the rough-legged buzzard ( buteo lagopus ) , also called the rough-legged hawk , is a medium-large bird of prey .

it is found in arctic and subarctic regions of north america and eurasia during the breeding season and migrates south for the winter .

it was traditionally also known as the rough-legged falcon in such works as john james audubon 's the birds of america .

nests are typically located on cliffs , bluffs or in trees .

clutch sizes are variable with food availability , but three to five eggs are usually laid .

these hawks hunt over open land , feeding primarily on small mammals .

along with the kestrels , kites and osprey , this is one of the few birds of prey to hover regularly .

rough - legged buzzard

functional responses of the rough - legged buzzard in a multi - prey system .
no more roads should be built in rough - legged buzzard habitat to avoid collision and disturbance .
functional responses of the rough - legged buzzard in a multi - prey system . - pubmed - ncbi
the latest sighting details and map for rough - legged buzzard are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .
number of identified prey items of rough - legged buzzard and arctic fox collected on the dens / nests on the kolguev island , russia .
rough - legged buzzards hunt while soaring or from a high perch . they may often hover for long periods ( compare to buzzard ) .
potapov er ( 1993 ) ecology and energetics of rough - legged buzzard in the kolyma river lowlands . phd thesis , university of oxford , oxford
terres , j . 1980 . rough - legged hawk . pp . 485 in
density of rough - legged buzzards and arctic foxes on kolguev island , russia .
productivity of rough - legged buzzards and arctic foxes on kolguev island , russia .
diet of rough - legged buzzards and arctic foxes on kolguev island , russia .
rough - legged buzzards arrive in the uk from october and stay until spring .
the rough - legged hawk is one of three american hawks to have feathered legs .
] ; the placement of most rough - legged hawk nests makes this very unlikely .
the rough - legged buzzard is difficult to distinguish from pale forms of the common buzzard , but the most distinctive features are the white tail with a well defined terminal bar , dark carpal patches and black patch on the belly .
morneau , 1994 . breeding density and brood size of rough - legged hawks in northwestern quebec .
a long - living species , the rough - legged hawk can live for over 18 years .
] listed tundra and taiga as breeding habitat for the rough - legged hawk . wintering habitat : the rough - legged hawk prefers conifer groves for roosting and hunts in open , treeless areas [
] . rough - legged hawks banded in california bred in several locations , from alaska to banks island in the northwest territories . encounters with banded rough - legged hawks suggest that rough - legged hawks from the western part of the breeding range migrate to the western parts of the winter range . rough - legged hawks also show strong fidelity to the same winter area in subsequent years ; this suggests that the loss of wintering habitat to residential development could be detrimental to rough - legged hawk populations [
pasanen s , sulkava s . on the nutritional biology of the roughlegged buzzard ,
bechard , m . , t . swem . 2002 . rough - legged hawk ; buteo lagopus .
] . longevity : the average life span of the rough - legged hawk is 20 . 7 months [
smith , c . 1987 . parental roles and nestling foods in the rough - legged hawk , buteo lagopus .
the rough - legged buzzard is migratory and moves southwards after breeding . it frequently hovers while hunting in flight . gliding and soaring are the usual flying behaviour . it performs powerful wingbeats interspersed with glides .
an adult rough - legged buzzard has an average weight of 1 , 026 g , a wingspan of 134 cm , and an average total length of 53 cm . the female is typically larger than the male . the rough - legged buzzard has eight different morphs that vary with sex , age , and location . both sexes exhibit both light and dark morphs , and colouration varies between juveniles and adults .
] , however , asserted that fluctuations in vole populations probably influence but are not the sole cause of rough - legged hawk population fluctuations since rough - legged hawks shift to other prey when voles are scarce . the degree to which rough - legged hawk breeding success is independent of vole population is related to the availability and use of alternate prey [
the name
rough - legged
hawk refers to the feathered legs . the rough - legged hawk , the ferruginous hawk , and the golden eagle are the only american raptors to have legs feathered all the way to the toes .
the call of the rough - legged hawk is a long , drawn - out ‘ kaaaar ’ ( 4 ) .
the rough - legged hawk is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
on the nutritional biology of the roughlegged buzzard , buteo lagopus lagopus brunn . , in finnish lapland
the rough - legged buzzard ( buteo lagopus ) , called the rough - legged hawk in north america , is a medium - large bird of prey . it is between 50 and 60 centimetres long with a 130 cm wingspan . the breeding range is northernmost europe , asia , and north america . it migrates further south in winter .
] listed rough - legged hawk wintering habitat as open shrub and grassland in temperate areas . rough - legged - hawks were observed wintering in pinyon ( pinus spp . ) - juniper ( juniperus spp . ) woodlands in the southwestern united states [
protection / threats / status : the rough - legged buzzard has wide range in which it is widespread . the species and its habitat are not subject to excessive human pressure and disturbance , except on the wintering grounds with hunting pressure and road traffic accidents . the global population was estimated to number more than 500 , 000 individuals in 2004 , and is suspected to be stable . the rough - legged buzzard is currently evaluated as least concern .
the rough - legged buzzard is monogamous with pair - bonds maintained at least during the breeding season . competition for nesting - sites is hard with resident species such as common ravens , gyrfalcons and peregrine falcons . but the buzzard often selects a cliff ledge , or if not available , a top of rock on steep slope .
] . the rough - legged hawk is not usually observed in forests , except where there is much open ground . kochert [
pasanen , seppo ; sulkava , seppo . 1971 . on the nutritional biology of the rough - legged buzzard , buteo lagopus lagopus brunn . , in finnish lapland . aquilo seria zoologica . 12 : 53 - 63 . [ 28326 ]
swem , theodor r . ( ted ) – aspects of the breeding biology of rough - legged hawks along the colville river , alaska
rough - legged hawks help to control the populations of small mammals . their nests are usually built where there is high prey density .
