira ) psilus ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) accepted as polinices psilus ( r . b . watson , 1886 )
( of lunatia nitida ( donovan , 1804 ) ) cornet r . & marche - marchad i . , 1951 . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . mollusques . supplément 5 aux travaux de la station biologique de roscoff , 80 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
scientific synonyms and common names natica pulchella risso , 1826 natica poliana delle chiaje , 1827 natica intermedia philippi , 1836 non natica intermedia deshayes , 1832 natica alderi forbes , 1838 natica alderi var . ventricosa jeffreys , 1867 natica alderi var . lactea jeffreys , 1867 natica alderi var . subovalis jeffreys , 1867 natica parvula tapparone - canefri , 1869 natica alderi var . globulosa b . d . d . , 1883 natica alderi var . elata b . d . d . , 1883 natica neustriaca locard , 1886 natica complanata locard , 1886 natica glaucina sensu auct . non ( linné , 1758 : nerita ) natica marochiensis sensu philippi , 1844 non ( gmelin , 1791 : nerita ) natica nitida sensu auct . non ( donovan , 1804 : nerita ) euspira nitida polinices poliana lunatia alderi
» species polinices ( lunatia ) pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
species polinices groenlandica [ sic ] accepted as polinices groenlandicus ( möller , 1842 ) accepted as euspira pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( incorrect gender ending )
( of euspira poliana ( delle chiaje , 1826 ) ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of polinices ( euspira ) agassiz in j . sowerby , 1837 ) vaught , k . c . ; tucker abbott , r . ; boss , k . j . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne . isbn 0 - 915826 - 22 - 4 . xii , 195 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of nerita nitida donovan , 1804 ) donovan e . ( 1801 - 1804 ) . the natural history of british shells , including figures and descriptions of all the species hitherto discovered in great britain , systematically arranged in the linnean manner , with scienfific and general observations on each . printed for the author , and f . & c : rivington , london : vol . 1 [ 1800 ] , pl . 1 - 36 ; vol . 2 [ 1801 ] , pl . 37 - 72 ; vol . 3 [ 1801 ] , pl . 73 - 108 ; vol . 4 [ 1803 ] , pl . 109 - 144 ; vol . 5 [ 1804 ] , pl . 145 - 180 , all with unpaginated text and indexes [ details ]
( of euspira pulchella ( risso , 1826 ) ) gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of polinices ( euspira ) pulchellus ( risso , 1826 ) ) howson , c . m . ; picton , b . e . ( 1997 ) . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . ulster museum publication , 276 . the ulster museum : belfast , uk . isbn 0 - 948150 - 06 - 8 . vi , 508 ( + cd - rom ) pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ] available for editors
( of euspira pulchella ( risso , 1826 ) ) risso , a . ( 1826 - 1827 ) . histoire naturelle des principales productions de l ' europe méridionale et particulièrement de celles des environs de nice et des alpes maritimes . paris , levrault : vol . 1 : xii + 448 pp . , 1 map [ 1826 ] ; vol . 2 : vii + 482 pp . , 8 pls [ november 1827 ] ; vol . 3 : xvi + 480 pp . , 14 pls [ september 1827 ] ; vol . 4 : iv + 439 pp . , 12 pls [ november 1826 ] ; vol . 5 : viii + 400 pp . , 10 pls [ november 1827 ] . . 3 ( xvi ) : 1 - 480 , 14 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
risso , a . ( 1826 - 1827 ) . histoire naturelle des principales productions de l ' europe méridionale et particulièrement de celles des environs de nice et des alpes maritimes . paris , levrault : vol . 1 : xii + 448 pp . , 1 map [ 1826 ] ; vol . 2 : vii + 482 pp . , 8 pls [ november 1827 ] ; vol . 3 : xvi + 480 pp . , 14 pls [ september 1827 ] ; vol . 4 : iv + 439 pp . , 12 pls [ november 1826 ] ; vol . 5 : viii + 400 pp . , 10 pls [ november 1827 ] . . 3 ( xvi ) : 1 - 480 , 14 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
m . j . de kluijver , s . s . ingalsuo & r . h . de bruyne
on sand and gravel ; usually sublittoral from 10 to 50 m ( recorded from 2000 m ) , but occasionally at lwst .
hayward , p . j . , wigham , g . d . & n . yonow , 1990 . mollusca i : polyplacophora , scaphopoda , and gastropoda . in : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe . ( ed . p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ) . clarendon press , oxford : 628 - 730 .
seaward , d . r . , 1990 . distribution of the marine molluscs of north west europe . nature conservancy council .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .
i det avancerade verktyget kan man söka ut och få fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst län , i en viss biotop , substrat , som påverkas av en hotfaktor , eller som är knutna till en sk värdart , t ex trädet alm . dessa kan även kombineras .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , lever i småvatten och som påverkas negativt av igenväxning .
defaultläget i verktyget är arter som är rödlistade 2015 och dessa är klassade på samtliga sökfaktorer . under fliken rödlistekategori kan man dock välja att även inkludera arter som inte är rödlistade . om man väljer att inkludera icke rödlistade arter behöver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte är klassade på samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanställning av vad som är komplett .
denna funktion används när du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka på deras namn . du kan också välja att använda knappen ”jämför arter” för att se bilder , kartor och kännetecken i en jämförelsevy .
du kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via släktträdet och där välja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat sätt att göra ditt urval är att använda fliken ”filtrera” , där du kan söka på olika egenskaper . ovanför listan med sökresultatet finns en knapp ”lägg i mitt urval” .
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version 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .
natica lamarckiana leach , w . e . in gray , j . e . , 1852
natica alexandriae
récluz , c .
sowerby , g . b . iii , 1883
natica americana
récluz , c .
sowerby , g . b . iii , 1883
( donovan , 1804 ) . accessed through : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) european register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 151894 on 2018 - 07 - 09
costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) . european register of marine species .