josh jones discusses a dark - morph rough - legged hawk on corvo and looks at previous western palearctic occurrences of this nearctic subspecies .
] . mortality factors : the rough - legged hawk is often relatively unsuspicious of human approach . prior to their legal protection , rough - legged hawks were shot in large numbers in wintering areas of the united states or were caught in pole traps . in utah large numbers of migrant rough - legged hawks were reported killed by cars while feeding on road - killed jackrabbits ( lepus spp . ) [
this broad - winged raptor has a wide variety of plumages , and in europe can be confused with the similar rough - legged buzzard ( buteo lagopus ) and the only distantly related honey buzzard ( pernis apivorus ) , which mimics the common buzzard ' s plumage for a degree of protection from goshawks . the plumage can vary in britain from almost pure white to black , but is usually shades of brown , with a pale ' necklace ' of feathers .
forest buzzard , as its name implies , is a species of evergreen woodlands including introduced eucalyptus and pines , whereas steppe buzzard prefers more open habitats . however , habitat alone is not a good indicator for these forms .
] . wintering rough - legged hawks are widely distributed throughout new jersey , but appear to prefer coastal areas . abundance in new jersey was significantly correlated ( p < 0 . 002 ) with wetlands ; rough - legged hawks also appear to avoid areas with snow cover [
/ swem , theodor r . ( ted ) – aspects of the breeding biology of rough - legged hawks along the colville river , alaska
rough - legged hawks have average territories of 7 . 3 square kilometers ( range 3 . 6 - 11 . 8 square km ) .
feeding in the breeding grounds rough - legged buzzards principally feed on voles and lemmings , but when in britain rabbits are its favoured prey .
] . at a hawk - watching station on the shore of lake superior , peak flights of migrating rough - legged hawks occurred from october 13 through the 31st . the rough - legged hawk arrives in wintering areas in september and october , and is settled from november through march [
] . rough - legged hawks have occasionally been observed hunting between 12 a . m . and 3 a . m . in arctic alaska [
the oldest rough - legged hawk on record , a female , was at least 17 years , 9 months old when found in illinois in 1979 .
common buzzard is probably a close relative . a mixed and successful pairs has been reported from norway [ grin 2009 ] .
swem , theodor r . ( ted ) – aspects of the breeding biology of rough - legged hawks along the colville river , alaska | raptor research center
these are territorial hawks and generally do not tolerate other nests within 1 km . rough - legged hawks have been known to share cliff nesting spots with gyrfalcons
[ grin 2009 ] global raptor information network . 2009 . species account : rough - legged hawk buteo lagopus . downloaded from urltoken on 5 jul . 2009
there are no reported mortalities of rough - legged hawks from fire in the literature . it is likely that fire mortality of raptors is confined to nestlings [
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] assert that rough - legged hawks are probably stable as a breeding population in alaska , except where oil and gas drilling sites , roads , pipeline development , and other installations destroy nest habitat . the estimated north american winter population of rough - legged hawks was 49 , 600 based on 1986 christmas bird count data [
rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) [ internet ] . 2002 . available :
] . diurnal patterns in winter : most rough - legged hawks are active during sunlight hours and retire to night perches by 4 : 30 p . m . [
subspecies and range : the rough - legged buzzard has four subspecies that differ mainly in size and intensity of pigmentation . b . l . lagopus ( here described ) occurs in n eurasia from scandinavia , e to area of ob and yenisei gulfs . it winters in c europe e to c asia .
it is very similar to the abundant summer migrant steppe buzzard , but the adult can be distinguished with a good view by its whiter underparts and unbarred flanks . the juvenile differs from the same - age steppe buzzard by its white front and tear - shaped flank streaks .
adult rough - legged hawks average 1026 g and have a wingspan of 134 cm . total length averages 53 cm . females are typically the larger gender . rough - legged hawks have eight different morphs that vary between sex , age , and location . both sexes exhibit both light and dark morphs ; and coloration varies between juveniles and adults .
springer , alan m . 1975 . observations on the summer diet of rough - legged hawks from alaska . the condor . 77 : 338 - 339 . [ 24592 ]
the rough - legged buzzard hunts from perches from where it waits for preys . but it also hunts in flight at about 10 - 15 metres high . it remains almost motionless while hovering during several seconds to detect a prey . once detected , it dives gradually and catches the prey with the talons held forwards .
rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) [ internet ] . 2002 . available : urltoken .
rough - legged hawks can live up to 18 years in the wild . however , the average life span is about 2 years , largely because most young birds do not survive . once they survive their fledging stage and first year , rough - legged hawk annual survival improves . deaths often result from illegal shooting or trapping activites , collisions with human structures , such as powerlines or radio towers , and collisions with vehicles . in captivity , the longest living reported rough - legged hawk was 17 years old . however , a rough - legged hawk at the pocatello zoo , in idaho , came in as an injured adult in 1987 and remains alive as of july 2009 , making her over 24 years old .
] . spring migration : rough - legged hawks travel in loose flocks ; up to 10 birds may be seen at a time , though hundreds might pass a hawk station in a day . rough - legged hawks are not averse to crossing wide bodies of water , which is unusual for a buteo . they migrate across boreal forest to find open country [
most typical call a wailing , mewing
peeoooo
. quite similar to buzzard , but the pitch falls more evenly throughout the whole call .
] . the rough - legged hawk winters from south - central alaska ( casual ) and southern canada south to southern california and southern arizona , and east to southern texas , missouri , tennessee , and virginia . on the east coast wintering rough - legged hawks occur from cape cod to chesapeake bay and are occasionally observed in eastern texas and on the gulf coast [
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the rough - legged buzzard is usually silent , but on the breeding grounds , if the bird is threatened or disturbed near the nest , it gives a loud , mewing squeal “peeeeooo” or “pi - i - iee” of 1 - 5 seconds long and descending in pitch . this sound is more mournful , but also lower pitched than that of the eurasian buzzard . we can also hear a shorter scream given with a wavering voice .
tast j , kaikusalo a , lagerström m . diet composition of breeding rough - legged buzzards buteo lagopus at kilpisjärvi , nw finnish lapland . kilpisjärvi notes . 2010 ; 22 : 10–8 .
the tail of the rough - legged hawk is broad and long with a dark tip and a white base . the wings are long and broad , and have pale flight feathers with dark tips ( 4 ) . the rough - legged hawk’s dark horn - coloured bill and bright yellow toes and feet are proportionately small for the overall size of this bird ( 3 ) .
] . wintering concentrations of rough - legged hawks in the great plains and the intermountain west were correlated primarily with climate and the presence of protected areas such as wildlife refuges . the rough - legged hawk is most common in the great basin and the northern great plains . winter populations are high in montana , northern oregon , southern washington , and northeastern maine north to newfoundland [
rough - legged hawks have few natural enemies . terrestrial predators include arctic fox ( alopex lagopus ) and red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , but nests are usually so inaccessible and so well guarded as to preclude much nest predation by foxes . gray wolves ( canis lupus ) and golden eagles ( aquila chrysaetos ) have been observed eating young rough - legged hawks in nests in alaska [
maxson , stephen j . ; herr , andrea m . 1990 . rough - legged hawk preys on short - eared owl . loon . 62 ( 2 ) : 108 . [ 22378 ]
smith , thomas g . 1975 . rough - legged hawks , buteo lagopus ( pontoppidan ) as carrion feeders in the arctic . canadian field - naturalist . 89 : 190 . [ 24515 ]
sokolov aa . functional links between rough - legged buzzards ( buteo lagopus ) and small rodents in southern shrub tundra of yamal ekaterinburg , russia : institute of plant and animal ecology ; 2002 .
sokolov aa . functional links between rough - legged buzzards ( buteo lagopus ) and small rodents in southern shrub tundra of yamal . ekaterinburg , russia : institute of plant and animal ecology ; 2002 .
but most are predators of nestlings . humans cause death in many rough - legged hawks by shooting , trapping , hitting them with cars , and building structures that the hawks fly into . known predators of
a migratory species , the rough - legged hawk migrates from its northern breeding grounds between mid - september and early november , and overwinters in the southern areas of its range . northward migration from the wintering grounds usually occurs between late april and late may ( 2 ) . rough - legged hawks usually migrate during the day , and may form large flocks , small groups or fly alone ( 3 ) .
the rough - legged hawk may be at risk from hunting , as well as mortality from road traffic accidents ( 3 ) . there are not currently known to be any other threats to this species .
the rough - legged hawk is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 5 ) and is protected by the migratory bird treaty act ( 6 ) .
] . in 1967 mortality from dieldrin poisoning was documented in rough - legged buzzards in britain . consumption of only a few animals that had eaten dieldrin - treated grain was sufficient to kill the hawks [
even though they breed under continuous sunlight in the arctic , rough - legged hawks do take a break between about 11 p . m . and 5 a . m . , with less activity and vocalizing .
bosakowski , thomas ; smith , dwight g . 1992 . demography of wintering rough - legged hawks in new jersey . journal of raptor research . 26 ( 2 ) : 61 - 65 . [ 24445 ]
tast j , kaikusalo a , lagerström m . breeding biology of rough - legged buzzards buteo lagopus at kilpisjärvi , nw finnish lapland , in relation to rodent cycles . kilpisjärvi notes . 2010 ; 22 : 1–9 .
similarly to the adult , the juvenile rough - legged hawk has a highly variable appearance , but usually has paler plumage than the adult , a browner tail and paler tips to the flight feathers ( 2 ) .
the breeding range of rough - legged hawk encompasses the high arctic regions of the united states and canada . the rough - legged hawk breeds from western and northern alaska , northern yukon territory , and northern labrador south to northern and southeastern mackenzie district , central canada , and northern quebec and newfoundland . it also breeds from the kodiak islands and umnak north to prince patrick , victoria , bylot , and southwestern baffin islands ( northwest territories ) [
is usually a solitary species but they occasionally migrate in small groups . rough - legged hawks typically fly relatively low for birds of their size . they use wing - flapping to reach a preferred altitude , but then usually glide until a perch or a source of food is spotted . they are not known to walk at all , but rough - legged hawks have been spotted scooting down a perch to move closer to a mate or towards food .
population trends the first record of a rough - legged buzzard in britain was in 1792 , but it was no doubt often confused with pale forms of the common buzzard . there are usually some 70 records annually during passage , with about 20 reported each winter . large numbers occasionally come to britain after years when their small rodent prey is very abundant in the scandinavian breeding grounds . the last of these was in 1974 / 75 when more than 250 birds were reported in autumn . about half over - wintered and two pairs remained into the breeding season . they were seen displaying but never bred .
appearance : a large bird of prey , bigger and longer - winged than a buzzard . best recognised by its tail , which is mainly white with a black band along its tip .
behaviour in the wild : the rough - legged buzzard feeds primarily on small mammals including mainly small rodents such as voles and lemmings , but also mice , hares , ground squirrels , weasels and even bats , and some small birds ( mainly fledglings during the breeding season ) , from passerines to grouses and waterbirds . it also consumes fish , large insects ( grasshoppers and crickets ) and carrion ( mainly in winter ) .
there are four recognised subspecies of rough - legged hawk : buteo lagopus lagopus , buteo lagopus menzbieri , buteo lagopus kamtschatkensis and buteo lagopus sanctijohannis . these subspecies all differ in distribution , size and colouration ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
] . development of young : rough - legged hawk chicks are semialtricial ; at hatching they are immobile and downy with eyes open . they are fed by both parents . age of first flight is usually between 36 and 40 days [