( of natica alderi forbes , 1838 ) forbes , e . ( 1838 ) . malacologia monensis : a catalogue of the mollusca inhabiting the isle of man and the neighbouring sea . edinburgh : j . carfrae and son pp . xii + 63 + 3 pl . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 31 - 32 [ details ]
( of natica pulchella risso , 1826 ) risso , a . ( 1826 - 1827 ) . histoire naturelle des principales productions de l ' europe méridionale et particulièrement de celles des environs de nice et des alpes maritimes . paris , levrault : vol . 1 : xii + 448 pp . , 1 map [ 1826 ] ; vol . 2 : vii + 482 pp . , 8 pls [ november 1827 ] ; vol . 3 : xvi + 480 pp . , 14 pls [ september 1827 ] ; vol . 4 : iv + 439 pp . , 12 pls [ november 1826 ] ; vol . 5 : viii + 400 pp . , 10 pls [ november 1827 ] . . 3 ( xvi ) : 1 - 480 , 14 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica intermedia philippi , 1836 ) philippi r . a . ( 1836 ) . enumeratio molluscorum siciliae cum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium , quae in itinere suo observavit . vol . 1 . schropp , berlin [ berolini ] : xiv + 267 p . , pl . 1 - 12 , available online at urltoken ; = article & id ; = 355 & itemid ; = 167 [ details ]
( of natica complanata locard , 1886 ) locard a . ( 1886 ) . prodrome de malacologie française . catalogue général des mollusques vivants de france . mollusque marins . lyon , h . georg & paris , baillière : pp . x + 778 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 276 , 577 [ details ]
( of natica neustriaca locard , 1886 ) locard a . ( 1886 ) . prodrome de malacologie française . catalogue général des mollusques vivants de france . mollusque marins . lyon , h . georg & paris , baillière : pp . x + 778 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 276 , 577 [ details ]
( of nerita poliana delle chiaje , 1830 ) delle chiaje s . ( 1823 - 1831 ) . memorie sulla storia e notomia degli animali senza vertebre del regno di napoli . napoli : fratelli fernandes ( vol . 1 ) , and società tipografica ( vol . 2 - 4 ) . vol . 1 , pp . i - xii , 1 - 84 [ 1823 ] , pp . 1 - 184 [ 1824 ] ; vol . 2 , pp . [ 1 - 4 ] + 185 - 224 [ 1825 ] , pp . 225 - 444 [ 1826 ] ; vol . 3 , pp . i - xx , pp . 1 - 232 [ 1828 ] ; vol . 4 , pp . i - vii [ 1831 ] , 1 - 116 [ 1830 ] , pp . 117 - 214 [ 1831 ] ; pl . 1 - 4 ; pl . 1 - 69 [ date ? ] , pl . 70 - 109 [ 1830 ] [ dates according to sherborn , 1922 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . globulosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1882 - 1886 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ier . gastropodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 570 p . , 66 pl . [ pp . 1 - 40 , pl . 1 - 5 , february 1882 ; pp . 41 - 84 , pl . 6 - 10 , august 1882 ; pp . 85 - 135 , pl . 11 - 15 , february 1883 ; pp . 136 - 196 , pl . 16 - 20 , august 1883 ; pp . 197 - 222 , pl . 21 - 25 , january 1884 ; pp . 223 - 258 , pl . 26 - 30 , february 1884 ; pp . 259 - 298 , pl . 31 - 35 , august 1884 ; pp . 299 - 342 , pl . 36 - 40 , september 1884 ; p . 343 - 386 , pl . 41 - 45 , february 1885 ; p . 387 - 418 , pl . 46 - 50 , august 1885 ; pp . 419 - 454 , pl . pl . 51 - 60 , january 1886 ; p . 455 - 486 , pl . 56 - 60 , april 1886 ; p . 487 - 570 , pl . 61 - 66 , october 1886 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . elata bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1882 - 1886 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ier . gastropodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 570 p . , 66 pl . [ pp . 1 - 40 , pl . 1 - 5 , february 1882 ; pp . 41 - 84 , pl . 6 - 10 , august 1882 ; pp . 85 - 135 , pl . 11 - 15 , february 1883 ; pp . 136 - 196 , pl . 16 - 20 , august 1883 ; pp . 197 - 222 , pl . 21 - 25 , january 1884 ; pp . 223 - 258 , pl . 26 - 30 , february 1884 ; pp . 259 - 298 , pl . 31 - 35 , august 1884 ; pp . 299 - 342 , pl . 36 - 40 , september 1884 ; p . 343 - 386 , pl . 41 - 45 , february 1885 ; p . 387 - 418 , pl . 46 - 50 , august 1885 ; pp . 419 - 454 , pl . pl . 51 - 60 , january 1886 ; p . 455 - 486 , pl . 56 - 60 , april 1886 ; p . 487 - 570 , pl . 61 - 66 , october 1886 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . subovalis jeffreys , 1867 ) jeffreys , j . g . ( 1862 - 1869 ) . british conchology . vol . 1 : pp . cxiv + 341 [ 1862 ] . vol . 2 : pp . 479 [ 1864 ] il frontrespizio reca la data 1863 ma in effetti pubblicato nel 1864 . vol . 3 : pp . 394 [ 1865 ] . vol . 4 : pp . 487 [ 1867 ] . vol . 5 : pp . 259 [ 1869 ] . london , van voorst . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 225 [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . lactea jeffreys , 1867 ) jeffreys , j . g . ( 1862 - 1869 ) . british conchology . vol . 1 : pp . cxiv + 341 [ 1862 ] . vol . 2 : pp . 479 [ 1864 ] il frontrespizio reca la data 1863 ma in effetti pubblicato nel 1864 . vol . 3 : pp . 394 [ 1865 ] . vol . 4 : pp . 487 [ 1867 ] . vol . 5 : pp . 259 [ 1869 ] . london , van voorst . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 224 [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . ventricosa jeffreys , 1867 ) jeffreys , j . g . ( 1862 - 1869 ) . british conchology . vol . 1 : pp . cxiv + 341 [ 1862 ] . vol . 2 : pp . 479 [ 1864 ] il frontrespizio reca la data 1863 ma in effetti pubblicato nel 1864 . vol . 3 : pp . 394 [ 1865 ] . vol . 4 : pp . 487 [ 1867 ] . vol . 5 : pp . 259 [ 1869 ] . london , van voorst . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 225 [ details ]
huelsken t . , marek k . , schreiber s . , schmidt i . & hollmann m . ( 2008 ) . the naticidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of giglio island ( tuscany , italy ) : shell characters , live animals , and a molecular analysis of egg masses . zootaxa 1770 : 1 - 40 [ details ]
de bruyne , r . h . ; bank , r . a . ; adema , j . p . h . m . ; perk , f . a . ( 1994 ) . nederlandse naamlijst van de weekdieren ( mollusca ) van nederland en belgie : feestuitgave ter gelegenheid van het zestig - jarig jubileum van de nederlandse malacologische vereniging [ dutch namelist of the mollusca from the netherlands and belgium : festive edition at the occasion of the 60 - year jubilee of the dutch malacological society ] . backhuys publishers : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73348 - 33 - 1 . 149 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of natica pulchella risso , 1826 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of polinices pulchella ( risso , 1826 ) ) dyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]
( of lunatia alderi ( forbes , 1838 ) ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of lunatia alderi ( forbes , 1838 ) ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of natica alderi forbes , 1838 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of polinices ( lunatia ) poliana ( delle chiaje , 1826 ) ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of lunatia poliana ( della chiaje , 1826 ) ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . lactea jeffreys , 1867 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . subovalis jeffreys , 1867 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . elata bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . globulosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of nerita poliana delle chiaje , 1830 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of natica neustriaca locard , 1886 ) huelsken t . , marek k . , schreiber s . , schmidt i . & hollmann m . ( 2008 ) . the naticidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of giglio island ( tuscany , italy ) : shell characters , live animals , and a molecular analysis of egg masses . zootaxa 1770 : 1 - 40 [ details ]
( of natica complanata locard , 1886 ) huelsken t . , marek k . , schreiber s . , schmidt i . & hollmann m . ( 2008 ) . the naticidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of giglio island ( tuscany , italy ) : shell characters , live animals , and a molecular analysis of egg masses . zootaxa 1770 : 1 - 40 [ details ]
( of natica parvula tapparone canefri , 1869 ) huelsken t . , marek k . , schreiber s . , schmidt i . & hollmann m . ( 2008 ) . the naticidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of giglio island ( tuscany , italy ) : shell characters , live animals , and a molecular analysis of egg masses . zootaxa 1770 : 1 - 40 [ details ]