] . in the western part of rough - legged hawk range , spring migration begins in late march or early april , with the largest flights in late april . breeding pairs arrive on the breeding grounds in late april to early may [
garrison , barrett a . ; bloom , peter h . 1993 . natal origins and winter site fidelity of rough - legged hawks wintering in california . journal of raptor research . 27 ( 2 ) : 116 - 118 . [ 24961 ]
pearson , t . , j . burroughs , e . forbush , w . finley , g . gladden , h . job , l . nichols , j . burdick . 1936 . rough - legged hawk . pp . 79 - 80 in
the forest buzzard , b . ( b . ) trizonatus , is another form sometimes upgraded to a full species . this is a resident breeding species in woodlands in southern and eastern south africa .
[ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] write that in sweden , many ringed that where recovered died because of hunting . illegal shooting might therefore be a problem in some areas . collision with cars and in some cases electrocution can also kill rough - legged hawks .
] . rough - legged form pair bonds that are maintained for at least the duration of the breeding season and possibly longer . there is some evidence that pair bonding occurs in wintering areas ; birds roost and perch in twos and sometimes migrate in twos [
] . migration counts of rough - legged hawks at bake oven knob , pennsylvania , were variable , increasing and decreasing in what appeared to be 3 - to 5 - year cycles . cycles were also reported for migration counts at hawk mountain , maine [
only a handful of rough - legged buzzards come to the uk each year , mainly to locations on the east coast . coastal marshes and farmland are favoured . occasional larger influxes occur , following good breeding success by the birds and then a food shortage in scandinavia .
polygons show the approximate areas surveyed for buzzard nests and fox dens . red polygon shows the survey area in 2006 , green—in 2007 , blue—in 2008 , purple—in 2011 , orange—in 2012 ( two polygons ) , brown—in 2013 .
rough - legged hawks use sight and vocalizations to communicate with others . they use many calls for communication with other hawks such as a warning call ( a high pitch shriek ) , a courtship call ( a low whistle that turns into a hiss ) , and a
normal
call ( a high - pitched whistle into a shriek ) . rough - legged hawks are usually silent when away from the breeding site except when in competition with another male or threatened . males may broadcast 100 calls per minute ; much more often than females .
introduction : the rough - legged buzzard is a member of genus buteo including large , broad - winged buzzards and hawks with robust bodies . it occurs in the northern hemisphere , both in north america and eurasia where it breeds . it migrates south during winter . the name of this raptor comes from its feathered legs , well - adapted to the cold weather of its arctic breeding grounds . the plumage colour varies from dark to pale . four subspecies are currently recognized and share the wide range .
habitat : the rough - legged buzzard breeds in treeline area in north america and eurasia , around treeless taiga and tundra . it nests in trees along the fringe of the boreal forest . in the arctic , it breeds on riverside cliffs and elevated sites or rocky escarpments . during winter , it migrates southwards into open areas such as plains , prairies , steppes , coastal marshes , usually in open habitats with good long - distance visibility including harvested fields and pastures where it can hunt small rodents .
male and female rough - legged hawks build a nest together after they have found a suitable site on a rocky cliff . males carry most of the building supplies while females construct the nest of twigs , grass , molted feathers , and fur from prey . even objects such as
pokrovsky i , ehrich d , ims r , kulikova o , lecomte n , yoccoz n . diet , nesting density , and breeding success of rough - legged buzzards ( buteo lagopus ) on the nenetsky ridge , arctic russia . polar biol . 2014 ; 37 : 447–57 .
bechard , m . j . and swem , t . r . ( 2002 ) rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus ) . in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
] . diurnal patterns in summer : in finland , rough - legged buzzards were observed active by 4 a . m . in june and july . they remained active throughout the day until 8 p . m . ( sometimes as late as 10 p . m . ) [
citation : pokrovsky i , ehrich d , ims ra , kondratyev av , kruckenberg h , kulikova o , et al . ( 2015 ) rough - legged buzzards , arctic foxes and red foxes in a tundra ecosystem without rodents . plos one 10 ( 2 ) : e0118740 . urltoken
rough - legged hawks have been shown to hunt more in areas experimentally treated with vole urine than in control areas . they may be able to see this waste ( as american kestrels can ) , which is visible in ultraviolet light , in order to find patches of abundant prey .
habitat and distribution rough - legged buzzards breed in tundra , high mountains and forest edge in the arctic . winter visitors to britain are found in open country along the east coast , especially eastern scotland , east anglia and kent . when there are larger numbers it spreads more widely .
bildstein , keith louis . 1978 . behavioral ecology of red - tailed hawks ( buteo jamaicensis ) , rough - legged hawks ( b . lagopus ) , and northern harriers ( circus cyaneus ) . columbus , oh : ohio state university . 364 p . dissertation . [ 24993 ]
orta , j . , boesman , p . , garcia , e . f . j . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . rough - legged buzzard ( buteo lagopus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
] . local rough - legged hawk populations have been observed to increase and decrease with rodent prey availability ; local population size is apparently a function of hawk movement to areas with abundant prey ( rather than an absolute increase or decrease ) . for example , on the seward peninsula , there were 35 nesting pairs of rough - legged hawks in 1968 , 43 pairs in 1969 , and 82 pairs in 1970 ; however , only 10 pairs were found and two young fledged in 1971 following a severe autumn in 1970 which held microtine populations low . in 1972 , there were 44 nesting pairs [
rough - legged hawks are swift hunters than spot and capture prey with great precison . rough - legged hawks will perch high in trees or soar in the sky where they can scan a field or grassy area for small prey . after the prey have been spotted , hawks take flight as quietly as possible ( unless already in flight ) and circle above a few times to ensure there is no competition with other birds of prey . they dive and spear prey with their large talons . they return to a perch to consume the meal . typical prey include mice , shrews , black tailed prairie dogs
] . in iowa , wintering rough - legged hawks consumed meadow vole ( microtus pennsylvanicus ) , western harvest mouse ( reithrodontomys megalotis ) , and occasionally eastern cottontail ( silvilagus floridanus ) . at another site in iowa , deer mouse ( peromyscus maniculatus ) and house mouse were important in winter diets [
bechard , m . j . and t . r . swem . 2002 . rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus ) . in a . poole and f . gill , eds . , the birds of north america . no . 641 . philadelphia , pa : the birds of north america , inc .
a bird of prey very similar to the much more common buzzard , though only a small number spend winter in the uk . it has the habit of ' hanging ' in the air while looking for prey , hovering much more regularly than common buzzards . key features include the black - tipped white tail , paler appearance than most common buzzard , longer wings and paler head . beware of pale common buzzards - a notoriously variable species . a close view will reveal the heavily feathered legs that give this bird its name .
as well as other rough - legged hawks , but only if the cliff is large and the nests are at least 30 m apart . they will avoid nesting within 60 m of any potential predators of their young , such as golden eagles . they will defend their nests from any bird that threatens them or their young .
the rough - legged hawk’s cliffside nest , a bulky mass of sticks , sometimes contains caribou bones . nesting pairs need a lot of space : usually only a single pair will nest on a quarter - mile - long cliff . however , the pair may nest within 100 feet of gyrfalcons , peregrine falcons , or common ravens .
zarn , mark . 1975 . rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus sanctijohannis ) : habitat management series for unique or endangered species : report no . 14 . technical note t - n - 270 . denver , co : u . s . department of the interior , bureau of land management . 23 p . [ 24516 ]
despite a strong affinity for rodents , rough - legged hawks were perceived as a threat to poultry up until the early 20th century . since they are approachable birds that spend their time in open spaces , they were vulnerable to hunting by farmers . it’s now illegal to shoot raptors and most other wild birds under the migratory bird treaty act .
the male and female rough - legged hawk form a monogamous pair bond for the breeding season , which may be formed during winter before the pair migrates . the pair bond is formed during a courtship ritual which involves calling and flying in circles high in the air . the bond is usually only maintained for one breeding season ( 3 ) .
the breeding range of the rough - legged hawk extends across the full width of the arctic , from northern canada in the west to china in the east . during winter , this species is found further south , from the united states in the west to korea and japan in the east ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
because rough - legged hawks breed in the arctic , your best bet for finding one near you is to wait until winter . keep an eye out in open country , looking especially for a large , chunky raptor hovering while facing into the wind - fsimilar in style to the much smaller and daintier american kestrel and white - tailed kite . rough - legged hawks perch on fence posts and utility poles , as well as on the ground or in the slenderest treetops , where other large raptors rarely chance sitting . watch for them on winter road trips , as their bold tail and underwing pattern , as well as black belly patches , can often be clearly seen even at highway speeds .
will usually migrate solo ( very uncommon to fly in groups ) and find a mate once they have reached their destination . males will soar and circle until a female joins them . rough - legged hawks perform courtship displays in the late winter , once it has began to get warmer and flying conditions improve . after a male is joined by a female , both sexes soar together with their tails and wings fully spread . males then perform a
sky - dance
dislay , in which they soar high , suddenly dive , climb again , free fall , and finally , climb back up to a normal soaring height . male rough - legged hawks defend their mates from other males by taking flight and chasing rival males .
the fish eagles have developed especially rough and scaly feet for grasping slippery fish . red kites milvus milvus , although large birds have small feet and catch relatively small prey or scavenge .
no specific permissions were required for these location , species and activities according to the §44 and §6 of the federal law of the russian federation no . 52 from 24 . 04 . 1995 ( last update 07 . 05 . 2013 ) “on wildlife” . there were no special protected natural territories in our study area ( described below in section “study area” , including coordinates ) , our study species ( rough - legged buzzard , arctic fox and red fox ) were not listed in the red list of russian federation , and our activities ( described below in sections “breeding population density and productivity parameters” and “diet analysis” ) did not include withdrawal of investigated species from nature .
the size of eggs and of the clutch is also very variable . here there is no set pattern , some eagles , such as the steppes eagle aquila nipalensis may lay up to five eggs ( more normally 2 - 3 ) whereas the martial eagle polemaetus bellicosus lays only one . again the steppes eagle aquila nipalensis may quite commonly rear two or three young when the prey base is high , but the verreauxs eagle aquila verreauxii only rears one , with the second hatched young almost invariably being killed by its older sibling , regardless of the food supply . the rough - legged buzzard buteo lagopus will lay up to seven eggs in abundant vole or lemming years .
] . the rough - legged hawk is absent from northern regions where the average minimum january temperature is less than - 10 degrees fahrenheit ( - 23 deg c ) . this hawk tends to avoid the western coastline and the southeastern corner of the united states . it is most abundant in areas with less than 40 inches ( 1 , 020 mm ) annual precipitation [
during the breeding season , the rough - legged hawk preys primarily on microtine rodents ( microtus and peromyscus spp . ) , brown lemming ( lemmus sibericus ) , nelson ' s collared lemming ( dicrostonyx groenlandicus ) , tundra vole ( m . oeconomus ) , singing vole ( m . miurus ) , northern red - backed vole ( cleithrionomys rutilis ) , and other small mammals [
the common buzzard ( buteo buteo ) is a medium to large bird of prey , whose range covers most of europe and extends into asia . there are around 40 , 000 breeding pairs in britain . it is usually resident all year except in the coldest parts of its range , and in the case of one subspecies .