( of lunatia pulchella ( risso , 1826 ) ) rolán mosquera e . ( 1983 ) . moluscos de la ria de vigo 1 . gasteropodes . thalassas 1 ( 1 ) anexo 1 : 1 - 383 [ also published as book ] page ( s ) : 214 - 215 [ details ]
( of natica alderi var . ventricosa jeffreys , 1867 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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shell gallery view « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . » conchological megadatabase on mollusks
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lunatia pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( espèce cd _ nom = 545366 )
natica pallida broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ( espèce cd _ nom = 697024 )
national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
species polinices otis ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
species polinices galapagosus ( récluz , 1844 ) accepted as polinices otis ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
species polinices kurodai iw . taki , 1944 accepted as mammilla kurodai ( iw . taki , 1944 ) ( original combination )
species polinices macrostoma ( philippi , 1852 ) accepted as mammilla kurodai ( iw . taki , 1944 )
species polinices psila [ sic ] accepted as polinices psilus ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) ( incorrect gender ending )
species polinices unimaculatus ( reeve , 1855 ) accepted as polinices otis ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 )
montfort p . [ denys de ] . ( 1808 - 1810 ) . conchyliologie systématique et classification méthodique des coquilles . paris : schoell . vol . 1 : pp . lxxxvii + 409 [ 1808 ] . vol . 2 : pp . 676 + 16 [ 1810 ( before 28 may ) ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 2 : 222 [ details ]
huelsken t . , tapken d . , dahlmann t . , wägele h . , riginos c . & hollmann m . ( 2012 ) systematics and phylogenetic species delimitation within polinices s . l . ( caenogastropoda : naticidae ) based on molecular data and shell morphology . organisms , diversity & evolution 12 : 349 - 375 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of naticina guilding , 1834 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of uber philippi , 1853 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of mamillaria swainson , 1840 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of mamma h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of naticella swainson , 1840 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of polinices ( polinices ) montfort , 1810 ) kilburn , r . n . ( 1976 ) . a revision of the naticidae of southern africa and moçambique ( mollusca ) . annals of the natal museum . 22 : 829 - 884 . [ details ]
sowerby j . 1837 . mineral - conchologie grossbrittaniens , von james sowerby ; deutsche bearbeitung , herausgegeben von hercules nicolet , durchgesehen von dr . agassiz . neuchatel : h . nicolet , 52 pp . , 21 pis . page ( s ) : 14 [ details ]
kabat a . r . ( 1991 ) . the classification of the naticidae ( mollusca gastropoda ) . review and analysis of the supraspecific taxa . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 152 : 417 - 449 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 429 [ details ]
( of polinices ( lunatia ) gray , 1847 ) vaught , k . c . ; tucker abbott , r . ; boss , k . j . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne . isbn 0 - 915826 - 22 - 4 . xii , 195 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of lunatia gray , 1847 ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of lunatia gray , 1847 ) kabat a . r . ( 1991 ) . the classification of the naticidae ( mollusca gastropoda ) . review and analysis of the supraspecific taxa . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 152 : 417 - 449 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 431 [ details ]
( of lunatia gray , 1847 ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of labellinacca cossmann , 1919 † ) torigoe k . & inaba a . ( 2011 ) . revision on the classification of recent naticidae . bulletin of the nishinomiya shell museum . 7 : 133 + 15 pp . , 4 pls . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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aleurodicus dispersus , the spiralling whitefly , is a species of small , white sap-sucking insect , a true bug in the order hemiptera .

it originated in central america and the caribbean region and has spread to many of the world 's tropical and subtropical regions , where it has become a major pest of agricultural crops .

aleurodicus dispersus

1965 - a new species of aleurodicus douglas and two close relatives ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) .
srinivasa mv ( 2000 ) host plants of the spiraling whitefly aleurodicus dispersus russell ( hemiptera : aleyrodidae ) . pest manage horticul ecosys 6 : 79 - 105 . [ links ]
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p ( 2013 ) evaluation of ecofriendly agents against spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus russell on brinjal . madras agricul j 100 : 559 - 661 . [ links ]
akinlosotu ta , jackai len , nitonifor nn et al . ( 1993 ) spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus in nigeria . fao plant protec bull 41 : 127 - 129 . [ links ]
lambkin , ta 1999 , ' a host list for aleurodicus dispersus russell ( hemiptera : aleyrodidae ) in australia ' , australian journal of entomol , vol . 38 , pp . 373 - 376 .
assessment of intensity of damage caused by a . dispersus and prevalence of m . desjardinsi
a . dispersus and m . desjardinsi samples collected from seven different geographic regions of india
standard evaluation system based on the intensity of damage ( % ) by a . dispersus
predatory potential of m . desjardinsi feeding on a . dispersus ( n = 150 )
geetha b ( 2000 ) biology and management of spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus russell ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . ph . d . dissertation , tamil nadu agricultural university , 105 pp . [ links ]
john b , darryl h , greg p ( 2007 ) spiralling whitefly aleurodicus dispersus exotic threat to western australia . hort guard tm initiative agwest . available at : urltoken accessed may 2007 . [ links ]
analysis of variance ( anova ) of percent corrected mortality of a . dispersus on cassava .
in october 2013 , usda released a deep report proposing to deregulate aleurodicus dispersus ( spiraling whitefly ) . the insect is currently “q” - rated by cdfa , so a pest rating proposal is needed to determine future direction .
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p , kalyanasundaram m et al . ( 2014b ) toxicity of newer insecticides against spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus under laboratory conditions . indian j plant protec 42 : 178 - 180 . [ links ]
kumashiro br , lai py , funasaki gy et al . ( 1983 ) efficacy of nephaspis amnicola and encarsia haitiensis in controlling aleurodicus dispersus in hawaii . proc hawaii entomol soc 24 : 261 - 269 . [ links ]
boopathi t , mohankumar s , karuppuchamy p et al . ( 2014c ) genetic evidence for diversity of spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus ( hemiptera : aleyrodidae ) populations in india . fla entomol 97 : 1115 - 1122 . [ links ]
percent corrected mortality of a . dispersus following both applications on cassava in season 1 and season 2 .
waterhouse , d . f . and k . r . norris . 1989 . aleurodicus dispersus spiraling whitefly . pp . 12 - 23 . in : biological control pacific prospects - supplement 1 . australian center for international agriculture research , canberra .
distribution of a . dispersus and its predator , m . desjardinsi , in the seven geographic regions of india
analysis of variance ( anova ) of data on predatory potential of m . desjardinsi feeding on a . dispersus
weems , h . v . 1971 . aleurodicus dispersus russell ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) , a possible vector of the lethal yellowing disease of coconut palms . entomology circular no . 111 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services division of plant industry .
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p , kalyanasundaram m et al . ( 2014a ) effect of botanicals , fish oil rosin soap and organic salt on eggs of spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus . indian j plant protec 42 : 86 - 88 . [ links ]
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p , kalyanasundaram m et al . ( 2015 ) microbial control of the exotic spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus ( hemiptera : aleyrodidae ) on eggplant using entomopathogenic fungi . afr j microbiol res 9 : 39 - 46 . [ links ]
life cycle parameters of m . desjardinsi on a . dispersus ( each datapoint is an average of 10 replicates )
aiswariaya kk , manjunatha m , naik m ( 2007 ) evaluation of fungi fusarium semitectum berk and ravenel and verticillium lecanii ( zimm . ) viegas against spiraling whitefly aleurodicus dispersus russell on guava . karnataka j agricul sci 20 : 283 - 287 . [ links ]
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p , kalyanasundaram m et al . ( 2012 ) relative efficacy of botanicals , an organic salt and fish oil rosin soap in controlling the spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus russell on cassava . hexapoda 19 : 59 - 66 . [ links ]
geetha b . 2000 . biology and management of spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus russell ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . ph . d . dissertation , department of agricultural entomology , centre for plant protection studies , tamil nadu agricultural university , coimbatore , tamil nadu , india .
lambkin , ta 2004 , ' successful establishment of encarsia haitiensis dozier ( hymenoptera : aphelinidae ) in torres strait , queensland , for the biological control of aleurodicus dispersus russell ( hemiptera : aleyrodidae ) ' , australian entomologist , vol . 31 , pp . 83 - 91 .
mani m , krishnamoorthy a ( 1999 ) development and predatory potential of the green lacewing , mallada astur ( banks ) ( neuroptera : chrysopidae ) on the spiralling whitefly aleurodicus dispersus russell ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . j biol cont 13 : 45 - 49 . [ links ]
official control : arizona has a state quarantine against all citrus whiteflies . aleurodicus dispersus is also listed as a harmful organism by antigua and barbuda , chile , china , french polynesia , grenada , guatemala , honduras , israel , japan , jordan , korea , mexico , morocco , and new zealand 2 .
boopathi t , karuppuchamy p , kalyanasundaram m et al . ( 2013 ) pathogenicity , ovicidal action , and median lethal concentrations ( lc 50 ) of entomopathogenic fungi against exotic spiralling whitefly , aleurodicus dispersus russell . j path 1 - 7 . available at : urltoken accessed 1 november 2013 . [ links ]
russell l . m . ( 1965 ) a new species of aleurodicus douglas and two close relatives ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) : florida entomologist , 48 : 47 - 55 .
kumashiro , b . r . , p . y . lai , g . y . funasaki and k . k . teramoto . 1983 . efficacy of nephaspis amnicola and encarsia haitiensis in controlling aleurodicus dispersus in hawaii . proc . hawaiian entomol . soc . 24 ( 2 & 3 ) : 261 - 269 .
the entomopathogenic fungi beauveria bassiana , metarhizium anisopliae , lecanicillium lecanii and isaria fumosorosea were tested for their efficacy in managing the exotic spiraling whitefly aleurodicus dispersus ( hemiptera , aleyrodidae ) on cassava ( manihot esculenta ) during 2 seasons ( 2011 - 2012 and 2012 - 2013 ) . the fungi i . fumosorosea and l . lecanii exhibited promising levels of control ( > 70 % mortality of the a . dispersus population ) . the percent mortality increased over time in both seasons . application of i . fumosorosea was highly pathogenic to a . dispersus in both seasons compared to the other entomopathogenic fungi . analysis of the percent mortality in both seasons revealed differences in efficacy between 3 and 15 days after treatment . the season also influenced the effects of the fungi on the a . dispersus population . thus , entomopathogenic fungi have the potential to manage a . dispersus infestation of cassava .
total number ( ±se ) of prey ( a . dispersus ) consumed by different stages of m . desjardinsi during its entire life cycle .
russell , l . m . 1965 . a new species of aleurodicus douglas and two close relatives ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . florida entomologist . 48 ( 1 ) : 47 - 55 .
russell , louise m . 1965 . a new species of aleurodicus douglas and two close relatives ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . florida entomologist 48 ( 1 ) : 47 - 55 , 3 figs .
analysis of variance ( anova ) of data on distribution of a . dispersus and its predator , m . desjardinsi , from seven different geographic regions of india
neotropical cassava whiteflies or parasitoids associated with the parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of the ciat’s arthropod reference collection database . ad : aleurodicus dispersus , asp : aleurodicus sp . , asu : aleuroglandulus subtilis , am : aleuronudus melzeri , aa : aleurothrixus aepim , as : aleurotrachelus socialis , alsp . aleurotrachelus sp . , bt : bemisia tabaci , btu : bemisia tuberculate , bsp : bemisia sp . , tvap : trialeurodes vaporariorum , tsp : tetraleurodes sp . , tva : trialeurodes variabilis , trsp : trialeurodes sp . , eh : encarsia hispida , n : number of host for each species .
the fungus l . lecanii caused a higher mortality to a . dispersus following application 2 than following application 1 in both seasons ( figure 3a , 3b ) . the percent mortality of a . dispersus induced by l . lecanii increased over time for both applications and seasons . l . lecanii produced the highest mortality at 15 dat following both application 1 ( 70 . 13 % , 71 . 68 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 73 . 75 % , 19 . 24 a . dispersus per leaf ) in season 1 ( figure 3a ) . similarly , in season 2 l . lecanii caused the highest mortality following application 1 ( 72 . 94 % , 56 . 48 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 78 . 59 % , 12 . 76 a . dispersus per leaf ) at 15 dat ( figure 3b ) . similar results were reported by aiswariaya et al . ( 2007 ) , with 3 . 6 x 10 9 spores ml - 1 of l . lecanii inducing ~ 90 % mortality of nymphs and ~ 80 % mortality of adults of a . dispersus 15 days after application . however , boopathi et al . ( 2013 ) reported that l . lecanii had higher mortality against a . dispersus under laboratory conditions .
total number ( ±se ) of different stages of prey ( a . dispersus ) consumed by a single individual of m . desjardinsi during its entire life cycle .
a . dispersus population ( no . per leaf ) in control treatment on cassava in both season 1 and season 2 between 3 and 15 days after treatment .
how to cite this article : m . n . islam , m . a . rahim , m . s . alam and n . naher , 2003 . control of spiraling white fly ( aleurodicus dispersus russel ) of guava by spraying detergent . asian journal of plant sciences , 2 : 270 - 272 . doi : 10 . 3923 / ajps . 2003 . 270 . 272 url : urltoken
the spiralling whitefly ( aleurodicus dispersus ) is a tropical pest to a variety of horticultural crops , ornamental plants and shade trees . it is believed to have originated in the wet tropics of central and south america , but after gaining establishment in hawaii in 1978 , it spread rapidly through the pacific . it is now almost pan tropical in distribution , even occurring in some subtropical and temperate countries .