the buzzards with their broad wings and short tails are less adapted for dense forest and so inhabit more open woodlands , forest edges , clearings , river banks and open farmlands , uplands and rough pastures .
has a nearly holarctic distribution . its geographic range includes most of the united states and all of canada . rough - legged hawks spend their winter months in all of the united states except for north carolina and along the southeast coast of the united states , kentucky , alabama , mississippi , and arkansas . they are found as far north as newfoundland and as far west as central europe and parts of russia .
during its breeding season , the rough - legged hawk is found in open country around treeless taiga and tundra ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . in winter , it migrates southward over boreal forest ( 3 ) into open areas ( 4 ) , including prairies , steppes , open fields , marshlands , bogs and dunes ( 3 ) . during winter individuals may also be found in cultivated areas ( 2 ) .
we predict that geese would constitute the main part of the predators’ diet in summer . as they are abundant and their population does not undergo important short - term fluctuations , it is likely that the productivity of the predators would be rather stable from year to year . density of breeding pairs , on the contrary , may be determined by different factors for the migratory rough - legged buzzard and the more permanently resident foxes . fox density could depend on the availability of resources in winter , such as reindeer carrion , as it was shown for svalbard [ 6 , 7 , 36 ] , whereas buzzard density may depend either on conditions in the wintering or migration areas or on local conditions at the time of arrival to the breeding grounds . therefore we would not necessarily expect a correlation between the breeding densities of the species . the results are discussed in relation to climate - induced changes in tundra ecosystems . altogether our intention is to contribute to a better understanding of the dependence of arctic predators with different degrees of diet specialization on the presence of small rodents , and thus the plasticity of food webs in tundra ecosystems .
rough - legged hawks inhabit open country and agricultural lands . they are more common in open , early successional areas in which they can soar and seek prey in grasslands and shrublands . once migration is complete they settle in a suitable nesting spot with enough food nearby to sustain them . their nests are usually located in trees or on a rocky cliff in which they can overlook a field to catch prey for themselves and their young .
. . . while the goshawk has specific requirements for the nest tree and nest site , the buzzards may be in general less demanding with respect to breeding habitat ( [ 13 , 16 ] , but see [ 23 ] ) or other factors are more important in regulating their reproduction . for example , common buzzard populations are known to be affected by food levels , weather , anthropogenic disturbance , intraspecific competition , and still to some extent by pesticides , such as rodenticides8283 84 8586 . the honey buzzard has low productivity and it is sensitive to reductions in adult survival [ 33 ] , which can result from environmental degradation or shooting in wintering , migration or breeding areas [ 33 , 87888990 . . . .
rough - legged buzzards are larger and more heavily built than buzzards . their heads and throats are a pale yellowish , and their bellies are black . they fly like buzzards . their under - wings are largely white , with a dark patch near the elbow . their white tails are tipped with a black band . when upper parts are in view , white rump and tail are distinguishing features , visible even in poor light from long distances . young birds have yellowish heads ; their chin and throat are paler , and their flanks are streaked lengthwise ; the trailing edge of their wings does not have the same black edging as adults’ ; and the black tip to the tail is less distinct . general colouring varies considerably on birds of all ages . rough - legged buzzards have yellow legs with their upper parts covered by feathers , bluish beaks with yellow ceres , and brown irises ( yellow on juveniles ) .
] . near the colville river , alaska , nests averaged 2 . 3 linear miles ( 3 . 8 km ) apart , ranging from 0 . 24 to 13 . 2 miles ( 0 . 4 - 22 km ) apart . rough - legged hawks usually return to the same nest site from year to year , even in the face of heavy competition from peregrine falcons ( falco peregrinus ) or gyrfalcons ( f . rusticolus ) for the same site [
] reported that avian prey of rough - legged hawks in alaska included grouse ( probably spruce grouse [ dendrapagus canadensis ] ) chicks , shorebirds , lesser golden - plover , red - necked phalarope ( phalaropus lobatus ) , whimbrel ( numenius phaeopus ) chicks and juveniles , and other small birds such as wagtail ( motacilla spp . ) , american tree sparrow ( spizella arborea ) , lapland longspur ( calcarius lapponicus ) , and snow bunting ( plectrophenax nivalis ) [
] . open habitats that are frequented by rough - legged hawks and dependent on fire include grassland , semidesert grass - shrub , and sagebrush ( artemisia spp . ) - grassland . grasslands are maintained by frequent fire ( 1 - to 10 - year average fire return intervals ) . fire exclusion in the deciduous forest - prairie ecotone has reduced available rough - legged hawk winter habitat . increased shrub densities have occurred in the last 80 years in semidesert grass - shrub habitats . these habitats typically have average fire - free intervals of 10 years ; the causal mechanism for the increase in shrub density is not well understood ; primary causes are probably increased grazing , and increased fire intensity and frequency due to fire exclusion and cheatgrass ( bromus tectorum ) invasion . sagebrush - grass habitats , with fire - free intervals ranging from 20 to 100 years , have also been altered by cheatgrass invasion which probably has increased fire frequency [
the rough - legged hawk spends the summer capturing lemmings on the arctic tundra , tending a cliffside nest under a sun that never sets . winter is the time to see this large , open - country hawk in southern canada and the u . s . , where it may be perched on a pole or hovering over a marsh or pasture on the hunt for small rodents . found globally across northern latitudes , this species occurs in both light and dark forms .
this is a broad - winged raptor , typical of the genus buteo . compared to the common buzzard , it is longer - winged and more eagle - like in appearance . its feet are feathered to the toes ( hence its scientific name , meaning
hare - footed