a biological programme in tropical africa was described by neuenschwander ( 1996 ) , in which two exotic hymenopterous parasitoids were introduced . these helped control a . dispersus populations , with indigenous coccinellids playing a minor role . a . dispersus was observed in benin for the first time in 1993 , along with the parasitoids encarsia ? haitiensis and e . guadeloupae , which were thought to have been accidentally introduced . between 1993 and 1996 , these parasitoids helped control a . dispersus populations on guava ( d ' almeida et al . , 1998 ) . e . haitiensis has been successfully introduced into queensland , as part of the biological control of a . dispersus in australia ( lambkin , 1998 ) .
a . dispersus was first recorded in hawaii in 1978 , after which it spread rapidly . its pest status on guavas stimulated a successful biological control programme ( kumashiro et al . , 1983 ; beardsley , 1992 ) . the introduction and establishment of the coccinellid beetle nephaspis oculatus ( n . amnicola ) and the parasitoid encarsia haitiensis successfully controlled a . dispersus on guavas in highland and lowland areas of honolulu , hawaii . in 1980 - 81 , peak population densities of a . dispersus were reduced by 79 % in the lowlands and 98 . 8 % in the highlands . rainfall , temperature and previously established predators , particularly allograpta obliqua , probably also contributed to the reduction of a . dispersus populations ( kumashiro et al . , 1983 ) .
the percent mortality resulting from both applications in season 1 demonstrated differences in efficacy between pathogens ( table 3 ) . higher mortality occurred with i . fumosorosea in both application 1 ( 59 . 04 % , 100 . 35 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 68 . 34 % , 22 . 55 a . dispersus per leaf ) in season 1 than that of the other fungi , whereas in the control treatment , the highest a . dispersus populations , 228 . 30 per leaf and 237 . 30 per leaf , were observed in season 1 following application 1 and application 2 , respectively . similarly , in season 2 i . fumosorosea produced higher mortality following both application 1 ( 60 . 70 % , 80 . 66 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 70 . 63 % , 15 . 55 a . dispersus per leaf ) than that of the other fungi . however , the highest a . dispersus population in the control treatment was registered for both application 1 ( 187 . 34 per leaf ) and application 2 ( 208 . 14 per leaf ) in season 2 . therefore , the season influenced the effect of the fungi on the reduction of a . dispersus . furthermore , a higher rate of mortality was observed in cassava in season 2 than in season 1 .
metarhizium anisopliae produced the highest mortality following application 2 in both seasons ( figure 2c , 2d ) . the percent mortality increased over time for both applications and seasons . the highest mortality was observed at 15 dat following both application 1 ( 59 . 36 % , 95 . 92 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 65 . 51 % , 33 . 72 a . dispersus per leaf ) in season 1 ( figure 2c ) . similar results were also observed in season 2 , with 65 . 70 % mortality following application 1 ( 70 . 48 a . dispersus per leaf ) and 68 . 71 % mortality following application 2 ( 23 . 32 a . dispersus per leaf ) ( figure 2d ) . the next highest mortality rate was observed at 10 dat , whereas the lowest mortality rate was produced at 3 dat of both application 1 and application 2 in both seasons .
isaria fumosorosea produced higher mortality following application 2 than following application 1 in both seasons ( figure 2d ) . similar to the other fungi , the percent mortality induced by i . fumosorosea increased over time for both applications and seasons . the highest mortality was due to both application 1 ( 73 . 70 % , 62 . 68 a . dispersus per leaf ) and application 2 ( 79 . 96 % , 12 . 80 a . dispersus per leaf ) at 15 dat in season 1 ( figure 3c ) . similar trends were also observed in season 2 , with 77 . 73 % mortality following application 1 ( 45 . 88 a . dispersus per leaf ) and 84 . 50 % mortality following application 2 ( 7 . 48 a . dispersus per leaf ) ( figure 3d ) . the next highest mortality was observed at 10 dat , whereas the lowest mortality was produced at 3 dat following both application 1 and application 2 in both seasons . however , the control of the a . dispersus population was the higher in both season 1 ( > 200 a . dispersus per leaf ) ( figure 4 ) and season 2 ( > 150 a . dispersus per leaf ) than for any other enthomopathogenic fungi ( figure 4 ) . similar results were reported by boopathi et al . ( 2013 ) , who reported that 2 x 10 9 conidia ml - 1 of i . fumosorosea produced 100 % mortality in a . dispersus 15 dat under laboratory conditions . this result is in agreement with the present findings . similarly , wraight et al . ( 1998 , 2000 ) observed that i . fumosorosea caused higher mortality to nymphs of b . argentifolii under laboratory conditions , while ayhan and kubilay ( 2005 ) and avery et al . ( 2008 ) reported that i . fumosorosea produced the highest mortality of the greenhouse whitefly trialeurodes vaporariorum ( westwood ) .
among the four enthomopathogenic fungi evaluated , i . fumosorosea and l . lecanii showed promising levels of virulence to a . dispersus in both applications and seasons compared to that of m . anisopliae and b . bassiana . similarly , boopathi et al . ( 2015 ) reported that i . fumosorosea and l . lecanii caused the highest mortality to a . dispersus on eggplants . thus , these fungi ( i . fumosorosea and l . lecanii ) can be potentially used as an alternate pest control method to combat the pest insect a . dispersus on cassava . their wide application as mycoinsecticides could be utilized after exploring their pathogenicity in field trials . however , additional testing with yield assessments and economic analyses must be conducted before ultimate conclusions are drawn .
an experiment on the control of spiraling white fly ( aleurodicus dispersus russel ) by spraying detergent ( wheel powder , liver brothers ltd . ) was conducted . wheel powder , a cheap and readily available detergent in bangladesh was sprayed to control the white fly . wheel powder was sprayed in different concentration among which 10 g litre - 1 of water and 15 g litre - 1 of water were found more effective in controlling white fly . the concentration 20 , 30 and 40 g litre - 1 of water were found serious leaf burning , even total leaf dropping after 3 rd spray .
lamouche blanche , aleurodicus dispersus russell ( hom . , aleyrodidae ) d ' origine centre - américaine a été récensée en afrique continentale pour la premiére fois en 1991 et s ' est dispersée depuis sur cinq pays . c ' est un ravageur polyphage , qui produit des dégâts importants sur manioc . en 1992 deux parasitâides , encarsia sp . proche haitiensis dozier and e . guadeloupae viggiani ( hym . , aphelinidae ) , furent découverts sur a . dispersus au bénin . ils out été probablement introduits accidentellement . partout où la mouche blanche se répandait , elle causait des dégâts . au moins dans la zone côtière du bénin , un déclin marqué était observé en 1994 . la nvcessité d ' introduire un autre agent de lutte biologique , le prédateur nephaspis oculatus blatchley ( = amnicola wingo ) ( col . , coccinellidae ) reste done controversée .
when all the life stages of a . dispersus were offered together , all three stadia of m . desjardinsi were seen to accept every stage of prey . the foraging behavior of many predators is observed to be dependent on the relation between the body size of the predator and prey ( sabelis 1992 ) . mean prey size increases with the body size of the predator ( werner and gilliam 1984 , cisneros and rosenheim 1997 ) . in our study , we found that all three instars of m . desjardinsi accepted all life stages of a . dispersus including the adults . the reason for the acceptance of all life stages of a . dispersus by m . desjardinsi larvae may be that the body size of a . dispersus is much smaller than that of m . desjardinsi as has been hypothesized previously by cheng et al . ( 2010 ) who reported that the green lacewing , mallada basalis ( walker ) , larvae did not demonstrate any noticeable preference for any particular life stage of mites but rather accepted all the life stages equally .
efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi on the mortality of a . dispersus on cassava in season 1 between 3 and 15 days after treatment ( a ) b . bassiana ( b ) m . anisopliae ( c ) l . lecanii ( d ) i . fumosorosea .
efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi on the mortality of a . dispersus on cassava in season 2 between 3 and 15 days after treatment ( a ) b . bassiana ( b ) m . anisopliae ( c ) l . lecanii ( d ) i . fumosorosea .
laboratory experiments were conducted in order to determine the feeding potential and biology of m . desjardinsi . m . desjardinsi individuals were placed separately in small plastic containers ( 10 by 5 cm ) that were covered with a khada cloth ( 0 . 3531 mm ) . each m . desjardinsi individual was examined daily and fresh leaves infested with 150 a . dispersus were provided so as to ensure that the predator always had an excess of prey . the leaves along with life stages of a . dispersus used in the experiment were examined under microscope , and the number and life stages of a . dispersus fed to each m . desjardinsi individual was counted . the study was continued till the predator died and the experiment was maintained as described previously by gautam ( 1994 ) . the stage - specific predatory potential of different larval stadia of m . desjardinsi on different life stages of a . dispersus was also studied . for this , each stage of a . dispersus ( eggs , nymphs , pupae , and adults ) were introduced separately into small plastic containers ( 10 by 5 cm ) covered with a khada cloth ( 0 . 3531 mm ) and a single larva of m . desjardinsi was introduced . the larvae used for each of the experiments were less than a day old and starved for 6 h prior to the start of the experiment by keeping them individually in separate plastic containers . the number of a . dispersus life stages consumed in 24 h was counted using a stereo binocular microscope ( olympus 10 x ) . the experiment was replicated 10 times . the data on incubation period of eggs , developmental period of each larval stadium , prepupal period , pupal period , adult longevity , and fecundity were recorded . the larvae were provided with a . dispersus nymphs in plastic containers as described above . the experiment was replicated 10 times .
since the biological control of a . dispersus in hawaii , there have been further successes on pacific islands ; for a review see waterhouse and norris ( 1989 ) . in each case , encarsia haitiensis was successful , aided by one or more of the introduced coccinellids .
all entomopathogenic fungal treatments caused medium to high mortality of a . dispersus . individual a . dispersus killed by these entomopathogenic fungi dried rapidly on the cassava leaves , and the cadavers remained attached to the cassava leaves . a . dispersus individuals infected by the white muscardine fungus b . bassiana were red to red - brown in color . mycelia and sporulation of entomopathogenic fungi on the cadaver occurred during extended periods of rainfall , higher relative humidity over many nights , or late in the experimental trials . m . anisopliae produced green conidia / spores from tightly packed and parallel - oriented conidiogenous cells . the amounts of i . fumosorosea hyphal growth and sporulation were obviously greater 3 - 5 days after spraying than the other entomopathogenic fungi ; however , the postmortem development of the entomopathogenic fungi was not monitored and quantified ( figure 1 ) .
in cassava , a . dispersus infestation caused yellowish speckling of the leaves , and in severe infestation the leaves crinkled and curled . infestation spread from the bottom leaves to the top ( palaniswami et al . , 1995 ) . copious honeydew is excreted which coats surrounding surfaces and often develops a layer of sooty mould .
to the best of our knowledge this is the first report of its kind regarding the occurrence and distribution of m . desjardinsi feeding on a . dispersus in india ( 2012–2013 ) under field conditions . in the current investigation , bengaluru , karnataka , was observed to have the highest density of m . desjardinsi population ( 26 . 6 % and 5 . 05 ± 0 . 108 per plant ) . earlier , geetha ( 2000 ) reported the occurrence of a related species , m . astur , to be preying on all stages of a . dispersus in coimbatore , tamil nadu , and mani and krishnamoorthy ( 1999 ) reported the same in bengaluru , karnataka , india .
kabissa et al . ( 1996 ) , nehare et al . ( 2004 ) , and huang and enkegaard ( 2009 ) have reported that the prey consumption of lacewings increases with advancement in larval instars . second and third stadia of m . desjardinsi consumed a much larger number of a . dispersus individuals . this clearly demonstrates that the third - instar lacewings are far more voracious than the second and first instars ( atlihan et al . 2004 , huang and enkegaard 2009 ) . in the present study , when the prey stages were offered separately , the third stadium of m . desjardinsi was seen to consume more eggs and more first and second instar of a . dispersus than any other stage of m . desjardinsi . these findings are largely in agreement with the observations reported by joshi and yadav ( 1990 ) regarding the predation by m . desjardinsi ( = m . boninensis ) on b . tabaci . a possible reason for the higher consumption of eggs as well as first and second instar nymphs of a . dispersus could be that the size of the prey is smaller and has less waxy flocculent substance as compared to the body size of third and fourth instar nymphs and adults , and also the static state .
[ kairo et al 2001 ] [ gomez & garcia 2000 ] [ polaszek & hayat 1992 ] [ thompson 1950 ] [ thompson 1950 ] [ dozier 1933 ] [ evans collection ] : see the species listings below for specific species . in addition , the following parasites / predators are known to attack aleurodicus sp . : signiphora sp . ( hymenoptera , signaphoridae ) ; encarsia luteola howard group , e . protransvena viggiani , e . variegata ; encarsiella aleurodici , encarsiella ciliata , e . narroi , & e . sp . ( hymenoptera , aphelinidae ) ; aleuroctonus vittatus ( dozier ) ( hymenoptera , eulophidae ) .
all entomopathogenic fungi caused substantial reductions in a . dispersus populations on cassava following both applications in both seasons . the percent mortality of all entomopathogenic fungi increased over time in both applications and seasons , whereas the highest a . dispersus population ( > 180 per leaf ) was observed in the control populations in both seasons 1 and 2 . there were differences between the effects of fungi ( f = 8284 . 393 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , applications ( f = 706 . 327 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , observation dates ( f = 1489 . 155 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , seasons ( f = 40 . 523 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) and the interactions on the mortality of a . dispersus : fungi x applications ( f = 47 . 459 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , fungi x observation dates ( f = 93 . 773 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , fungi x seasons ( f = 8 . 416 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , applications x observation dates ( f = 19 . 655 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , applications x seasons ( f = 15 . 256 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , observation dates x seasons ( f = 11 . 249 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , fungi x applications x observation dates ( f = 1 . 998 ; p < 0 . 0240 ) , fungi x observation dates x seasons ( f = 2 . 287 ; p < 0 . 0085 ) , applications x observation dates x seasons ( f = 12 . 252 ; p < 0 . 0000 ) , and fungi x applications x observation dates x seasons ( f = 3 . 056 ; p < 0 . 0004 ) ( table 2 ) . however , there was not a significant difference between the fungi x applications x seasons ( f = 2 . 329 ; p < 0 . 0560 ) interaction on the mortality of a . dispersus .