) as an adaptation to its arctic home range . its toes are short for its size .
i studied the breeding performance of rough - legged hawks ( buteo lagopus ) nesting on cliffs along 350 km of the colville river in northern alaska in 1985 and 1987 – 1995 . territories were visited by boat or foot twice each year during the late incubation / early brood - rearing and late brood - rearing / fledging periods . the number of pairs occupying breeding territories varied from 40 103 ( x = 81 . 8 , cv = 26 . 1 % ) among years .
sparrowhawks and goshawks  the largest of all the groups with 58 species . this group ranges from the african little sparrowhawk accipiter minullus which is the smallest , to the northern goshawk accipiter gentilis as the largest representative . included in this group are the chanting - goshawks that are really closer to the harriers and also the lizard buzzard kaupifalco monogrammicus , which probably lies closer to the sub - buteonines .
variable plumage , but not as varied as buzzard . prominent black carpal patches and broad black terminal band on tail in all plumages . upperparts dark and speckled , underparts pale . head is paler than back , and base of bill paler still . conspicuous white base of tail , and upperside of tail contrasts with the dark back . female with big black belly patch , and one broad terminal band on tail . in males the belly patch this is less prominent , and the tail has 1 - 2 narrow bands in addition to the terminal one . only other raptor with white tail and broad terminal band in the area is young golden eagles . these can be identified by size , and by showing 6 fingers , not 5 as in buteo ( buzzards ) . soars with slightly more raised wings than buzzard .
the rough - legged hawk ( buteo lagopus ) gains its common name from its distinctive feathered legs ( 4 ) . the appearance of this species is highly variable , and the plumage of each individual bird can differ in pattern and colour intensity . some individuals may be mostly dark and are known as dark morphs , whereas others are lighter and are called light morphs . the plumage is usually grey - brown on the upperparts and pale underneath , with a variable amount of pale streaking throughout ( 3 ) .
escott , nicholas g . 1985 . fall migration of the rough - legged hawk at marathon , ontario . in : harwood , michael , ed . proceedings of the hawk migration conference : iv ; [ date of conference unknown ] ; [ location of conference unknown ] . [ place of publication unknown ] : hawk migration association : 27 - 39 . on file with : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , intermountain research station , fire sciences laboratory , missoula , mt . [ 24584 ]
orta , j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . upland buzzard ( buteo hemilasius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the grey - brown upperparts of the male and female light morph are heavily mottled with pale markings , while the underparts are also mottled heavily , with a pale band extending across the lower breast . the dark morphs of the male and female are mostly dark grey - brown , but with pale areas on the wings and head . identifying the sex of a rough - legged hawk is difficult due to some individuals possessing the plumage of the opposite sex . the female is usually larger than the male and has less barring on its tail ( 3 ) .
the preferred prey species of the rough - legged hawk are voles and lemmings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , although as an opportunistic carnivorous predator ( 3 ) it will also take small birds , fish , insects and carrion when its preferred prey is scarce ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it hunts by hovering in the air above open areas ( 4 ) , as well as from an elevated perch , to which it will return to consume its prey ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it may also forage around rubbish dumps in certain areas ( 2 ) .
rough - legged hawks breed once a year , usually between april and june , but breeding has also been reported in july . there are 2 to 7 eggs per clutch and they take a minimum of 31 days to hatch . fledging usually takes more than 40 days , although some fly weakly at 31 days old . the young are not fully independent of the parents until 2 to 4 weeks after they leave the nest , at 55 to 70 days old . the period of independence sometimes extends into migration . sexual maturity of males and females is reached at 2 to 3 years .
] . here we investigate the breeding performance and diet of rough - legged buzzards , arctic and red foxes on kolguev island . for the first time we report successful breeding of buzzards in complete absence of small rodents . the main objectives of our investigation were first to estimate the density and productivity of buzzards , arctic foxes and red foxes on the island in order to compare their breeding performance to that observed in other areas and to assess the relative breeding performance of the three species in absence of small rodents . second , we aimed at determining the diet composition of buzzards and arctic foxes .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . , marks , j . s . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . japanese buzzard ( buteo japonicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
a changing climate induces shifts in the location of biomes . tracing such a shift may pose problems for life history traits adapted to the prior conditions , so that , e . g . the timing of reproduction and the time with sufficient resources for rearing hatchlings do not match . we show that the timing of breeding of finnish common buzzards buteo buteo , has advanced with over ten days as a response to the warming of early spring , during 1979–2004 . during the same period the isoclines of the onset of breeding have moved about 200 km to the north - east . however , the reproductive performance of the common buzzard has not increased as a response to these changes . despite increasing temperatures during early spring , the temperatures of early summer have remained the same since the 1970s . combined , the early onset of breeding and the unchanged temperatures of early summer have lead to decreased post - hatching temperatures . under these circumstances , common buzzard offspring now face a higher risk to hatch into less favourable weather conditions than three decades ago . furthermore , summer precipitation , harmful for nestlings , has been predicted to increase in the future , thus possibly further worsening the circumstances for breeding common buzzards . our results demonstrate that even if common buzzards in finland breed at the northern limit of the species’ distribution , and could therefore be expected to gain advantage from a warming climate , the opposite is the case .