statistical analysis of the data was performed using the methods of gomez and gomez ( 1984 ) with sas software version 9 . 3 ( sas institute inc . , 2011 ) . the data were analyzed using four - way anova . all anova analyses were performed on original values , and the means were separated using the least significant difference ( lsd ) test at p < 0 . 05 or p < 0 . 01 . the percent mortality of a . dispersus populations was determined and corrected using the control method of henderson and tilton ( 1955 ) as follows :
in india , among the known natural enemies of a . dispersus that can be used in order to regulate its population are the commonly found and widespread green lacewings ( geetha 2000 , mani and krishnamoorthy 1999 ) . many studies have documented the potential of green lacewings to function as natural enemies that can regulate the a . disperses population ( geetha 2000 , boopathi et al . 2013 , boopathi et al . 2015a ) . the green lacewings are considered as one of the most effective generalist predators that can be used for biological control . green lacewings are an important group of predatory insects ( dean and satasook 1983 ) that can be mass reared in the laboratory and used for the purpose of pest control ( syed et al . 2008 ) . their ability to adapt to a wide range of ecological conditions ( ulhaq et al . 2006 ) and tolerance to insecticides ( bigler 1984 ) has made them important in terms of both research as well as field applications ( nasreen et al . 2003 ) .
for a period of eight months ( august 2012 to march 2013 ) , cassava and guava plants were sampled at monthly intervals for a . dispersus and its predator m . desjardinsi . the “leaf turn” technique was applied on 20 cassava plants at each location for computing the population of a . disperses nymphs as well as adults ; this was based on direct counts from leaves from the top , middle , and bottom ( boopathi et al . 2014 ) . for guava , 10 trees were selected for the population survey . in each tree , four terminal shoots were selected at random from the entire canopy . thus , in all , 40 shoots growing in all directions were sampled per month ( boopathi et al . 2015b ) . for computing the population of m . desjardinsi , both larvae and adults , a similar technique was used : in cassava direct counts were done for 20 plants at each location while in guava four terminal shoots were selected at random from the entire canopy in 10 guava trees .
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the spiraling whitefly has been recorded on 38 genera of plants belonging to 27 plant families and more than 100 species ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . it is common to find this pest attacking many vegetable , ornamental , fruit and shade tree crops in hawaii . specific plants that are attacked include annona ( cherimoya , atemoya , sugarapple ) , avocado , banana , bird - of - paradise , breadfruit , citrus , coconut , eggplant , guava , kamani , indian banyan , macadamia , mango , palm , paperbark , papaya , pepper , pikake , plumeria , poinsettia , rose , sea grape , ti and tropical almond .
the spiraling whitefly is a native to central america and the caribbean region . in the americas it has been reported in the bahamas , barbados , brazil , canary islands , costa rica , cuba , dominica , ecuador , haiti , martinique , peru , philippines , panama and southern florida . in the pacific it is present in american samoa , cook islands , fiji , hawaii , kiribati , majuro , mariana islands , nauru , palau , papua new guinea , pohnpei , tokelau , tonga and western samoa ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . this whitefly was first reported in hawaii in 1978 on the island of oahu and was reported all major islands by 1981 . this whitefly is most abundant in coastal areas and elevations below 1000 feet .
three types of damage may be caused by the spiraling whitefly : 1 ) direct damage , 2 ) indirect damage and 3 ) virus transmission ( berlinger , 1986 ) .
direct feeding damage is caused by the piercing and sucking of sap from foliage by immature and adult stages of whiteflies . the majority of feeding damage is done by the first three nymphal stages . this feeding causes premature dropping of leaves . direct feeding damage , even during heavy infestations , is usually insufficient to kill plants ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
indirect damage is due to the accumulation of honeydew and white , waxy flocculent material produced by the whiteflies . like other soft bodied insects such as aphids , leafhoppers , mealybugs and scales , whiteflies produce honeydew . this sweet and watery excrement is fed on by bees , wasps , ants and other insects which , in turn , may tend and offer protection to the whiteflies . the honeydew also serves as a substrate on which sooty mold grows . sooty mold blackens the leaf , decreases photosynthesis activity , decreases vigor and often causes disfigurement of the host and lessens the market value of the plant or makes it unmarketable ( berlinger , 1986 ) . the flocculent material produced by the nymphs is scattered by the wind and creates an unsightly nuisance ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
the third type of damage is a result of the ability of this insect to act as a plant disease vector . a small population of whiteflies is sufficient to cause considerable damage ( cohen and berlinger , 1986 ) . plant viruses transmitted by whiteflies cause over 40 diseases of vegetable and fiber crops worldwide . among the 1 , 100 recognized species of whiteflies in the world , only three are recognized as vectors of plant viruses . in the past decade , whitefly - transmitted plant viruses have increased in prevalence and distribution . the recent impact has been devastating with yield losses ranging from 20 to 100 percent , depending upon the crop , season , and prevalence of the whitefly among other factors .
a few to several dozen tiny , elliptical , smooth surfaced , yellow to tan eggs , along with numerous tiny waxy secretions , are deposited on the surface of a leaf , usually on the underside , in irregular , waxy lines , typically forming a somewhat spiraling pattern . the spiraling of waxy material is the feature from which this whitefly derives its common name , the spiraling whitefly ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . the eggs are usually laid on the underside of the leaf at right angles to the leaf veins . eggs hatch in 9 to 11 days under glasshouse conditions with temperatures ranging from 68û to 102 . 2ûf ( 20û to 39ûc ) ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
there are four immature stages , the first three are referred to as larvae and are continuous feeders ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . the first larval stage , sometimes called a
crawler
, is the only immature stage with functional legs and distinct antennae . subsequently , the first stage is the only stage capable of active movement . all other immature stages are sedentary .
once the crawlers settle , they develop a characteristic row of mid - back waxy tufts on the anterior of their body . the waxy tufts continue to grow as more material is secreted . during the third larval stage glass - like rods of wax appear along the sides of the body . these glass - like rods are extruded through special pores on the insects body and may be as much as 1 / 3 inch ( 8 mm ) long , although most are shorter because of fragmentation ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
the first larval stage last for 6 to 7 days , the second 4 to 5 days and the third 5 to 7 days under glasshouse conditions with temperatures ranging from 68û to 102 . 2ûf ( 20û to 39ûc ) ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
the final and fourth immature stage is considered the pupa of this species . this stage feeds during the earlier phases then stops feeding and undergoes internal tissue reorganization before molting into the adult ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . this stage serves as the basis for most of the taxonomic characterizations and must be observed under the microscope for those characteristics .
the mature pupae bears a copious amount of a white cottony secretion extending upward and outward from the back . some of the secretion is fluffy and some waxy and in ribbons as long as , or longer than , the width of body . pupae are colorless or yellowish , nearly oval , flat and approximately 1 / 25 inch ( 1 mm ) long and 3 / 50 inch ( 0 . 75 mm ) wide .