symmetrischema striatella is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it was described by murtfeldt in 1900 .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded alabama , arkansas , california , florida , illinois , louisiana , maine , maryland , mississippi , missouri , new jersey , oklahoma , south carolina , tennessee and texas .

the wingspan is 11 – 13 mm .

the forewings are light brown or brownish-ochreous , sparsely speckled with black .

there is a subcostal black , longitudinal line extending from the base to the apex , curving upward slightly and intensifying at the latter .

beneath this , two more or less definite blackish striations , the one on the inner margin being quite broad and diffused , while the discal streak is variable , not continuous , often consisting of two or three dashes .

the hindwings are silken , ashy white , shading to cinereous at the tips .

the larvae feed on the berries of solanum nigrum .

symmetrischema striatella

eucatoptus striatella murtfeldt , 1900 ; can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 163
symmetrischema inexpectatum povolný , 1967 ; acta ent . mus . natn . pragae 37 : 60
symmetrischema capsicivorum povolný , 1973 ; acta ent . bohemoslov . 70 : 209 ; tl : peru , lambayeque
symmetrischema kendallorum blanchard & knudson , 1982 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 628 ; tl : texas , nueces co . , north padre island
symmetrischema striatellum ; powell & povolný , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27
symmetrischema ( gnorimoschemini ) ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27 ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list )
symmetrischema escondidella landry , 2010 ; revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list ) ; tl : galapagos , santa cruz , est . cient . charles darwin , el barranco , s 00°44 . 291 ' , w 90° 18 . 107 ' , 22m
symmetrischema tangolias ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povolný , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
powell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 10 . 17m ; p . 100 . book review and ordering
= ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730
phthorimaea altisona meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 46 ; tl : peru , huancayo , 10650ft
ardeola ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; j . linn . soc . lond . ( zool . ) 37 : 280
phthorimaea atrifascis meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft
borsaniella ( köhler , 1939 ) ( gnorimoschema ) ; an . soc . cient . argent . 128 : 370
gnorimoschema capsica bradley & povolný , 1965 ; bull . ent . res . 56 ( 1 ) : 58 ; tl : lesser antilles
gnorimoschema cestrivora clarke , 1950 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 40 : 288 , f . 4 - 4d ; tl : tucuman , argentina
chelaria conifera meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 582 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft
gnorimoschema fercularia meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 492 ; tl : texas , fort davis ( 5000ft ) , alpine ( 5000 - 8000ft )
insertum povolný , 1988 ; revta inst . cienc . nat ecol . 1 : 77
larva on physalis virginiana var . spathulaefolia blanchard & knudson , 1982 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 630
gnorimoschema lectulifera meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 493 ; tl : texas , fort davis and alpine , 5000ft
phthorimaea loquax meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft
depressaria pallidochrella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 7 ) : 126 ; tl : kentucky
larva on ( berries ) solanum nigrum murtfeldt , 1900 , can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 164
peru , new south wales , . . . , california . see [ maps ]
= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povolný , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27
= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povolný , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28
larva on ( for _ gnorimoschema tuberosella ) solanum tuberosum busck , 1931 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 33 ( 3 ) : 60 , solanum nigrum powell & povolný , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13
gelechia ( teleia ? ) ventralella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 348 , pl . 4 , f . 116
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
zeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6
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