the pupal stage lasts for 10 to 11 days with temperatures ranging from 68û to 102 . 2ûf ( 20û to 39ûc ) under glasshouse conditions ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
the adults are similar in appearance to those of many other species of whiteflies . they are white and quite small 1 / 12 - 1 / 8 inch ( 2 - 3 mm ) in length and coated with a fine dust - like waxy secretion . they somewhat resemble tiny moths , and both sexes are winged . the eyes of this whitefly are dark reddish - brown . wings are transparent after emergence from the pupal casing , but develop a white powder covering after a few hours ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . the forewings each have two characteristic black spots ( paulson and kumashiro , 1985 ) . adults live up to 39 days under laboratory conditions ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
females begin laying eggs within a day of emergence and continue to lay eggs throughout her lifetime . unmated females produce only male progeny while mated females produce both sexes . in an experimental study , 20 pairs of whiteflies produced 1549 progeny in 37 days ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
only the adult stage disperses beyond the leaf on which the egg is laid . they are most active during the morning hours ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . mating occurs during in the afternoon ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) .
populations of this insect thrive in warm , dry weather . heavy rains and cool temperatures may result in a temporary reduction of spiraling whitefly populations ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . mortality increases significantly between temperatures of 104û and 113û f ( 40û and 45ûc ) for immature stages and between 95û and 104û f ( 35û and 40û c ) for adults ( cherry , 1979 ) . the same study by cherry ( 1979 ) showed mortality at temperatures below 50û f ( 10û c ) .
contact and systemic insecticides recommended for other pests on the same plant hosts may temporarily reduce spiraling whitefly populations ( waterhouse and norris , 1989 ) . dilute aqueous solutions of detergents and soaps have been reported as helpful .
temporary control measures for the homeowner suggested by the hawaii department of agriculture ( anonymous , 1980 ) are listed below .
* use a mild solution of soap , mixing an inexpensive liquid dish washing detergent at a rate of no more than 1 tablespoon per gallon of water , and thoroughly spray the underside of infested leaves . sensitive plants such as ferns may suffer a
burning
effect so less detergent ( 1 teaspoon ) per gallon of water should be sprayed on these plants .
* apply a strong stream of water onto the underside of infested leaves as often as possible without wasting water . this can be done during normal watering of plants .
* judicious pruning of leafy plants . thin out excess branches to give the plant an
umbrella
appearance with scattered openings in the canopy to allow sun , wind , and rain to penetrate . this will reduce the surface area of foliage that needs to be sprayed and eliminate shelter for the spiraling whitefly .
* heavy mulch of sawdust , wood shavings , bark and other organic material around the base of the plants out to the drip line ( circumference of root spread indicated by extremities of branches ) of plants to conserve soil moisture during hot , dry or windy weather . the spiraling whitefly removes plant fluids and increases moisture loss over the amount due to normal transpiration . therefore , the plants will require additional soil moisture to prevent wilting .
* periodic fertilization of plants to improve plant vigor . healthy plants will be better able to withstand spiraling whitefly infestations .
anonymous . 1981 . hawaii pest report . 1 ( 5 ) : 1 - 10 . hawaii department of agriculture plant pest control branch .
anonymous . 1980 . bio - control of the spiraling whitefly . biological control section plant pest control branch department of agriculture . 2 page pamphlet .
berlinger , m . j . 1986 . host plant resistance to bemisia tabaci . agric . ecosystems environ . 17 : 69 - 82 .
cherry , r , h , 1979 . temperature tolerance of three whitefly species found in florida . environ . entomol . 8 : 1150 - 1152 .
cohen , s . and m . j . berlinger . 1986 . transmission and cultural control of whitefly - borne viruses . agric . ecosystems environ . 17 : 89 - 97 .
yoshida , h . a . and r . f . l . mau . 1985 . life history and feeding behavior of nephapis amnicola wingo . proc . hawaiian entomol . soc . 25 : 155 - 160 .
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background : spiraling whitefly is highly polyphagous , feeding on plants in 49 different plant families . known hosts include such economically important pests as avocado , citrus , eggplant , pepper , rose , prunus spp . , and palms . interceptions indicate that the whitefly often moves long distances in the trade of plants and flowers .
worldwide distribution : the native range of spiraling whitefly is believed to be the tropical americas . it was described from florida in 1965 from specimens collected as early as 1950 . since then it has been found to have a widespread distribution including hawaii , puerto rico , the u . s . virgin islands , guam , american samoa , and mexico . furthermore , it is reported in numerous nations in central america , the caribbean , south america , europe and the middle east , africa , asia , and oceania .
california distribution : spiraling whitefly has not been found in the environment of california .
california interceptions : spiraling whitefly is frequently intercepted on shipments of plants , leaves , and flowers from hawaii and florida . it has been intercepted more than 1300 times since 11 / 29 / 2000 .
spiraling whitefly has been present in florida for over 60 years but has not spread beyond the central portion of the state . primarily a tropical species , it is reportedly limited by cold temperatures . in california the whitefly would likely be limited to southern and coastal areas . spiraling whitefly receives a
evaluate if the pest would have suitable hosts and climate to establish in california . score :
– low ( 1 ) not likely to establish in california ; or likely to establish in very limited areas .
– medium ( 2 ) may be able to establish in a larger but limited part of california .
spiraling whitefly is a highly polyphagous insect that is known to feed on plants from 49 different plant families . the whitefly receives a
whiteflies reproduce rapidly and can be spread long distances by wind or through the movement of plants and flowers . spiraling whitefly receives a
as a harmful organism . this could lead to disruptions in markets for california citrus . spiraling whitefly receives a
evaluate the economic impact of the pest to california using the criteria below . score :
b . the pest could lower crop value ( includes increasing crop production costs ) .
c . the pest could trigger the loss of markets ( includes quarantines ) .
e . the pest can vector , or is vectored , by another pestiferous organism .
g . the organism can interfere with the delivery or supply of water for agricultural uses .
( small - leaved rose ) is listed as an endangered species in california and is a potential host for spiraling whitefly . the whitefly may also trigger additional chemical treatments . the whitefly receives a
a . the pest could have a significant environmental impact such as lowering biodiversity , disrupting natural communities , or changing ecosystem processes .
c . the pest could impact threatened or endangered species by disrupting critical habitats .
e . the pest significantly impacts cultural practices , home / urban gardening or ornamental plantings .
– high ( 3 ) causes two or more of the above to occur .
spiraling whitefly has not been found in the environment of california . it receives a
– not established ( 0 ) pest never detected in california , or known only from incursions .
– low ( - 1 ) pest has a localized distribution in california , or is established in one suitable climate / host area ( region ) .
– medium ( - 2 ) pest is widespread in california but not fully established in the endangered area , or pest established in two contiguous suitable climate / host areas .
– high ( - 3 ) pest has fully established in the endangered area , or pest is reported in more than two contiguous or non - contiguous suitable climate / host areas .